NAME: AZHAR ALI MEMON S/O BILAWALUDDIN MEMON

SECTION: “B”

ROLL NUMBER: F16CE66

ASSIGNED BY: SIR ANEES RAJA
ASSGNEMENT SUBMITTED TO: SIR ANEES RAJA
TOPIC: THE IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS IN THE FIELD OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SUBJECT: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
SEMESTER: 5th
YEAR: 3rd
DATE OF SUBMISSSION: 20/01/2019
“IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MOST BENEFICIENT AND THE MOST MERCIFUL”

Topic:
The Importance of Structural Analysis in the field of civil engineering
Outline:
1) Introduction
1.1) Civil Engineering
1.2) What is a Structure?
2) Historical Background

2.1) Earlier Structures

3) The Need of Structural Analysis

4) Types of Structures and Structural Elements
4.1) Types of Structural elements
4.2) Statically Determinate Structures
4.3) Statically Indeterminate Structures
5) Methods of Solving Determinate Structures

5.1) Double Integration Method or DI Method

5.2) Moment Area Method

5.3) Conjugate Beam Method

5.4) Unit Load Method

6) Methods of Solving Indeterminate Structures

6.1) Method of Consistent Deformation

6.2) Slope-Deflection Equations

6.3) Moment-Distribution Method

6.4) Flexibility Method

6.5) Stiffness Method

7) CONCLUSION
1) Introduction
1.1) Civil Engineering:

Civil engineering is one of the major branches of engineering which deals with
the design, analyses, execution and construction of physical structures such as roads, railways, dams,
weirs, harbors, airports, bridges, fly-overs, canals, channels, buildings etc. Civil engineering is the
oldest field of engineering since man started building structures out of stones and wood. Civil
engineering also plays its role in the progress and development of any country or region. It also
generates good percentage of GDP growth of any country. Besides it also adds beauty to the region
or country. Civil engineering is a vast field. Without the progress and implementation of civil
engineering field any nation, country or region cannot be considered as a well-developed country
nation or region.

1.2) What is a Structure?

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.
Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in
other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical
systems, and electrical supporting structures are important. (HIBEELER 2008)
A lot of structures can be seen all around in our environment which are made of different
materials, having different shapes, designs and dimensions. But each structure serves a purpose
for which it is constructed. Whether it is a bridge creating ease for the public, or it is a tall electric
pole which supports heavy electric cables, making possible the transfer of electricity, or it is a
large dam constructed to generate electricity and store water, or it is a wall like China Wall which
creates a place of visit or a picnic point taking into the top of wonders of world. In short, each
structure serves a purpose and needs a lot of care and time for completion.
2) Historical Background:
The Egyptian king and ruler Imhotep built the first biggest Pyramid of
Saqqara in Circa (2630 B.C). Although in those days there was no any theory of Structural analysis.
That’s why he is considered as the first structural engineer and master builder. These pyramids
contain thousands of blocks weighing in tons. These structures were built without any drawings.
Greeks also built huge and wonderful structures, but they had not developed any theory for
structural analysis. After it, Romans also developed arches and bridges which were also showing
the great piece of art and excellence. Arabs also introduced a new form structures such tombs
and minarets which also show a great piece of art. But all these structures were developed
without any drawings, theories and planning. The modern engineers developed different ways of
analyzing structural elements such as George A. Manney introduced slope deflection method in
1915 at University of Minnesota engineering publication. Until the discovery of Moment
Distribution Method, Slope Deflection Method was used for analyzing continuous beams and
frames in United States of America. In short it can be said that engineers have introduced many
new methods for analyzing different structures for the betterment of society.

NOTE: The following pictures have been taken down from internet.
 This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-

2.1) Earlier Structures:

Earlier structures include the great Pyramids of Egypt, structures of ancient
Greece which includes columns and beams, arches and bridges constructed by the Romans, tombs
and minarets of Islamic Structures. These early structures clearly give a clue that the engineers
and designers of that time were very aware of loading conditions and the methods of structural
analysis. Because they were aware of such things and that’s the only reason they were successful
in constructing such wonderful structures which exist even today.
3) The Need of Structural Analysis:
Structural analysis is very essential in order to understand the
behavior of different structural elements under different loading conditions. The very purpose of
analyzing the structural elements is to attain the causes of structural-failure. If a structure is
constructed without any structural analysis, it will be very risky to even stand near a such structure
because it cannot be assured that at what time the structure is going to fail. That’s why structural
analysis plays a vital role in the construction of safe and secure structures which can last long and
destructed at required time on which the structure expires due to unknown loading conditions.
4) Types of Structures and Structural Elements

4.1) Types of Structural Elements:

1) Tie Rods: Structural elements subjected to tensile force are called tie rods.
2) Beams: Straight horizontal members used to carry vertical loads. Beams are of different types.
Beams can be cantilever, or simply supported at overhanging. In a cantilever beam it is fixed at
one end and free at the other end. A simply supported beam has two supports at respective ends.
An overhanging beam has two supports and a portion hangs over the other support. A cantilever
 beam has one vertical reaction and a moment at the fixed support. A simply supported has two
vertical reactions. An overhanging has also two vertical reactions. The loading conditions can be
different on each beam. The loads can be either point loads, uniformly distributed loads and
uniformly varying loads. The loads can be in combined situations such as a point load with a
uniformly distributed load, or a point load with a uniformly varying load. Or a uniformly
distributed load along with a uniformly varying load.
3) Columns: These are vertical members which resist axial compressive loads.

4.2) Statically Determinate Structures:

The structures which can be solved by the help of three
equations of equilibrium that the sum of all the vertical forces is zero, the sum of all the horizontal
forces is zero and the sum of all the moments about a point is zero.

4.3) Statically Indeterminate Structures:

The structures which
cannot be solved by the help of three equations of equilibrium that the sum of all the vertical
forces is zero, the sum of all the horizontal forces is zero and the sum of all the moments about a
point is zero. The indeterminacy of a structure can be known in such a way that if the number of
unknowns exceed the number of equilibrium conditions or equations, it will be termed as an
indeterminate structure.
5) Methods of solving Determinate Structures:

5.1) Double Integration or DI Method:

In this method the moment function “M” is calculated first in

terms of “x”, then the successive integration of this moment function evaluates the terms for slope
and deflection about a point by using boundary conditions and obtaining the constants of integration.

Macaulay’s method allows one to write a BM equation that is valid for the whole beam. It involves
using the terms selectively, depending upon the segment under consideration. In the case of the single
concentrated load on the simply supported beam just considered, Macaulay proposed that the
expression M, = (Pb/L)x - P(x - a) be used for the BM and be valid for the whole beam with the condition
that the term P(x - a) becomes zero if 0 I x I a. In other words, the term (x - a) becomes zero whenever
this term is negative. It must be remembered that this applies to evaluating the constants and
obtaining values from the equations for dy/ dx and y.

(R.Subramaniam 2010)

This method is only applicable to the beams and beam portion which have same
value of E and I. E is the value of Elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity and I represents moment
of inertia. This means that the beam with and depth must be same, and the material must be
same throughout the whole length of the beam. If the material is not same throughout the whole
length of the beam it won’t be possible to apply double integration method to evaluate slope and
deflection at any point.

(i) Simply supported beam: The two ends of the beam do not deflect where they are supported.
The conditions are, therefore, x = 0, y = 0 and x = I, y = 0. (ii) Cantilever: The end of the beam,
having a fixed support, is not deflected. Nor does the axis have any slope at that point. The tangent
at pointA remains horizontal. The conditions are, therefore, x = 0, y = 0 and x = 0, dyldx = 0. (iii)
Overhanging beam: The overhanging beam has the conditions x = 0, y = 0 andx = 1,y = 0. (iv)
Doubly overhanging beam: In this case, the conditions are x = a, y = 0 and t on the beam. x = I + a,
y = 0 (R.Subramaniam 2010)
5.2) Moment Area Method:

This method relates the slope and deflection to the bending moment diagram.
It has two theorems;

The First Moment Area Theorem

This theorem states that the angle between the tangents to the elastic curve between any two points is
equal to the area of the M/EI diagram between the two points. (R.Subramaniam 2010)

The Second Moment Area Theorem

This theorem states that the moment of the area of the M/EI diagram between two points of a beam about
one of these points is equal to the vertical intercept made by the tangent drawn at one point on a vertical
line through the second point (about which moment is taken). (R.Subramaniam 2010)

This is a semi-graphical technique which relates bending moment diagram with the slope and deflection
at any point in the beam. This method is more suitable and easier than the double integration method.

The moment-area theorems do not give slope or deflection directly. The area of M/EZ diagram is equal to
the angle between the tangents and the moment of area of M/EZ diagram is equal to the vertical intercept
at the point about which the moment is taken. (R.Subramaniam 2010)s
5.3) Conjugate Beam Method:

In this method the real beam is converted into a conjugate beam having the
same dimension. In a cantilever the supports are interchanged. A simply supported remains same. An
overhanging beam, the interior support is changed into a hinge point and the other free end becomes
fixed end. The conjugate beam is loaded by M/EI diagram. The SF in the conjugate beam is equal to slope
in the real beam and the BM in the conjugate beam is equal to the deflection in the real beam. This method
is also suitable than the double integration method.

The conjugate-beam method is based upon the similarity of relationships between the three quantities.
It is based upon the principles on which the area-moment theorems are derived but uses a different
technique to find slope and deflection. (R.Subramaniam 2010)s

(a) In a cantilever, the supports get interchanged. In the real beam, the deformation conditions are
no slope and deflection at the fixed end but slope and deflection exist at the free end.
Correspondingly, the conjugate beam should have SF as well as BM at the point corresponding to
 the free end but no SF and BM at the point corresponding to the fixed end of the real beam. These
conditions are satisfied by exchanging the supports as shown. (b) A simply supported beam
continues to remain so. The condition that deflection is zero at both support points is satisfied,
because there is no BM at the ends of a simply supported (SS) beam. (c) The overhanging beam
shown is a more revealing example of this requirement. At the interior support, there is no
deflection but there is slope. So, at the corresponding point in the conjugate beam, there should
be no BM. This is achieved by providing a hinge at that point, which ensures that there is no BM
in the conjugate beam due to the load due to the MIEZ diagram. In summary, a free end becomes
a fixed end, a fixed end becomes a free end, a simple support at ends continues to remain a simple
support, and a simple support in the interior becomes a hinge. (d) The conjugate beam is loaded
with the MIEZ diagram of the real beam. (e) The SF and BM at a point of the conjugate beam are
equal to the slope and deflection at the corresponding point of the real beam, respectively.
(R.Subramaniam 2010)

(ii) A positive SF in the conjugate beam corresponds to positive slope (clockwise rotation of the
tangent). A negative SF corresponds to a negative slope. (iii) A positive BM in the conjugate beam
means downward deflection. A negative BM consequently means an upward deflection.
(R.Subramaniam 2010)
5.4) Unit-Load Method:

In this method, to find slope the point is loaded with unit moment and to find
deflection the point the point is loaded with unit load. This method can be used to solve the frames as
well. The extra benefit of this method id that it can be used to solve frames as well.
6) Methods of solving Indeterminate Structures:

6.1) Method of Consistent Deformation:

In this method when number of unknowns exceed the
number of equilibrium equations then extra forces or redundant are selected. Then unknowns
and redundant are calculated. The redundant force is the extra force that can be calculated after
the evaluation of other unknowns.
6.2) Slope-Deflection Equations:
This method was developed by George A. Manney in 1914.It is a
method for the structural analysis of beams and frames. This method remained in use for more
than a decade until the moment distribution method came into use.
The rotation angles are calculated by applying equilibrium conditions. Rotation angles are also
known as slope angles. The equilibrium equations are applied to the slope deflection equations.
The equilibrium conditions for both joint and shear are calculated.
6.3) Moment-Distribution Method:
This is a method of structural analysis for indeterminate
beams as well as for frames. This method was developed by Hardy Cross. In ASCE journal, this
method was published. This method is considered as the most widely used method. In order to
apply this method, fixed end moments, flexural stiffens, distribution factors, carryover factors and
sign conventions are considered.
6.4) Flexibility Method:
This is the same method of consistent deformation.
6.5) Stiffness Method:
The Stiffness method is also known as Stiffness matrix method. It is suitable
for computer-automated structural analyses of indeterminate structures. It is a matrix method.
This method originated in the field of aerospace. This method is considered as ideal method.
(7) Conclusion:
In short it can be concluded that without the help of structural analysis it is
impossible to develop strong, durable, safe and secure structures. Hence, structural analysis plays
a vital role in the field of civil engineering. It is the backbone of civil engineering.

The End