MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY
Dr hab. inż. Piotr Skawiński, prof. WUT
Institute of Machine Design
Fundamentals
Machine industry realizes many processes that have
common theme, controlled material removal, are
today collectively known as subtractive
manufacturing.

Another processes in which material is not removed,

as example forging, rolling, casting are today known
as chipless forming.
Metalworking is the process of working with metals to
create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale
structures. The term covers a wide range of work from
large ships and bridges to precise engine parts and
delicate jewelery. It therefore includes a
correspondingly wide range of skills, processes, and
tools.
Machining is any of various processes in which a piece
of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size
by a controlled material-removal process. The many
processes that have this common theme, controlled
material removal, are today collectively known as
subtractive manufacturing, in distinction from
processes of controlled material addition, which are
known as additive manufacturing. Exactly what the
"controlled" part of the definition implies can vary, but
it almost always implies the use of machine tools (in
addition to just power tools and hand tools).
Metal cutting
Cutting has been at the core of manufacturing
throughout history. For metals many methods are used
and can be grouped by the physical phenomenon used.
Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
Abrading - Grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
Electro-Chemical - Etching, Electrical discharge machining
(EDM).
Every method has its limitations in accuracy, cost, and
effect on the material. For example: heat may damage
the quality of heat treated alloys, and laser cutting is less
suitable for highly reflective materials such as aluminum.
Short history of manufacturing technology
The precise meaning of the term machining has
evolved over the past one and a half centuries as
technology has advanced. In the 18th century, the
word machinist simply meant a person who built
or repaired machines. This person's work was
done mostly by hand, using processes such as the
carving of wood and the hand-forging and hand-
filing of metal. At the time, millwrights and
builders of new kinds of engines (meaning, more
or less, machines of any kind), such as James Watt
or John Wilkinson would fit the definition. The
noun machine tool and the verb to machine
(machined, machining) did not yet exist.
Around the middle of the 19th century, the latter
words were coined as the concepts that they
described evolved into widespread existence.
Therefore, during the Machine Age, machining
referred to (what we today might call) the "traditional"
machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling,
milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing,
reaming, and tapping. In these "traditional" or
"conventional" machining processes, machine tools
such as lathes, milling machines, drill presses or
others, are used with a sharp cutting tool to remove
material to achieve a desired geometry.
Since the advent of new technologies such as electrical
discharge machining, electrochemical machining,
electron beam machining, photochemical machining,
and ultrasonic machining, the retronym "conventional
machining" can be used to differentiate those classic
technologies from the newer ones. In current usage, the
term "machining" without qualification usually implies
the traditional machining processes.
In the industry we have three principal machining processes are
classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling
into miscellaneous categories include: shaping, planing, boring,
broaching and sawing.
Machining operations:
 Turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as
the primary method of moving metal against the cutting tool.
Lathes are the principal machine tool used in turning.
Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates
to bring cutting edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling
machines are the principal machine tool used in milling.
Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or
refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower
extremity into contact with the workpiece. Drilling operations are
done primarily in drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills.
 Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by
means of a rotating tool (drill bit) that
has two cutting edges
Typical workpiece materials:

Rods and bars (metallurgical materials, profiles),

Castings,
Forgings,
Welded blanks,
Punched blanks,
Powder metallurgy.
Cutting tools
In the context of machining, a cutting tool (or cutter) is
any tool that is used to remove material from the
workpiece by means of shear deformation. Cutting may be
accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools. Single-
point tools are used in turning, shaping, plaining and
similar operations, and remove material by means of one
cutting edge. Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint
tools. Grinding tools are also multipoint tools. Each grain of
abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting
edge (although of high negative rake angle), and shears a
tiny chip.
Cutting tools must be made of a material harder than
the material which is to be cut, and the tool must be
able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-
cutting process. Also, the tool must have a specific
geometry, with clearance angles designed so that the
cutting edge can contact the workpiece without the
rest of the tool dragging on the workpiece surface. The
angle of the cutting face is also important, as is the
flute width, number of flutes or teeth, and margin size.
In order to have a long working life, all of the above
must be optimized, plus the speeds and feeds at which
the tool is run.
Types of cutting tools:

Solid Cutting Tools

 The typical tool for milling and drilling has no changeable
insert. The cutting edge and the shank is one unit and built
of the same material. Small tools cannot be designed with
exchangeable inserts.

Cutting tools with inserts (indexable tools)

 Cutting tools are often designed with inserts or
replaceable tips (tipped tools). In these, the cutting edge
consists of a separate piece of material, either brazed,
welded or clamped on to the tool body. Common materials
for tips include cemented carbide, polycrystalline diamond,
and cubic boron nitride. Tools using inserts include milling
cutters (endmills, fly cutters), tool bits, and saw blades.
Tool materials
Cutting tool must have three characteristics:
 hardness: hardness and strength at high temperatures.
 toughness: so that tools do not chip or fracture.
 wear resistance: having acceptable tool life before needing
to be replaced.

We have two main categories of tool materials:

 Unstable materials (usually steels) are substances that start
at a relatively low hardness point and are then heat treated to
promote the growth of hard particles (usually carbides) inside
the original matrix, which increases the overall hardness of
the material at the expense of some its original toughness.
Since heat is the mechanism to alter the structure of the
substance and at the same time the cutting action produces a
lot of heat, such substances are inherently unstable under
machining conditions.
 Stable materials (usually tungsten carbide) are
substances that remain relatively stable under the heat
produced by most machining conditions, as they don't
attain their hardness through heat. They wear down
due to abrasion, but generally don't change their
properties much during use.
Most stable materials are hard enough to break before
flexing, which makes them very fragile. To avoid
chipping at the cutting edge, some tools made of such
materials are finished with a sightly blunt edge, which
results in higher cutting forces due to an increased
shear area, however, tungsten carbide has the ability to
attain a significantly sharper cutting edge than tooling
steel for uses such as ultrasonic machining of
composites. Fragility combined with high cutting forces
results in most stable materials being unsuitable for use
in anything but large, heavy and rigid machinery and
fixtures.
Unstable materials, being generally softer and thus tougher,
generally can stand a bit of flexing without breaking, which
makes them much more suitable for unfavorable machining
conditions, such as those encountered in hand tools and
light machinery.

Carbon tool steels - Unstable. Very inexpensive. Extremely

sensitive to heat. Mostly obsolete in today's commercial
machining, although it is still commonly found in non-
intensive applications such as hobbyist or common
machining, where economy-grade drill bits, taps and dies,
hacksaw blades, and reamers are still usually made of it
(because of its affordability). Hardness up to about HRC 65.
Sharp cutting edges possible.
High speed steel (HSS)- Unstable. Inexpensive. Retains
hardness at moderate temperatures. The most common
cutting tool material used today. Used extensively on drill
bits and taps. Hardness up to about HRC 67. Sharp cutting
edges possible.

HSS cobalt - Unstable. Moderately expensive. The high

cobalt versions of high speed steel are very resistant to
heat and thus excellent for machining abrasive and/or
work hardening materials such as titanium and stainless
steel. Used extensively on milling cutters and drill bits.
Hardness up to about HRC 70. Sharp cutting edges
possible.
Cast cobalt alloys - Stable. Expensive. Somewhat fragile.
Despite its stability it doesn't allow for high machining
speed due to low hardness. Not used much. Hardness up
to about HRC 65. Sharp cutting edges possible.

Cemented carbide - Stable. Moderately expensive. The

most common material used in the industry today. It is
offered in several "grades" containing different
proportions of tungsten carbide and binder (usually
cobalt). High resistance to abrasion. High solubility in iron
requires the additions of tantalum carbide and niobium
carbide for steel usage. Its main use is in turning tool bits
although it is very common in milling cutters and saw
blades. Hardness up to about HRC 90. Sharp edges
generally not recommended.
Ceramics - Stable. Moderately inexpensive. Chemically inert
and extremely resistant to heat, ceramics are usually
desirable in high speed applications, the only drawback being
their high fragility. Ceramics are considered unpredictable
under unfavorable conditions. The most common ceramic
materials are based on alumina (aluminium oxide), silicon
nitride and silicon carbide. Used almost exclusively on
turning tool bits. Hardness up to about HRC 93. Sharp cutting
edges and positive rake angles are to be avoided.
Cermets - Stable. Moderately expensive. Another cemented
material based on titanium carbide (TiC). Binder is usually
nickel. It provides higher abrasion resistance compared to
tungsten carbide at the expense of some toughness. It is far
more chemically inert than it too. Extremely high resistance
to abrasion. Used primarily on turning tool bits although
research is being carried on producing other cutting tools.
Hardness up to about HRC 93. Sharp edges generally not
recommended.
Cubic boron nitride (CBN) - Stable. Expensive. Being the
second hardest substance known, it is also the second
most fragile. It offers extremely high resistance to
abrasion at the expense of much toughness. It is generally
used in a machining process called "hard machining",
which involves running the tool or the part fast enough to
melt it before it touches the edge, softening it
considerably. Used almost exclusively on turning tool bits.
Hardness higher than HRC 95. Sharp edges generally not
recommended.
Diamond (sintetic or natural) - Stable. Very Expensive.
The hardest substance known to date. Superior
resistance to abrasion but also high chemical affinity to
iron which results in being unsuitable for steel
machining. It is used where abrasive materials would
wear anything else. Extremely fragile. Used almost
exclusively on turning tool bits although it can be used
as a coating on many kinds of tools. Sharp edges
generally not recommended.
Coatings:
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) - describes a variety of
vacuum deposition methods used to deposit thin films by
the condensation of a vaporized form of the desired film
material onto various workpiece surfaces (e.g., onto
semiconductor wafers).
The coating method involves purely physical processes
such as high-temperature vacuum evaporationwith
subsequent condensation, or plasma sputter
bombardment rather than involving a chemical reaction
at the surface to be coated as in chemical vapor
deposition.
Common coatings applied by PVD are Totanium nitride,
Zirconium nitride, Chromium nitride, Titanium aluminum
nitride.
PVD coatings are generally used to improve hardness,
wear resistance and oxidation resistance.
Titanium aluminium nitride (TiAlN) or aluminium titanium
nitride (AlTiN; for aluminium contents higher 50 at.%)
stands for a group of metastable hard coatings consisting of
the metallic elements aluminium and titanium and nitrogen.
Selected properties are:
Vickers hardness 2600 to 3300 HV.
Phase stability ca. 850 °C, start of decomposition to
AlN+TiN.
Intense oxidation starts at about 800 °C (ca. 300 °C higher
than for TiN).
Lower electrical and thermal conductivity than TiN.
Typical coating thickness ca. (1 to 7) µm.
Cutting conditions
Relative motion is required between the tool and work
to perform a machining operation. The primary motion
is accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition,
the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is
a much slower motion, called the feed. The remaining
dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting
tool below the original work surface, called the depth of
cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called
the cutting conditions.
Speed, feed, and depth form the three dimensions of the
machining process, and for certain operations, their
product can be used to obtain the material removal rate
for the process:

Q= V f a
Where:
– Q - the material removal rate in mm3/min, (in3/min),
– V - the cutting speed in m/min, (in/min),
– f - the feed in mm/min, (in/min),
– a - the depth of cut in mm, (in).
Note: All units must be converted to the corresponding
decimal units.
Machining operations usually divide into two/three
categories, distinguished by purpose and cutting
conditions:
 Roughing cuts
 Semifinishing and Finishing cuts.
Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of
material from the starting workpart as rapidly as
possible, i.e. with a large Material Removal Rate
(MRR), in order to produce a shape close to the
desired form, but leaving some material on the piece
for a subsequent finishing operation. In production
machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually
performed on the work, followed by semifinishing and
finishing cuts. Roughing operations are done at high
feeds and depths – feeds of 0.4–1.25 mm/rev (0.015–
0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5–20 mm (0.100–
0.750 in) are typical, but actual values depend on the
workpiece materials. Acc.Cl. 14, roughness Ra = 0,63
Semifinishing operations (for example: turning) are carried
out at middle feeds and depths – feeds of 0.0125–
0.04 mm/rev (0.0005–0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75–
2.0 mm (0.030–0.075 in) are typical. Accuracy class 9 – 11,
roughness Ra = 2,5 – 5 m.

Finishing operations (for example: turning) are carried out

at low feeds and depths – feeds of 0.0125–0.04 mm/rev
(0.0005–0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75–2.0 mm (0.030–
0.075 in) are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in roughing
than in finishing. Accuracy class 5 – 8, roughness Ra = 0,63
m.
Essentials of metal cutting operation:
 machine tool
 cutting tool
 method
 operator.
TYPES OF TOOLS
Lathe Cutting Operations and Lathe Tools
Porównanie tokarki konwencjonalnej i tokarki CNC
Comparison of conventional and CNC milling machine

Control
unit
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
Drill geometry
Plane in turning operation
Cutting forces - turning