Weldability of Steels PDF

Arc weldability of alloy steels (January 2001) Page 1 of 2
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Arc weldability of alloy steels (January 2001)

by Adrienne Barnes
Cracking
Alloy steels are potentially susceptible to the following types of cracking:
? Hydrogen cracking
? Solidification cracking
? Reheat cracking
? Liquation cracking
With knowledge of the factors that control these cracking mechanisms, it is generally possible for
weld procedures to be developed for most modern alloy steels to allow crack-free weldments to be
produced by arc welding. More details on each of these cracking mechanisms can be found in
Fabrication cracking mechanisms in ferritic steels - A guide to best practice
Mechanical properties
In the majority of cases, elevated temperature strength and oxidation behaviour are the key areas of
concern. Joint strength can generally be readily achieved through the use of appropriate welding
consumables although the long term creep performance can be reduced relative to base material (by
up to ~20%), particularly in higher alloy grades, by the development of a creep-weak or 'soft' zone in
the outer HAZ, known as the Type IV zone.
These materials are generally used in the PWHT condition and the toughness of both HAZ or weld
metal is usually satisfactory. For low alloy steels, HAZ toughness can be improved by ensuring a
sufficient level of alloying to give transformation to low carbon martensite rather than bainite, and in
this respect Ni-additions can be beneficial.
However, depending on the impurity content, low alloy steels may be susceptible to temper
embrittlement if cooled slowly through the 350-600°C temperature range, either during PWHT or,
more commonly following elevated temperature service. Susceptibility to temper embrittlement can be
minimised through careful control of impurity levels in base material and welding consumables at the
time of procurement. For more information, look at the FAQ - What is temper embrittlement and how
can it be controlled?
Service degradation
Welds in alloy steels may be subject to temper embrittlement (as previously discussed), hydrogen
embrittlement, hydrogen attack and creep damage.
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Arc weldability of alloy steels (January 2001) Page 2 of 2
During elevated temperature hydrogen service, gaseous hydrogen can enter steel and, if the partial
pressure and temperature are below those required to achieve hydrogen attack, no problems will be
encountered at elevated temperature. If allowed to cool to near ambient temperature, for example
during shut down, hydrogen embrittlement can occur which may lead to cracking. If the temperature
and partial pressure of hydrogen are high, hydrogen attack may occur. The hydrogen absorbed into
the steel, combines with carbon in the steel to form methane; this may lead to decarburisation and the
formation of voids or microcracks and blistering can develop.
If subjected to an applied load at elevated temperature (within the creep regime) for extended periods
of time, creep damage/deformation may occur. Creep occurs by a combination of dislocation
movement, grain boundary sliding and diffusion. Creep damage can vary in severity from a
coarsening of carbides and the formation of isolated cavities to orientated cavities through to
microcracks and macrocracks. Where a material operates within the creep regime regular inspection,
including dimensional measurements and microstructural replication, is required to allow the material
condition and residual life to be assessed.
Further information
Related content on weldability can be found in the items listed below:
What is weldability
Arc weldability of micro alloyed steels
Job knowledge for welders: Weldability of materials - carbon manganese and low alloy steels
Arc weldability of dissimilar metals

Fabrication cracking mechanisms in ferritic steels - A guide to best practice
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unrestricted access to all TWI content.
You can use the Weldasearch literature database to supplement what you find in JoinIT.
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Job knowledge for welders 21: Weldability of materials - Aluminium alloys. (Oct. 1996) Page 1 of 4
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Weldability of materials
Aluminium alloys
Aluminium and its alloys are used in fabrications because of their low weight, good corrosion
resistance and weldability. Although normally low strength, some of the more complex alloys can
have mechanical properties equivalent to steels. The various types of aluminium alloy are identified
and guidance is given on fabricating components without impairing corrosion and mechanical
properties of the material or introducing imperfections into the weld.
Material types
As pure aluminium is relatively soft, small amounts of
alloying elements are added to produce a range of
mechanical properties. The alloys are grouped
according to the principal alloying elements, Specific
commercial alloys have a four-digit designation
according to the international specifications for
wrought alloys or the ISO alpha - numeric system.
The alloys can be further classified according to the

means by which the alloying elements develop
mechanical properties, non-heat-treatable or heat-
treatable alloys.
Non-heat-treatable alloys
Material strength depends on the effect of work hardening and solid solution hardening of alloy
elements such as magnesium, and manganese; the alloying elements are mainly found in the 1xxx,
3xxx and 5xxx series of alloys. When welded, these alloys may lose the effects of work hardening
which results in softening of the HAZ adjacent to the weld.
Heat-treatable alloys
Material hardness and strength depend on alloy composition and heat treatment (solution heat
treatment and quenching followed by either natural or artificial ageing produces a fine dispersion of
the alloying constituents). Principal alloying elements are found in the 2xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx and 8xxx
series. Fusion welding redistributes the hardening constituents in the HAZ which locally reduces
material strength.
Most of the wrought grades in the 1xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx and medium strength 7xxx (e.g. 7020)
series can be fusion welded using TIG, MIG and oxyfuel processes. The 5xxx series alloys, in
particular, have excellent weldability. High strength alloys (e.g. 7010 and 7050) and most of the 2xxx
series are not recommended for fusion welding because they are prone to liquation and solidification
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cracking.
Filler alloys
Filler metal composition is determined by:
? weldability of the parent metal

? minimum mechanical properties of the weld metal
? corrosion resistance
? anodic coating requirements
Nominally matching filler metals are often employed for non-heat-treatable alloys. However, for alloy-
lean materials and heat-treatable alloys, non-matching fillers are used to prevent solidification
cracking.
The choice of filler metal composition for the various weldable alloys is specified in BS 3019 Pt 1 for
TIG and BS 3571 Pt 1 for MIG welding; recommended filler metal compositions for the more
commonly used alloys are given in the Table.
Designation ISO Classification Filler Application

1080A A1998 NHT 1080A Chemical plant
3103 A1-Mn1 NHT 4043A Buildings, heat exchangers
4043A A1-Si5 - - Filler wire/rod
5083 A1-Mg4.5Mn NHT 5556A Ships, rail wagons, bridges
5251 Al-Mg2 NHT 5356 Road vehicles, marine
5356 Al-Mg5 - - Filler wire/rod
5556A AlMg5Mn - - Filler wire/rod
6061 Al-Mg1SiCn HT 4043A/5356 Structural, pipes
7020 Al-Zn,4. 5Mg1Mn HT 5556A Structural, transport
HT = Heat Treatment NHT = Non heat treatable
Imperfections in welds
Aluminium and its alloys can be readily welded providing appropriate precautions are taken. The most
likely imperfections in fusion welds are:
? porosity
? cracking
? poor weld bead profile
Porosity
Porosity is often regarded as an inherent feature

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of MIG welds; typical appearance of finely
distributed porosity in a TIG weld is shown in the photograph. The main cause of porosity is
absorption of hydrogen in the weld pool which forms discrete pores in the solidifying weld metal. The
most common sources of hydrogen are hydrocarbons and moisture from contaminants on the parent
material and filler wire surfaces, and water vapour from the shielding gas atmosphere. Even trace
levels of hydrogen may exceed the threshold concentration required to nucleate bubbles in the weld
pool, aluminium being one of the metals most susceptible to porosity.
To minimise the risk, rigorous cleaning of material surface and filler wire should be carried out. Three
cleaning techniques are suitable; mechanical cleaning, solvent degreasing and chemical etch
cleaning.
Mechanical cleaning
Wire brushing (stainless steel bristles), scraping or filing can be used to remove surface oxide and
contaminants. Degreasing should be carried out before mechanical cleaning.
Solvents
Dipping, spraying or wiping with organic solvents can be used to remove grease, oil, dirt and loose
particles.
Chemical etching
A solution of 5% sodium hydroxide can be used for batch cleaning but this should be followed by
rinsing in HNO3 and water to remove reaction products on the surface.
In gas shielded welding, air entrainment should be avoided by making sure there is an efficient gas
shield and the arc is protected from draughts. Precautions should also be taken to avoid water vapour
pickup from gas lines and welding equipment; it is recommended that the welding system is purged
for about an hour before use.
Solidification cracks
Cracking occurs in aluminium alloys because of high stresses

generated across the weld due to the high thermal expansion
( twice that of steel) and the substantial contraction on
solidification - typically 5 % more than in equivalent steel welds.
Solidification cracks form in the centre of the weld,, usually

extending along the centreline during solidification.
Solidification cracks also occur in the weld crater at the end of the welding operation. The main
causes of solidification cracks are as follows:
? incorrect filler wire/parent metal combination

? incorrect weld geometry
? welding under high restraint conditions
The cracking risk can be reduced by using a non-matching, crack-resistant filler (usually from the
4xxx and 5xxx series alloys). The disadvantage is that the resulting weld metal may have a lower
strength than the parent metal and not respond to a subsequent heat treatment. The weld bead must
be thick enough to withstand contraction stresses. Also, the degree of restraint on the weld can be
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minimised by using correct edge preparation, accurate joint set up and correct weld sequence.
Liquation cracking
Liquation cracking occurs in the HAZ, when low

melting point films are formed at the grain
boundaries. These cannot withstand the
contraction stresses generated when the weld
metal solidifies and cools. Heat treatable alloys,
6xxx, 7xxx and 8xxx series alloys, are more
susceptible to this type of cracking.
The risk can be reduced by using a filler metal

with a lower melting temperature than the parent
metal, for example the 6xxx series alloys are
welded with a 4xxx filler metal. However, 4xxx
filler metal should not be used to weld high
magnesium alloys (such as 5083) as excessive magnesium-silicide may form at the fusion boundary
decreasing ductility and increasing crack sensitivity.
Poor weld bead profile
Incorrect welding parameter settings or poor welder technique can introduce weld profile
imperfections such as lack of fusion, lack of penetration and undercut. The high thermal conductivity
of aluminium and the rapidly solidifying weld pool make these alloys particularly susceptible to profile
imperfections.
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Job knowledge for welders 25: Weldability of materials - cast irons Page 1 of 5
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Cast irons
Cast irons are iron based alloys containing more than 2%
carbon, 1 to 3% silicon and up to 1% manganese. As cast
irons are relatively inexpensive, very easily cast into complex
shapes and readily machined, they are an important
engineering and structural group of materials. Unfortunately
not all grades are weldable and special precautions are
normally required even with the so-called weldable grades.
Material types
Cast irons can be conveniently grouped according to their structure which influences their mechanical
properties and weldability; the main groups of general engineering cast irons are shown in the first
figure.
Grey cast irons
Grey cast irons contain 2.0 - 4.5% carbon and 1 - 3% silicon. Their structure
consists of branched and interconnected graphite flakes in a matrix which is
pearlite, ferrite or a mixture of the two. The graphite flakes form planes of
weakness and so strength and toughness are inferior to those of structural
steels.
Nodular cast irons
The mechanical properties of grey irons can be greatly improved if the

graphite shape is modified to eliminate planes of weakness. Such
modification is possible if molten iron, having a composition in the range 3.2
- 4.5% carbon and 1.8 - 2.8% silicon, is treated with magnesium or cerium
additions before casting. This produces castings with graphite in spheroidal
form instead of flakes, known as nodular, spheroidal graphite (SG) or ductile
irons. Nodular irons are available with pearlite, ferrite or pearlite-ferrite
matrices which offer a combination of greater ductility and higher tensile
strength than grey cast irons.
White cast irons
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By reducing the carbon and silicon content and cooling rapidly, much of the carbon is retained in the
form of iron carbide without graphite flakes. However, iron carbide, or cementite, is extremely hard
and brittle and these castings are used where high hardness and wear resistance is needed.
Malleable irons
These are produced by heat treatment of closely controlled compositions of white irons which are
decomposed to give carbon aggregates dispersed in a ferrite or pearlitic matrix. As the compact
shape of the carbon does not reduce the matrix ductility to the same extent as graphite flakes, a
useful level of ductility is obtained. Malleable iron may be divided into classes. Whiteheart, Blackheart
and Pearlitic irons.
Whiteheart malleable irons
Whiteheart malleable castings are produced from high carbon white cast irons annealed in a
decarburising medium. Carbon is removed at the casting surface, the loss being only compensated
by the diffusion of carbon from the interior. Whiteheart castings are inhomogenous with a
decarburised surface skin and a higher carbon core.
Blackheart malleable irons
Blackheart malleable irons are produced by annealing low carbon (2.2 - 2.9%) white iron castings
without decarburisation. The resulting structure, of carbon in a ferrite matrix, is homogenous with
better mechanical properties than those of whiteheart irons.
Pearlitic malleable irons
These have a pearlite rather than ferritic matrix which gives them higher strength but lower ductility
than ferritic, blackheart irons.
Weldability
This depends on microstructure and mechanical properties. For example, grey cast iron is inherently
brittle and often cannot withstand stresses set up by a cooling weld. As the lack of ductility is caused
by the coarse graphite flakes, the graphite clusters in malleable irons, and the nodular graphite in SG
irons, give significantly higher ductility which improves the weldability.
The weldability may be lessened by the formation of hard and brittle microstructures in the heat
affected zone (HAZ), consisting of iron carbides and martensite. As nodular and malleable irons are
less likely to form martensite, they are more readily weldable, particularly if the ferrite content is high.
White cast iron which is very hard and contains iron carbides, is normally considered to be
unweldable.
Welding process
Bronze welding is frequently employed to avoid cracking. As oxides and other impurities are not
removed by melting, and mechanical cleaning will tend to smear the graphite across the surface,
surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned, for example, by means of a salt bath.
In fusion welding, the oxy-acetylene, MMA, MIG/FCA welding processes can all be used. In general,
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low heat inputs conditions, extensive preheating and slow cooling are normally a pre-requisite to
avoid HAZ cracking.
Oxy-acetylene because of the relatively low temperature heat source, oxy-acetylene welding will
require a higher preheat than MMA. Penetration and dilution is low but the wide HAZ and slow cooling
will produce a soft microstructure. Powder welding in which filler powder is fed from a small hopper
mounted on the oxy-acetylene torch, is a very low heat input process and often used for buttering the
surfaces before welding.
MMA widely used in the fabrication and repair of cast iron because the intense, high temperature arc
enables higher welding speeds and lower preheat levels. The disadvantage of MMA is the greater
weld pool penetration and parent metal dilution but using electrode negative polarity will help to
reduce the HAZ.
MIG and FCA MIG (dip transfer) and especially the FCA processes can be used to achieve high
deposition rates whilst limiting the amount of weld penetration.
Filler alloys
In oxy-acetylene welding, the consumable normally has slightly higher carbon and silicon content to
give a weld with matching mechanical properties. The most common MMA filler rods are nickel, nickel
- iron and nickel - copper alloys which can accommodate the high carbon dilution from the parent
metal and produces a ductile machinable weld deposit.
In MIG welding, the electrode wires are usually nickel or Monel but copper alloys may be used. Flux
cored wires, nickel-iron and nickel-iron-manganese wires, are also available for welding cast irons.
Powders are based on nickel with additions of iron, chromium and cobalt to give a range of
hardnesses.
Weld imperfections
The potential problem of high carbon weld metal deposits is avoided by using a nickel or nickel alloy
consumable which produces finely divided graphite, lower porosity and a readily machinable deposit.
However, nickel deposits which are high in sulphur and phosphorus from parent metal dilution, may
result in solidification cracking.
The formation of hard and brittle HAZ structures make cast irons particularly prone to HAZ cracking
during post-weld cooling. HAZ cracking risk is reduced by preheating and slow post-weld cooling. As
preheating will slow the cooling rate both in weld deposit and HAZ, martensitic formation is
suppressed and the HAZ hardness is somewhat reduced. Preheating can also dissipate shrinkage
stresses and reduce distortion, lessening the likelihood of weld cracking and HAZ.
Table 1: Typical preheat levels for welding cast irons
Cast iron type Preheat temperature degrees C

MMA MIG Gas (fusion) Gas (powder)
Ferritic flake 300 300 600 300
Ferritic nodular RT-150 RT-150 600 200
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Ferritic whiteheart malleable RT* RT* 600 200

Pearlitic flake 300-330 300-330 600 350
Pearlitic nodular 200-330 200-330 600 300
Pearlitic malleable 300-330 300-330 600 300
RT - room temperature
* 200 degrees C if high C core involved.
As cracking may also result from unequal expansion, especially likely during preheating of complex
castings or when preheating is localised on large components, preheat should always be applied
gradually. Also, the casting should always be allowed to cool slowly to avoid thermal shock.
An alternative technique is 'quench' welding for large castings which would be difficult to preheat. The
weld is made by depositing a series of small stringer weld beads at a low heat input to minimise the
HAZ. These weld beads are hammer peened whilst hot to relieve shrinkage stresses and the weld
area is quenched with an air blast or damp cloth to limit stress build up.
Repair of castings
Because of the possibility of casting defects and their inherent
brittle nature, repairs to cast iron components are frequently
required. For small repairs, MMA, oxy-acetylene, bronze and
powder welding processes can all be used. For larger areas,
MMA or powder technique can be used for buttering the edges
of the joint followed by MMA or MIG/FCA welding to fill the
groove.
? Remove defective area preferably by grinding or tungsten

carbide burr. If air arc or MMA gouging is used, the
component must be preheated locally to typically 300
degrees C.
? After gouging, the prepared area should be lightly ground
to remove any hardened material.
? Preheat the casting to the temperature given in Table 1.
? Butter the surface of the groove with MMA using a small diameter (2.4 or 3mm) electrode; use a
nickel or Monel rod to produce a soft, ductile 'buttered' layer; alternatively use oxy-acetylene
with a poder consumable.
? Remove slag and peen each weld bead whilst still hot.
? Fill the groove using nickel (3 or 4mm diameter) or nickel-iron electrodes for greater strength.
Finally, to avoid cracking through residual stresses, the weld area should be covered to ensure the
casting will cool slowly to room temperature.
If you would like more information on any aspect of cast irons, contact Bill Lucas .
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Job knowledge for welders 23: Weldability of materials - Copper and copper alloys. (Jan.1997) Page 1 of 4
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Copper and copper alloys

Copper and copper alloys are chosen because of their corrosion resistance and electrical and thermal
conductivity.
The various types of copper alloys are identified and guidance is given on processes and techniques
which can be used in fabricating copper alloy components without impairing their corrosion or
mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.
Material types
The alloys are grouped according to the principal alloying elements.
Although there are UK standards (BS 2780-2875) for the alloy
designations, the alloys are more commonly known by the generic
type:
? C Pure copper
? CH Copper with small alloy additions
? CZ Brasses such as copper-zinc (Cu -Zn)
? NS Nickel silvers such as copper-zinc-nickel (Cu-Zn-Ni)
? PB Bronzes such as copper-tin (Cu-Sn) (phosphor bronze alloys
also contain phosphorus)
? G Gunmetals such as copper -tin-zinc (Cu -Sn-Zn) (some alloys
may contain lead)
? CA Aluminium bronze such as copper-aluminium (Cu-Al) (most
alloys also contain iron and many nickel)
? CN Cupro-nickels such as copper-nickel (Cu-Ni)
A number of popular alloys are listed in the Table together with the recommended filler metal
(compositions of TIG and MIG filler wires are given in BS2901 Part 3).
Typical alloys and recommended filler for inert gas welding

Alloy group Typical alloys Recommended filler
Coppers Tough pitch C7, C8
Phosphorus deoxidised C7, C8
Brasses Low zinc, up to 30% Zn C9, C13
High zinc, 40% Zn Not Recommended
Nickel Silvers 20% Zn / 15% Ni C9, C13
45% Zn / 10% Ni Not Recommended
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Silicon Bronze 3% Si C9
Phosphor Bronze 4.5% to 6% Sn / 0.4% P C10
Aluminium Bronze < 7.8% Al C12, C12 Fe
> 7.8% Al C13, C20
6% Al / 2% Si C23
Gunmetal Low lead C10, C9, C13
Leaded Not Recommended
Cupro - Nickel 10%Ni C16, C18
30% Ni C18
In terms of weldability, alloys have quite different welding characteristics. Copper, because of its high
thermal conductivity, needs substantial preheat to counteract the very high heat sink. However, some
of the alloys which have a thermal conductivity similar to low carbon steel, such as cupro-nickel
alloys, can normally be fusion welded without a preheat.
Copper
Copper is normally supplied in the form of
? oxygen bearing, tough pitch copper

? phosphorus deoxidised copper
? oxygen-free copper
Tough pitch copper contains stringers of copper oxide (<0.1% oxygen as Cu 2 O) which does not
impair the mechanical properties of wrought material and has high electrical conductivity. Oxygen-
free and phosphorus deoxidised copper are more easily welded.
TIG and MIG are the preferred welding processes but oxyacetylene and MMA welding can be used in
the repair of tough pitch copper components. To counteract the high thermal conductivity, helium and
nitrogen -based gases, which have higher arc voltages, can be used as an alternative to argon.
Avoiding weld imperfections
In fusion welding tough pitch copper, high oxygen content leads to embrittlement in the heat affected
zone (HAZ) and weld metal porosity. Phosphorus deoxidised copper is more weldable but residual
oxygen can result in porosity in autogenous welds especially in the presence of hydrogen. Porosity is
best avoided by using appropriate filler wire containing deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, P and Ti).
Thin section material can be welded without preheat. However, over 5mm thickness all grades need
preheat to produce a fluid weld pool and avoid fusion defects . Thick section components may need a
preheat temperature as high as 600 deg.C.
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Copper with small alloying additions
Low alloying additions of sulphur or tellurium can made to improve machining. However, these grades
are normally considered to be unweldable.
Small additions of chromium, zirconium or beryllium will produce precipitation hardened alloys which,
on heat treatment, have superior mechanical properties. Chromium and beryllium copper may suffer
from HAZ cracking unless heat treated before welding. When welding beryllium copper, care should
be taken to avoid inhaling the welding fumes.
Brasses (copper-zinc alloys) and nickel silvers
When considering weldability, brasses can be conveniently separated into two groups, low zinc (up to
20% Zn) and high zinc (30 to 40% Zn). Nickel silvers contain 20 to 45% zinc and nickel to improve
strength. The main problem in fusion welding these alloys is the volatilisation of the zinc which results
in white fumes of zinc oxide and weld metal porosity. Only low zinc brasses are normally considered
suitable for fusion welding using the TIG and MIG processes.
To minimise porosity, a zinc-free filler wire should be used, either silicon bronze (C9) or an aluminium
bronze (C13). High welding speeds will reduce pore coarseness.
TIG and MIG processes are used with argon or an argon-helium mixture but not nitrogen. A preheat
is normally used for low zinc (<20% Zn) to avoid fusion defects because of the high thermal
conductivity,. Although preheat is not needed in higher zinc content alloys, slow cooling reduces
cracking risk. Post weld heat treatment also helps reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking in
areas where there is high restraint.
Bronzes (tin bronze, phosphor bronze, silicon bronze and gun metal)
Tin bronzes can contain between 1% and 10% tin. Phosphor bronze contains up to 0.4% phosphorus.
Gunmetal is essentially a tin bronze with up to 5% zinc and may additionally have up to 5% lead.
Silicon bronze contains typically 3% silicon and 1% manganese and is probably the easiest of the
bronzes to weld.
These are generally considered to be weldable, apart from phosphor bronze and leaded gun metal,
and a matching filler composition is normally employed. Autogenous welding of phosphor bronzes is
not recommended due to porosity, but the risk can be reduced by using a filler wire with a higher level
of deoxidants. Gun metal is not considered weldable due to hot cracking in the weld metal and HAZ.
Aluminium bronze
There are essentially two types of aluminium bronzes; single phase alloys containing between 5 and
10% aluminium, with a small amount of iron or nickel, and more complex, two phase alloys containing
up to 12% aluminium and about 5% of iron with specific alloys also containing nickel and manganese
and silicon. Gas shielded welding processes are preferred for welding this group of alloys. In TIG
welding, the presence of a tenacious, refractory oxide film requires AC (argon), or DC with a helium
shielding gas. Because of its low thermal conductivity, a preheat is not normally required except when
welding thick section components.
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Rigorous cleaning of the material surface is essential, both before and after each run, to avoid
porosity. Single phase alloys can be susceptible to weld metal cracking and HAZ cracking can occur
under highly restrained conditions. It is often necessary to use matching filler metals to maintain
corrosion resistance but a non-matching, two phase, filler will reduce the cracking risk. Two phase
alloys are more easily welded. For both types, preheat and interpass temperatures should be
restricted to prevent cracking.
Cupro-nickels
Cupro-nickel alloys contain between 5 and 30% nickel with specific alloys having additions of iron and
manganese; 90/10 and 70/30 (Cu/Ni) alloys are commonly welded grades. These alloys are single
phase and generally considered to be readily weldable using inert gas processes and, to a lesser
extent, MMA. A matching filler is normally used but 70/30 (C18) is often regarded as a 'universal' filler
for these alloys. As the thermal conductivity of cupro-nickel alloys is similar to low carbon steels,
preheating is not required.
As the alloys do not contain deoxidants, autogenous welding is not recommended because of
porosity. Filler metal compositions contain typically 0.2 to 0.5% titanium, to prevent weld metal
porosity. Argon shielding gas is normally used for both TIG and MIG but in TIG welding, an argon-H2
mixture, with appropriate filler, improves weld pool fluidity and produces a cleaner weld bead. Gas
backing (usually argon) is recommended, especially in pipe welding, to produce an oxide-free
underbead.
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Arc weldability of dissimilar metals (October 2000) Page 1 of 2
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Arc weldability of dissimilar metals (October

2000)
When arc welding two dissimilar materials, there are a number of aspects that need to be addressed,
in addition to those associated with welding similar materials.
Firstly, from a practical viewpoint, it may not be possible to make a fusion weld if the melting points of
the two materials are too different, as it is essential to have controlled melting on both sides of the
joint simultaneously. Secondly, even if this criterion is met, it may not be possible to produce an
adequate joint if the two materials are metallurgically incompatible.
Metallurgical incompatibility may lead to uncontrollable weld metal/HAZ cracking or a weld metal
microstructure that cannot provide adequate mechanical or corrosion performance, e.g. containing
unacceptable martensite or intermetallic phases. Even when cracking can be avoided and suitable
weld metal deposited, there are other potential problems. Adjacent to the fusion boundary there will
be a band, typically very narrow, over which there may be a steep composition and melting point
gradient. This fusion boundary region has a composition between that of the parent metal and weld
metal and may contain microstructures that are unacceptable for service. In the case of welding
highly alloyed steel to carbon steel, the fusion boundary may contain very hard martensite.
'Unmixed zones', or 'partially mixed zones' consisting of fused parent material, which has not mixed
fully with the bulk weld metal, e.g. due to differences in melting point, may also form adjacent to the
fusion boundary. These may similarly be undesirable. When arc welding dissimilar metals, 'arc blow'
or uncontrollable deflection of the arc may occur due to the flow of thermoelectric currents between
the hot and cold parts of the joint, and hence the development of magnetic fields, in a similar way to
the operation of a thermocouple.
When two materials are metallurgically incompatible, it may be possible to make a satisfactory weld
by addition of a suitable filler metal. This is exemplified by the joining of steels and stainless steels,
when the Schaeffler diagram, or a modification of it, may be used to select a filler metal that is
resistant to both solidification cracking and hydrogen cracking. Frequently, where a welding
consumable with composition similar to one of the steels is not appropriate, a nickel based filler may
be adopted. In addition, these may be used for welding of steels to some copper alloys due to their
tolerance to dilution by a range of alloying elements without a phase change. However, care must be
taken to avoid Fe/Ni ratios giving sensitivity to solidification cracking, e.g. approximately 30%Fe, 30%
Ni is particularly susceptible.
Where no satisfactory fusion welding process exists, e.g. between Fe and Ti alloys or Cu and Al
alloys, it may be possible to produce a weld by a solid state process such as friction welding or
explosive bonding. Although less flexible than fusion welding, such processes may be used to
produce a range of joint geometries.
Further information
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... 9/11/2001
Arc weldability of dissimilar metals (October 2000) Page 2 of 2
Welding and fabrication of high temperature components for advanced power plant. available to
Industrial Members only
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Weldability of low carbon steel sheet (February 2001) Page 1 of 2
Information
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Weldability of low carbon steel sheet (February

2001)
by Geert Verhaeghe
The definition of 'thin sheet' is very subjective and varies from industry to industry. What is covered
below describes weldability of low carbon steel sheet with a thickness below 5mm.
Low carbon steels have a reasonably low hardenability. Using good welding practice (moderate
restraint, removal of excessive mill-lubricants, etc) they can easily be joined by conventional arc
welding processes without too much risk of cracking. Further information can be found in Fabrication
cracking mechanisms in ferritic steels - a guide to best practice.
However, for resistance spot welds, low ductility welds can be produced in steels with a carbon
equivalent greater than about 0.25, because the very high cooling rate produces relatively high
nugget hardness. Cracking is not normally a problem, but such welds lack strength in peel or tension.
A number of welding processes can be used for welding low carbon steel sheet, including MIG/MAG
(GMAW), TIG (GTAW) and plasma, laser, electron beam, friction stir and resistance. Some of these
processes are more applicable than others.
Weld metal integrity is not normally a problem for low carbon steel. However, de-oxidised steels are
preferred, otherwise carbon dioxide gas can form in the welds especially when welding autogenously.
For higher speed processes, such as laser welding or mechanised MIG (GMAW), there is insufficient
time for these gases to escape from the solidifying weld pool, causing weld metal porosity.
Current filler wires contain sufficient levels of deoxidising elements to compensate for, and eliminate,
excessive weld metal porosity. They have been developed for use with arc welding processes or
lasers to match the parent material properties. The mechanical properties of the resulting joint - such
as hardness, static tensile, shear or peel, fatigue or formability - determine the suitability of the weld
in a particular joint configuration for a given application.
Low carbon steel sheets can be welded with a wide variety of shielding gases such as CO 2 , argon or
helium with CO2 or O2 additions and nitrogen or argon-helium mixtures. Choosing the most
appropriate gas composition will depend on the process used, the application and the required joint
quality. For instance, laser welding can be carried out without shielding gas, but higher quality top and
under-bead profiles are achieved with shielding gas.
Thin steel sheets, for automotive or white -goods applications, are commonly supplied with a
protective coating. This coating can be aluminium, zinc-aluminium, zinc-nickel based or even organic,
but is usually a zinc-based coating, which provides corrosion protection to the underlying material.
Care is required when welding these coated steels as zinc vapour may cause porosity in the welds
with high speed welding processes such as MIG (GMAW) or laser. A number of processing
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Weldability of low carbon steel sheet (February 2001) Page 2 of 2
techniques have been accepted as good welding practice to avoid excessive coating-related porosity.
It is important to note that without suitable fume extraction, zinc vapour may case cause operators to
suffer from metal fume fever.
Further information
Also, you can use the Weldasearch literature database to supplement what you find in JoinIT.
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Arc weldability of microalloyed steels (November 2000) Page 1 of 3
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Arc weldability of micro alloyed steels

(November 2000)
By Richard Pargeter
Cracking
Cracking problems of potential concern in microalloyed steels are:
? Hydrogen cracking
? Solidification cracking
? Lamellar tearing
? Liquation cracking
In most modern microalloyed steels, the composition gives good resistance to all these cracking
mechanisms during arc welding although the risk of hydrogen and solidification cracks is still
influenced by welding procedure. Parameters controlling solidification cracking in power beam
welding are not fully defined at present.
Mechanical properties
Joint strength is generally easily achieved with the use of appropriate consumables. If the steel is
thermomechanically processed some control over maximum heat input may be necessary to avoid
excessive HAZ (heat affected zone) softening.
Where heat affected zone toughness is important, care is necessary to ensure that adequate levels
are achieved. Low HAZ toughness can be experienced in Nb microalloyed steels (>0.02%Nb),
welded at high heat input (800-500°C cooling time over ~25 seconds, equivalent to ~2.4kJ/mm in
15mm thick steel) and also, in steels with combined Nb and V additions in the PWHT (post weld heat
treated) condition. Phosphorus levels over about 0.012% may also lead to low PWHT HAZ
toughness. Toughness can also be degraded in outer (eg fusion line +5mm) HAZ regions. Ti
additions can enhance HAZ toughness, but if not done correctly, coarse Ti containing particles can
act as crack initiators.
Weld metal toughness can be affected by dilution, and there is a risk of toughness degradation in
welds made with basic fluxes in steels with high Al contents giving weld metal Al:O over ~1, or in high
oxygen welds which have picked up over ~0.02% Nb from parent plate. However, where high levels
of toughness are required, basic fluxes should be used, in which normal levels of Nb dilution can be
tolerated.
Service Degradation
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Welds in microalloyed steels may be subject to strain ageing and stress corrosion cracking . The
base toughness of most modern microalloyed steels is sufficient to ensure that strain ageing in
service is not a concern.
For welds to be exposed to sour (H 2S) containing environments the risk of sulphide stress corrosion
cracking (SSCC) must be taken into account. Susceptibility to this form of cracking is generally
controlled through hardness, and the usual limit of ~250HV is readily achievable in lower carbon
equivalent grades.
For welds to be exposed to anhydrous ammonia, the risk of stress corrosion cracking is principally
dependent on steel strength level, and cannot be limited by hardness control. For steels over 350MPa
yield, stress relief will be necessary. Steels of over 460MPa yield are not recommended without strict
environmental controls.
Most other forms of stress corrosion cracking (eg caustic cracking) are not strongly material
dependent, and all microalloyed steels may be considered equally weldable (or unweldable)
depending on the service environment. Post weld heat treatment can be beneficial for intermediate
service conditions.
Further information
For related content items on weldability, please look at:
What is weldability?
Job knowledge for welders: Weldability of materials - carbon manganese and low alloy steels .
(Aug.1996)
Arc weldability of dissimilar metals
Fabrication cracking mechanisms in ferritic steels - a guide to best practice. Section 1. Introduction
and Contents
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Weldability of metal matrix composites (MMCs) (August 2000) Page 1 of 2
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Weldability of metal matrix composites (MMCs)

(August 2000)
Materials consisting of metallic matrices, reinforced with ceramic particles or fibres, are known as
metal matrix composites or MMCs. The volume fraction of the reinforcement is typically in the range
10-70%. Although all metallic alloy systems constitute potential matrices, development activity and
applications have been concentrated on aluminium alloys. Aluminium alloy MMCs can offer a range
of property enhancement over monolithic alloys, e.g. higher strength and stiffness, improved high
temperature properties, better wear resistance and lower thermal expansion.
The most significant property gains are associated with long-fibre materials which are the most
expensive to produce and few applications outside space and defence can bear the associated
material costs. High volume applications are for particulate reinforced alloys for which relatively
modest property enhancement is effected.
Most materials are unsuitable for fusion welding techniques because their carefully engineered
structures are destroyed if melting occurs. Indeed, even elevated temperature exposure will degrade
some materials. Thus, the most satisfactory joining techniques are often those which are carried out
at lower temperatures, i.e. adhesive bonding, brazing or solid phase joining procedures, such as
friction welding and diffusion bonding. Friction welding has proved particularly successful for joining
particle reinforced aluminium alloys.
One of the exceptions to the general rule is aluminium alloys reinforced with alumina particulate.
Alumina is stable in molten aluminium and MIG welding has been successfully applied to structures
such as bicycle frames. The latter is a typical application for this class of materials since, in sporting
goods, premium performance can command premium price and advanced technology can be a
selling point rather than a cost burden.
Packaging for electronic devices is another area where the costs associated with the production of
MMCs can be justified. A high volume fraction of silicon carbide particulate creates a packaging
material which is matched in thermal expansion coefficient with the silicon devices. When these
packages must be hermetically sealed, appropriate bonding or brazing technology must be applied.
The most relevant industry sectors are:
Aerospace
Defence
Sporting and Leisure goods
Automotive
Further information
Joining of metal matrix composites - a review (Industrial Members Report No. 489 - August 1994)
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Weldability of metal matrix composites (MMCs) (August 2000) Page 2 of 2
Aluminium metal matrix composites - successes using diffusion bonding
Composites - a guide to best practice
unrestricted access to all TWI content. You can use the Weldasearch literature database to
supplement what you find in JoinIT.
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Job knowledge for welders 22: Weldability of materials - Nickel and nickel alloys. (Nov. 1996) Page 1 of 5
Nickel and nickel alloys
Nickel and nickel based alloys are chosen because of their:
? corrosion resistance
? heat resistance and high temperature properties
? low temperature properties
Types of nickel alloys are identified and guidance is given on welding processes and techniques
which can be used in fabricating nickel alloy components without impairing their corrosion or
mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.
Material types
The alloys can be grouped according to the principal alloying elements. Although there are National
and International designations for the alloys, trade names such as Inconel and Hastelloy are more
commonly used.
In terms of their weldability, these alloys can be classified according to the means by which the
alloying elements develop the mechanical properties, namely solid solution alloys and precipitation
hardened alloys . A distinguishing feature of precipitation hardened alloys is that mechanical
properties are developed by heat treatment (solution treatment plus ageing) to produce a fine
distribution of hard particles in a nickel rich matrix.
Solid solution alloys

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Solid solution alloys are Nickel 200, Monel alloy 400 series, Inconel alloy 600 series, Incoloy alloy 800
series, Hastelloys and some Nimonic alloys (such as 75, and PE13). These alloys are readily fusion
welded, normally in the annealed condition. As the heat affected zone (HAZ) does not harden, heat
treatment is not usually required after welding.
Precipitation hardening alloys
Precipitation hardened alloys are the Monel alloy 500 series, Inconel alloy 700 series, Incoloy alloy
900 series and most of the Nimonic alloys (such as 80,90,263 and PE16). These alloys may
susceptible to post-weld heat treatment cracking.
Weldability
Most nickel alloys can be fusion welded using gas shielded processes like TIG or MIG. Of the flux
processes, MMA is frequently used but the SAW process is restricted to solid solution alloys (Nickel
200, Inconel alloy 600 series and Monel alloy 400 series) and is less widely used.
Solid solution alloys are normally welded in the annealed condition and precipitation hardened alloys
in the solution treated condition. Preheating is not necessary unless there is a risk of porosity from
moisture condensation. It is recommended that material containing residual stresses be solution -
treated before welding to relieve the stresses.
Post-weld heat treatment is not usually needed to restore corrosion resistance but thermal treatment
may be required for precipitation hardening or stress relieving purposes to avoid stress corrosion
cracking.
Filler alloys
Filler composition normally matches the parent metal. However, most fillers contain a small mount of
titanium, aluminium and/or niobium to help minimise the risk of porosity and cracking.
Filler metals for gas shielded processes are covered in BS 2901: Pt 5 and in the USA by AWS A5.14.
Recommended fillers for selected alloys are given in the table.
Table 1: Filler selection for nickel alloys

Filler designations
BS
Alloy 2901:Part AWS A5.14 Tradenames Comments
5
Pure nickel
'Matching' filler metal normally contains
Nickel 200 NA32 ERNi-3 Nickel 61
3%Ti
Nickel copper
Monel 40 NA33 ERNiCu -7 Monel 600
'Matching' filler metal contains additions
Nickel of Mn, Ti and Al
chromium
... 9/11/2001
Brightray S NA34 - NC 80/20 Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Fe filler metals may be
Nimonic 75 NA34 - NC 80/20 used
Nickel-
chromium-iron
Usually welded with Ni-Cr-X alloys, but
Inconel 625
ERNiCrMo- more nearly matching consumables are
Incoloy 800 NA43 Thermanit
3 available which contain higher C and also
21/33
Nb
'Matching' filler metal contains Nb
Inconel 600 NA35 ERNiCr-3 Inconel 82
addition
'Matching' filler metal can be used but
ERNiFeCr-
Inconel 718 NA51 Inconel 718 Inconel 625 is an alternative consumable
2
offering increased crack resistance
Nickel-
chromium-
molybdenum
'Matching'Inconel 625 filler metal is also
ERNiCrMo-
Inconel 625 NA43 Inconel 625 used widely (for cladding and dissimilar
3
welds)
ERNiCrMo- Hastelloy C-
Hastelloy C-22 -
10 22
Nickel-
molybdenum
Corrosion resistant alloys require
Hastelloy B-2 NA44 ERNiMo-7 Hastelloy B-2
matching fillers
High
temperature
alloys
Mechanical properties required in joints
Hastelloy-X ERNiCrMo- Hastelloy X dictate whether matching precipitation
NA40
Waspaloy 2 Waspaloy hardening fillers or solid solution alloys
such as Inconel 625 are used
Imperfections and degradation

Nickel and its alloys are readily welded but it is essential that the surface is cleaned immediately
before welding. The normal method of cleaning is to degrease the surface, remove all surface oxide
by machining, grinding or scratch brushing and finally degrease.
Common imperfections found on welding are:
? porosity
? oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion
? weld metal solidification cracking
? microfissuring
Additionally, precautions should be taken against post-welding imperfections such as:
... 9/11/2001
? post-weld heat treatment cracking
? stress corrosion cracking
Porosity
Porosity can be caused by oxygen and nitrogen from air entrainment and surface oxide or by
hydrogen from surface contamination. Careful cleaning of component surfaces and using a filler
material containing deoxidants (aluminium and titanium) will reduce the risk.
When using argon in TIG and MIG welding, attention must be paid to shielding efficiency of the weld
pool including the use of a gas backing system. In TIG welding, argon -H2 gas mixtures which provide
a slightly reducing atmosphere are particularly effective.
Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion
As the oxide on the surface of nickel alloys has a much higher melting temperature than the base
metal, it may remain solid during welding. Oxide trapped in the weld pool will form inclusions. In multi -
run welds, oxide or slag on the surface of the weld bead will not be consumed in the subsequent run
and will cause lack of fusion imperfections.
Before welding, surface oxide, particularly if it has been formed at a high temperature, must be
removed by machining or abrasive grinding; it is not sufficient to wire brush the surface as this serve
only to polish the oxide. During welding, surface oxide and slag must be removed between runs.
Weld metal solidification cracking
Weld metal or hot cracking results from contaminants concentrating at the centreline and an
unfavourable weld pool profile. Too high a welding speed produces a shallow weld pool which
encourages impurities to concentrate at the centreline and, on solidification, generates sufficiently
large transverse stresses to form cracks.
This risk can be reduced by careful cleaning of the joint area and avoiding high welding speeds.
Microfissuring
Similar to austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys are susceptible to

formation of liquation cracks in reheated weld metal regions or parent
metal HAZ. This type of cracking is controlled by factors outside the
control of the welder such as grain size or content impurity. Some
alloys are more sensitive than others. For example, the extensively
studied Inconel 718 is now less sensitive than some cast superalloys
which cannot be welded without inducing liquation cracks.
Post-weld heat treatment cracking
This is also known as strain -age or reheat cracking. It is likely to occur

during post-weld ageing of precipitation hardening alloys but can be
minimised by pre-weld heat treatment. Solution annealing is
commonly used but overageing gives the most resistant condition.
Inconel 718 alloy was specifically developed to be resistant to this
type of cracking.
... 9/11/2001
Stress corrosion cracking
Welding does not normally make nickel alloys susceptible to weld metal or HAZ corrosion. However,
when the material will be in contact with caustic soda, fluosilicates or HF acid, stress corrosion
cracking is possible.
After welding, the component or weld area must be given a stress-relieving heat treatment to prevent
stress corrosion cracking.
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Job knowledge for welders 20: Weldability of materials - stainless steel. (Sept. 1996) Page 1 of 3
Information
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Stainless steel
Stainless steels are chosen because of their enhanced corrosion
resistance, high temperature oxidation resistance or their
strength. The various types of stainless steel are identified and
guidance given on welding processes and techniques which can
be employed in fabricating stainless steel components without
impairing the corrosion, oxidation and mechanical properties of
the material or introducing defects into the weld.
Material types
The unique properties of the stainless steels are derived from the addition of alloying elements,
principally chromium and nickel, to steel. Typically, more than 10% chromium is required to produce a
stainless iron. The four grades of stainless steel have been classified according to their material
properties and welding requirements:
? Austenitic
? Ferritic
? Martensitic
? Austenitic-ferritic (duplex)
The alloy groups are designated largely according to their microstructure. The first three consist of a
single phase but the fourth group contains both ferrite and austenite in the microstructure.
As nickel (plus carbon, manganese and nitrogen) promotes austenite and chromium (plus silicon,
molybdenum and niobium) encourages ferrite formation, the structure of welds in commercially
available stainless steels can be largely predicted on the basis of their chemical composition. The
predicted weld metal structure is shown in the Schaeffler diagram in which austenite and ferrite
promoting elements are plotted in terms of the nickel and chromium equivalents.
Because of the different microstructures, the alloy groups have both different welding characteristics
and susceptibility to defects.
Austenitic stainless steel
Austenitic stainless steels typically have a composition within the range 16-26% chromium (Cr) and 8-
22% nickel (Ni). A commonly used alloy for welded fabrications is Type 304 which contains
approximately 18%Cr and 10%Ni. These alloys can be readily welded using any of the arc welding
processes (TIG, MIG, MMA and SA). As they are non-hardenable on cooling, they exhibit good
toughness and there is no need for pre- or post -weld heat treatment.
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Although austenitic stainless steel is readily welded, weld metal and HAZ cracking can occur. Weld
metal solidification cracking is more likely in fully austenitic structures which are more crack sensitive
than those containing a small amount of ferrite. The beneficial effect of ferrite has been attributed
largely to its capacity to dissolve harmful impurities which would otherwise form low melting point
segregates and interdendritic cracks.
As the presence of 5 -10% ferrite in the microstructure is extremely beneficial, the choice of filler
material composition is crucial in suppressing the risk of cracking. An indication of the ferrite-austenite
balance for different compositions is provided by the Schaeffler diagram. For example, when welding
Type 304 stainless steel, a Type 308 filler material which has a slightly different alloy content, is used.
Ferritic stainless steel
Ferritic stainless steels have a Cr content typically within the range 11-28%. Commonly used alloys
include the 430 grade, having 16-18% Cr and 407 grade having 10-12% Cr. As these alloys can be
considered to be predominantly single phase and non-hardenable, they can be readily fusion welded.
However, a coarse grained HAZ will have poor toughness.
The main problem when welding this type of stainless steel is poor HAZ toughness. Excessive grain
coarsening can lead to cracking in highly restrained joints and thick section material. When welding
thin section material, (less than 6mm) no special precautions are necessary.
In thicker material, it is necessary to employ a low heat input to minimise the width of the grain
coarsened zone and an austenitic filler to produce a tougher weld metal. Although preheating will not
reduce the grain size, it will reduce the HAZ cooling rate, maintain the weld metal above the ductile-
brittle transition temperature and may reduce residual stresses. Preheat temperature should be within
the range 50 -250 deg.C depending on material composition.
Martensitic stainless steel
The most common martensitic alloys e.g. type 410, have a moderate chromium content, 12-18% Cr,
with low Ni but more importantly have a relatively high carbon content. The principal difference
compared with welding the austenitic and ferritic grades of stainless steel is the potentially hard HAZ
martensitic structure and the matching composition weld metal. The material can be successfully
welded providing precautions are taken to avoid cracking in the HAZ, especially in thick section
components and highly restrained joints.
High hardness in the HAZ makes this type of stainless steel very prone to hydrogen cracking. The
risk of cracking generally increases with the carbon content. Precautions which must be taken to
minimise the risk, include:
? using low hydrogen process (TIG or MIG) and ensure the flux or flux coated consumable are
dried (MMA and SAW) according to the manufacturer's instructions;
? preheating to around 200 to 300 deg.C. Actual temperature will depend on welding procedure,
chemical composition (especially Cr and C content), section thickness and the amount of
hydrogen entering the weld metal;
... 9/11/2001
? maintaining the recommended minimum interpass temperature.
? carrying out post-weld heat treatment, e.g. at 650-750 deg.C. The time and temperature will be
determined by chemical composition.
Thin section, low carbon material, typically less than 3mm, can often be welded without preheat,
providing that a low hydrogen process is used, the joints have low restraint and attention is paid to
cleaning the joint area. Thicker section and higher carbon (> O.1%) material will probably need
preheat and post-weld heat treatment. The post-weld heat treatment should be carried out
immediately after welding not only to temper (toughen) the structure but also to enable the hydrogen
to diffuse away from the weld metal and HAZ.
Duplex stainless steels
Duplex stainless steels have a two phase structure of almost equal proportions of austenite and
ferrite. The composition of the most common duplex steels lies within the range 22-26% Cr, 4-7% Ni
and 0-3% Mo normally with a small amount of nitrogen (0.1 -0.3%) to stabilise the austenite. Modern
duplex steels are readily weldable but the procedure, especially maintaining the heat input range,
must be strictly followed to obtain the correct weld metal structure.
Although most welding processes can be used, low heat input welding procedures are usually
avoided. Preheat is not normally required and the maximum interpass temperature must be
controlled. Choice of filler is important as it is designed to produce a weld metal structure with a
ferrite-austenite balance to match the parent metal. To compensate for nitrogen loss, the filler may be
overalloyed with nitrogen or the shielding gas itself may contain a small amount of nitrogen.
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Weldability of thermoplastics (September 2000) Page 1 of 4
Information
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Weldability of thermoplastics (September

2000)
Introduction
The ability to weld a plastic component is governed by:
? Physical and mechanical properties of the materials to be joined

? Welding parameters, e.g.
- time
- temperature
- pressure
? Design of the joint and component
? Design of the welding equipment
The table below gives an indication of the weldability of some common thermoplastic materials for
five common welding processes.
Table 1. Weldability of Thermoplastic materials
Material Welding Process
Generic Specific type High Frequency Hot Gas Ultrasonic Hot Plate Vibration
ABS X ?
Acetal ? ?
Acrylic X
EVA ? ? ?
ECTFE X ? ?
FEP X ? ?
PE LDPE X ?
LLDPE X ?
MDPE X ?
HDPE X ?
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XLPE X ? ? ? ?
UHMWPE X ? X ? ?
PA PA11 ? ?
PA12 ? ?
PA4,6 ? ?
PA6 ? ?
PA6,10 X ?
PA6,12 X ?
PA6,6 ? ?
PA 6,6-6 ? ?
PA6,9 ? ?
PB X ?
PBT X ? ?
PC X
PEEK X ?
PEI X ?
PES X ?
PFA X ? ?
PPO X
PPS X ? ?
Polystyrene X
Polysulphone X ?
PTFE X ? X ? X
PVC pPVC ? ?
uPVC ?
PVDF X ? ?
SAN X
TPX X ? ?
... 9/11/2001
- This material can be readily welded by this process
X - This material can not be welded by this process
? - This material can be welded by this process, but only under certain conditions.
Further information
Related content which covers weldability aspects of thermoplastics includes:
Friction welding of thermoplastics - a guide to best practice. Section 4. Material weldability and
process parameters
Plastics Welding Toolkit
Extrusion welding of plastics
Hot bar and impulse welding of plastics (August 2000)
Laser welding of plastics (August 2000)
Microwave welding of plastics (August 2000)
Plastics joining - Friction welding techniques
Plastics joining - Hot Gas Welding technique
Plastics joining - Hot Plate Welding technique
Plastics joining - Radio Frequency Welding technique
Plastics joining - Ultrasonic Welding technique
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Job knowledge for welders 24: Weldability of materials - Titanium and titanium alloys. (Feb. 1997) Page 1 of 4
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Titanium and titanium alloys

Titanium and its alloys are chosen because of the following
properties:
? high strength to weight ratio;

? corrosion resistance;
? mechanical properties at elevated temperatures.
Titanium is a unique material, as strong as steel but half its

weight with excellent corrosion resistance. Traditional
applications are in the aerospace and chemical industries. More
recently, especially as the cost of titanium has fallen significantly,
the alloys are finding greater use in other industry sectors, such
as offshore.
The various types of titanium alloys are identified and guidance

given on welding processes and techniques employed in
fabricating components without impairing their corrosion,
oxidation and mechanical properties or introducing defects into
the weld.
Material types
Alloy groupings
There are basically three types of alloys distinguished by their microstructure:
Titanium - Commercially pure (98 to 99.5% Ti) or strengthened by small additions of oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon and iron. The alloys are readily fusion weldable.
Alpha alloys - These are largely single-phase alloys containing up to 7% aluminium and a small
amount (< 0.3%) of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. The alloys are fusion welded in the annealed
condition.
Alpha-beta alloys - These have a characteristic two -phase microstructure formed by the addition of
up to 6% aluminium and varying amounts of beta forming constituents - vanadium, chromium and
molybdenum. The alloys are readily welded in the annealed condition.
Alloys which contain a large amount of the beta phase, such as chromium, are not easily welded.
Commonly used alloys are listed in Table 1 with the appropriate ASTM grade. The internationally
file://H:\TWI\Materials%20Weldability\Titanium%20Alloys\Job%20knowledge%20for%20welders%2024%20Weldab
... 9/11/2001
recognised designation. In industry, the most widely welded titanium alloys are the commercially pure
grades and variants of the 6%Al and 4%V alloy which is regarded as the standard aircraft alloy.
Table 1: Commonly used titanium alloys and the recommended filler material
ASTM Grade Composition UTS (min) Mpa Filler Comments

1 Ti-0.15O2 240 ERTi-1 Commercially pure
2 Ti-0.20O2 340 ERTi-2 ,,
4 Ti-0.35O2 550 ERTi-4 ,,
7 Ti-0.20O2-0.2Pd 340 ERTi-7 ,,
9 Ti-3Al-2.5V 615 ERTi-9 Tube components
5 Ti-6Al-4V 900 ERTi-5ELI Aircraft alloy
23 Ti-6Al-4V ELI 900 ERTi-5ELI Low interstitials
25 Ti-6Al-4V-0.06Pd 900 Matching Corrosion grade
Filler alloys
Titanium and its alloys can be welded using a matching filler composition; compositions are given in
The American Welding Society specification AWS A5.16-90. Recommended filler wires for the
commonly used titanium alloys are also given in Table 1.
When welding higher strength grades of unalloyed titanium or titanium alloys, fillers of a lower
strength are sometimes used to achieve adequate weld metal ductility. For example, an unalloyed
filler ERTi-2 can be used to weld Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloys in order to of balancing
weldability, strength and formability requirements.
Weld imperfections
This material and its alloys are readily fusion welded providing suitable precautions are taken. TIG
and plasma processes, with argon or argon-helium shielding gas, are used for welding thin section
components, typically <10mm. Autogenous welding can be used for a section thickness of <3mm with
TIG, or <6mm with plasma. Pulsed MIG is preferred to dip transfer MIG because of the lower spatter
level.
The most likely imperfections in fusion welds are:
? Weld metal porosity

? Embrittlement
? Contamination cracking
Normally, there is no solidification cracking or hydrogen cracking.
Weld metal porosity
Weld metal porosity is the most frequent weld defect. As gas solubility is significantly less in the solid
... 9/11/2001
phase, porosity arises when the gas is trapped between dendrites during solidification. In titanium,
hydrogen from moisture in the arc environment or contamination on the filler and parent metal
surface, is the most likely cause of porosity.
It is essential that the joint and surrounding surface areas are cleaned by first degreasing either by
steam, solvent, alkaline or vapour degreasing. Any surface oxide should then be removed by pickling
(HF-HNO3 solution), light grinding or scratch brushing with a clean, stainless steel wire brush. On no
account should an ordinary steel brush be used. After wiping with a lint-free cloth, care should be
taken not to touch the surface before welding. When TIG welding thin section components, the joint
area should be dry-machined to produce a smooth surface finish.
Embrittlement
Embrittlement can be caused by weld metal

contamination by either gas absorption or by
dissolving contaminants such as dust (iron
particles) on the surface. At temperatures above
500°C, titanium has a very high affinity for oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen. The weld pool, heat
affected zone and cooling weld bead must be
protected from oxidation by an inert gas shield
(argon or helium).
When oxidation occurs, the thin layer of surface

oxide generates an interference colour. The colour
can indicate whether the shielding was adequate
or an unacceptable degree of contamination has occurred. A silver or straw colour shows satisfactory
gas shielding was achieved but for certain service conditions, dark blue may be acceptable. Light
blue, grey and white shows an unacceptable level of oxygen contamination.
For small components, an efficient gas shield can be achieved by welding in a totally enclosed
chamber, filled with the shielding gas. It is recommended that before welding, the arc is struck on a
scrap pieces of titanium, termed 'titanium-getters', to remove oxygen from the atmosphere; the
oxygen level should be reduced to approximately 40ppm before striking the arc on the scrap titanium
and <20ppm before welding the actual component.
In tube welding, a fully enclosed head is equally effective in shielding the weld area and is be
preferable to orbital welding equipment in which the gas nozzle must be rotated around the tube.
When welding out in the open, the torch is fitted with a trailing shield to protect the hot weld bead
whilst cooling. The size and shape of the shield is determined by the joint profile whilst its length will
be influenced by welding current and travel speed. It is essential in 'open air' welding that the
underside of the joint is protected from oxidation. For straight runs, a grooved bar is used with argon
gas blown on to the joint. In tube and pipe welding, normal gas purging techniques are appropriate.
Contamination cracking
If iron particles are present on the component surface, they dissolve in the weld metal reducing
corrosion resistance and, at a sufficiently high iron content, causing embrittlement. Iron particles are
equally detrimental in the HAZ where local melting of the particles form pockets of titanium - iron
eutectic. Microcracking may occur but it is more likely that the iron-rich pockets will become
preferential sites for corrosion.
... 9/11/2001
Particular attention should be paid to separating titanium from steel fabrications, preferably by
designating a specially reserved clean area. Welders should guard against embedding steel particles
into the surface of the material by:
? Avoiding steel fabrication operations near titanium components.

? Covering components to avoid airborne dust particles settling on the surface
? Not using tools, including wire brushes, previously used for steel
? Scratch brushing the joint area immediately before welding
? Not handling the cleaned component with dirty gloves.
To avoid corrosion cracking, and minimise the risk of embrittlement through iron contamination, it is
best practice to fabrication titanium in a specially reserved clean area.
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... 9/11/2001

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Arc weldability of alloy steels (January 2001) Page 1 of 2

Arc weldability of alloy steels (January 2001)

Arc weldability of dissimilar metals

Copyright © 2001, TWI Ltd

The alloys can be further classified according to the

? weldability of the parent metal

Designation ISO Classification Filler Application

Porosity is often regarded as an inherent feature

Cracking occurs in aluminium alloys because of high stresses

Solidification cracks form in the centre of the weld,, usually

? incorrect filler wire/parent metal combination

Liquation cracking occurs in the HAZ, when low

The risk can be reduced by using a filler metal

Poor weld bead profile

Copyright by TWI, 1999

Grey cast irons

Nodular cast irons

The mechanical properties of grey irons can be greatly improved if the

White cast irons

Whiteheart malleable irons

Blackheart malleable irons

Pearlitic malleable irons

Table 1: Typical preheat levels for welding cast irons

Cast iron type Preheat temperature degrees C

Ferritic whiteheart malleable RT* RT* 600 200

? Remove defective area preferably by grinding or tungsten

Copyright by TWI, 1999

Copper and copper alloys

Typical alloys and recommended filler for inert gas welding

Copper is normally supplied in the form of

? oxygen bearing, tough pitch copper

Avoiding weld imperfections

Brasses (copper-zinc alloys) and nickel silvers

Avoiding weld imperfections

Avoiding weld imperfections

Avoiding weld imperfections

Copyright by TWI, 1999

Arc weldability of dissimilar metals (October

Copyright © 2000, TWI Ltd

Weldability of low carbon steel sheet (February

Copyright © 2001, TWI Ltd

Arc weldability of micro alloyed steels

Arc weldability of dissimilar metals

Copyright © 2000, TWI Ltd

Weldability of metal matrix composites (MMCs)

The most relevant industry sectors are:

Composites - a guide to best practice

Copyright © 2000, TWI Ltd

Nickel and nickel alloys

Nickel and nickel based alloys are chosen because of their:

Solid solution alloys

Precipitation hardening alloys

Table 1: Filler selection for nickel alloys

Imperfections and degradation

Common imperfections found on welding are:

Additionally, precautions should be taken against post-welding imperfections such as:

Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion

Weld metal solidification cracking

Similar to austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys are susceptible to

Post-weld heat treatment cracking

This is also known as strain -age or reheat cracking. It is likely to occur

Copyright by TWI, 1999

Austenitic stainless steel