1

Question 1
The Starting System
The starting system is a combination of mechanical and electrical parts that work together
to start the engine. The starting system is designed to change the electrical energy, which
is being supplied by the battery, into mechanical energy. For this conversion to be accomplished,
a starter or cranking motor is used. The basic starting system includes the following
components
1. Battery.
2. Cable and wires
3. Ignition switch.
4. Starter solenoid or relay.
5. Starter motor.
6. Starter drive and flywheel ring gear.
7. Starting safety switch

1
https://lunyax.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/intro-to-aees.pdf
The starter motor requires large amounts of current (up to 400 amperes) to
generate the torque needed to turn the engine. The conductors used to carry this amount of
current (battery cables) must be large enough to handle the current with very little voltage
drop. It would be impractical to place a conductor of this size into the wiring harness to the
ignition switch. To provide control of the high current, all starting systems contain some type
of magnetic switch. There are two basic types of magnetic switches used: the solenoid and
the relay.
T e ignition switch is the power distribution point for most of the vehicle’s primary
electrical systems. The ignition switch is spring loaded in the start position. This momentary
contact automatically moves the contacts to the RUN position when the driver releases the
key. All other ignition switch positions are detent positions.
The neutral safety switch is used on vehicles that are equipped with automatic transmissions. It
opens the starter control circuit when the transmission shift selector is in any position except PARK
or NEUTRAL. Vehicles that are equipped with automatic transmissions require a means of
preventing the engine from starting while the transmission is in gear. Without this feature, the
vehicle would lunge forward or backward once it was started, causing personal or property
damage. The normally open neutral safety switch is connected in series into the starting system
control circuit and is usually operated by the shift lever. When in the PARK or NEUTRAL
position, the switch is closed, allowing current to flow to the starter circuit. If the transmission is
in a gear position, the switch is opened and current cannot flow to the starter circuit. Many vehicles
that are equipped with manual transmissions use a similar type of safety switch. The start/clutch
interlock switch is usually operated by movement of the clutch pedal
The Charging System
The automotive storage battery is not capable of supplying the demands of the electrical systems
for an extended period of time. Every vehicle must be equipped with a means of replacing the
energy that is being drawn from the battery. A charging system is used to restore to the battery the
electrical power that was used during engine starting. In addition

charging system must be able to react quickly to high load demands required of the electrical
system. It is the vehicle’s charging system that generates the current to operate all of the electrical
accessories while the engine is running. The purpose of the charging system is to convert the
mechanical energy of the engine into electrical energy to recharge the battery and run the electrical
accessories. When the engine is first started, the battery supplies all the current required by the
starting and ignition systems. As illustrated in the entire charging system consists of the following
components:
1. Battery.
2. AC generator or DC generator.
3. Drive belt.
4. Voltage regulator.
5. Charge indicator (lamp or gauge).
6. Ignition switch.
7. Cables and wiring harness.
8. Starter relay (some systems).
9. Fusible link (some systems).
All charging systems use the principle of electromagnetic induction to generate the electrical
power. A voltage regulator controls the output voltage of the AC generator, based on charging
system demands, by controlling field current. The battery, and the rest of the electrical system,
must be protected from excessive voltages. To prevent early battery and electrical system failure,
regulation of the charging system is very important. Also, the charging system must supply enough
current to run the vehicle’s electrical accessories when the engine is running.
The Lighting System
The lighting system consists of all of the lights used on the vehicle This includes headlights, front
and rear park lights, front and rear turn signals, side marker lights, daytime running lights,
cornering lights, brake lights, back-up lights, instrument cluster backlighting, and interior lighting.
The lighting system of today’s vehicles can consist of more than 50 light bulbs and hundreds of
feet of wiring. Incorporated within these circuits are circuit protectors, relays,
switches, lamps, and connectors. In addition, more sophisticated lighting systems use computers
and sensors. Since the lighting circuits are largely regulated by federal laws, the systems are similar
among the various manufacturers. However, there are variations that exist in these circuits. With
the addition of solid-state circuitry in the automobile, manufacturers have been able to incorporate
several different lighting circuits or modify the existing ones. Some of the refinements that were
made to the lighting system include automatic headlight washers, automatic headlight dimming,
automatic on/off with timed-delay headlights, and illuminated entry systems. Some of these
systems use sophisticated body computer–controlled circuitry and fiber optics. Some
manufacturers have included such basic circuits as turn signals into their body computer to provide
for pulse-width dimming in place of a flasher unit. The body computer can also be used to control
instrument panel lighting based on inputs that include if the side marker lights are on or off. By
using the body computer to control many of the lighting circuits, the amount of wiring has been
reduced. In addition, the use of computer control of these systems has provided a means of self-
diagnosis in some applications. Today, high-density discharge (HID) headlamps are becoming an
increasingly popular option on many vehicles. These headlights provide improved lighting over
conventional headlamps.
Vehicle Instrumentation Systems
Vehicle instrumentation systems monitor the various vehicle operating systems and provide
information to the driver about their correct operation. Warning devices also provide information
to the driver; however, they are usually associated with an audible signal. Some vehicles use a
voice module to alert the driver to certain conditions.
Electrical Accessories
Electrical accessories provide for additional safety and comfort. There are many electrical
accessories that can be installed into today’s vehicles. These include safety accessories such as the
horn, windshield wipers, and windshield washers. Comfort accessories include the blower motor,
electric defoggers, power mirrors, power windows, power seats, and power door locks
Windshield Wipers. Windshield wipers are mechanical arms that sweep back and forth across the
windshield to remove water, snow, or dirt The operation of the wiper arms is through the use of a
wiper motor. Most windshield wiper motors use permanent magnet fields, or electromagnetic field
motors. Electric Defoggers. Electric defoggers heat the rear window to remove ice and/or
condensation. Some vehicles use the same circuit to heat the outside driver-side mirror. When
electrons are forced to flow through a resistance, heat is generated. Rear window defoggers use
this principle of controlled resistance to heat the glass. The resistance is through a grid that is baked
on the inside of the glass The system may incorporate a timer circuit that controls the relay. Power
Mirrors. Power mirrors are outside mirrors that are electrically positioned from the inside of the
driver compartment. The electrically controlled mirror allows the driver to position the outside
mirrors by use of a switch. The mirror assembly will use built-in, dual drive, reversible permanent
magnet (PM) motors.
Power Windows. Power windows are windows that are raised and lowered by use of electrical
motors. Many vehicle manufacturers have replaced the conventional window crank with electric
motors that operate the side windows. The motor used in the power window system is a reversible
PM or two-field winding motor. The power window system usually consists of the following
components:
1. Master control switch.
2. Individual control switches.
3. Individual window drive motors.
Power Door Locks. Electric power door locks use either a solenoid or a permanent magnet
reversible motor to lock and unlock the door. Many vehicles are equipped with automatic door
locks that are activated when the gear shift lever is placed in the DRIVE position. The doors unlock
when the selector is returned to the PARK position.
Computers A computer is an electronic device that stores and processes data and is capable of
operating other devices The use of computers on automobiles has expanded to include control and
operation of several functions, including climate control, lighting circuits, cruise control, antilock
braking, electronic suspension systems, and electronic shift transmissions. Some of these are
functions of what is known as a body control module (BCM). Some body computer–controlled
systems include direction lights, rear window defogger, illuminated entry, intermittent wipers, and
other systems that were once thought of as basic. A computer processes the physical conditions
that represent information (data). Th e operation of the computer is divided into four basic
functions:
1. Input.
2. Processing.
3. Storage.
4. Output.
Vehicle Communication Networks
Most manufacturers now use a system of vehicle communications called multiplexing (MUX) to
allow control modules to share information Multiplexing provides the ability to use a single circuit
to distribute and share data between several control modules throughout the vehicle. Because the
data is transmitted through a single circuit, bulky wiring harnesses are eliminated. Vehicle
manufacturers will use multiplexing systems to enable different control modules to share
information. A MUX wiring system uses bus data links that connect each module. The term bus
refers to the transporting of data from one module to another. Each module can transmit and
receive digital codes over the bus data links. The signal sent from a sensor can go to any one of
the modules and can be shared by the other modules. Electronic Accessory Systems with the
growing use of computers, most systems can be controlled electronically. This provides for
improved monitoring of the systems for proper operation and the ability to detect if a fault occurs.
The systems that are covered in this book include the following:
Electronic Cruise Control Systems.
Cruise control is a system that allows the vehicle to maintain a preset speed with the driver’s foot
off of the accelerator. Most cruise control systems are a combination of electrical and mechanical
components.
Memory Seats. The memory seat feature allows the driver to program different seat positions that
can be recalled at the push of a button. The memory seat feature is an addition to the basic power
seat system. Most memory seat systems share the same basic operating principles, the difference
being in programming methods and number of positions that can be programmed. Most systems
provide for two seat positions to be stored in memory. An easy exit feature may be an additional
function of the memory seat that provides for easier entrance and exit of the vehicle by moving
the seat all the way back and down. Some systems also move the steering wheel up and to full
retract.
Electronic Sunroofs. Some manufacturers have introduced electronic control of their electric
sunroofs. These systems incorporate a pair of relay circuits and a timer function into the control
module. Motor rotation is controlled by relays that are activated according to signals received from
the slide, tilt, and limit switches.
Antitheft Systems. The antitheft system is a deterrent system designed to scare off would-be
thieves by sounding alarms and/or disabling the ignition system. illustrates many of the common
components that are used in an antitheft system. These components include:
1. An electronic control module.
2. Door switches at all doors.
3. Trunk key cylinder switch.
4. Hood switch.
5. Starter inhibitor relay.
6. Horn relay.
7. Alarm. In addition, many systems incorporate the exterior lights into the system. The lights are
flashed if the system is activated. Some systems use ultrasonic sensors that will signal the control
module if someone attempts to enter the vehicle through the door or window. The sensors can be
placed to sense the parameter of the vehicle and sound the alarm if someone enters within the
protected parameter distance.
Automatic Door Locks.
Automatic door locks (ADL) use a passive system to lock all doors when the required conditions
are met. Many automobile manufacturers are incorporating automatic door locks as an additional
safety and convenience system. Most systems lock the doors when the gear selector is placed in
DRIVE, the ignition switch in RUN, and all doors are shut. Some systems will lock the doors when
the gear shift selector is passed through the REVERSE position, while others do not lock the doors
unless the vehicle is moving 15 mph or faster. The system may use the body computer or a separate
controller to control the door lock relays. The controller (or body computer) takes the place of the
door lock switches for automatic operation. Keyless Entry. The keyless entry system allows the
driver to unlock the doors or the deck lid (trunk) from outside of the vehicle without the use of a
key. The main components of the keyless entry system are the control module, a coded-button
keypad located on the driver’s door and the door lock motors. Some
keyless entry systems
can be operated remotely. Pressing a button on a hand-held transmitter will allow operation of the
system from distances of 25 to 50 feet Recently, most manufacturers have made available systems
of remote engine starting and keyless start. These are usually designed into the function of the
remote keyless entry system
Passive Restraint Systems
Federal regulations have mandated the use of automatic passive restraint systems in all vehicles
sold in the United States after 1990. Passive restraints are ones that operate automatically, with no
action required on the part of the driver or occupant.
Air bag systems are on all of today’s vehicles. The need to supplement the existing restraint
system during frontal collisions has led to the development of the supplemental inflatable restraint
(SIR) or air bag systems A typical air bag system consists of sensors, a diagnostic module, a clock
spring, and an air bag module. illustrates the typical location of the common components of the
SIR system.
Alternate Propulsion Systems
Due to the increase in regulations concerning emissions and the public’s desire to become less
dependent on foreign oil, most major automotive manufacturers have developed alternative fuel
or alternate power vehicles. Since the 1990s, most major automobile manufacturers have
developed an electric vehicle (EV). The primary advantage of an EV is a drastic reduction in noise
and emission levels. General Motors introduced the EV1 electric car to the market in 1996. The
original battery pack in this car contained twenty-six 12-volt batteries that delivered electrical
energy to a three-phase 102-kilowatt (kW) AC electric motor. The electric motor is used to drive
the front wheels. The driving range is about 70 miles (113 km) of city driving or 90 miles (145
km) of highway driving. EV battery limitation was a major stumbling block to most consumers.
One method of improving the electric vehicle resulted in the addition of an on-board power
generator that is assisted by an internal combustion engine, resulting in the hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV). Basically, the hybrid electric vehicle relies on power from the electric motor, the engine,
or both (Figure 1-18). When the vehicle moves from a stop and has a light load, the electric motor
moves the vehicle. Power for the electric motor comes from stored energy in the battery pack.
During normal driving conditions, the engine is the main power source. Engine power is also used
to rotate a generator that recharges the storage batteries. The output from the generator may also
be used to power the electric motor, which is run to provide additional power to the powertrain. A
computer controls the operation of the electric motor, depending on the power needs of the vehicle.
During full throttle or heavy load operation, additional electricity from the battery is sent to the
motor to increase the output of the powertrain. Fuel cell–powered vehicles have a very good chance
of becoming the drives of the future. They combine the reach of conventional internal combustion
engines with high efficiency, low fuel consumption, and minimal or no pollutant emission. At the
same time, they are extremely quiet. Because they work with regenerative fuel such as hydrogen,
they reduce the dependence on crude oil and other fossil fuels. A fuel cell–powered vehicle is
basically an electric vehicle. Like the electric vehicle, it uses an electric motor to supply torque to
the drive wheels. The difference is that the fuel cell produces and supplies electric power to the
electric motor instead of batteries. Most of the vehicle manufacturers and several independent
laboratories are involved in fuel cell research and development programs. A number of prototype
fuel cell vehicles have been produced, with many being placed in fleets in North America and
Europe.
electric and electronic systems used in M-s class 2018
Question 2
1- K-Jetronic Fuel Injection System

K-Jetronic is a mechanically and hydraulically operated fuel injection pump, introduced by

BOSCH GmbH in the year 1973. The K-Jetronic pump requires no form of drive and one of its
features is that it can meter the fuel as a function of the intake air quantity. The letter ‘K’ stands
for continuous in German. Therefore, K-Jetronic pumps continuously inject the fuel in the intake
ports of the engine.

It can optimize the air-fuel mixture formation at different operating conditions such as starting
and driving performance, power output and exhaust composition.

The 3 main functional areas of a K-Jetronic are:

·Air-flow measurement

·Fuel supply

·Fuel metering
The air-flow is controlled by a throttle valve and it can be measured with the help of an air-flow
sensor.

The fuel supply is controlled with the help of an electric pump. The pump delivers the fuel to the
fuel distributor via an accumulator and a filter.

Fuel metering is dependent on the position of the throttle valve. The amount of air drawn is
measured by the air-flow sensor, which in turn controls the fuel quantity to be supplied to the fuel
distributor.

Fuel from the fuel distributor is supplied to the injection valves, which inject the fuel over the
intake valve. The air-fuel mixture is formed over the intake valve. The air-fuel mixture has to be
varied according to the various operating conditions such as start, warm up, idle and full load.

The K-Jetronic system consists of injection valves which inject the fuel continuously into the
intake ports where it is mixed with the air. When the intake valves open, the air-fuel mixture is
drawn inside the combustion chamber2

FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM:

The fuel supply system consists of the following parts:

Electric fuel pump ·

Fuel accumulator ·

Fuel filter ·

Pressure regulator ·

Fuel distributor ·

2
Gasoline-engine management Gasoline Fuel-Injection System K-Jetronic

https://www.dmcnews.com/Techsection/Bosch%20K-Jetronic%20Fuel%20Injection%20Manual%20-
%20boschtech-12d.pdf
Injection Valves ·

Electric Fuel Pump: The electric pump is a roller cell pump which delivers fuel from the tank to
the fuel rail at a pressure of approximately 5 bar. The roller cell pump is driven by a permanent
magnet electric motor.

It consists of a roller race plate which is eccentric in shape. A rotor plate with notches (4 to 6)
around its circumference is placed eccentrically inside the roller race plate. Each notch is provided
with a roller. The roller race plate has an inlet port and an exit port

When the engine is switched ON, the electric motor drives the pump. The motor drives the rotor
plate inside the roller race plate. Due to the eccentric shape of the race plate, the rollers in the rotor
move outwards pressing against the roller race plate due to centrifugal force. The fuel is trapped
between the roller and the notch in the inlet port side and as the rotor rotates towards the exit port
side, the fuel is pressurized and sent out through the exit port.3

3
Gasoline-engine management Gasoline Fuel-Injection System K-Jetronic

https://www.dmcnews.com/Techsection/Bosch%20K-Jetronic%20Fuel%20Injection%20Manual%20-
%20boschtech-12d.pdf
A check valve before the pump ensures that the fuel doesn’t flow back to the tank.

Fuel Accumulator:
Fuel accumulator is provided to maintain the pressure in the fuel system for a certain amount of
time after the engine is switched OFF. This is done in order to help in easy restarting of the
engine, especially when the engine is hot.
The accumulator is divided into 2 chambers with the help of a diaphragm. One chamber acts as
the fuel accumulator and the other chamber is connected to the atmosphere. When the engine is
running, the fuel enters the accumulator volume and pushes the diaphragm against the spring
force. The diaphragm moves until the springs halt in the spring chamber. Thus the fuel collected
at this point is the maximum accumulator volume.
Fuel Filter:
Fuel filter is often a combination of a paper filter, followed by strainer. This ensures higher
degree of filtration. The paper filter has an average pore size of 10 µm
Pressure Regulator:

A pressure regulator is fitted to one end of the fuel distributor. It is used to maintain the pressure
in the fuel system constant at about 5 bar. It consists of a plunger which slides in the regulator
against a spring. When the fuel supplied by the fuel pump exceeds the limit, the plunger moves
against the spring to open the exit port. This allows the excess fuel to return to the fuel tank and
thus maintaining the pressure.
When the fuel delivery quantity is lower, the plunger shifts back closing the exit port to allow
less fuel to escape to the tank. The constant shifting of the plunger maintains the pressure in the
rail.

Fuel Injection Valve:

Fuel injection valve open at a given pressure and atomize the fuel and inject onto the intake
valves. They have a valve needle which sit on a valve seat. When the pressure is high enough,
for e.g. more than 3.5 bar, the valve needle is raised from the valve seat, thus allowing the fuel to
escape. The valve needle oscillates at a high frequency when operated. This results in excellent
atomization of the fuel even if it is of small quantity.

1994 Porsche 911 Last car used k-jetronic injection system

AIR-FLOW SENSOR:
The air flow sensor here works on suspended body principle. As we are aware that the air flow
quantity will decide the fuel injection quantity, accurate measurements of the air flow is required.
The air flow sensor is located upstream of the throttle valve. It consists of an air funnel over
which a sensor plate is free to pivot.

The air flowing through the air funnel deflects the sensor plate from its zero position to a certain
amount. This movement of the sensor plate is transmitted to a control plunger of the fuel
distributor via a lever. The movement of the control plunger decides the quantity of fuel to be
injected.

FUEL DISTRIBUTOR:
Depending on the position of the sensor plate in air flow sensor, the fuel distributor meters the
sufficient quantity of fuel to be distributed to individual cylinders. The movement of the sensor
plate is transmitted to a control plunger of the fuel distributor via a lever. The control plunger
moves in a barrel. The barrel is provided with metering slits.

Based on the position of the control plunger in the barrel, the control plunger opens or closes the
metering slits to a larger or smaller extent. For instance, if the air flow rate is high, then the
control plunger will move a larger distance against the spring to open the metering slit to a
greater extent. As a result, more fuel will be delivered to the injection valve.

L-Jetronic Fuel Injection System

The L-Jetronic is an electronically controlled fuel injection system which has the advantage of
direct air flow sensing. It injects intermittently into the intake ports. The task of a fuel injection
system is to supply precise amount of fuel to the combustion chamber at that particular moment.

An engine’s operating conditions keep changing rapidly, hence fuel injection system should be
fast enough to adhere to the changes and vary the fuel supply quantity at that very moment. L-
Jetronic, which is an electronically controlled fuel inject4ion system, is particularly suitable for the
above mentioned conditions.

The control unit processes signals from a variety of sensors and calculates the exact amount of fuel
to be supplied to the combustion chamber.

Functions of L-Jetronic:

4
https://www.scribd.com/document/146398111/L-Jetronic-for-Porsche-912E
http://www.type17.ch/downloads/Injection/Bosch%20-%20L-Jet%20-%20Troubleshooting.pdf
There are 3 major functions of an L-Jetronic:
· To pressurize fuel: L-jetronic system supplies fuel from tank to the intake valves at a
certain pressure required for injection. Maintaining the pressure throughout the supply is at most
important.
· To monitor the sensors: The control unit has to register the important signals from various
sensors such as air-flow sensor, throttle valve sensor, engine speed sensor, engine temperature
sensor, etc.
· To regulate fuel quantity: The signals from the sensors are processed by the control unit
and pulses are generated to vary fuel injection amount.
DESIGN OF L-JETRONIC’S FUEL SYSTEM:
The fuel system of an L-Jetronic consists of the following components:
• Electric pump
• Fuel Filter
• Fuel rail
• Pressure regulator
• Fuel injectors

Electric Pump:
The electric pump is a roller cell pump which delivers fuel from the tank to the fuel rail at a pressure
of approximately 2.5 bar. The roller cell pump is driven by a permanent magnet electric motor.

L-Jetronic Fuel Injection System

It consists of a roller race plate which is eccentric in shape. A rotor plate with notches (4 to 6)
around its circumference is placed eccentrically inside the roller race plate. Each notch is provided
with a roller. The roller race plate has an inlet port and an exit port.

When the engine is switched ON, the electric motor drives the pump. The motor drives the rotor
plate inside the roller race plate. Due to the eccentric shape of the race plate, the rollers in the rotor
move outwards pressing against the roller race plate due to centrifugal force. The fuel is trapped
between the roller and the notch in the inlet port side and as the rotor rotates towards the exit port
side, the fuel is pressurized and sent out through the exit port.
A check valve before the pump ensures that the fuel doesn’t flow back to the tank.
Fuel Filter:
Fuel filter is often a combination of a paper filter, followed by strainer. This ensures higher degree
of filtration. The paper filter has an average pore size of 10 µm.
Fuel Rail:
The function of a fuel rail is to maintain the pressure and to supply equal amount of fuel to each
injector.
Pressure Regulator:
Pressure regulator is provided at one end of the fuel rail. It maintains the pressure difference
between the fuel rail pressure and the manifold air pressure. The injection of fuel by the electronic
fuel injectors depends on the inlet valve opening time. Therefore, the pressure in the fuel rail
depends directly on the inlet manifold pressure.
The pressure regulator is a diaphragm controlled regulator which regulates fuel pressure at 2.5 bar.
If the pressure exceeds the set pressure, then the fuel from the rail flows back to the tank via a
return valve in the regulator. The diaphragm is pre-loaded by a spring and the diaphragm chamber
is connected to the inlet manifold stream through a tube. Another chamber is provided for the fuel
return valve and line. The fuel flows back to the tank without any pressure.

Electronic Fuel Injectors:

The electronic fuel injectors inject precise amount of fuel over the inlet valves. Each cylinder is
provided with its own fuel injector. All the injectors are solenoid operated valve. The solenoid is
controlled by electric pulses which are generated by the control unit (ECU).

The solenoid valve is provided with a solenoid winding. There is a needle valve sitting inside the
winding. The needle is pressed against its seat with the help of a helical spring. When electric pulse
is passed, the solenoid winding is magnetized and the needle valve lifts from its seat to allow the
fuel to be injected through the orifice. The front end of the needle is pintle shaped for better
atomization of the fuel. The needle is lifted approximately 0.08 to 0.1 mm from its seat.

SENSORS:
Sensors are an essential part of the L-Jetronic system as it detects the operating conditions of an
engine. The most important ones are the engine speed sensor and the air-flow sensor.
Air-flow sensor:
Air-flow sensor measures the force of air on the air-flow sensor flap. The sensor flap moves against
the opposing spring forces. The flap moves in proportion to the air flow and the compensation flap
also moves the same distance as the sensor flap moves. The compensation flap is connected to a
variable resistance potentiometer.

When the flap moves, a voltage is generated in proportion to the distance it moves. The closed
position of the flap will generate zero voltage and fully open position will generate approximately
5 V. There is an idling air passage to allow some amount of air to flow when the engine is running
at idling speed.

LH-Jetronic
Digital fuel injection introduced for California bound 1982 Volvo 240 models. The LH
stands for German "Luftmasse-Hitzdraht" the hotwire anemometer technology used to
determine the mass of air into the engine. This air mass meter is called HLM2 by Bosch
The LH-Jetronic was mostly used by Scandinavian car manufacturers and by sports and
luxury cars produced in small quantities such as Porsche 928. The most common variants
are LH 2.2 which uses an Intel 8049 (MCS-48) microcontroller and usually a
4 kB programmer memory, and LH 2.4, which uses a Siemens 80535 microcontroller
and 32 kB programmer memory based on the 27C256 chip. LH-Jetronic 2.4 has adaptive
lambda control, and support for a variety of advanced features; including fuel enrichment
based on exhaust gas temperature (ex. Volvo B204GT/B204FT engines). Some later
(post-1995) versions contain hardware support for first generation diagnostics according
to ISO 9141 (a.k.a. OBD-II) and immobilizer functions

1 - Fuel pump
2 - Fuel filter
3 - Pressure gauge
4 - Injection valve
5 - Air flow meter
6 - Temperature sensor
7 - Air injector
8 - Butterfly switch
9 - Command unit
10 - Command relay
11 - Spark plug

The LE-Jetronic system is electronically commanded and injects the fuel in the intake manifold. The
injection has as function to provide the amount of fuel exactly dosed, necessary to the engine’s
several working regimes.

The LE-Jetronic command unit receives various input signals, from the various sensors that send
precise information about the instant engine operation conditions. Then, the command unit
processes this information received and calculate the appropriate fuel injection time, through an
electric signal. This time is also known as injection time (iT).

In the LE-Jetronic system, the injection valves spray the fuel simultaneously, what is to say, they are
all driven at the same time. In this system, the injection command unit controls only the fuel system.

The LE-Jetronic system is analog, and therefore it does not keep in memory possible damage that
may occur. It has no fault lamp for the injection system
Mono Injector
General description
Injectors are electrically operated valves which accurately control the quantity of fuel delivered.
By adding the fuel to the air sucked in by the engine, a mixture is created with the required fuel/air
ratio Single-point injection (SPI) uses a single injector at the throttle body (the same location as
was used by carburetors). This system features one centrally positioned fuel injection nozzle. It
was introduced in the 1940s in large aircraft engines (then called the pressure carburetor) and in
the 1980s in the automotive world (called Throttle-body Injection by General Motors, Central Fuel
Injection by Ford, PGM-CARB by Honda, and EGI by Mazda). Since the fuel passes through the
intake runners (like a carburetor system), it is called a "wet manifold system". The justification for
single-point injection was low cost. Many of the carburetor's supporting components such as the
air cleaner, intake manifold, and fuel line routing could be reused. This postponed the redesign
and tooling costs of these components. Single-point injection was used extensively on American-
made passenger cars and light trucks during 1980-1995, and in some European cars in the early
and mid-1990s.
System overview Mono-Jetronic is an electronically controlled, low-pressure, single-point
injection (SPI) system for 4-cylinder engines. While port injection systems such as KE and
L-Jetronic employ a separate injector for each cylinder, Mono-Jetronic features a single, centrally-
located, solenoid-controlled injection valve for the entire engine. The heart of the Mono-Jetronic
is the central injection unit (described in the following). It uses a single solenoid operated injector
for intermittent fuel injection above the throttle valve. The intake manifold distributes the fuel to
the individual cylinders. A variety of different sensors are used to monitor engine operation and
furnish the essential control parameters for optimum mixture adaptation. These include: – Throttle-
valve angle, – Engine speed, – Engine and intake-air temperature, – Throttle-valve positions
(idle/full throttle), – Residual oxygen content of exhaust gas, and (depending on the vehicle’s
equipment level): – Automatic transmission, air-conditioner settings, and a/c compressor clutch
status (engaged-disengaged).

5Principle of operation of the mono injector

In the beginning, because of the lower supply pressure of 0.75 to 1 bar, only a single-stage turbine
pump is installed. The system pressure regulator has, as opposed to the Multi-point injection, no
vacuum connection, because the system pressure regulation is independent of the vacuum pressure.
The injection amount is exclusively dependent on the injection time, because the injection takes
place above the throttle flap and not in the vacuum area. Apart from the Lambda sensor, the throttle
flap potentiometer is an important sensor for the determining of the injection amount. In addition,
the control device still also needs the air or the coolant temperature and the relationship to the
crankshaft. The Mono-Jetronic (Bosch) controls the idling through a servo-motor with worm-drive
and only relies on a throttle position sensor for judging the engine load. There are no sensors for
air flow, or intake manifold vacuum. Mono-Jetronic always had adaptive closed-loop lambda
control, and due to the simple engine load sensing, it is heavily dependent on the lambda sensor
for correct functioning. The Multec (GM) controls the idling through a bypass

5
http://www.jnc.cz/auto/monomotronic/u215e.pdf
In the beginning, because of the lower supply pressure of 0.75 to 1 bar, only a single-stage turbine
pump is installed. The system pressure regulator has, as opposed to the Multi-point injection, no
vacuum connection, because the system pressure regulation is independent of the vacuum pressure.
The injection amount is exclusively dependent on the injection time, because the injection takes
place above the throttle flap and not in the vacuum area. Apart from the Lambda sensor, the throttle
flap potentiometer is an important sensor for the determining of the injection amount. In addition,
the control device still also needs the air or the coolant temperature and the relationship to the
crankshaft. The Mono-Jetronic (Bosch) controls the idling through a servo-motor with worm-drive
and only relies on a throttle position sensor for judging the engine load. There are no sensors for
air flow, or intake manifold vacuum. Mono-Jetronic always had adaptive closed-loop lambda
control, and due to the simple engine load sensing, it is heavily dependent on the lambda sensor
for correct functioning. The Multec (GM) controls the idling through a bypass
Possible damage to the injectors:

Open circuit or short to positive or to ground in wire(s)

No or poor plug connection conduction

Ground connection is loose or corroded

Mechanical fault in component

CHECK RESISTANCE:

Make sure ignition is off and the engine is not started

Disconnect the two-pin injector connector

Connect a precise ohmmeter between the terminals of the injector connector. Resistance must be
around 1 ohm or less

Plug in the injector connector

TESTING THE OUTPUT SIGNAL WITH OSCILLOSCOPE

Injector Voltage vs Current

1. Channel A:

Plug the 10:1 Attenuator to channel A of the Car Scope and connect a BNC test lead to the
attenuator. Connect the red test lead to one of the injector wires and the black crocodile lead to
the chassis ground.

2. Channel B:

Connect the CA-60 AC/DC current clamp to channel B.

Range ±20A
Clamp switch should be in 1mV/10mA position.

Switch the current clamp on, press the ZERO button before connecting the clamp to the circuit. It
is important to note that only one of the two wires have to be clamped, and not both of them. It
doesn’t matter which cable is clipped with the current clamp: the positive or the negative one. This
will only affect the polarity of the measured current. But incorrect connection will lead a reading
of incorrect polarity. The clamp arrow matches the injector current direction.

Note: the CA-60A probe is supplied with a 4 mm banana plug type connectors so it cannot be
plugged directly to a Car Scope Pro oscilloscope. A banana plug to BNC adapter must be used to
connect the current clamp to the oscilloscope.

Note: When performing a DC current measurement, always push the ZERO button on the clamp
until the Car Scope displays a zero line.

Important note: Only one of the two wires should be clamped, and not both of them. It doesn’t
matter which wire will be clipped with the current clamp: the positive or the negative one. This
will only affect the polarity of the measured current.

3. Start the engine, warm it to operating temperature and leave it idling.

Note: The test set-up may distort the recorded signals slightly. Injector Voltage

1. Channel A:

Plug the 10:1 Attenuator to channel A of the CarScope and connect a BNC test lead to the
attenuator. Connect the red test lead to one of the injector wires and the black crocodile lead to the
chassis ground.

2. Channel B:

Connect the CA-60 AC/DC current clamp to channel B.

Range ±20A

Clamp switch should be in 1mV/10mA position.

Switch the current clamp on, press the ZERO button before connecting the clamp to the
circuit.

It is important to note that only one of the two wires have to be clamped, and not both of them. It
doesn’t matter which cable is clipped with the current clamp: the positive or the negative one.
This will only affect the polarity of the measured current. But incorrect connection will lead a
reading of incorrect polarity. The clamp arrow matches the injector current direction.
Note: the CA-60A probe is supplied with a 4 mm banana plug type connectors so it cannot be
plugged directly to a Car Scope Pro oscilloscope. A banana plug to BNC adapter must be used to
connect the current clamp to the oscilloscope.
Note: When performing a DC current measurement, always push the ZERO button on the clamp
until the Car Scope displays a zero line.
Important note: Only one of the two wires should be clamped, and not both of them. It doesn’t
matter which wire will be clipped with the current clamp: the positive or the negative one. This
will only affect the polarity of the measured current.
3. Start the engine, warm it to operating temperature and leave it idling.
Note: The test set-up may distort the recorded signals slightly.

Injector Voltage
1. Channel
Plug the 10:1 Attenuator to channel A of the Car Scope and connect a BNC test lead to the
attenuator. Connect the red test lead to one of the injector wires and the black crocodile lead
to the chassis ground.
2. Compare result with the waveform in fig.3

Motronic
1 - Fuel pump
2 - Fuel filter
3 - Pressure gauge
4 - Injection valve
5 - Air flow meter
6 - Temperature sensor
8 - Butterfly potentiometer
9 - Rotation Sensor
10 - Lambda Probe
11 - Command unit (injection + ignition) of the tank
12 - Tank ventilation valve
13 - Command relay
14 - Ignition coil
15 - Spark plug
16 - Canister
The Motronic system is also a Multipoint system. It differentiates from the LE-Jetronic for
having, in addition to the injection system, also the ignition system incorporated in the
command unit. It features a Lambda Probe
aggregated to the injection system, installed in the exhaust pipe.

The Motronic system is digital. It has adaptation memory of and malfunction lamp. In
some vehicles, for not having distributor, the ignition timing control (spark) is commanded
by Rotation Sensor, installed in the engine flywheel (static system).

Also in the Motronic System, the Tank ventilation valve (known as canister valve) allows
the reuse of fuel vapors, which are highly toxic, thus contributing for reduction of pollution,
which is the main advantage of the electronic injection.
Motronic MED
1 – High pressure fuel pump
2 - Flow control valve
3 - Fuel gallery
4 - Ignition coil
5 - Pressure limiting valve
6 - Injection valve
7 - Air mass sensor with integrated air temperature sensor
8 - Throttle body (EGAS)
9 - Pressure sensor
10 - Valve (EGR)
11 – Broad band Lambda
12 - Planar Lambda Probe
13 - Catalyst
14 – Low pressure fuel pump set
15 - Command unit
16 - Electronic Accelerator Pedal
617 – High pressure sensor

Until the launch of the MED Electronic Injection System, the mixture of air and fuel was
generated in the aspiration pipe. The search for new possibilities to further improve the injection
resulted in a new technique: direct injection of gasoline with electronic adjustment – Motronic

6
http://br.bosch-
automotive.com/en/internet/parts/parts_and_accessories_2/motor_and_sytems/benzin/injection_system/motro
nic_med_1/motronic_med.html
Question 3
1- Definition of vision enhancement system in vehicle

work with camera-based vision systems gives the driver an additional pair of eyes, scanning the
vehicle's surroundings for danger. Advanced in house developed algorithms allow the cameras to
"see" and track objects, warning the driver - taking action - when the car is in danger of a collision

2- HISTORY

rear-view mirror’s Among the rear-view mirror's early uses is a mention by Dorothy Levitt in her
1909 book The Woman and the Car which noted that women should "carry a little hand-mirror in
a convenient place when driving" so they may "hold the mirror aloft from time to time in order to
see behind while driving in traffic". However, earlier use is described in 1906, in a trade magazine
noting mirrors for showing what is coming behind now popular on closed bodied automobiles, and
to likely be widely adopted in a short time. The same year, a Mr. Henri Cain from France patented
a "Warning mirror for automobiles" The Argus Dash Minor, adjustable to any position to see the
road behind, appeared in 1908. Hardiest known rear-view mirror mounted on a racing vehicle
appeared on Ray Haroun’s Mannon race car at the inaugural Indianapolis 500 race in 1911. Haroun
himself claimed he got the idea from seeing a mirror used for a similar purpose on a horse-drawn
vehicle in 1904. Haroun also claimed that the mirror vibrated constantly due to the rough brick
surface, and it was rendered largely useless.

Elmer Berger is usually credited with inventing the rear-view mirror, though in fact he was the
first to patent it (1921) and develop it for incorporation into production street going automobiles
by his Berger and Company
3- AUGMENTATIONS AND ALTERNATIVES

rear-view video earner? have been built into many new model cars, this was partially in response
to the rear-view mirrors' inability to show the road directly behind the car, due to the rear deck or
trunk obscuring as much as 3-5 meters (10-15 feet) of road behind the car. As many as 50 small
children are killed every year in the USA because the driver cannot see them in their rear-view
mirrors. Camera systems are usually mounted to the rear bumper or lower parts of the car, allowing
for better rear visibility

4- night vision system

utilizes an infrared camera mounted in the front grille of the vehicle that detects temperature
contrasts as delicate as a tenth of a degree to make an exceptionally nitty gritty warm picture of
the world before the vehicle. Night vision enables drivers to see objects three to four times more
remote away than vehicle headlights and enhances deceivability in haze, smoke and the glare of
on-coming headlights. Custom calculations distinguish walkers and creatures in the way of the
vehicle at night.

Night vision empowers the accompanying highlights:

• Pedestrian Identification

• Animal Identification

• Collision Alleviation by Braking

• Spotlight Capacity, accessible in Europe and Asia

5- DRIVER DROWSINESS DETECTION

Driver drowsiness detection is a technology which anticipates mischances caused
by the driver getting languid. Different investigations have proposed that around 20% of all street
mishaps are exhaustion related, up to half on specific streets A portion of the ebb and flow
frameworks learn driver designs and can distinguish when a driver is getting to be sleepy.7

7
http://prezi.com/fscgxrygpjgo/?utm_campaign=share&utm_medium=copy
6- BLIND SPOT DETECTION

Blind spot detection uses sensors to monitor the side of the vehicle for vehicles approaching blind
spots. In many systems, a visual alert appears on or near the side view mirrors if a vehicle is
detected. An audible alert may activate if the driver signals a turn and there is a vehicle in the blind
spot on the turning side. Some systems also may activate the brake or steering controls to keep the
vehicle in its lane.8

8
http://prezi.com/fscgxrygpjgo/?utm_campaign=share&utm_medium=copy
Question 4
Definition: Suspension system: a mechanical system of springs and shock absorbers that
connect the wheels and axles to the chassis of a wheeled vehicle
9The Function of suspension system:
The job of a car suspension is:
- to carry the static weight of the vehicle
- to maximize the friction between the tires and the road surface,
- to provide steering stability with good
handling (minimize body roll)
- to ensure the comfort of the passengers (ability to smooth out a bumpy road).
Classification of Suspension System:
1- Passive
2- Semi-Active
- Orifice Based Damper
- MR fluid based Damper
3- Active
-Slow Active
-Active -Fully Active
1- Passive Suspension
passive suspension is an older
conventional system having non-
controlled springs and shock observing
dampers with fixed parameters and no
online feedback action is used- Appleyard
et al. (1997) and Sun et al. (2009).Passive
suspension design performance is used for
specific operating conditions

The damping value (Cs) of a passive

damper is determined by the total orifice
area (the number of hole) in the piston
head.

9
https://www.slideshare.net/dhananjayrao5851/suspension-system-36822449
How car springs and dampers work

Explanation of spring suspension and how dampers work to keep a smooth and stable ride in a car.
Complete with diagrams of hydraulic suspension.

The suspension system affects both the driver's control of the car and the comfort of the occupants.
The springs allow the wheels to move up to absorb bumps in the road and reduce jolting, while the
dampers prevent bouncing up and down. Various mechanical links keep the wheels in line.

Types of spring

Most cars have steel springs, and the oldest type is the leaf spring. The topmost and longest strip,
the master leaf, is curled at each end into an eye by which it is connected to the frame. The
leaves below are progressively shorter and less curved.

Leaf spring at rest

Leaf spring under load

U-bolt

Leaf springs in action

As the spring deflects, it flattens, causing the second leaf to touch the master leaf, then the third
to touch the second. The spring thus becomes progressively stiffer. Such a spring gives a
smoother ride than a stiff, plain single leaf could.

In some cars the multi-leaf spring has been replaced by a special single leaf that is tapered in
section and has progressive stiffness as it is deflected.

Coil spring

Damper

Coil spring

A coil spring is made of resilient steel rod. It extends as the wheel moves down and compresses
as the wheel moves up, so the car body remains reasonably level. A coil spring is simply a spiral
of resilient steel rod. It is stretched or compressed by the vertical movement of the wheels.
The torsion bar is a length of spring steel with splined or square ends. One splined end is fixed to
a lever arm that forms part of the suspension. The bar rotates as the lever arm moves up and
down.

Rigid fixing to frame

Torsion bar

Suspension lever arm

Torsion bar

A torsion bar is of spring steel with one end rigidly fixed to the frame. The bar twists as the other
end rotates with movements of the suspension lower arm.

The other splined end is fixed to the frame. The splines stop the bar turning in its fixings. Instead,
the bar has to twist as the suspension deflects

In all forms of steel spring, the forces set up by road shocks are stored by the spring deflection
rather than passed on to the passengers. The forces are then released gradually to restore the car to
a level ride.

Rubber springs can perform the same function, but they do not store as much energy and are
therefore used on light vehicles only.

A form of hydraulic suspension can be combined with rubber springs to refine the system. Up-
and-down movement of the wheel pumps fluid from one chamber to another through a
damper valve. Each chamber has a flexible diaphragm with compressed gas on the other side of it.

The gas is compressed further as fluid comes into the chamber through the valve. In effect the gas
is acting as a pneumatic spring.

There is usually a link tube through which some of the fluid pumped out of a front-wheel chamber
travels to the rear wheel on the same side to equalize the suspension.

Citroen hydraulic suspension can be pumped up and down to raise or lower the car to a desired
height.
Hydraulic suspension

Hydraulic suspension combines rubber springs with a damper system linking the front and rear
wheel on the same side of the car. As the front wheel rises over a bump, some of the fluid from its
suspension unit (known as a displacer unit) flows to the rear-wheel unit and raises it, so tending to
keep the car level. In each of the displacer units, the fluid passes through a two-way valve, which
provides the damping effect. Once the rear wheel has passed over the bump, the fluid returns to
the front displacer unit and the original level is restored.

Orifice based Semi-Active Suspension

MR fluid based Semi-Active Suspension

Magnetorheological fluid is composed of oil and varying percentages of ferrous particles

(20-50 microns in diameter) that have been coated with an anti-coagulant material.

Varying the magnetic field strength has the effect of changing the viscosity of the
magnetorheological fluid
Active Suspension System

Active suspension system uses hydraulic actuator to reduce the amount of external
power necessary to achieve the desired performance characteristics and is able to
exert an independent force on the suspension to improve the riding characteristics

Schematic Diagram and Basic Configuration of Hydraulically Actuated Active Suspension

System
Active VS Semi-Active

• Semi-Active:

– Lower implementation cost

– Lower power consumption

– Easier to control

– Simpler design

– Easy to install

Disadvantage:

damper constraint, the force range is limited, performance is not as good as

active system
• Active System:

– Wider range of force

– No force-velocity constraint

– Can achieve better performance (vehicle dynamics)

Disadvantages: power consumption is high, higher weight to power ratio,

expensive, major modification should be made before installing active system into
the existing vehicle
Question 5
10Anti-lock braking system

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety anti-skid braking system used on aircraft and on
land vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, trucks and buses. ABS operates by preventing the wheels
from locking up during braking, thereby maintaining tractive contact with the road surface.

ABS is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking
which were once practiced by skillful drivers with earlier non-ABS braking systems. ABS operates
at a very much faster rate and more effectively than most drivers could manage. Although ABS
generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery
surfaces, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces, ABS may significantly increase braking
distance, while still improving steering control. Since ABS was introduced in production vehicles,
such systems have become increasingly sophisticated and effective. Modern versions may only
prevent wheel lock under braking, but may also alter the front-to-rear brake bias. This latter
function, depending on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known variously as
electronic brake force distribution, traction control system, emergency brake assist, or electronic
stability control (ESC).

The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-Lock Brake).

Typically, ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four-wheel speed sensors, and at
least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the rotational
speed of each wheel; if it detects the wheel rotating significantly slower than the speed of the
vehicle, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic
pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel
then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others,

10
"Toyota Prius c features safety anti-skid braking system (ABS)". Toyota Motor Corporation
Australia. Retrieved 7 March 2016. Prius c is equipped with Toyota's Anti-Skid Braking System
(ABS).
brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down
the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal
pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second.
Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even
during panic braking in extreme conditions.

The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical
threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn
slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all road going
vehicles.

If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle
instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified.

Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-
mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road
vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are
rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the
years.11

Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum
of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle
sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor
detects that the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor
reports, the ESC software will break the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most
sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel
sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS
that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how
much.

ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration of
the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation

11
"Effectiveness of ABS and Vehicle Stability Control Systems" (PDF). Royal Automobile Club
of Victoria. April 2004
12
and take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also
control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.

The speed sensors of ABS are sometimes used in indirect tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS),
which can detect under-inflation of tire(s) by difference in rotational speed of wheels.

There are four main components of ABS: wheel speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller.

1.Speed sensors

A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These sensors
use a magnet and a Hall effect sensor, or a toothed wheel and an electromagnetic coil to generate
a signal. The rotation of the wheel or differential induces a magnetic field around the sensor. The
fluctuations of this magnetic field generate a voltage in the sensor. Since the voltage induced in
the sensor is a result of the rotating wheel, this sensor can become inaccurate at slow speeds. The
slower rotation of the wheel can cause inaccurate fluctuations in the magnetic field and thus cause
inaccurate readings to the controller.

2.Valves

There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve
has three positions:

In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the
brake.

In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This
prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.

12
NHTSA Light Vehicle Antilock Brake System Research Program Task 4: A Test Track Study
of Light Vehicle ABS Performance Over a Broad Range of Surfaces and Maneuvers, Jan 1999

Gerald J. S. Wilde (1994). "7. Remedy by engineering

In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a valve is
clogged it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the system
from modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.

3. Pump

The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valves have
released it. A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection of wheel slip. After
a valve releases the pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used to restore a desired amount
of pressure to the braking system. The controller will modulate the pump's status in order to
provide the desired amount of pressure and reduce slipping.

4.Controller

The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual
wheel speed sensor. If a wheel loses traction, the signal is sent to the controller. The controller will
then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves
on and off.

There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler
systems works as follows:

The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel
that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration.
If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car
five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up
could stop spinning in less than a second.

The ABS controller 'knows' that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure
to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration
again. It can do this very quickly, before the wheel can actually significantly change speed. The
result is that the wheel slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the wheels
very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking
power.
This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low traction
surface, allowing to steer even in most emergency braking conditions.

When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the
rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been
triggered.

Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use. They can
be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves that are individually
controlled—and the number of speed sensors.

1) Four-channel, four-sensor ABS

There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four wheels. With this setup,
the controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking
force.

2) Three-channel, four-sensor ABS

There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of the front wheels, but
only one valve for both of the rear wheels. Older vehicles with four-wheel ABS usually use this
type.

3) Three-channel, three-sensor ABS

This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a
valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed
sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This system provides individual control of the
front wheels, so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are
monitored together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the rear.
With this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake
effectiveness. This system is easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for the rear
wheels.

4) Two-channel, four sensor ABS

This system, commonly found on passenger cars from the late '80s through the mid-1990s, uses a
speed sensor at each wheel, with one control valve each for the front and rear wheels as a pair. If
the speed sensor detects lock up at any individual wheel, the control module pulses the valve for
both wheels on that end of the car.

5) One-channel, one-sensor ABS

This system is commonly found on pickup trucks, SUVs, and vans with rear-wheel ABS. It has
one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle. This
system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored
together and they both have to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also
possible that one of the rear wheels will lock, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is also
easy to identify, as there are no individual speed sensors for any of the wheels.

Effectiveness

Reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 18 percent,

Increased the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent.

On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete, many (though not all) ABS-equipped cars
are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that would be possible without
the benefit of ABS. In real world conditions, even an alert and experienced driver without ABS
would find it difficult to match or improve on the performance of a typical driver with a modern
ABS-equipped vehicle. ABS reduces chances of crashing, and/or the severity of impact. The
recommended technique for non-expert drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking
emergency, is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate, to steer around
obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of a skid and subsequent
loss of control.

In gravel, sand and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these surfaces, locked
wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this from occurring. Some ABS
calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly
briefly lock and unlock. Some vehicle manufacturers provide an "off-road" button to turn ABS
function off. The primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to
maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid, though loss of control remains more likely
on soft surfaces such as gravel or on slippery surfaces such as snow or ice. On a very slippery
surface such as sheet ice or gravel, it is possible to lock multiple wheels at once, and this can defeat
ABS (which relies on comparing all four wheels, and detecting individual wheels skidding).
Availability of ABS relieves most drivers from learning threshold braking.

A June 1999 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) study found that ABS
increased stopping distances on loose gravel by an average of 27.2 percent.

According to the NHTSA,

"ABS works with your regular braking system by automatically pumping them. In vehicles not
equipped with ABS, the driver has to manually pump the brakes to prevent wheel lockup. In
vehicles equipped with ABS, your foot should remain firmly planted on the brake pedal, while
ABS pumps the brakes for you so you can concentrate on steering to safety."

When activated, some earlier ABS systems caused the brake pedal to pulse noticeably. As most
drivers rarely or do not brake hard enough to cause brake lock-up, and drivers typically do not read
the vehicle's owner’s manual, this may not be noticeable until an emergency. Some manufacturers
have therefore implemented a brake assist system that determines that the driver is attempting a
"panic stop" (by detecting that the brake pedal was depressed very fast, unlike a normal stop where
the pedal pressure would usually be gradually increased, some systems additionally monitor the
rate at the accelerator was released) [citation needed] and the system automatically increases
braking force where not enough pressure is applied. Hard or panic braking on bumpy surfaces,
because of the bumps causing the speed of the wheel(s) to become erratic may also trigger the
ABS, sometimes causing the system to enter its ice mode, where the system severely limits
maximum available braking power. Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves safety and control
for drivers in most on-road situations.

Anti-lock brakes are the subject of some experiments centred around risk compensation theory,
which asserts that drivers adapt to the safety benefit of ABS by driving more aggressively. In a
Munich study, half a fleet of taxicabs was equipped with anti-lock brakes, while the other half had
conventional brake systems. The crash rate was substantially the same for both types of cab, and
Wilde concludes this was due to drivers of ABS-equipped cabs taking more risks, assuming that
ABS would take care of them, while the non-ABS drivers drove more carefully since ABS would
not be there to help in case of a dangerous situation.

The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety released a study in 2010 that found motorcycles with
ABS 37% less likely to be involved in a fatal crash than models without ABS.

On a motorcycle, an anti-lock brake system prevents the wheels of a powered two wheelers from
locking during braking situations. Based on information from wheel speed sensors the ABS unit
adjusts the pressure of the brake fluid in order to keep traction during deceleration to avoid
accidents. Motorcycle ABS helps the rider to maintain stability during braking and to decrease the
stopping distance. It provides traction even on low friction surfaces. While older ABS models are
derived from cars, recent ABS are the result of research, oriented on the specifics of motorcycles
in case of size, weight and functionality. National and international organizations evaluate
Motorcycle ABS as an important factor to increase safety and reduce motorcycle accident
numbers. The European Commission passed legislation in 2012 that made the fitment with ABS
for all new motorcycles above 125 cm3 to be mandatory from 1 January 2016. Consumer Reports
said in 2016 that "ABS is commonly offered on large, expensive models, but it has been spreading
to several entry-level sport bikes and midsized bikes".

motorists first experienced the benefits of ABS in the Jensen Ferguson Formula, a four-wheel-
drive car unveiled in 1966.

and most motorists had to wait until the mid-1980s to benefit from ABS, most notably when an
anti-lock brake system was fitted as standard to the Ford Scorpio.

13
Electronic brake force distribution

13
(1) Buschmann, Gunther; Ebner, Hans-Thomas; Kuhn, Wieland (February 1, 1992).
"Electronic Brake Force Distribution Control - A Sophisticated Addition to ABS". SAE
International.
Electronic brake force distribution (EBD or EBFD) or electronic brake force limitation (EBL) is
an automobile brake technology that automatically varies the amount of force applied to each of a
vehicle's wheels, based on road conditions, speed, loading, etc. Always coupled with anti-lock
braking systems (ABS), EBD can apply more or less braking pressure to each wheel in order to
maximize stopping power whilst maintaining vehicular control. Typically, the front end carries the
most weight and EBD distributes less braking pressure to the rear brakes so the rear brakes do not
lock up and cause a skid. In some systems, EBD distributes more braking pressure at the rear
brakes during initial brake application before the effects of weight transfer become apparent.

As per the technical paper published by Buchman et al. "The job of the EBD as a subsystem of
the ABS system is to control the effective adhesion utilization by the rear wheels. The pressure of
the rear wheels are approximated to the ideal brake force distribution in a partial braking operation.
To do so, the conventional brake design is modified in the direction of rear axle overbaking, and
the components of the ABS are used. EBD reduces the strain on the hydraulic brake force
proportioning valve in the vehicle. EBD optimizes the brake design with regard to: adhesion
utilization; driving stability; wear; temperature stress; and pedal force."

EBD may work in conjunction with ABS and electronic stability control (ESC) to minimize yaw
accelerations during turns. ESC compares the steering wheel angle to vehicle turning rate using a
yaw rate sensor. "Yaw" is the vehicle's rotation around its vertical center of gravity (turning left or
right). If the yaw sensor detects more/less yaw than the steering wheel angle should create, the car
is understeering or oversteering and ESC activates one of the front or rear brakes to rotate the car
back onto its intended course. For example, if a car is making a left turn and begins to understeer
(the car plows forward to the outside of the turn) ESC activates the left rear brake, which will help
turn the car left. The sensors are so sensitive, and the actuation is so quick that the system may
correct direction before the driver reacts. ABS helps prevent wheel lock-up and EBD helps apply
appropriate brake force to make ESC work effectively and easily.14

14
(2) "Electronic Brake-force Distribution, EBFD - Active safety features". Brainonboard.ca.
Retrieved August 16, 2018.
Traction control system
A traction control system (TCS), also known as ASR (from German: Antriebsschlupfregelung, lit.
'engine slippage regulation'), is typically (but not necessarily) a secondary function of the
electronic stability control (ESC) on production motor vehicles, designed to prevent loss of traction
of driven road wheels. TCS is activated when throttle input and engine torque are mismatched to
road surface conditions.

Intervention consists of one or more of the following:

Brake force applied to one or more wheels

Reduction or suppression of spark sequence to one or more cylinders

Reduction of fuel supply to one or more cylinders

Closing the throttle, if the vehicle is fitted with drive by wire throttle

In turbocharged vehicles, a boost control solenoid is actuated to reduce boost and therefore engine
power.

Typically, traction control systems share the electrohydraulic brake actuator (which does not use
the conventional master cylinder and servo) and wheel speed sensors with ABS.

The basic idea behind the need for a traction control system is the loss of road grip that
compromises steering control and stability of vehicles because of the difference in traction of the
drive wheels. Difference in slip may occur due to turning of a vehicle or varying road conditions
for different wheels. When a car turns, its outer and inner wheels rotate at different speeds; this is
conventionally controlled by using a differential. A further enhancement of the differential is to
employ an active differential that can vary the amount of power being delivered to outer and inner
wheels as needed. For example, if outward slip is sensed while turning, the active differential may
deliver more power to the outer wheel in order to minimize the yaw (essentially the degree to
which the front and rear wheels of a car are out of line.) Active differential, in turn, is controlled
by an assembly of electromechanical sensors collaborating with a traction control unit.

When the traction control computer (often incorporated into another control unit, such as the ABS
module) detects one or more driven wheels spinning significantly faster than another, it invokes
the ABS electronic control unit to apply brake friction to wheels spinning with lessened traction.
Braking action on slipping wheel(s) will cause power transfer to wheel axle(s) with traction due to
the mechanical action within the differential. All-wheel drive (AWD) vehicles often have an
electronically controlled coupling system in the transfer case or transaxle engaged (active part-
time AWD), or locked-up tighter (in a true full-time set up driving all wheels with some power all
the time) to supply non-slipping wheels with torque.

This often occurs in conjunction with the powertrain computer reducing available engine torque
by electronically limiting throttle application and/or fuel delivery, retarding ignition spark,
completely shutting down engine cylinders, and a number of other methods, depending on the
vehicle and how much technology is used to control the engine and transmission. There are
instances when traction control is undesirable, such as trying to get a vehicle unstuck in snow or
mud. Allowing one wheel to spin can propel a vehicle forward enough to get it unstuck, whereas
both wheels applying a limited amount of power will not produce the same effect. Many vehicles
have a traction control shut-off switch for such circumstances.

Generally, the main hardware for traction control and ABS are mostly the same. In many vehicles
traction control is provided as an additional option to ABS.

Each wheel is equipped with a sensor which senses changes in its speed due to loss of traction.

The sensed speed from the individual wheels is passed on to an electronic control unit (ECU).

The ECU processes the information from the wheels and initiates braking to the affected wheels
via a cable connected to an automatic traction control (ATC) valve.

In all vehicles, traction control is automatically started when the sensors detect loss of traction at
any of the wheels.

In road cars: Traction control has traditionally been a safety feature in premium high-performance
cars, which otherwise need sensitive throttle input to prevent spinning driven wheels when
accelerating, especially in wet, icy or snowy conditions. In recent years, traction control systems
have become widely available in non-performance cars, minivans, and light trucks and in some
small hatchbacks.
In race cars: Traction control is used as a performance enhancement, allowing maximum traction
under acceleration without wheel spin. When accelerating out of a turn, it keeps the tires at optimal
slip ratio.

In motorcycles: Traction control for production motorcycles was first available with the BMW K1
in 1988. By 2009, traction control was an option for several models offered by BMW and Ducati,
and the model year 2010 Kawasaki Concours 14 (1400GTR).

In off-road vehicles: Traction control is used instead of, or in addition to, the mechanical limited
slip or locking differential. It is often implemented with an electronic limited slip differential, as
well as other computerized controls of the engine and transmission. The spinning wheel is slowed
down with short applications of brakes, diverting more torque to the non-spinning wheel; this is
the system adopted by Range Rover in 1993, for example. ABS brake traction control has several
advantages over limited-slip and locking differentials, such as steering control of a vehicle is
easier, so the system can be continuously enabled. It also creates less stress on powertrain and
driveline components, and increases durability as there are fewer moving parts to fail.

When programmed or calibrated for off-road use, traction control systems like Ford’s four-wheel
electronic traction control (ETC) which is included with Advance Trac, and Porsche’s four-wheel
automatic brake differential (ABD), can send 100 percent of torque to any one wheel or wheels,
via an aggressive brake strategy or "brake locking", allowing vehicles like the Expedition and
Cayenne to keep moving, even with two wheels (one front, one rear) completely off the ground.

Controversy in motorsports

Very effective yet small units are available that allow the driver to remove the traction control
system after an event if desired. In Formula One, an effort to ban traction control led to a change
of rules for 2008: every car must have a standard (but custom mappable) ECU, issued by FIA,
which is relatively basic and does not have traction control capabilities. NASCAR suspended a
Whelan Modified Tour driver, crew chief, and car owner for one race and disqualified the team
after crossing the finish line first in a September 20, 2008 race at Martinsville Speedway after
finding questionable wiring in the ignition system, which can often be used to implement traction
control.
Traction control is not just used for improving acceleration under slippery conditions. It can also
help a driver to corner more safely. If too much throttle is applied during cornering, the drive
wheels will lose traction and slide sideways. This occurs as understeer in front wheel drive vehicles
and oversteer in rear wheel drive vehicles. Traction control can prevent this from happening by
limiting power to the wheels. It cannot increase the limits of grip available and is used only to
decrease the effect of driver error or compensate for a driver's inability to react quickly enough to
wheel slip.

Automobile manufacturers state in vehicle manuals that traction control systems should not
encourage dangerous driving or encourage driving in conditions beyond the driver's control.

15
Electronic stability control (ESC)
Referred to as electronic stability program (ESP) or dynamic stability control (DSC), is a
computerized technology that improves a vehicle's stability by detecting and reducing loss of
traction (skidding). When ESC detects loss of steering control, it automatically applies the brakes
to help "steer" the vehicle where the driver intends to go. Braking is automatically applied to
wheels individually, such as the outer front wheel to counter oversteer or the inner rear wheel to
counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce engine power until control is regained. ESC
does not improve a vehicle's cornering performance; instead, it helps to minimize the loss of
control.

According to the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and the Insurance Institute
for Highway Safety in 2004 and 2006 respectively, one-third of fatal accidents could be prevented
by the use of the technology. ESC has been mandatory in new cars in the U.S and the European
Union since 2012 and 2014, respectively.

During normal driving, ESC works in the background, continuously monitoring steering and
vehicle direction. It compares the driver's intended direction (determined through the measured

15
(3) "Electronic Stability Control (ESC) | National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration(NHTSA) | U.S. Department of Transportation". Nhtsa.dot.gov. Archived
from the original on January 11, 2010.
steering wheel angle) to the vehicle's actual direction (determined through measured lateral
acceleration, vehicle rotation (yaw), and individual road wheel speeds).

ESC intervenes only when it detects a probable loss of steering control, i.e. when the vehicle is not
going where the driver is steering. This may happen, for example, when skidding during
emergency evasive swerves, understeer or oversteer during poorly judged turns on slippery roads,
or hydroplaning. During high-performance driving, ESC can intervene when unwanted, because
steering input may not always be indicative of the intended direction of travel (i.e. controlled
drifting). ESC estimates the direction of the skid, and then applies the brakes to individual wheels
asymmetrically in order to create torque about the vehicle's vertical axis, opposing the skid and
bringing the vehicle back in line with the driver's commanded direction. Additionally, the system
may reduce engine power or operate the transmission to slow the vehicle down.

ESC can work on any surface, from dry pavement to frozen lakes. It reacts to and corrects skidding
much faster and more effectively than the typical human driver, often before the driver is even
aware of any imminent loss of control. This has led to some concern that ESC could allow drivers
to become overconfident in their vehicle's handling and/or their own driving skills. For this reason,
ESC systems typically alert the driver when they intervene, so that the driver knows that the
vehicle's handling limits have been reached. Most activate a dashboard indicator light and/or alert
tone; some intentionally allow the vehicle's corrected course to deviate very slightly from the
driver-commanded direction, even if it is possible to more precisely match it.

All ESC manufacturers emphasize that the system is not a performance enhancement nor a
replacement for safe driving practices, but rather a safety technology to assist the driver in
recovering from dangerous situations. ESC does not increase traction, so it does not enable faster
cornering (although it can facilitate better-controlled cornering). More generally, ESC works
within the limits of the vehicle's handling and available traction between the tires and road. A
reckless maneuver can still exceed these limits, resulting in loss of control. For example, during
hydroplaning, the wheels that ESC would use to correct a skid may lose contact with the road
surface, reducing its effectiveness.16

(4) 16 "Truck ESP System". YouTube. 2007-06-04. Retrieved 2011

In July 2004, on the, Crown Majesty, Toyota offered a Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management
(VDIM) system that incorporated formerly independent systems, including ESC. This worked not
only after the skid was detected but also to prevent the skid from occurring in the first place. Using
electric variable gear ratio steering power steering, this more advanced system could also alter
steering gear ratios and steering torque levels to assist the driver in evasive man oeuvres.

Due to the fact that stability control can be incompatible with high-performance driving (i.e. when
the driver intentionally loses traction as in drifting), many vehicles have an over-ride control which
allows the system to be partially or fully shut off. In simple systems, a single button may disable
all features, while more complicated setups may have a multi-position switch or may never be
turned fully off.

Numerous studies around the world confirm that ESC is highly effective in helping the driver
maintain control of the car, thereby saving lives and reducing the severity of crashes. In the fall of
2004 in the U.S., the National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration confirmed the
international studies, releasing results of a field study in the U.S. of ESC effectiveness. The
NHTSA in United States concluded that ESC reduces crashes by 35%. Additionally, sport utility
vehicles (SUVs) with stability control are involved in 67% fewer accidents than SUVs without the
system. The United States Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) issued its own study in
June 2006 showing that up to 10,000 fatal US crashes could be avoided annually if all vehicles
were equipped with ESC. The IIHS study concluded that ESC reduces the likelihood of all fatal
crashes by 43%, fatal single-vehicle crashes by 56%, and fatal single-vehicle rollovers by 77–80%.

ESC is described as the most important advance in auto safety by many experts, including Nicole
Nanson, Administrator of the NHTSA, Jim Guest and David Champion of Consumers Union of
the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), E-Safety Aware, Csaba Csere, editor of Car
and Driver, and Jim Gill, long time ESC proponent of Continental Automotive Systems. The
European New Car Assessment Program (EuroNCAP) "strongly recommends" that people buy
cars fitted with stability control.

The IIHS requires that a vehicle must have ESC as an available option in order for it to qualify for
their Top Safety Pick award for occupant protection and accident avoidance.
ESC incorporates yaw rate control into the anti-lock braking system (ABS). Yaw is a rotation
around the vertical axis; i.e. spinning left or right. Anti-lock brakes enable ESC to brake individual
wheels. Many ESC systems also incorporate a traction control system (TCS or ASR), which senses
drive-wheel slip under acceleration and individually brakes the slipping wheel or wheels and/or
reduces excess engine power until control is regained. However, ESC serves a different purpose
from that of ABS or Traction Control.

The ESC system uses several sensors to determine what the driver wants (input). Other sensors
indicate the actual state of the vehicle (response). The control algorithm compares driver input to
vehicle response and decides, when necessary, to apply brakes and/or reduce throttle by the
amounts calculated through the state space (set of equations used to model the dynamics of the
vehicle). The ESC controller can also receive data from and issue commands to other controllers
on the vehicle such as an all-wheel drive system or an active suspension system to improve vehicle
stability and controllability.

The sensors used for ESC have to send data at all times in order to detect possible defects as soon
as possible. They have to be resistant to possible forms of interference (rain, holes in the road,
etc.). The most important sensors are:

Steering wheel angle sensor: determines the driver's intended rotation; i.e. where the driver wants
to steer. This kind of sensor is often based on AMR-elements.

Yaw rate sensor: measures the rotation rate of the car; i.e. how much the car is actually turning.
The data from the yaw sensor is compared with the data from the steering wheel angle sensor to
determine regulating action.

Lateral acceleration sensor: often an accelerometer

Wheel speed sensor: measures the wheel speed.

Other sensors can include:

Longitudinal acceleration sensor: similar to the lateral acceleration sensor in design, but can offer
additional information about road pitch and also provide another source of vehicle acceleration
and speed.
Roll rate sensor: similar to the yaw rate sensor in design but improves the fidelity of the controller's
vehicle model and correct for errors when estimating vehicle behavior from the other sensors
alone.

ESC uses a hydraulic modulator to assure that each wheel receives the correct brake force. A
similar modulator is used in ABS. ABS needs to reduce pressure during braking, only. ESC
additionally needs to increase pressure in certain situations and an active vacuum brake booster
unit may be utilized in addition to the hydraulic pump to meet these demanding pressure gradients.

The brain of the ESC system is the electronic control unit (ECU). The various control techniques
are embedded in it. Often, the same ECU is used for diverse systems at the same time (ABS,
Traction control system, climate control, etc.). The input signals are sent through the input-circuit
to the digital controller. The desired vehicle state is determined based upon the steering wheel
angle, its gradient and the wheel speed. Simultaneously, the yaw sensor measures the actual state.
The controller computes the needed brake or acceleration force for each wheel and directs via the
driver circuits the valves of the hydraulic modulator. Via a Controller Area Network interface the
ECU is connected with other systems (ABS, etc.) in order to avoid giving contradictory commands.

Many ESC systems have an "off" override switch so the driver can disable ESC, which may be
desirable when badly stuck in mud or snow, or driving on a beach, or if using a smaller-sized spare
tire which would interfere with the sensors. Some systems also offer an additional mode with
raised thresholds so that a driver can utilize the limits of adhesion with less electronic intervention.
However, ESC defaults to "On" when the ignition is restarted. Some ESC systems that lack an "off
switch", such as on many recent Toyota and Lexus vehicles, can be temporarily disabled through
an undocumented series of brake pedal and handbrake operations. Furthermore, unplugging a
wheel speed sensor is another method of disabling most ESC systems. The ESC implementation
on newer Ford vehicles cannot be completely disabled even through the use of the "off switch".
The ESC will automatically reactivate at highway speeds, and below that if it detects a skid with
the brake pedal depressed.

ESC is built on top of an anti-lock brake system, and all ESC-equipped vehicles are fitted with
traction control. The ESC components include a yaw rate sensor, a lateral acceleration sensor, a
steering wheel sensor, and an upgraded integrated control unit. In the US, Federal regulations
require that ESC be installed as a standard feature on all passenger cars and light trucks as of the
2012 model year. According to National Highway Traffic Safety Administration research, ABS in
2005 cost an estimated US$368; ESC cost a further US$111. The retail price of ESC varies; as a
stand-alone option it retails for as little as $250 USD. ESC was once rarely offered as a sole option,
and was generally not available for aftermarket installation. Instead, it was frequently bundled with
other features or more expensive trims, so the cost of a package that included ESC was several
thousand dollars. Nonetheless, ESC is considered highly cost-effective and it might pay for itself
in reduced insurance premiums.

Availability of ESC in passenger vehicles varies between manufacturers and countries. In 2007,
ESC was available in roughly 50% of new North American models compared to about 75% in
Sweden. However, consumer awareness affects buying patterns so that roughly 45% of vehicles
sold in North America and the UK were purchased with ESC, contrasting with 78–96% in other
European countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. While few vehicles had ESC prior
to 2004, increased awareness will increase the number of vehicles with ESC on the used car
market.

ESC is available on cars, SUVs and pickup trucks from all major auto makers. Luxury cars, sports
cars, SUVs, and crossovers are usually equipped with ESC. Midsize cars were also gradually
catching on, though the 2008 model years of the Nissan Altima and Ford Fusion only offered ESC
on their V6 engine-equipped cars; however, some midsize cars, such as the Honda Accord had it
as standard equipment by then. While ESC includes traction control, there are vehicles such as the
2008 Chevrolet Malibu LS, 2008 Mazda6, and 2007 Lincoln MKZ that have traction control but
not ESC. ESC is rare among subcompact cars as of 2008. The 2009 Toyota Corolla in the United
States (but not Canada) has stability control as a $250 option on all trims below that of the XRS
which has it as standard. In Canada, for the 2010 Mazda3, ESC is as an option on the midrange
GS trim as part of the moonroof package, and is standard on the top-of-the-line GT version. The
2009 Ford Focus has ESC as an option for the S and SE models, and standard on the SEL and SES
models

In the UK, even mass-market superminis such as the Ford Fiesta Mk.6 and VW Polo Mk.5 come
with ESC as standard.

ESC is also available on some motor homes. Elaborate ESC and ESP systems (including Roll
Stability Control are available for many commercial vehicles, including transport trucks, trailers,
and buses from manufacturers such as Bendix Corporation, WABCO Daimler, Scania AB, and
Prevost, and light passenger vehicles.

The Chooses! campaign, run by the EU's eSafetyAware! project, provides a global perspective on
ESC. One Choose ESC! publication shows the availability of ESC in EU member countries.

In the US, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety website shows availability of ESC in
individual US models and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration website lists US
models with ESC.

In Australia, the National Roads and Motorists' Association NRMA shows the availability of ESC
in Australian models.
17
QUSTION 6
Every year, the number of new driverless cars slowly increases. One way or another, modern
technologies become more efficient and more exclusive, allowing car producers to create more
independent, intelligent, and safer autonomous cars with various scanning devices. Which is
better? Let’s see it in a LIDAR vs RADAR automotive comparison.

What Is LIDAR?

LIDAR is also known as Light Imaging Detection and Ranging. It is a technology which detects
objects on the surface, as well as their size and exact disposition. LIDAR appeared on the market
after RADAR and SONAR, and it uses laser light pulses to scan the environment, as opposed to
radio or sound waves.

The U.S. military and NASA invented the LIDAR technology more than 45 years ago for
measuring distance in space, although its first commercial usage did not occur until 1995 for
topographical needs. Now, the LIDAR system design is quite compact and allows the industry to
apply this technology for new purposes. A device which uses LIDAR technology, is also often
called the same; it is a scanner that can create a digital copy of any physical object and that can
save more time as compared to starting from scratch with a drawing.

How LIDAR Works

An algorithm of LIDAR functioning

Laser signals are emitted

Laser signals reach an obstacle

Signal reflects from the obstacle

Signal returns to the receiver; and then

A laser pulse is registered

The device emits laser pulses which move outwards in various directions until the signals reach an
object, and then reflect and return to the receiver. In fact, this is the same principle SONAR uses,

17
http://www.archer-soft.com/en/blog/lidar-vs-radar-comparison-which-system-better-automotive
except SONAR emits sound waves. With LIDAR, the light is 1,000,000 times faster than the
sound. An example is during a hurricane with lighting - at first, we see the lightning, and only hear
the sound a couple seconds later. Such high speed allows the device to receive data from a
tremendous number of laser pulses every second. It means information is updated more frequently
and, as a result, more precise data is received.

An inner processor saves each reflection point of a laser and generates a 3D image of the
environment. Such working principles allow us to create precise maps using a LIDAR installed on
board a plane, for example. Furthermore, the same processor can calculate the distance between a
detected object and a LIDAR receiver by using a simple school formula where laser pulse speed
and reflection time are known, and we then calculate the distance a laser pulse travels along. This
possibility found its application in the automotive industry and thrives there: all driverless cars use
onboard LIDARS to scan their surroundings.

Where is LIDAR Applied?

At Portland State University, in the United States, they use the LIDAR system technology to check
tree growth progressions in sprawling ecosystems with large surface areas. Researchers equip
airplanes with these devices which give them the possibility to track the appearance of every single
leaf and branch.

Using LIDAR, NASA calculated stratospheric temperature by measuring the density of

atmosphere elements. In addition, the film industry also uses this technology to recreate rare or
exclusive environments that are otherwise prohibited, to use for commercial and visual purposes.

The invention of this technology has had a tremendous impact on the development of the
automotive industry. Self-driving and driverless cars use LIDAR to scan surroundings and plan a
car’s behavior, in order to avoid collisions with obstacles.

How to Deceive a LIDAR System

Using two transmitters with the same signal wavelength, which an original LIDAR has, it is easy
to create fake echoes that will make the device detect existing objects further or closer than they
really are.
18
Only one transceiver and two pulse generators can create multiple copies of LIDAR signals and
send them to the receiver, which makes the device see non-existent objects.

Advantages of LIDAR over RADAR

Short wavelength lets us detect small objects.

A LIDAR can build an exact 3D monochromatic image of an object.

Disadvantages of LIDAR Usage

Limited usage in nighttime/cloudy weather.

Operating altitude is only 500-2000m.

Quite an expensive technology.

18
http://www.archer-soft.com/en/blog/lidar-vs-radar-comparison-which-system-better-automotive
What Is RADAR?

RADAR is also known as Radio Detection and Ranging and is used to detect objects at a distance,
define their speed and disposition. We are all familiar with this device as police use it in most areas
to detect and regulate speeding vehicles on roads.

RADAR system technology was invented in 1940, right before World War II; however,
development actually started in 1886 when one German physicist realized that radio waves could
reflect from solid objects.

The following describes the RADAR working principle.

How RADAR Works

The sound echo allows us to define how far away something is using sound wave reflection from
solid objects. The time it takes for sound to travel forwards and backwards is determined by the
distance of the sound source and the surface that reflects the sound waves. At the same time, the
Doppler shift of the echo allows us to define the speed of a moving object by measuring the pitch
of the echo.

This principle is based on the RADAR system, with the only difference being that RADAR uses
radio waves instead of sound. Radio waves can travel much further than sound, and are
undetectable to human sensory organs. So, the main difference between LIDAR and RADAR is
that they use different signals to detect objects, though the working principle is quite the same.
Moreover, radio and light waves have the same speed - the speed of light. So, when it comes to
the question of how fast data gets updated in each system (LIDAR vs RADAR systems), we have
a fair draw

Where is RADAR Applied?

The most widespread RADAR usage is for military purposes. Airplanes, which are equipped with
RADAR, can precisely measure altitude and detect other air transport devices in the vicinity.
Marine RADAR systems are used in a similar way to measure the distance between other ships to
prevent collisions.

This technology is also used for short-term weather forecasting to monitor wind and precipitation.
Ground-penetrating RADAR is used in geology to determine the composition of Earth’s crust.
Lastly, police use radar guns to monitor traffic speeds, though LIDAR has recently become more
widespread in this area, due to its preciseness.

How to Deceive RADAR

Using a radio wave receiver and a transmitter with the same wave length an initial radar has allows
us to create radio noise that will make the device count the speed of a moving object as zero. That
is why, when it comes to RADAR vs LIDAR self-driving car systems, both devices are deceivable
and have the same security level.

Advantages of RADAR over LIDAR

RADAR can easily operate in cloudy weather conditions, and at night.

Longer operating distance.

Disadvantages of RADAR Usage

Shorter wavelength does not allow the detection of small objects.

RADAR cannot provide the user with the precise image of an object because of the longer
wavelength.

If we are to compare these two technologies separately without any background, it will be a waste
of time. They have similar working principles, but each uses different kinds of waves and wave
sources. RADAR uses an antenna to emit radio signals, but a LIDAR device has specialized optics
and lasers for receiving and transmission.

RADARs are obviously more convenient when the detection distance is more important than the
actual look of an object. For example, in the air, something large that is flying is likely an airplane,
and it is important to detect it as soon as possible to avoid collision.

On the other hand, when we are on the road, it is highly important to recognize whether an object
is a pedestrian, car, or wall. This recognition will allow the system to predict the movement with
onboard software, and also does not focus on objects further than 500m ahead. These qualities
make a device with a light-based working principle a winner when it comes to LIDAR vs RADAR
autonomous driving.