1.

A headshot of Frederick Winslow Taylor

Frederick Taylor (1856–1915) is called the Father of Scientific Management.

Before the Industrial Revolution, most businesses were small operations, averaging three or four
people. Owners frequently labored next to employees, knew what they were capable of, and
closely directed their work. The dynamics of the workplace changed dramatically in the United
States with the Industrial Revolution. Factory owners and managers did not possess close
relationships with their employees. The workers “on the floor” controlled the work process and
generally worked only hard enough to make sure they would not be fired. There was little or no
incentive to work harder than the next man (or woman).

Taylor was a mechanical engineer who was primarily interested in the type of work done in
factories and mechanical shops. He observed that the owners and managers of the factories knew
little about what actually took place in the workshops. Taylor believed that the system could be
improved, and he looked around for an incentive. He settled on money. He believed a worker
should get “a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work”—no more, no less. If the worker couldn’t
work to the target, then the person shouldn’t be working at all. Taylor also believed that
management and labor should cooperate and work together to meet goals. He was the first to
suggest that the primary functions of managers should be planning and training.

In 1909, Taylor published The Principles of Scientific Management. In this book, he suggested
that productivity would increase if jobs were optimized and simplified. He also proposed
matching a worker to a particular job that suited the person’s skill level and then training the
worker to do that job in a specific way. Taylor first developed the idea of breaking down each
job into component parts and timing each part to determine the most efficient method of
working. Soon afterward, two management theorists, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, came up with
the idea of filming workers to analyze their motions. Their ideas have since been combined into
one process (called time and motion studies) for analyzing the most productive way to complete
a task.
Scientific management has at its heart four core principles that also apply to organizations today.
They include the following:

 Look at each job or task scientifically to determine the “one best way” to perform the job.
This is a change from the previous “rule of thumb” method where workers devised their
own ways to do the job.

 Hire the right workers for each job, and train them to work at maximum efficiency.

 Monitor worker performance, and provide instruction and training when needed.

 Divide the work between management and labor so that management can plan and train,
and workers can execute the task efficiently.

Taylor designed his approach for use in places where the work could be quantified, systemized,
and standardized, such as in factories. In scientific management, there is one right way to do a
task; workers were not encouraged (in fact, they were forbidden) to make decisions or evaluate
actions that might produce a better result. Taylor was concerned about the output more than
worker satisfaction or motivation. Taylor’s work introduced for the first time the idea of
systematic training and selection, and it encouraged business owners to work with employees to
increase productivity and efficiency. And he introduced a “first-class worker” concept to set the
standard for what a worker should be able to produce in a set period of time. Scientific
management grew in popularity among big businesses because productivity rose, proving that it
worked.

Today, an updated version of his original theory is used by such companies as FedEx and
Amazon. Digital Taylorism is based on maximizing efficiency by standardizing the tools and
techniques for completing each task involved with a given job. Every task is broken down to the
smallest motion and translated into an exact procedure that must be followed to complete that
task. Because everyone is operating in the same mechanistic way, it increases predictability and
consistency while reducing errors. It is relatively easy for managers to replace workers and retain
the same productivity. The criticism of this type of management approach is similar to that of
Taylor’s original theory: It reduces worker creativity; it requires management to monitor all
aspects of employee behavior; and it is unforgiving to workers who don’t meet the standard.
Key Points

The Principles of Taylor's Scientific Management Theory became widely practiced, and the
resulting cooperation between workers and managers eventually developed into the teamwork
we enjoy today. While Taylorism in a pure sense isn't practiced much today, scientific
management did provide many significant contributions to the advancement of management
practice. It introduced systematic selection and training procedures, it provided a way to study
workplace efficiency, and it encouraged the idea of systematic organizational design.

2.

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth

Two more pioneers in the field of management theory were Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, who
conducted research about the same time as Taylor. Like Taylor, the Gilbreths were interested in
worker productivity, specifically how movement and motion affected efficiency.

As stated above, the Gilbreths used films to analyze worker activity. They would break the tasks
into discrete elements and movements and record the time it took to complete one element. In
this way, they were able to predict the most efficient workflow for a particular job. The films the
Gilbreths made were also useful for creating training videos to instruct employees in how to
work productively.

Taylor and the Gilbreths belonged to the classical school of management, which emphasized
increasing worker productivity by scientific analysis. They differed, however, on the importance
of the worker. Taylor’s emphasis was on profitability and productivity; the Gilbreths were also
focused on worker welfare and motivation. They believed that by reducing the amount of
motions associated with a particular task, they could also increase the worker’s well-being. Their
research, along with Taylor’s, provided many important principles later incorporated into quality
assurance and quality control programs begun in the 1920s and 1930s. Eventually, their work led
to the science of ergonomics and industrial psychology. (Ergonomics is the scientific discipline
concerned with understanding the interactions of humans with other elements of a system.)

The Gilbreths took a rigorously scientific approach to understanding the way employees carried
out work, sometimes measuring time and motion to 1/2000 of a second, using photography and
a ‘microchronometer’ that they devised. With flow charts and therbligs, they analyzed to a fine
degree.

Therbligs

In many languages, the ‘th’ sound is one letter (theta in Greek, for example). Replace the th in
Gilbreth with a single phoneme and reverse the word, and you get ‘therblig’. This is a coinage by
Frank Gilbreth that never made it to the mainstream. But the idea is ingenious.

Each therblig is a distinct motion that a worker makes. it is a fundamental element of work and
there are 18 of these basic motions. Today we’d no doubt add moving a mouse and hitting return.
Ever since I heard the ugly word and looked it up, I’ve loved the concept and the list of
movements. Look up therblig on Wikipedia to see the list of 18, and their symbols.

Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919)

Henry Gantt (1861–1919) was also an associate of Taylor. He is probably best known for two
key contributions to classical management theory: the Gantt chart and the task and bonus system.

The Gantt chart is a tool that provides a visual (graphic) representation of what occurs over the
course of a project. The focus of the chart is the sequential performance of tasks that make up a
project. It identifies key tasks, assigns an estimated time to complete the task, and determines a
starting date for each element of a task. Gantt differentiated between a terminal element that
must be completed as part of a larger task. The related terminal elements together created what
he called the summary element.

An example of a simple Gantt chart that identifies the task, predecessors to the task, and the
duration of the task, then map them out on a brief calendar

The Gantt chart has multiple benefits for project management:

 It aids in the breakdown of tasks into specific elements.

 It allows for the monitoring of projected timelines.

 It identifies which tasks are dependent upon a prior task or element and which are
independent and can be completed at any time.
Let’s apply the Gantt chart principles to a simple project. Imagine that you want to paint a room.
The summary element is the finished, painted room. The individual terminal tasks might include
calculating the square footage of the room, preparing the walls, choosing the paint, purchasing
the paint, putting down the drop cloth, taping the windows, applying the paint, and final cleanup.
Some of these elements are independent, and some elements are dependent upon others.
Purchasing the paint is dependent upon knowing the square footage and choosing the paint color.
Before painting can start, the walls must be prepared and the paint must be purchased. But
purchasing the paint is not dependent upon preparing the walls—these tasks could be started at
the same time.

Gantt also promoted the task and bonus plan that modified Taylor’s “a fair day’s pay for a fair
day’s work” premise. Gantt wanted to establish a standard (average) time for a piece of work or
task. Then, if a worker took more than the standard time, his pay was docked. But if he took less
time, he was paid for the additional pieces of work and a bonus of up to 20 percent more. Also
known as the progressive rate system, this plan was preferred by workers who were willing to
work harder for additional wages.

Although Gantt is not the best known of the classic management theorists, many of his ideas are
still being used in project management.

Key Points

Scientific management was the first widespread promotion of rational processes to improve
efficiency. The goal was to develop a standard against which work performance could be
measured. Training became an important part of the management process. By the 1930s,
however, many unions and workers were suspicious of the intentions of scientific management.

3.

In the last century, organizations already had to deal with management in practice. In the early
1900s, large organizations, such as production factories, had to be managed too. At the time
there were only few (external) management tools, models and methods available.
Thanks to scientists like Henri Fayol (1841-1925) the first foundations were laid for modern
scientific management. These first concepts, also called principles of management are the
underlying factors for successful management. Henri Fayol explored this comprehensively and,
as a result, he synthesized the 14 principles of management. Henri Fayol‘s principles of
management and research were published in the book ‘General and Industrial Management’
(1916).

14 principles of Management are statements that are based on a fundamental truth. These
principles of management serve as a guideline for decision-making and management actions.
They are drawn up by means of observations and analyses of events that managers encounter in
practice. Henri Fayol was able to synthesize 14 principles of management after years of study.

14 Principles of Management by Henri Fayol

1. Division of Work

In practice, employees are specialized in different areas and they have different skills. Different
levels of expertise can be distinguished within the knowledge areas (from generalist to
specialist). Personal and professional developments support this. According to Henri Fayol
specialization promotes efficiency of the workforce and increases productivity. In addition, the
specialization of the workforce increases their accuracy and speed. This management principle of
the 14 principles of management is applicable to both technical and managerial activities.

2. Authority and Responsibility

In order to get things done in an organization, management has the authority to give orders to the
employees. Of course with this authority comes responsibility. According to Henri Fayol, the
accompanying power or authority gives the management the right to give orders to the
subordinates. The responsibility can be traced back from performance and it is therefore
necessary to make agreements about this. In other words, authority and responsibility go together
and they are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline

This third principle of the 14 principles of management is about obedience. It is often a part of
the core values of a mission and vision in the form of good conduct and respectful interactions.
This management principle is essential and is seen as the oil to make the engine of an
organization run smoothly.

4. Unity of Command

The management principle ‘Unity of command’ means that an individual employee should
receive orders from one manager and that the employee is answerable to that manager. If tasks
and related responsibilities are given to the employee by more than one manager, this may lead
to confusion which may lead to possible conflicts for employees. By using this principle, the
responsibility for mistakes can be established more easily.

5. Unity of Direction

This management principle of the 14 principles of management is all about focus and unity. All
employees deliver the same activities that can be linked to the same objectives. All activities
must be carried out by one group that forms a team. These activities must be described in a plan
of action. The manager is ultimately responsible for this plan and he monitors the progress of the
defined and planned activities. Focus areas are the efforts made by the employees and
coordination.

6. Subordination of Individual Interest

There are always all kinds of interests in an organization. In order to have an organization
function well, Henri Fayol indicated that personal interests are subordinate to the interests of the
organization (ethics). The primary focus is on the organizational objectives and not on those of
the individual. This applies to all levels of the entire organization, including the managers.

7. Remuneration

Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the smooth running of an
organization is concerned. This management principle of the 14 principles of management
argues that the remuneration should be sufficient to keep employees motivated and productive.
There are two types of remuneration namely non-monetary (a compliment, more responsibilities,
credits) and monetary (compensation, bonus or other financial compensation). Ultimately, it is
about rewarding the efforts that have been made.

8. The Degree of Centralization

Management and authority for decision-making process must be properly balanced in an

organization. This depends on the volume and size of an organization including its hierarchy.

Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top management
(executive board). Sharing of authorities for the decision-making process with lower levels
(middle and lower management), is referred to as decentralization by Henri Fayol. Henri Fayol
indicated that an organization should strive for a good balance in this.

9. Scalar Chain

Hierarchy presents itself in any given organization. This varies from senior management
(executive board) to the lowest levels in the organization. Henri Fayol ’s “hierarchy”
management principle states that there should be a clear line in the area of authority (from top to
bottom and all managers at all levels). This can be seen as a type of management structure. Each
employee can contact a manager or a superior in an emergency situation without challenging the
hierarchy. Especially when reports concerning about calamities to the immediate
managers/superiors.

10. Order

According to this principle of the 14 principles of management, employees in an organization

must have the right resources at their disposal so that they can function properly in an
organization. In addition to social order (responsibility of the managers) the work environment
must be safe, clean and tidy.

11. Equity

The management principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an organization.
According to Henri Fayol, employees must be treated kindly and equally. Employees must be in
the right place in the organization to do things right. Managers should supervise and monitor this
process and they should treat employees fairly and impartially.

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel

This management principle of the 14 principles of management represents deployment and

managing of personnel and this should be in balance with the service that is provided from the
organization. Management strives to minimize employee turnover and to have the right staff in
the right place. Focus areas such as frequent change of position and sufficient development must
be managed well.

13. Initiative

Henri Fayol argued that with this management principle employees should be allowed to express
new ideas. This encourages interest and involvement and creates added value for the company.
Employee initiatives are a source of strength for the organization according to Henri Fayol. This
encourages the employees to be involved and interested.

14. Esprit de Corps

The management principle ‘esprit de corps’ of the 14 principles of management stands for
striving for the involvement and unity of the employees. Managers are responsible for the
development of morale in the workplace; individually and in the area of communication. Esprit
de corps contributes to the development of the culture and creates an atmosphere of mutual trust
and understanding.

The 14 principles of management can be used to manage organizations and are useful tools for
forecasting, planning, process management, organization management, decision-making,
coordination and control.

Although they are obvious, many of these matters are still used based on common sense in
current management practices in organizations. It remains a practical list with focus areas that
are based on Henri Fayol’s research which still applies today due to a number of logical
principles.
4. The principle of division of labor is still applicable today because of the existence of
organization. If we try to define organization as a group of people who work together, like a
neighborhood association, a charity, a union, or a corporation it capsulate the essence of division
of labor which highlights the importance of dividing works based on specialization to improve
efficiency and effectiveness within the organization. Thus, it is inevitable for an organization to
embrace the principle of division of labor to achieve the organizational goals and objectives.