PolymerProperties From CES

I.
Thermoplastics (commodity):
Polyethylene (PE)
Description
The material
POLYETHYLENE, (-CH2-)n, first synthesized in 1933, looks like the simplest of molecules, but
the number of ways in which the - CH2 - units can be linked is large. It is the first of the
polyolefins, the bulk thermoplastic polymers that account for a dominant fraction of all polymer
consumption. Polyethylene is inert, and extremely resistant to fresh and salt water, food, and
most water-based solutions. Because of this it is widely used in household products, food
containers like Tupperware and chopping boards. Polyethylene is cheap, and particularly easy to
mold and fabricate. It accepts a wide range of colors, can be transparent, translucent or opaque,
has a pleasant, slightly waxy feel, can be textured or metal coated, but is difficult to print on.
Composition
(-CH2-CH2-)n
Image
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Caption
PE is widely used for containers and packaging.
General properties
Density 58.62 - 59.93 lb/ft^3
Price 0.7794 - 0.8574 USD/lb
Mechanical properties
Young's modulus 0.09007 - 0.13 10^6 psi
Shear modulus * 0.03158 - 0.04557 10^6 psi
Bulk modulus 0.3118 - 0.3263 10^6 psi
Poisson's ratio * 0.4175 - 0.4344
Yield strength (elastic limit) 2.596 - 4.206 ksi
Tensile strength 3.002 - 6.498 ksi
Compressive strength 2.856 - 4.627 ksi
Elongation 200 - 800 %
Hardness - Vickers 5.4 - 8.7 HV
Fatigue strength at 10^7 cycles 3.046 - 3.336 ksi
Fracture toughness * 1.307 - 1.569 ksi.in^1/2
Mechanical loss coefficient * 0.04464 - 0.06441
Thermal properties
Thermal conductor or insulator? Good insulator
Thermal conductivity 0.2328 - 0.2513 BTU.ft/h.ft^2.F
Thermal expansion coefficient 70 - 110 µstrain/°F
Specific heat * 0.4318 - 0.4491 BTU/lb.F
Melting point 256.7 - 269.3 °F
Glass temperature -13.27 - 4.73 °F
Maximum service temperature * 194 - 230 °F
Minimum service temperature * -189.7 - -99.67 °F
Electrical properties
Electrical conductor or insulator? Good insulator
Electrical resistivity 3.3e22 - 3e24 µohm.cm
Dielectric constant (relative permittivity) 2.2 - 2.4
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) * 3e-4 - 6e-4
Dielectric strength (dielectric breakdown) 449.6 - 500.4 V/mil
Optical properties
Transparency Translucent
Refractive index 1.5 - 1.52
Eco properties, material production
Embodied energy 8331 - 9209 kcal/lb
CO2 footprint 1.95 - 2.16 kg/kg
Eco properties, processing
Polymer molding energy 1027 - 1255 kcal/lb
Polymer extrusion energy 359.3 - 439.2 kcal/lb
Eco properties, recycling and disposal
Recycle True
Downcycle True
Combust for energy recovery True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
A renewable resource? False
Recycle mark
_
Environmental notes
PE is FDA compliant - indeed it is so non-toxic that it can be embedded in the human body (heart
valves, hip-joint cups, artificial artery). PE, PP and PVC are made by processes that are relatively
energy-efficient, making them the least energy-intensive of commodity polymers. The ethylene
from which it is made at present is an oil derivative, but PE can be produced from renewable
resources - from alcohol derived from the fermentation of sugar or starch, for instance. Its utility
per kilogram far exceeds that of gasoline or fuel-oil (and its energy is stored and still accessible),
so that production from oil will not disadvantage it in the near future. Polyethylene is readily
recyclable if it has not been coated with other materials, and - if contaminated - it can be
incinerated to recover the energy it contains.
Processability
Castability 1 - 2
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 5
Durability
Flammability Flammable
Fresh water Very good
Salt water Very good
Weak acids Very good
Strong acid Good
Weak alkalis Good
Strong alkalis Good
Organic solvents Average
Sunlight (UV radiation) Good
Oxidation at 500C Very poor
Supporting information
Design guidelines
PE is commercially produced as film, sheet, rod, foam and fiber. Drawn PE fiber has exceptional
mechanical stiffness and strength, exploited in geo-textile and structural uses. PE is a good
electrical insulator with low dielectric loss, so suitable for containers for microwave cooking. It has
poor resistance to aromatics and chlorine; it is slow burning in fire. PE is cheap, easy to form,
biologically inert and recyclable; it is one of the materials of the next 20 years.
Technical notes
Low density polyethylene (LDPE), used for film and packaging, has branched chains which do not
pack well, making it less dense than water. Medium (MDPE) and High (HDPE) density
polyethylenes have longer, less branched chains, making them stiffer and stronger; they are used
for containers and pipes. Modern catalysis allows side-branching to be suppressed and molecular
length to be controlled precisely, permitting precise tailoring both of the processing properties
critical for drawing, blow molding, injection molding or extrusion and the use-properties of
softening temperature, flexibility and toughness. Linear low-density polyethylene (LLPDE) is an
example. In its pure form it is less resistant to organic solvents, but even this can be overcome by
converting its surface to a fluoro-polymer by exposing it to fluorine gas. Treated in this way (when
it known is known as 'Super PE') it can be used for petrol tanks in cars and copes with oil,
cleaning fluid, cosmetics and that most corrosive of substances: cola concentrate. Very low
density polyethylene (VDLPE) is similar to EVA and plasticized PVC.
Typical uses
Oil container, street bollards, milk bottles, toys, beer crate, food packaging, shrink wrap, squeeze
tubes, disposable clothing, plastic bags, paper coatings, cable insulation, artificial joints, and as
fibers - low cost ropes and packing tape reinforcement.
Tradenames
Alathon, Aquathene, Bapolene, Dowlex, Eltex, Empee, Eraclene, Ferrene, Fortiflex, HiVal, Hid,
Kemcor, Lacqtene, Lupolen, Marlex, Nortuff, Novapol, Paxon, Petrothene, Polyfort, Rigidex,
Sclair, Stamylyn, Statoil, Unival, Zemid
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
No warranty is given for the accuracy of this data. Values marked * are estimates.
Polystyrene (PS)
Description
The material
Polystyrene is an optically clear, cheap, easily molded polymer, familiar as the standard "jewel"
CD case. In its simplest form PS is brittle. Its mechanical properties are dramatically improved by
blending with polybutadiene, but with a loss of optical transparency. High impact PS (10%
polybutadiene) is much stronger even at low temperatures (meaning strength down to -12C). The
single largest use of PS is a foam packaging.
Composition
(CH(C6H5)-CH2)n
Image
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Caption
Polystyrene is water-clear, easily formed and cheap.
General properties
Density 64.93 - 65.55 lb/ft^3
Price * 0.6695 - 0.714 USD/lb
Shear modulus 0.07252 - 0.1305 10^6 psi
Bulk modulus 0.4206 - 0.4496 10^6 psi
Poisson's ratio 0.383 - 0.4027
Elongation 1.2 - 3.6 %
Fracture toughness 0.637 - 1.001 ksi.in^1/2
Mechanical loss coefficient 0.01198 - 0.01754
Thermal properties
Specific heat 0.4038 - 0.4199 BTU/lb.F
Glass temperature 164.9 - 229.7 °F
Maximum service temperature 170.3 - 217.1 °F
Minimum service temperature -189.7 - -99.67 °F
Electrical resistivity 1e25 - 1e27 µohm.cm
Dielectric constant (relative permittivity) 3 - 3.2
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) 1e-3 - 3e-3
Dielectric strength (dielectric breakdown) 500.4 - 574 V/mil
Optical properties
Transparency Optical Quality
Embodied energy 1.04e4 - 1.148e4 kcal/lb
Recycle True
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Recycle mark
_
Environmental notes
The flammability of PS foam, and the use of CFC's as blowing agents in the foaming process
was, at one time, a cause for concern. New flame retardants allow PS foams to meet current fire
safety standards, and CFC blowing agents have been replaced by pentane, CO2 or HFC's which
do not have a damaging effect on the ozone layer. PS can be recycled. The large volume of PS
foam in packaging, much of it dumped at present, is a cause for concern. The monomer, styrene,
is irritating to the eyes and throat, but none survives in the polymer.
Processability
Castability 1 - 2
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 5
Durability
Weak acids Good
Strong acid Average
Weak alkalis Very good
Strong alkalis Average
Organic solvents Poor
Sunlight (UV radiation) Average
Design guidelines
PS comes in 3 guises: as the simple material ('general purpose PS'); as the high impact variant,
blended with polybutadiene; and as polystyrene foam, the most familiar and cheapest of all
polymer foams. All are FDA approved for use as food containers and packaging. General
purpose PS is easy to mold. Its extreme clarity, ability to be colored, and high refractive index
give it a glass-like sparkle, but it is brittle and cracks easily (think of CD cases). It is used when
the optical attractiveness and the low cost are sought, and the mechanical loading is light:
cosmetic compacts, transparent but disposable glasses, cassettes of all kinds. Medium and high
impact polystyrenes trade their optical for their mechanical properties. Medium impact PS,
translucent, appears in electrical switch gears and circuit breakers, coat hangers and combs.
High impact PS - a blend of PPO and PS, is opaque, but is tough and copes better with low
temperatures than most plastics; it is found in interiors of refrigerators and freezers, and in food
trays such as those for margarine and yogurt. Other styrene blends, like Kraton, have low tensile
strength and higher elongation than SBR or natural rubber. PS can be foamed to a very low
density (roughly 1/3 of all polystyrene in foamed). These foams have low thermal conduction and
are cheap, and so are used for house insulation, jackets for water boilers, insulation for
disposable cups. They crush at loads that do not cause injury to delicate objects (such as TV sets
or to the human body), making them good for packaging.
Technical notes
Polystyrene, PS, is - like PE and PP - a member of the polyolefin family of moldable
thermoplastics. In place of one of the H-atoms of the polyethylene it has a C6H5 - benzene ring.
This makes for a lumpy molecule which does not crystallize, and the resulting material is
transparent with a high refractive index. The benzene ring absorbs UV light, exploited in the PS
screening of fluorescent lights, but also causing the polymer to discolor in sunlight. All grades of
PS have excellent electrical resistance and dielectric strength, exploited in switchgear.
Typical uses
Toys; light diffusers; beakers; cutlery; general household appliances; video/audio cassette cases;
electronic housings; refrigerator liners.
Tradenames
Aim, Bapolan, Comalloy, Dylite, Lastirol, NSC, Polystyrol, Styron, Styropor, Vestyron
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
Polypropylene (PP)
Description
The material
Polypropylene, PP, first produced commercially in 1958, is the younger brother of polyethylene -
a very similar molecule with similar price, processing methods and application. Like PE it is
produced in very large quantities (more than 30 million tons per year in 2000), growing at nearly
10% per year, and like PE its molecule-lengths and side-branches can be tailored by clever
catalysis, giving precise control of impact strength, and of the properties that influence molding
and drawing. In its pure form polypropylene is flammable and degrades in sunlight. Fire
retardants make it slow to burn and stabilizers give it extreme stability, both to UV radiation and to
fresh and salt water and most aqueous solutions.
Composition
(CH2-CH(CH3))n
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Caption
Polypropylene is widely used in household products.
General properties
Density 55.56 - 56.81 lb/ft^3
Price 0.6395 - 0.7035 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.3626 - 0.3771 10^6 psi
Thermal properties
Glass temperature -13.27 - 4.73 °F
Maximum service temperature 212 - 239 °F
Optical properties
Recycle True
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Recycle mark
_
Environmental notes
PP is exceptionally inert and easy to recycle, and can be incinerated to recover the energy it
contains. PP, like PE and PVC, is made by processes that are relatively energy-efficient, making
them the least energy-intensive of commodity polymers. Its utility per kilogram far exceeds that of
gasoline or fuel-oil (and its energy is stored and still accessible), so that production from oil will
not disadvantage it in the near future
Processability
Castability 1 - 2
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 5
Durability
Strong acid Very good
Strong alkalis Very good
Design guidelines
Standard grade PP is inexpensive, light and ductile but it has low strength. It is more rigid than
PE and can be used at higher temperatures. The properties of PP are similar to those of HDPE
but it is stiffer and melts at a higher temperature (165 - 170 C). Stiffness and strength can be
improved further by reinforcing with glass, chalk or talc. When drawn to fiber PP has exceptional
strength and resilience; this, together with its resistance to water, makes it attractive for ropes and
fabric. It is more easily molded than PE, has good transparency and can accept a wider, more
vivid range of colors. PP is commonly produced as sheet, moldings fibers or it can be foamed.
Advances in catalysis promise new co-polymers of PP with more attractive combinations of
toughness, stability and ease of processing. Mono-filaments fibers have high abrasion resistance
and are almost twice as strong as PE fibers. Multi-filament yarn or rope does not absorb water,
will float on water and dyes easily.
Technical notes
The many different grades of polypropylene fall into three basic groups: homopolymers
(polypropylene, with a range of molecular weights and thus properties), co-polymers (made by
co-Polymerization of propylene with other olefines such as ethylene, butylene or styrene) and
composites (polypropylene reinforced with mica, talc, glass powder or fibers) that are stiffer and
better able to resist heat than simple polypropylenes.
Typical uses
Ropes, general polymer engineering, automobile air ducting, parcel shelving and air-cleaners,
garden furniture, washing machine tank, wet-cell battery cases, pipes and pipe fittings, beer bottle
crates, chair shells, capacitor dielectrics, cable insulation, kitchen kettles, car bumpers, shatter
proof glasses, crates, suitcases, artificial turf, thermal underwear.
Tradenames
Adpro, Amoco, Appryl, Aqualoy, Astryn, Cefor, Comalloy, Comshield, Dypro, EA36NA, Eltex P,
Empee, Escorene, Ferrex, Ferrolene, Fortilene, Fotilene, Hifax, Hostalen PP, Latene, Marlex,
Moplen, Multi-Flam, Multi-Pro, Nortuff, Novalen, Novolen, Nyloy, Petrothene, Polyfort, Polypro,
Precolor, Pro Fax, Propak, Rexflex, Stamylyn, Starlylen, Statoil, Technoprene, Thermocomp,
Vestolen, WPP, Washpen
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC)
Description
The material
PVC - Vinyl - is one of the cheapest, most versatile and - with polyethylene - the most widely
used of polymers and epitomizes their multi-facetted character. In its pure form - as a
thermoplastic, tpPVC - it is rigid, and not very tough; its low price makes it a cost-effective
engineering plastic where extremes of service are not encountered. Incorporating plasticizers
creates flexible PVC, elPVC, a material with leather-like or rubber-like properties, and used a
substitute for both. By contrast, reinforcement with glass fibers gives a material that is sufficiently
stiff, strong and tough to be used for roofs, flooring and building panels. Both rigid and flexible
PVC can be foamed to give lightweight structural panels, and upholstery for cars and domestic
use. Blending with other polymers extends the range of properties further: vinyl gramophone
records were made of a vinyl chloride/acetate co-polymer; blow molded bottles and film are a
vinyl chloride/acrylic copolymer.
Composition
(CH2CHCl)n
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Caption
These boat fenders illustrate that PVC is tough, weather resistant and easy to form and color
General properties
Density 81.16 - 98.64 lb/ft^3
Price 0.5896 - 0.6485 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.6817 - 0.7107 10^6 psi
Compressive strength 6.161 - 13 ksi
Elongation 11.93 - 80 %
Mechanical loss coefficient 9.662e-3 - 0.01869
Thermal properties
Thermal expansion coefficient 55.56 - 83.33 µstrain/°F
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) 0.03 - 0.1
Optical properties
Polymer extrusion energy 396.8 - 485 kcal/lb
Recycle True
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Recycle mark
_
Environmental notes
The vinyl chloride monomer is thoroughly nasty stuff, leading to pressure to discontinue
production. But properly controlled, the processing is safe, and the polymer PVC has no known
harmful effects. Disposal, however, can be a problem: thermal degradation releases chlorine, HCl
and other toxic compounds, requiring special high-temperature incineration for safety.
Processability
Castability 1 - 2
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 5
Durability
Strong acid Good
Sunlight (UV radiation) Very good
Design guidelines
In its pure form, PVC is heavy, stiff and brittle. Plasticizers can transform it from a rigid material to
one that is almost as elastic and soft as rubber. Plasticized PVC is used as a cheap substitute for
leather, which it can be made to resemble in color and texture. It is less transparent than PMMA
or PC, but it also costs much less, so it is widely used for transparent, disposable containers.
PVC is available as film, sheet or tube. It can be joined with polyester, epoxy or polyurethane
adhesives. It has excellent resistance to acids and bases and good barrier properties to
atmospheric gasses, but poor resistance to some solvents.
Technical notes
PVC can be a thermoplastic or a thermoset. There are many types of PVC: expanded rigid PVC,
type I, type II, CPVC, acrylic/PVC blend, clear PVC.
Typical uses
tpPVC: pipes, fittings, profiles, road signs, cosmetic packaging, canoes, garden hoses, vinyl
flooring, windows and cladding, vinyl records, dolls, medical tubes. elPVC: artificial leather, wire
insulation, film, sheet, fabric, car upholstery.
Tradenames
Conoco, Dural, Ethyl, Flexalloy, Geon, Hy-vin, Keysor, Locovyl, Novatemp, Oxyclear, Polyvin,
Satinflex, Sicron, Solvic, Solvin, Superkleen, Trosiplast, Unichem, Vestolit, Vinoflex, Vistel
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
II. Thermoplastics (Engineering):
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Description
The material
ABS (Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) is tough, resilient, and easily molded. It is usually opaque,
although some grades can now be transparent, and it can be given vivid colors. ABS-PVC alloys
are tougher than standard ABS and, in self-extinguishing grades, are used for the casings of
power tools.
Composition
(CH2-CH-C6H4)n
Image
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Caption
The picture says a lot: ABS allows detailed moldings, accepts color well, and is non-toxic and
tough enough to survive the worst that children can do to it.
General properties
Density 63.05 - 75.54 lb/ft^3
Price 1.139 - 1.339 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.5511 - 0.5802 10^6 psi
Thermal properties
Optical properties
Transparency Opaque
Embodied energy * 9859 - 1.105e4 kcal/lb
CO2 footprint * 3.27 - 3.62 kg/kg
Recycle True
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Recycle mark
_
Environmental notes
The acrylonitrile monomer is nasty stuff, almost as poisonous as cyanide. Once polymerized with
styrene it becomes harmless. ABS is FDA compliant, can be recycled, and can be incinerated to
recover the energy it contains.
Processability
Castability 1 - 2
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 5
Durability
Weak acids Good
Strong acid Average
Weak alkalis Good
Strong alkalis Good
Design guidelines
ABS has the highest impact resistance of all polymers. It takes color well. Integral metallics are
possible (as in GE Plastics' Magix.) ABS is UV resistant for outdoor application if stabilizers are
added. It is hygroscopic (may need to be oven dried before thermoforming) and can be damaged
by petroleum-based machining oils. ASA (acrylic-styrene-acrylonitrile) has very high gloss; its
natural color is off-white but others are available. It has good chemical and temperature
resistance and high impact resistance at low temperatures. UL-approved grades are available.
SAN (styrene-acrylonitrile) has the good processing attributes of polystyrene but greater strength,
stiffness, toughness, and chemical and heat resistance. By adding glass fiber the rigidity can be
increased dramatically. It is transparent (over 90% in the visible range but less for UV light) and
has good color, depending on the amount of acrylonitrile that is added this can vary from water
white to pale yellow, but without a protective coating, sunlight causes yellowing and loss of
strength, slowed by UV stabilizers. All three can be extruded, compression molded or formed to
sheet that is then vacuum thermo-formed. They can be joined by ultrasonic or hot-plate welding,
or bonded with polyester, epoxy, isocyanate or nitrile-phenolic adhesives.
Technical notes
ABS is a terpolymer - one made by copolymerizing 3 monomers: acrylonitrile, butadiene and
styrene. The acrylonitrile gives thermal and chemical resistance, rubber-like butadiene gives
ductility and strength, the styrene gives a glossy surface, ease of machining and a lower cost. In
ASA, the butadiene component (which gives poor UV resistance) is replaced by an acrylic ester.
Without the addition of butyl, ABS becomes, SAN - a similar material with lower impact resistance
or toughness. It is the stiffest of the thermoplastics and has excellent resistance to acids, alkalis,
salts and many solvents.
Typical uses
Safety helmets; camper tops; automotive instrument panels and other interior components; pipe
fittings; home-security devices and housings for small appliances; communications equipment;
business machines; plumbing hardware; automobile grilles; wheel covers; mirror housings;
refrigerator liners; luggage shells; tote trays; mower shrouds; boat hulls; large components for
recreational vehicles; weather seals; glass beading; refrigerator breaker strips; conduit; pipe for
drain-waste-vent (DWV) systems.
Tradenames
Claradex, Comalloy, Cycogel, Cycolac, Hanalac, Lastilac, Lupos, Lustran ABS, Magnum,
Multibase, Novodur, Polyfabs, Polylac, Porene, Ronfalin, Sinkral, Terluran, Toyolac, Tufrex,
Ultrastyr
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
Polyamides (Nylons, PA)

Description
The material
Back in 1945, the war in Europe just ended, the two most prized luxuries were cigarettes and
nylons. Nylon (PA) can be drawn to fibers as fine as silk, and was widely used as a substitute for
it. Today, newer fibers have eroded its dominance in garment design, but nylon-fiber ropes, and
nylon as reinforcement for rubber (in car tires) and other polymers (PTFE, for roofs) remains
important. It is used in product design for tough casings, frames and handles, and - reinforced
with glass - as bearings gears and other load-bearing parts. There are many grades (Nylon 6,
Nylon 66, Nylon 11….) each with slightly different properties.
Composition
(NH(CH2)5C0)n
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Caption
Polyamides are tough, and easily colored.
General properties
Density 69.92 - 71.17 lb/ft^3
Price * 1.449 - 1.619 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.5366 - 0.5656 10^6 psi
Fatigue strength at 10^7 cycles * 5.221 - 9.572 ksi
Mechanical loss coefficient * 0.0125 - 0.01527
Thermal properties
Electrical resistivity * 1.5e19 - 1.4e20 µohm.cm
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) 0.014 - 0.03
Optical properties
Embodied energy * 1.105e4 - 1.224e4 kcal/lb
Recycle True
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Recycle mark
_
Environmental notes
Nylons have no known toxic effects, although they are not entirely inert biologically. Nylons are
oil-derivatives, but this will not disadvantage them in the near future. With refinements in
polyolefin catalysis, nylons face stiff competition from less expensive polymers.
Processability
Castability 1 - 2
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 5
Durability
Weak acids Good
Strong acid Poor
Strong alkalis Good
Design guidelines
Nylons are tough, strong and have a low coefficient of friction, with useful properties over a wide
range of temperature (-80 to +120 C). They are easy to injection mold, machine and finish, can
be thermally or ultrasonically bonded, or joined with epoxy, phenol-formaldehyde or polyester
adhesives. Certain grades of nylon can be electroplated allowing metallization, and most accept
print well. A blend of PPO/Nylon is used in fenders, exterior body parts. Nylon fibers are strong,
tough, elastic and glossy, easily spun into yarns or blended with other materials. Nylons absorb
up to 4% water; to prevent dimensional changes, they must be conditioned before molding,
allowing them to establishing equilibrium with normal atmospheric humidity. Nylons have poor
resistance to strong acids, oxidizing agents and solvents, particularly in transparent grades.
Technical notes
The density, stiffness, strength, ductility and toughness of Nylons all lie near the average for
unreinforced polymers. Their thermal conductivities and thermal expansion are a little lower than
average. Reinforcement with mineral, glass powder or glass fiber increases the modulus, strength
and density. Semi-crystalline nylon is distinguished by a numeric code for the material class
indicating the number of carbon atoms between two nitrogen atoms in the molecular chain. The
amorphous material is transparent; the semi-crystalline material is opal white.
Typical uses
Light duty gears, bushings, sprockets and bearings; electrical equipment housings, lenses,
containers, tanks, tubing, furniture casters, plumbing connections, bicycle wheel covers, ketchup
bottles, chairs, toothbrush bristles, handles, bearings, food packaging. Nylons are used as hot-
melt adhesives for book bindings; as fibers - ropes, fishing line, carpeting, car upholstery and
stockings; as aramid fibers - cables, ropes, protective clothing, air filtration bags and electrical
insulation.
Tradenames
Adell, Akulon, Albis, Amilan, Ashlene, Capron, Celanese, Chemlon, Durethan, Gapex, Grilon,
Grivory, Hylon, Kopa, Latamid, Lubrilon, Magnacomp, Maranyl, Minlon, NSC, Nivionplast,
Novamid, Nydur, Nylamid, Nylene, Nypel, Orgamide, Radilon, Schulamid, Selar, Sniamid, Star-C,
Star-L, Staramide, Texalon, Ultramid, Vestamid, Wellamid, Zytel
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
Polycarbonate (PC)
Description
The material
PC is one of the 'engineering' thermoplastics, meaning that they have better mechanical
properties than the cheaper 'commodity' polymers. The family includes the plastics polyamide
(PA), polyoxymethylene (POM) and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE). The benzene ring and the -
OCOO- carbonate group combine in pure PC to give it its unique characteristics of optical
transparency and good toughness and rigidity, even at relatively high temperatures. These
properties make PC a good choice for applications such as compact disks, safety hard hats and
housings for power tools. To enhance the properties of PC even further, it is possible to co-
polymerize the molecule with other monomers (improves the flame retardancy, refractive index
and resistance to softening), or to reinforce the PC with glass fibers (giving better mechanical
properties at high temperatures).
Composition
(O-(C6H4)-C(CH3)2-(C6H4)-CO)n
Image
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Caption
Polycarbonate is tough and impact-resistant: hence its use in hard hats and helmets, transparent
roofing and riot shields.
General properties
Density 71.17 - 75.54 lb/ft^3
Price 1.649 - 1.939 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.5366 - 0.5656 10^6 psi
Thermal properties
Thermal expansion coefficient 66.7 - 76 µstrain/°F
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) 8e-4 - 1.1e-3
Dielectric strength (dielectric breakdown) 398.8 - 487 V/mil
Optical properties
Transparency Optical Quality
Embodied energy 1.138e4 - 1.257e4 kcal/lb
Polymer extrusion energy 425 - 519.5 kcal/lb
Recycle True
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Recycle mark
_
Environmental notes
The processing of engineering thermoplastics requires a higher energy input than that of
commodity plastics, but otherwise there are no particular environmental penalties. PC can be
recycled if unreinforced.
Processability
Castability 1 - 2
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 5
Durability
Weak acids Good
Strong acid Average
Weak alkalis Average
Design guidelines
The optical transparency and high impact resistance of PC make it suitable for bullet-resistant or
shatter-resistant glass applications. It is readily colored. PC is usually processed by extrusion or
thermoforming (techniques that impose constraints on design), although injection molding is
possible. When designing for extrusion with thermoplastics, the wall thickness should be as
uniform as possible to prevent warping, and projections and sharp corners avoided- features like
hollows and lone unsupported die sections greatly increase the mold cost. The stiffness of the
final part can be improved by the incorporation of corrugations or embossed ribs. PC can be
reinforced using glass fibers to reduce shrinkage problems on cooling and to improve the
mechanical performance at high temperatures.
Technical notes
The combination of the benzene ring and carbonate structures in the PC molecular structure give
the polymer its unique characteristics of high strength and outstanding toughness. It can be easily
blended with ABS or polyurethane. ABS/PC gets its flame retardance and UV resistance from
polycarbonate at a lower cost than that of ABS. PU/PC gets its rigidity from polycarbonate and
flexibility and ease of coating from polyurethane.
Typical uses
Safety shields and goggles; lenses; glazing panels; business machine housing; instrument
casings; lighting fittings; safety helmets; electrical switchgear; laminated sheet for bullet-proof
glazing; twin-walled sheets for glazing; kitchenware and tableware; microwave cookware, medical
(sterilizable) components.
Tradenames
Calibre, FR-PC, Latilon, Lexan, Lupilon, Makrolon, Naxell, Nyloy, Panlite, Sinvet, Star-C,
Starglas, Triex, Xantar
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
III. Thermosets:
Epoxies
Description
The material
Epoxies are thermosetting polymers with excellent mechanical, electrical and adhesive properties
and good resistance to heat and chemical attack. They are used for adhesives (Araldite), surface
coatings and, when filled with other materials such as glass or carbon fibers, as matrix resins in
composite materials. Typically, as adhesives, epoxies are used for high-strength bonding of
dissimilar materials; as coatings, they are used to encapsulate electrical coils and electronic
components; when filled, they are used for tooling fixtures for low-volume molding of
thermoplastics.
Composition
(O-C6H4-CH3-C-CH3-C6H4)n
Image
_
Caption
Epoxies paints are exceptionally stable and protective, and take color well
General properties
Density 69.3 - 87.4 lb/ft^3
Price 0.9993 - 1.119 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.5511 - 0.5802 10^6 psi
Tensile strength 6.527 - 13 ksi
Elongation 2 - 10 %
Mechanical loss coefficient * 9.5e-3 - 0.027
Thermal properties
Thermal expansion coefficient 32.22 - 65 µstrain/°F
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) 7e-4 - 0.015
Optical properties
Transparency Transparent
Embodied energy 9761 - 1.079e4 kcal/lb
Recycle False
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Environmental notes
Both resin and hardener are irritants; their vapors are potentially toxic. Ventilation and skin
protection are important, but both are achievable. Thermosets cannot be recycled, though it may
be possible to use them as fillers. Cutting and machining of glass and carbon-fiber composites
requires special forced-air ventilation to remove the fine glass or carbon dust that is damaging if
inhaled.
Processability
Castability 4 - 5
Moldability 4 - 5
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 1
Durability
Flammability Self-extinguishing
Strong acid Average
Organic solvents Good
Design guidelines
Epoxy molding compounds are supplied in liquid or granular form. They can be shaped by
transfer molding at low pressures (350-700 kPa). When designing with epoxy, as with any
thermosetting material, allowance must be made for shrinkage on cooling; perfectly flat molded
surfaces are not achievable, and the minimum wall thickness for average-sized epoxy molded
parts is 2.0mm. Unmodified epoxies have a high viscosity; they are shaped by transfer molding.
Diluted epoxy resins have a lower viscosity and cure slowly, but can be cast or used to
impregnate a mat or weave of fibers. The addition of fillers gives epoxies improved machinability,
hardness, impact resistance and thermal conductivity; thermal expansion and mold shrinkage are
both reduced. Plasticizers and flexibilizers increase flexibility and toughness. Epoxy is also
commonly used as a pattern or mold material. Epoxy resin laminates are formed using a wide
range of processes, from batch techniques such as hand lay up and bulk molding compound
(BMC) molding, producing, for example, mechanical components like gears and distributor caps,
to continuous processes such as filament winding, pultrusion and continuous laminating, making
rods or girder stock. Epoxy resins are tougher than polyesters and have lower shrinkage, but are
more expensive. if brought into contact with the skin, epoxies can cause skin irritations.
Technical notes
Most epoxies are formed by the combination of bisphenol-A and epichlorohydrin in the presence
of a catalyst. Catalysts include several amines and acid anhydrides, and the temperature at which
the epoxy will cure (ranging from room- to high -temperature) is determined by the type of
catalyst, which also affects the properties of the final product.
Typical uses
Pure epoxy molding compounds: the encapsulation of electrical coils and electronics
components; epoxy resins in laminates: pultruded rods, girder stock, special tooling fixtures,
mechanical components such as gears; adhesives, often for high-strength bonding of dissimilar
materials; patterns and molds for shaping thermoplastics.
Tradenames
Araldite, Epikote, Epolite, Fiberite, Lytex, Stycast
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
Phenolics
Description
The material
Bakelite, commercialized in 1909, triggered a revolution in product design. It was stiff, fairly
strong, could (to a muted degree) be colored, and - above all - was easy to mold. Products that,
earlier, were handcrafted from woods, metals or exotics such as ivory, could now be molded
quickly and cheaply. At one time the production of phenolics exceeded that of PE, PS and PVC
combined. Now, although the ration has changed, phenolics still have a unique value. They are
stiff, chemically stable, have good electrical properties, are fire-resistant and easy to mold - and
they are cheap.
Image
_
Caption
Phenolics are good insulators, and resist heat and chemical attack exceptionally well, making
them a good choice for electrical switchgear like this distributor cap.
General properties
Density 77.41 - 82.4 lb/ft^3
Price 0.7494 - 0.8494 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.7542 - 0.7832 10^6 psi
Poisson's ratio * 0.3783 - 0.3936
Yield strength (elastic limit) * 4.003 - 7.205 ksi
Compressive strength * 4.403 - 7.926 ksi
Thermal properties
Thermal expansion coefficient 66.7 - 69.4 µstrain/°F
Maximum service temperature * 392 - 446 °F
Dielectric constant (relative permittivity) *4 - 6
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) * 5e-3 - 0.01
Optical properties
Transparency Opaque
CO2 footprint * 2.83 - 3.12 kg/kg
Recycle False
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Environmental notes
Phenolics, like all thermosets, cannot be recycled.
Processability
Castability 3 - 4
Moldability 3 - 5
Machinability 4
Weldability 1
Durability
Flammability Self-extinguishing
Weak acids Good
Strong acid Poor
Organic solvents Very good
Design guidelines
Phenolic resins hard, tolerate heat and resist most chemicals except the strong alkalis. Phenolic
laminates with paper have excellent electrical and mechanical properties and are cheap; filled
with cotton the mechanical strength is increases and a machined surface is finer; filled with glass
the mechanical strength increases again and there is improved chemical resistance. Fillers play
three roles: extenders (such as wood flour and mica) are inexpensive and reduce cost; functional
fillers add stiffness, impact resistance and limit shrinkage; reinforcements (such as glass, graphite
and polymer fibers) increase strength, but cost increases too. Phenolic resins have creep
resistance, and they self-extinguish in a fire. They can be cast (household light and switch fittings)
and are available as rod and sheet. Impregnated into paper (Nomex) and cloth (Tufnol), they
have exceptional durability, chemical resistance and bearing properties. Phenolics accept paint,
electroplating, and melamine overlays.
Technical notes
Phenolic resins are formed by a condensation, generating water in the process, involving a
reaction between phenol and formaldehyde to form the A-stage resin. Fillers, colorants, lubricants
and chemicals to cause cross-linking are added to form the B-stage resin. This resin is then fused
under heat and pressure converting to the final product - a C-stage resin - or completely cross-
linked polymer.
Typical uses
Electrical parts - sockets, switches, connectors, general industrial, water-lubricated bearings,
relays, pump impellers, brake pistons, microwave cookware, handles, bottles tops, coatings,
adhesives, bearings, foams and sandwich structures.
Tradenames
Bakelite, Durez, Ferropreg, Fiberite, Norsophen, Plaslok, Plenco, Polychem, Reliapreg, Resinoid,
Texolite, Trolitan, Vyncolite, Tufnol
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers
Polyester
Description
The material
Polyesters can be a thermosets, a thermoplastics or elastomers. The unsaturated polyester
resins are thermosets. Most polyester thermosets are used in glass fiber/polyester composites.
They are less stiff and strong than epoxies, but they are considerably cheaper.
Composition
(OOC-C6H4-COO-C6H10)n
Image
_
Caption
Thermosetting polyester is used as the matrix of this glass-reinforced deck chair.
General properties
Density 64.93 - 87.4 lb/ft^3
Price * 0.8194 - 0.9293 USD/lb
Bulk modulus 0.6527 - 0.6817 10^6 psi
Yield strength (elastic limit) * 4.786 - 5.802 ksi
Tensile strength 6.005 - 13 ksi
Compressive strength * 5.265 - 6.382 ksi
Elongation 2 - 2.6 %
Thermal properties
Thermal conductivity * 0.166 - 0.1726 BTU.ft/h.ft^2.F
Dissipation factor (dielectric loss tangent) * 1e-3 - 0.03
Dielectric strength (dielectric breakdown) 381 - 500.4 V/mil
Optical properties
Transparency Transparent
CO2 footprint * 2.7 - 3 kg/kg
Recycle False
Downcycle True
Biodegrade False
Landfill True
Environmental notes
Thermosetting polyesters cannot be recycled.
Processability
Castability 3 - 4
Moldability 3 - 4
Machinability 3 - 4
Weldability 1
Durability
Strong acid Average
Design guidelines
Thermosetting polyesters are the cheapest resins for making glass or carbon fiber composites,
but they have lower strength than epoxies. They can be formulated to cure at or above room
temperature. Modifications can improve the chemical resistance, UV resistance and heat
resistance without too much change in the ease of processing. Polyester elastomers have
relatively high moduli and are stronger than polyurethanes. They have good melt flow properties,
low shrinkage, good resistance to oils and fuels. Polyester can be made conductive by adding
30% carbon fiber. As a tape, Mylar is used for magnetic sound recording. Unfilled polyester
thermosetting resins are normally used as surface coatings but they tend to be brittle. of
Thermosetting polyester has a corroding influence on copper
Technical notes
Polyesters are made by a condensation reaction of an alcohol like ethyl alcohol (the one in beer)
and an organic acid like acetic acid (the one in vinegar). The two react, releasing water, and
forming an ester.
Typical uses
Laminated structures; Surface gel coatings; Liquid castings; Furniture products; Bowling balls;
Simulated marble; Sewer pipe gaskets; Pistol grips; Television tube implosion barriers; Boats;
Truck cabs; Concrete forms; Lamp housings; Skylights; Fishing rods.
Tradenames
Celanex, Eastar, Hytrel, Plenco, Rynite, Synolite, Valox, Vybrex
Links
Reference
ProcessUniverse
Producers

PolymerProperties From CES

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II. Thermoplastics (Engineering):

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Polyamides (Nylons, PA)

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