THE STORY OF SHAKUNTALA

IN the first book of the vast epic poem Mahabharata, Kalidasa found the story of Shakuntala.
The story has a natural place there, for Bharata, Shakuntala's son, is the eponymous ancestor of
the princes who play the leading part in the epic.
With no little abbreviation of its epic breadth, the story runs as follows:--
THE EPIC TALE
Once that strong-armed king, with a mighty host of men and chariots, entered a thick wood. Then
when the king had slain thousands of wild creatures, he entered another wood with his troops and
his chariots, intent on pursuing a deer. And the king beheld a wonderful, beautiful hermit-age on
the bank of the sacred river Malini; on its bank was the beautiful hermitage of blessed, high-
souled Kanva, whither the great sages resorted. Then the king determined to enter, that he might
see the great sage Kanva, rich in holiness. He laid aside the insignia of royalty and went on
alone, but did not see the austere sage in the hermitage. Then, when he did not see the sage, and
perceived that the hermitage was deserted, he cried aloud, "Who is here?" until the forest seemed
to shriek. Hearing his cry, a maiden, lovely as Shri, came from the hermitage, wearing a hermit
garb. "Welcome!" she said at once, greeting him, and smilingly added: "What may be done for
you?" Then the king said to the sweet-voiced maid: "I have come to pay reverence to the holy
sage Kanva. Where has the blessed one gone, sweet girl? Tell me this, lovely maid."
Shakuntala said: "My blessèd father has gone from the hermitage to gather fruits. Wait a
moment. You shall see him when he returns."
The king did not see the sage, but when the lovely girl of the fair hips and charming smile spoke
to him, he saw that
she was radiant in her beauty, yes, in her hard vows and self-restraint all youth and beauty, and
he said to her:
"Who are you? Whose are you, lovely maiden? Why did you come to the forest? Whence are
you, sweet girl, so lovely and so good? Your beauty stole my heart at the first glance. I wish to
know you better. Answer me, sweet maid."
The maiden laughed when thus questioned by the king in the hermitage, and the words she spoke
were very sweet: "O Dushyanta, I am known as blessed Kanva's daughter, and he is austere,
steadfast, wise, and of a lofty soul."
Dushyanta said: "But he is chaste, glorious maid, holy, honoured by the world. Though virtue
should swerve from its course, he would not swerve from the hardness of his vow. How were
you born his daughter, for you are beautiful? I am in great perplexity about this. Pray remove it."
[Shakuntala here explains how she is the child of a sage and a nymph, deserted at birth, cared for
by birds (shakuntas), found and reared by Kanva, who gave her the name Shakuntala.]
Dushyanta said: "You are clearly a king's daughter, sweet maiden, as you say. Become my lovely
wife. Tell me, what shall I do for you? Let all my kingdom be yours to-day. Become my wife,
sweet maid."
Shakuntala said: "Promise me truly what I say to you in secret. The son that is born to me must
be your heir. If you promise, Dushyanta, I will marry you."
"So be it," said the king without thinking, and added: "I will bring you too to my city, sweet-
smiling girl."
So the king took the faultlessly graceful maiden by the hand and dwelt with her. And when he
had bidden her be of good courage, he went forth, saying again and again: "I will send a
complete army for you, and tell them to bring my sweet-smiling bride to my palace." When he
had made this promise, the king went thoughtfully to find Kanva. "What will he do when he
hears it, this holy, austere man?" he wondered, and still thinking, he went back to his capital.
Now the moment he was gone, Kanva came to the hermit-age. And Shakuntala was ashamed and
did not come to meet her father. But blessed, austere Kanva had divine discernment. He
discovered her, and seeing the matter
with celestial vision, he was pleased and said: "What you have done, dear, to-day, forgetting me
and meeting a man, this does not break the law. A man who loves may marry secretly the woman
who loves him without a ceremony; and Dushyanta is virtuous and noble, the best of men. Since
you have found a loving husband, Shakuntala, a noble son shall be born to you, mighty in the
world."
Sweet Shakuntala gave birth to a boy of unmeasured prowess. His hands were marked with the
wheel, and he quickly grew to be a glorious boy. As a six years' child in Kanva's hermitage he
rode on the backs of lions, tigers, and boars near the hermitage, and tamed them, and ran about
playing with them. Then those who lived in Kanva's hermitage gave him a name. "Let him be
called All-tamer," they said: "for he tames everything."
But when the sage saw the boy and his more than human deeds, he said to Shakuntala: "It is time
for him to be anointed crown prince." When he saw how strong the boy was, Kanva said to his
pupils: "Quickly bring my Shakuntala and her son from my house to her husband's palace. A long
abiding with their relatives is not proper for married women. It destroys their reputation, and
their character, and their virtue; so take her without delay." "We will," said all the mighty men,
and they set out with Shakuntala and her son for Gajasahvaya.
When Shakuntala drew near, she was recognised and invited to enter, and she said to the king:
"This is your son, O King. You must anoint him crown prince, just as you promised before, when
we met."
When the king heard her, although he remembered her, he said: "I do not remember. To whom do
you belong, you wicked hermit-woman? I do not remember a union with you for virtue, love,
and wealth. 1 Either go or stay, or do whatever you wish."
When he said this, the sweet hermit-girl half fainted from shame and grief, and stood stiff as a
pillar. Her eyes darkened with passionate indignation; her lips quivered; she seemed to consume
the king as she gazed at him with sidelong glances. Concealing her feelings and nerved by anger,
she held in check the magic power that her ascetic
life had given her. She seemed to meditate a moment, overcome by grief and anger. She gazed at
her husband, then spoke passionately: "O shameless king, although you know, why do you say, 'I
do not know,' like any other ordinary man?"
Dushyanta said: "I do not know the son born of you, Shakuntala. Women are liars. Who will
believe what you say? Are you not ashamed to say these incredible things, especially in my
presence? You wicked hermit-woman, go!"
Shakuntala said: "O King, sacred is holy God, and sacred is a holy promise. Do not break your
promise, O King. Let your love be sacred. If you cling to a lie, and will not believe, alas! I must
go away; there is no union with a man like you. For even without you, Dushyanta, my son shall
rule this foursquare earth adorned with kingly mountains."
When she had said so much to the king, Shakuntala started to go. But a bodiless voice from
heaven said to Dushyanta: "Care for your son, Dushyanta. Do not despise Shakuntala. You are
the boy's father. Shakuntala tells the truth."
When he heard the utterance of the gods, the king joyfully said to his chaplain and his ministers:
"Hear the words of this heavenly messenger. If I had received my son simply because of her
words, he would be suspected by the world, he would not be pure."
Then the king received his son gladly and joyfully. He kissed his head and embraced him
lovingly. His wife also Dushyanta honoured, as justice required. And the king soothed her, and
said: "This union which I had with you was hidden from the world. Therefore I hesitated, O
Queen, in order to save your reputation. And as for the cruel words you said to me in an excess
of passion, these I pardon you, my beautiful, great-eyed darling, because you love me."
Then King Dushyanta gave the name Bharata to Shakuntala's son, and had him anointed crown
prince.
It is plain that this story contains the material for a good play; the very form of the epic tale is
largely dramatic. It is also plain, in a large way, of what nature are the principal changes which a
dramatist must introduce in the original. For while Shakuntala is charming in the epic story, the
king
is decidedly contemptible. Somehow or other, his face must be saved.
To effect this, Kalidasa has changed the old story in three important respects. In the first place,
he introduces the curse of Durvasas, clouding the king's memory, and saving him from moral
responsibility in his rejection of Shakuntala. That there may be an ultimate recovery of memory,
the curse is so modified as to last only until the king shall see again the ring which he has given
to his bride. To the Hindu, curse and modification are matters of frequent occurrence; and
Kalidasa has so delicately managed the matter as not to shock even a modern and Western reader
with a feeling of strong improbability. Even to us it seems a natural part of the divine cloud that
envelops the drama, in no way obscuring human passion, but rather giving to human passion an
unwonted largeness and universality.
In the second place, the poet makes Shakuntala undertake her journey to the palace before her
son is born. Obviously, the king's character is thus made to appear in a better light, and a greater
probability is given to the whole story.
The third change is a necessary consequence of the first; for without the curse, there could have
been no separation, no ensuing remorse, and no reunion.
But these changes do not of themselves make a drama out of the epic tale. Large additions were
also necessary, both of scenes and of characters. We find, indeed, that only acts one and five,
with a part of act seven, rest upon the ancient text, while acts two, three, four, and six, with most
of seven, are a creation of the poet. As might have been anticipated, the acts of the former group
are more dramatic, while those of the latter contribute more of poetical charm. It is with these
that scissors must be chiefly busy when the play--rather too long for continuous presentation as it
stands--is performed on the stage.
In the epic there are but three characters--Dushyanta, Shakuntala, Kanva, with the small boy
running about in the background. To these Kalidasa has added from the palace, from the
hermitage, and from the Elysian region which is represented with vague precision in the last act.
The conventional clown plays a much smaller part in this play than in the others which Kalidasa
wrote. He has also
less humour. The real humorous relief is given by the fisher-man and the three policemen in the
opening scene of the sixth act. This, it may be remarked, is the only scene of rollicking humour
in Kalidasa's writing.
The forest scenes are peopled with quiet hermit-folk. Far the most charming of these are
Shakuntala's girl friends. The two are beautifully differentiated: Anusuya grave, sober;
Priyamvada vivacious, saucy; yet wonderfully united in friendship and in devotion to
Shakuntala, whom they feel to possess a deeper nature than theirs.
Kanva, the hermit-father, hardly required any change from the epic Kanva. It was a happy
thought to place beside him the staid, motherly Gautami. The small boy in the last act has
magically become an individual in Kalidasa's hands. In this act too are the creatures of a higher
world, their majesty not rendered too precise.
Dushyanta has been saved by the poet from his epic shabbiness; it may be doubted whether more
has been done. There is in him, as in some other Hindu heroes, a shade too much of the
meditative to suit our ideal of more alert and ready manhood.
But all the other characters sink into insignificance beside the heroine. Shakuntala dominates the
play. She is actually on the stage in five of the acts, and her spirit pervades the other two, the
second and the sixth. Shakuntala has held captive the heart of India for fifteen hundred years, and
wins the love of increasing thousands in the West; for so noble a union of sweetness with
strength is one of the miracles of art.
Because it is a most perfect beauty of soul no less than of outward form. Her character grows
under our very eyes. When we first meet her, she is a simple maiden, knowing no greater sorrow
than the death of a favourite deer; when we bid her farewell, she has passed through happy love,
the mother's joys and pains, most cruel humiliation and suspicion, and the reunion with her
husband, proved at last not to have been unworthy. And each of these great experiences has
been met with a courage and a sweetness to which no words can render justice.
Kalidasa has added much to the epic tale; yet his use of the original is remarkably minute. A list
of the epic suggestions incorporated in his play is long. But it is worth making, in order to show
how keen is the eye of genius. Thus the king lays aside the insignia of royalty upon entering the
grove (Act I). Shakuntala appears in hermit garb, a dress of bark (Act I). The quaint derivation of
the heroine's name from shakunta--bird--is used with wonderful skill in a passage (Act VII)
which defies translation, as it involves a play on words. The king's anxiety to discover whether
the maiden's father is of a caste that permits her to marry him is reproduced (Act I). The marriage
without a ceremony is retained (Act IV), but robbed of all offence. Kanva's celestial vision,
which made it unnecessary for his child to tell him of her union with the king, is introduced with
great delicacy (Act IV). The curious formation of the boy's hand which indicated imperial birth
adds to the king's suspense (Act VII). The boy's rough play with wild animals is made
convincing (Act VII) and his very nickname All-tamer is preserved (Act VII). Kanva's worldly
wisdom as to husband and wife dwelling together is reproduced (Act IV). No small part of the
give-and-take between the king and Shakuntala is given (Act V), but with a new dignity.
Of the construction of the play I speak with diffidence. It seems admirable to me, the apparently
undue length of some scenes hardly constituting a blemish, as it was probably intended to give
the actors considerable latitude of choice and excision. Several versions of the text have been
preserved; it is from the longer of the two more familiar ones that the translation in this volume
has been made. In the warm discussion over this matter, certain technical arguments of some
weight have been advanced in favour of this choice; there is also a more general consideration
which seems to me of importance. I find it hard to believe that any lesser artist could pad such a
masterpiece, and pad it all over, without making the fraud apparent on almost every page. The
briefer version, on the other hand, might easily grow out of the longer, either as an acting text, or
as a school-book.
p. 104
We cannot take leave of Shakuntala in any better way than by quoting the passage 1 in which
Levi's imagination has conjured up "the memorable première when Shakuntala saw the light, in
the presence of Vikramaditya and his court."

La fête du printemps approche; Ujjayinî, la ville aux riches marchands et la capitale intellectuelle
de l’Inde, glorieuse et prospère sous un roi victorieux et sage, se prépare à célébrer la solennité
avec une pompe digne de son opulence et de son goût. . . . L’auteur applaudi de Mâlavikâ . . . le
poète dont le souple génie s’accommode sans effort au ton de l'épopée ou de l'élégie, Kâlidâsa
vient d’achever une comédie héroïque annoncée comme un chef-d’œuvre par la voix de ses amis.
. . Le poète a ses comédiens, qu’il a éprouvés et dressés a sa manière avec Mâlavikâ. Les
comédiens suivront leur poète familier, devenu leur maître et leur ami. . . . Leur solide
instruction, leur goût épuré reconnaissent les qualités maîtresses de l’œuvre, l’habileté de
l’intrigue, le juste équilibre des sentiments, la fraîcheur de l’imagination . . .
Vikramâditya entre, suivi des courtisans, et s’asseoit sur son trône; ses femmes restent à sa
gauche; à sa droite les rois vassaux accourus pour rendre leurs hommages, les princes, les hauts
fonctionnaires, les littérateurs et les savants, groupés autour de Varâha-mihira l’astrologue et
d’Amarasiṃha le lexicographe . . .
Tout à coup, les deux jolies figurantes placées devant le rideau de la coulisse en écartent les plis,
et Duḥṣanta, l’arc et les flèches à la main, paraît monté sur un char; son cocher tient les rênes;
lancés à la poursuite d’une gazelle imaginaire, ils simulent par leurs gestes la rapidité de la
course; leurs stances pittoresques et descriptives suggèrent à l’imagination un decor que la
peinture serait impuissante à tracer. Its approchent de l’ermitage; le roi descend à terre, congédie
le cocher, les chevaux et le char, entend les voix des jeunes filles et se cache. Un mouvement de
curiosité
agite les spectateurs; fille d’une Apsaras et création de Kâlidâsa, Çakuntalâ réunit tous les
charmes; l’actrice saura-t-elle répondre à l’attente des connaisseurs et réaliser l’idéal? Elle paraît,
vêtue d’une simple tunique d’écorce qui semble cacher ses formes et par un contraste habile les
embellit encore; la ligne arrondie du visage, les yeux longs, d’un bleu sombre, langoureux, les
seins opulents mal emprisonnés, les bras délicats laissent à deviner les beautés que le costume
ascétique dérobe. Son attitude, ses gestes ravissent à la fois les regards et les cœurs; elle pane, et
sa voix est un chant. La cour de Vikramâditya frémit d’une émotion sereine et profonde: un chef-
d’oeuvre nouveau vient d’entrer dans l’immortalité.
 MUHAMMAD THE QURAN
Muslims view the Qur'an as a divine scripture revealed by God in the same way that many
Christians and Jews view their scriptures. The Arabic word "Qur'an" means "the Recitations" or
"the Revelations." It is a collection of the revelations that Muslims believe Muhammad received,
starting in 610 when he was 40 years old. According to its own message, the Qur'an does not
establish a new religion. Instead, it confirms and clarifies the truth of the original monotheism of
Abraham, the focus of the Torah and Gospels.

Rather than a chronological narrative, the Qur'an addresses the social and inner condition of
believers. Ethical and spiritual by turns, it occasionally refers to Biblical prophets, religious
figures and events- Joseph in Egypt, Noah and the Flood, Jesus and the Virgin Mary, among
many others- but it is not a book of history or narration. Rather, the Qur'an is concerned with
people's spiritual destiny, the Day of Judgment, and what it means to believe in God and be a
responsible person. In this last regard, the Qur'an occasionally lays down rules of behavior, but it
is not a detailed book of laws like Leviticus or Deuteronomy.

Like many of the Biblical prophets, Muhammad described the experience of revelation as
wrenching. He felt as if his "soul was being ripped away." He doubted its validity at first, until
reassured first by his wife, then by a Christian ascetic, and eventually by the revelations
themselves. All his life he distinguished between his personal opinions and the words conveyed
to him in revelation.

Nonetheless, the year 610 became the watershed of Muhammad's life. Once he began to hear
messages and convey them, nothing would ever be the same for him, or for the world. From a
humble merchant and family man, the experience transformed him into a spiritual teacher,
lawgiver, and ultimately leader of the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. The book he delivered
grew in stature from a text that was first reviled and ridiculed by many, to become the most
memorized text in the world, a spiritual comfort to hundreds of millions, and the scripture for a
global religion of more than 1.2 billion followers.

The Qur'an consists of several thousand verses arranged in 114 chapters, with the longest
chapters coming first, and the shorter chapters near the end. According to Muslim tradition, its
contents arrived unexpectedly to Muhammad a few verses at a time over weeks, months, and
years. As this long, intermittent burst of sacred language emerged, it was memorized and written
down by others, and later reorganized into the book form we have now.

The Qur'an may be called rhymed prose. It is often said to have a striking beauty when heard in
Arabic. Its deft use of associations, rhymes, near rhymes and shifts in cadence seems proof to
many of its Divine origin. Some prominent figures during Muhammad's lifetime converted to
Islam after hearing or reading a part of it. The language of the Qur'an quickly became the basis
of Classical Arabic, both written and spoken.

For readers today, the Qur'an bears the stamp of its time and place, yet for many its message
transcends time and history to express universal truths. An English version of the first ten verses
of the ninety-first chapter, The Sun, reads:
Today, the Qur'an is memorized and recited in classical Arabic by millions of people from grade-
schoolers to professional performers. It is also the basis for much of the decoration in Islamic
architecture around the world, where calligraphy beautifully executed in mortar and paint
enhances the walls and corridors of mosques, schools, and other public buildings. The central
purpose, however, is not to provide decoration but rather to honor the Divine Word.

Muslims hear and use the Qur'an every day. The five daily prayers themselves all incorporate
passages from it. The call to prayer, heard from minarets, is composed of Qur'anic lines and
phrases. In view of its religious value for over a billion human beings, the Qur'an remains one of
the modern world's most influential books.
TheRubaiyatofOmarKhayyam

Edward Fitzgerald

1
Wake! For the Sun, who scattered into flight
The Stars before him from the Field of Night,
Drives Night along with them from Heav’n and strikes
The Sultán’s Turret with a Shaft of Light.
2
Before the phantom of False morning died,
Methought a Voice within the Tavern cried,
“When all the Temple is prepared within,
Why nods the drowsy Worshiper outside?”
3
And, as the Cock crew, those who stood before
The Tavern shouted--“Open, then, the Door!
You know how little while we have to stay,
And, once departed, may return no more.”
12
A Book of Verses underneath the Bough,
A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread--and Thou
Beside me singing in the Wilderness
Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow!
13
Some for the Glories of This World; and some
Sigh for the Prophet’s Paradise to come;
Ah, take the Cash, and let the Credit go,
Nor heed the rumble of a distant Drum!
14
Look to the blowing Rose about us--“Lo,
Laughing," she says, “into the world I blow,
At once the silken tassel of my Purse
Tear, and its Treasure on the Garden throw.”
15
And those who husbanded the Golden Grain,
And those who flung it to the winds like Rain,
Alike to no such aureate Earth are turned
As, buried once, Men want dug up again.
19
I sometimes think that never blows so red
The Rose as where some buried Caesar bled;
That every Hyacinth the Garden wears
Dropped in her Lap from some once lovely Head.
20
And this reviving Herb whose tender Green
Fledges the River-Lip on which we lean--
 Ah, lean upon it lightly! for who knows
From what once lovely Lip it springs unseen!
21
Ah, my Belovéd, fill the Cup that clears
Today of past Regrets and future Fears:
Tomorrow!--Why, Tomorrow I may be
Myself with Yesterday’s Sev’n thousand Years.
22
For some we loved, the loveliest and the best
That from his Vintage rolling Time hath pressed,
Have drunk their Cup a Round or two before,
And one by one crept silently to rest.
23
And we, that now make merry in the Room
They left, and Summer dresses in new bloom,
Ourselves must we beneath the Couch of Earth
Descend--ourselves to make a Couch--for whom?

24
Ah, make the most of what we yet may spend,
Before we too into the Dust descend;
Dust into Dust, and under Dust to lie,
Sans Wine, sans Song, sans Singer, and--sans End!
71
The Moving Finger writes, and, having writ,
Moves on; nor all your Piety nor Wit
Shall lure it back to cancel half a Line,
Nor all your Tears wash out a Word of it.
72
And that inverted Bowl they call the Sky,
Whereunder crawling cooped we live and die,
Lift not your hands to It for help--for It
As impotently moves as you or I.

alighieri dante the divine comedy

 About This Work
The Divine Comedy is Dante's record of his visionary journey through the triple realms of
Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. This, the first 'epic' of which its author is the protagonist and his
individual imaginings the content, weaves together the three threads of Classical and Christian
history; contemporary Medieval politics and religion; and Dante's own inner life including his
love for Beatrice, to create the most complex and highly structured long poem extant.
Through the depths of Hell in the Inferno, and upwards along the mountain of
Purgatory in the Purgatorio, Dante is guided by Virgil, the great poet of the Classical Roman
Empire, exploring, as he does so, the political, ethical and religious issues of his time. Dante in
his own life, and in this epic, represents a 'party of one', desirous of purifying the Church on
the one hand, and the Holy Roman Empire on the other, yet caught between those two great
worldly powers, and turning to literature to make his voice heard.
From the summit of Purgatory, Dante ascends in the Paradiso, guided by Beatrice, into
the celestial Paradise, where love, truth and beauty intertwine in his great vision of the
Christian revelation. Yet the Commedia is essential reading not merely for Christians, poets,
and historians, but for anyone struggling with issues of morality, the ethical framework of
society, and the challenge of living the true life.
About the Author
Born in 1265 in Florence, from which he was banished in 1302, dying in Ravenna in 1321,
Dante set the Divine Comedy in the year 1300, when he was thirty-five years old and 'in the
middle of our mortal life'. The setting allows him to utilise the past symbolically, exploit the
present politically, and anticipate the future in simulated prophecy.
The Commedia throughout reflects his love for 'Beatrice' whom he first saw at a young
age in a church in Florence, and who came to represent for him Intellectual and Spiritual
Beauty. The story of his love for her, her early death, and his inspiration to write the
Commedia are told in his prose work La vita nuova, The New Life, of 1294.
While never returning to Florence after his banishment, the city remained a crucial
focus of his thoughts and memories, and while eating the 'bitter bread' of exile his meditations
on that city, on Beatrice, and on the moral challenges of his age, led as he had promised in The
New Life, to this great work, of explanation, aspiration, and ultimately spiritual exaltation.
 chaucer geoffrey the canterbury tales
About This Work
The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories, written in the Middle English vernacular,
supposedly told among a group of pilgrims travelling from London to Canterbury. Chaucer
uses the form, possibly based on knowledge of Boccaccio’s Decameron gained on a visit to
Italy in 1373, to provide a highly varied portrait of his society, both secular and religious. The
journey of the pilgrims, unlike that of say Homer’s Odysseus or of Dante in the Divine
Comedy, is relatively unimportant compared to the tales themselves where Chaucer’s true
interest lies. Entertaining, and lively, these stories though primarily intended for a literate and
courtly audience, exhibit Chaucer’s wide love of character and humour, and his mix of
narrators allows him to reveal both the scope and complexity of his times. His interest in
religion and spirituality is muted, while his secular delight in the varied lives of men and
women is to the fore. A founding master of English literature, Chaucer was highly valued by
subsequent writers, and set the tone for the later tradition through his social inclusiveness, his
pleasure in the everyday, and his introduction of European cultural elements to an English
setting.
About the Author
Geoffrey Chaucer was born c1343 in London to a prosperous family of wine-merchants.
Through his father’s connections, he began his official duties as page to the Countess of
Ulster, the wife of Lionel, second son to the king, Edward III. Chaucer subsequently served as
courtier, diplomat and civil servant while also establishing his poetic reputation. He appears to
have travelled widely in Europe during his varied court career. He married Philippa de Roet,
lady-in-waiting to the queen, and sister to Katherine Swynford, John of Gaunt’s third wife, and
flourished under John of Gaunt’s patronage. His most prolific period of writing was during his
time as comptroller of customs for the port of London, between 1374 and 1386, both Troilus
and Criseyde, his finely constructed poem based on classical and Renaissance sources, and the
early Canterbury Tales, his celebration of the English social landscape, dating from that time.
Chaucer is thought to have died in October 1400, not long after the overthrow of his royal
patron Richard II and the accession of Henry IV, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, that
being his right as a tenant of the Abbey Close, in what has become known as Poet’s Corner.
His son Thomas had a significant career at the court of successive kings, and as Speaker of the
House of Commons.
miguel de cervantes saavedra don quixote

Introduction:

It would be interesting to know how much of the story of Don Quixote was inspired by the
author's own life. Authors often do translate their experiences and observations into their writing.
When you read a biography about Miguel Cervantes, you can find similarities and understand the
philosophies that are often expressed in his most famous work. Don Quixote puts on his armor in
hopes of making his name and fortune by becoming a knight. As he often states, he doesn't have
letters, so he makes his fame by arms. Miguel Cervantes struggled all of his life for the same
achievements. He achieved fame with the publication of Don Quixote in 1605 (the first part)--
which was considered the first best seller (translated into 60 different languages) and credited as
the first modern novel. Yet, it did not make him rich--as authors did not receive royalties.
The author was a son of a deaf surgeon, born in 1547, and also tried to make his fortune by
taking up arms in 1570. He fought as a soldier against the Ottoman empire, and no doubt his
experiences were told through the character Ruy Perez. Cervantes was known for his bravery,
and he suffered crippling injuries, maiming his left hand along with two chest wounds. In 1575,
he and his brother were captured by the Turks on a return voyage to Spain. Cervantes would
spend five years as a slave, despite numerous attempts to escape--finally being liberated when
his ransom was paid. He tried to make it as a playwright, which was considered more lucrative
(and no doubt inspired some dialogue in Don Quixote about the perversity of plays), and failed.
He worked as a commissary for the Spanish Armada. He was not apparently very good at
convincing rural communities to hand over their grain, and he was imprisoned twice for
mismanagement. However, it was in prison that he started writing his greatest work.
Don Quixote has inspired many artists in different fields. It is considered mainly to be a comedy.
However, woven into the tale is a lot of Spain's history. Don Quixote's name even penned a type
of psychosis. In fact, anyone who has had experience with the mentally ill may find it difficult to
regard Don Quixote as a comedy. After all, he was not totally harmless. "A man attacked a
driver because he believed he was abducting a woman, who was travelling in another car on the
same road. After injuring the driver, the suspect's accomplice then forced the driver to remove
his clothes and give them to him"--if this was reported on the news, we would probably be
horrified. Here was an innocent person, just going about his business, who had no connection to
the other people who were on the same road--and he gets attacked by a madman whose delusions
cause him to believe a different reality. Yet, this is exactly what happens in Don Quixote in the
first book. Most people probably laugh at the incident because they don't consider the harm a
delusional person can do in reality. Don Quixote also is a victim of his delusions. He suffers
physical harm, and many people play practical jokes on him for entertainment. Don Quixote's
friends and family find very little support from other people when they want him to come home
and rest, hoping to cure him of his delusions. As the character Don Moreno states, to cure Don
Quixote of his insanity is to deprive the world, for he is more amusing as a madman than a sane
one. This paints a picture of some of the old attitudes towards the mentally ill, which often made
them ripe for exploitation. However, Don Quixote--though hardly a good book for the impatient
due to its length--is a good book to read and a worthy classic. It isn't just a story about a lunatic
who thinks a windmill is a giant--social problems, history, mores, and politics are interwoven
into the story. It is a perfect time capsule of a period of time in Spain's history.
Don Quixote is the alpha and the omega of the novel form, the first true novel, the best-selling
novel and in the eyes of many, the greatest novel of all time. Cervantes uses the theme of the
idealistic, insane knight and the devoted, down to earth squire to portray many complex themes
through a plethora of unforgettable incidents, tragic and comic, in a blend of great variety and
colour. The book is unsurpassed as a masterpiece of droll humour, a scintillating portrait of 16th
century Spanish society made all the more beautiful by the fantastic prose style. Cervantes
started the novel in order to parody the many romances of chivalry which were circulating in
those times and which the Church was unsuccessfully trying to check, but the hero got the better
of him. The result is Don Quixote, and as the author says, the Don is "so conspicuous and void
of difficulty that children may handle him, youths may read him, men may understand him, and
old men may celebrate him"--Submitted by Anonymous
For me it is crystal clear that Cervantes used the person of Don Quixote as a symbol for the
Catholic church, to free himself from any fear of the inquisition. It is so clear that Quixote, by
presenting himself as a major imposer of good and right and just then his failure for doing that
and his great success in harming others is what the Catholic church does by imposing false
creeds and worshipping Mary instead of God and declaring herself as the sole way to heaven,
preventing ALL from having a free mind set as she is the only allowed mind stand. The reader
will find in every chapter something that proves that this concept is very much in agreement with
what is written.
william shakespeare romeo and juliet
Introduction - The play and the image displayed in the picture
This section is dedicated to Romeo and Juliet, the play by William Shakespeare. The picture is 18th
century and image displayed represents the essence of the play which, we hope, will bring to life a famous
scene or character from the famous play. The information provided in this section of william-
shakespeare.info includes famous quotes / quotations from Romeo and Juliet, summary of the plot or story,
facts about the play, a list of the cast and characters and access to the full text - script of the play by William
Shakespeare
Summary of the plot or story
Shakespeare's tragic drama of the "star-crossed" young lovers Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet is best
remembered for the famous balcony scene. Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet are teenagers who fall
deeply in love but their families are bitter enemies. They seize the moment and marry in secret, they make
every effort to conceal their actions but these end in tragedy when Romeo, Juliet, Tybalt, Mercutio and Paris
all die. Themes running through the play address the issues of the consequences of immature blind passion,
hatred and prejudice.

Information provided about the play

William Shakespeare never published any of his plays and therefore none of the original manuscripts have
survived. Eighteen unauthorised versions of his plays were, however, published during his lifetime in quarto
editions by unscrupulous publishers (there were no copyright laws protecting Shakespeare and his works
during the Elizabethan era). A collection of his works did not appear until 1623 (a full seven years after
Shakespeare's death on April 23, 1616 ) when two of his fellow actors, John Hemminges and Henry Condell,
posthumously recorded his work and published 36 of William’s plays in the First Folio. Some dates are
therefore approximate other dates are substantiated by historical events, records of performances and the
dates plays appeared in print.

Date first performed

It is believed that the play was first performed between 1594 and 1595. In the Elizabethan era
there was a huge demand for new entertainment and the tragedy would have been produced immediately
following the completion of the play.

Date was first printed

It is believed that Romeo and Juliet was first printed in 1597. As William Shakespeare clearly did not want
his work published details of the play would have therefore been noted, and often pirated without his
consent, following a performance.

The settings
The settings for the production are Verona and Mantua in Italy

Theme
The play Romeo and Juliet is categorised as a Tragedy

Number of words
The number of words in Romeo and Juliet, according to the Complete Public Domain Text is 25,948
Most important characters
The most important characters in Romeo and Juliet are:
Montague and Juliet Capulet
Famous Quotes / Quotations
The quotes from Romeo and Juliet are amongst
Shakespeare's most famous including 'Parting is such
sweet sorrow' and 'What's in a name'. Details of these
famous quotes follow, complete with information
regarding the Act and the Scene, allowing a quick
reference to the section of the play that these quotations
can be found in. Please click above for the full text of the
script of the play.
"It is the east, and Juliet is the sun" . (Act II, Scene II).

"Good Night, Good night! Parting is such sweet sorrow, that I shall say good night till it be morrow." (Act II,
Scene II).

"What's in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet". (Act II, Scene II).

History of the play

Romeo and Juliet was based on real lovers who lived in Verona, Italy who died for each other in the year
1303. At that time the Capulets and Montagues were among the inhabitants of Verona.

William Shakespeare's Main Source

Shakespeare found the story in Arthur Brooke's poem 'The Tragical Historye of Romeus and Juliet' (1562).

Inspiration from the play

Romeo and Juliet has inspired other works, such as Berlioz's dramatic symphony (1839), Tchaikovsky's
fantasy-overture (1869-80), and Prokofiev's full-length ballet (1938).
The academy award winning musical West Side Story is based on the story of Romeo and Juliet.

The Cast and Characters

Click the link at the top of the page to access a list of all the cast and characters.
bunyan john pilgrim progress

Pilgrim's Progress is a great work of Christian literature. Originally composed in the 17th
century, this spiritual allegory has entertained and delighted innumerous readers for over 300
years. Part I tells of "Christian" and his journey to "Celestial City;" Part II tells of the journey of
Christian's wife Christiana and their children to Celestial City. The two parts work together as a
unified whole, which describes and depicts the believer's life and struggles. Indeed, given the
easy style of the book, readers of all ages can understand the spiritual significance of the
depictions in the story. However, Pilgrim's Progress does not simply instruct readers with
spiritual allegories; it entertains them as well, through Bunyan's creative story telling. Enjoyable
and spiritually instructive, Pilgrim's Progress is highly recommended.

Born: November 28, 1628, Bedford, England

Died: August 31, 1688, England

Related topics: Authors, English--Early modern, Biography, Bunyan, John,--1628-1688, Christian

life, Christian pilgrims and pilgrimages

Basic information: John Bunyan (28 November 1628 – 31 August 1688) was
an English Christian writer and preacher, who is well-known for his book The
Pilgrim's Progress. Though he was a Reformed Baptist, he is remembered in
the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on August 30th, and on the
liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (US) on August 29th.

Popular works: Pilgrim's Progress, Holy War, Grace Abounding, Life and Death of Mr
Badman, Miscellaneous Pieces
rene descartes discourse on method
First published in 1637.
This web edition published by eBooks@Adelaide.
Last updated Wednesday, December 17, 2014 at 13:08.
To the best of our knowledge, the text of this
work is in the “Public Domain” in Australia.
HOWEVER, copyright law varies in other countries, and the work may still be under copyright
in the country from which you are accessing this website. It is your responsibility to check the
applicable copyright laws in your country before downloading this work.

Discourse on the Method is Descartes’ attempt to explain his method of reasoning through even
the most difficult of problems. He illustrates the development of this method through brief
autobiographical sketches interspersed with philosophical arguments.
Part 1 contains “various considerations concerning the sciences.” First, all people possess “good
sense,” the ability to distinguish truth from fiction. Therefore, it is not a lack of ability that
obstructs people but their failure to follow the correct path of thought. The use of a method can
elevate an average mind above the rest, and Descartes considered himself a typical thinker
improved by the use of his method. Descartes benefited from a superior education, but he
believed that book learning also clouded his mind. After leaving school, he set off traveling to
learn from “the great book of the world” with an unclouded mind. He comes to the conclusion
that all people have a “natural light” that can be obscured by education and that it is as important
to study oneself as it is to study the world.
In part 2, Descartes describes his revelation in the “stove-heated room.” Contemplating various
subjects, he hits on the idea that the works of individuals are superior to those conceived by
committee because an individual’s work follows one plan, with all elements working toward the
same end. He considers that the science he learned as a boy is likely flawed because it consists of
the ideas of many different men from various eras. Keeping in mind what he has learned of logic,
geometry, and algebra, he sets down the following rules: (1) to never believe anything unless he
can prove it himself; (2) to reduce every problem to its simplest parts; (3) to always be orderly in
his thoughts and proceed from the simplest part to the most difficult; and (4) to always, when
solving a problem, create a long chain of reasoning and leave nothing out. He immediately finds
this method effective in solving problems that he had found too difficult before. Still fearing that
his own misconceptions might be getting in the way of pure reason, he decides to systematically
eliminate all his wrong opinions and use his new method exclusively.
In part 3, Descartes puts forth a provisional moral code to live by while rethinking his views: (1)
to obey the rules and customs of his country and his religion and never take an extreme opinion;
(2) to be decisive and stick with his decisions, even if some doubts linger; (3) to try to change
himself, not the world; and (4) to examine all the professions in the world and try to figure out
what the best one is. Not surprising, Descartes determines that reasoning and searching for the
truth is, if not the highest calling, at least extremely useful. For many years after his revelation,
Descartes traveled widely and gained a reputation for wisdom, then retired to examine his
thoughts in solitude.
In part 4, Descartes offers proofs of the existence of the soul and of God. Contemplating the
nature of dreams and the unreliability of the senses, he becomes aware of his own process of
thinking and realizes it is proof of his existence: I think, therefore I exist (Cogito ergo sum). He
also concludes that the soul is separate from the body based on the unreliability of the senses as
compared with pure reason. His own doubts lead him to believe that he is imperfect, yet his
ability to conceive of perfection indicates that something perfect must exist outside of him—
namely, God. He reasons that all good things in the world must stem from God, as must all clear
and distinct thoughts.
Part 5 moves from discussion of a theory of light to theories about human anatomy. Descartes
considers the fact that animals have many of the same organs as humans yet lack powers of
speech or reason. He takes this difference to be evidence of humankind’s “rational soul.” He
considers the mysterious connection of the soul to the body and concludes that the soul must
have a life outside the body. Therefore it must not die when the body dies. Because he cannot
conceive of a way that the soul could perish or be killed, he is forced to conclude that the soul is
immortal.
Jane Austen pride and prejudice
First published in 1813, Pride and Prejudice has consistently been Jane Austen's most popular
novel. It portrays life in the genteel rural society of the day, and tells of the initial
misunderstandings and later mutual enlightenment between Elizabeth Bennet (whose liveliness
and quick wit have often attracted readers) and the haughty Darcy. The
title Pride and Prejudice refers (among other things) to the ways in
which Elizabeth and Darcy first view each other. The original version of the novel was written in
1796-1797 under the title First Impressions, and was probably in the form of an exchange of
letters.
Jane Austen's own tongue-in-cheek opinion of her work, in a letter to her sister
Cassandra immediately after its publication, was: "Upon the whole... I am well satisfied enough.
The work is rather too light, and bright, and sparkling; it wants [i.e. needs] shade; it wants to be
stretched out here and there with a long chapter of sense, if it could be had; if not, of solemn
specious nonsense, about something unconnected with the story: an essay on writing, a critique
on Walter Scott, or the history of Buonaparté, or anything that would form a contrast and bring
the reader with increased delight to the playfulness and general epigrammatism of the general
style".

Jump to the Pride and Prejudice table of contents.

Document structure:

This Pride and Prejudice e-text is fairly thoroughly hypertexted, but there are no cross
references from one part of the main body of the text to another part. Instead, links go into or out
of the main text, either to or from one of five indexes: The list of characters, the list of events in
chronological order, the comments on random topics, the index to the motifs of "pride" and
"prejudice", or the list of important places (with a map).
It has been pointed out that since Chapter 1 is marked up pretty much the same way as any other
chapter, those who have never read Pride and Prejudice before may find a confusing plethora of
links in the first few chapters -- don't feel you have to click on everything.