Vacuum Arc Melting Dr.

Hasan Bin Awais

VACUUM ARC MELTING

Introduction
Vacuum arc melting was originally devised for the difficult-to-melt metals such as:
i) Tungsten, tantalum and molybdenum because of their excessively high melting points
ii) Titanium, hafnium and zirconium because of their extremely high chemical reactivity.
In recent years, the process has gained wide acceptance in the purification and structure control of the more
common and commercially important metals such as iron- and nickel-base alloys despite the fact that their melting points
and chemical reactivities render them amenable to a number of other less complicated melting and casting techniques.
The process involves the direct application of low voltage, high amperage electric arc heat to the surface of the
molten metallic mass for a finite amount of time in an atmosphere whose impurity partial pressure is lower than that in the
molten metal. These conditions result in the vaporization and removal of selected impurities from the metal under treatment.
In addition, the larger thermal gradients which exist between the chilled metallic crucible and the intensely hot melt surface
cause directional solidification. This directional solidification is parallel to the heat flux and results generally in a columnar
grain structure. Thus, gas holes and shrinkage cavities are virtually eliminated in this kind of structure.
Consumable Electrode Melting
The electric arc is supported between the molten metal in the crucible and a preformed bar (electrode) of the
metallic raw materials. As the process proceeds, the crucible is filled with metal by the transfer of liquid drops through the
arc from the raw material electrode. This form of arc melting is called, "cold crucible, consumable electrode, vacuum arc
melting". It is used extensively to produce ingots of various steels, superalloys, reactive metals, and refractory metals.
Vacuum Arc Meltins System
In 1903 W. von Bolton built the forerunner of the modem vacuum arc melting furnace. The three salient features of vacuum
arc furnaces are:
i) High temperature electric arc as a heat source
ii) A liquid-cooled (usually water) metallic platten or crucible to support the molten metal
iii) An enclosure either evacuated or filled with an inert atmosphere in which the melting is carried out.
The heat is generated by an electric arc between two metallic conductors. An arc is an intensely hot body of
ionized elemental species through which a relatively high current is passing. The gas temperatures in an arc
range between 5000 and 50,000 K. The high current arc, 100 A and above, is characterized by a total voltage
drop between the limits of 20 and 45 V. The current densities in the gas may be from thousands to millions of
A/cm2. The two electrodes, i.e., the molten metal pool and the solid metal electrode, which has a molten metal surface, form
the two components of this electrical to thermal energy transducer. Conventionally, electrode is negative, the molten pool is
+ive, and direct current is used. The negative electrode is heated principally by the direct impingement of +ive ions
emanating from the anode, and the anode or molten pool receives its greatest amount of heat from the collision of
thermionically emitted electrons from the electrode (cathode). These charged particles gain kinetic energy in following
through the electrical potentials of the three principal subdivisions of the arc plasma, the cathode fall space, the arc column,
and the anode fall space. Due to high current there is space charge accumulation at both terminals. The cathode exhibits a
greater potential gradient than does the anode, and arc column has a much lower potential gradient per unit length than
either. Thermal energy is generated as the kinetic energy by the acceleration of individually charged particles falling through
the various potential gradients, and it is transformed to heat by the impingement of ions and electrons on the cathode and
anode, respectively.
For a 4-inch dia. ingot of tungsten, approximately 6 kA at 40V is required. For a 10-inch dia. ingot of tungsten,
approximately 35kA is required.
Proper electrode position and feed rate is essential to the uniform generation of heat and uniform melt rate which is
ultimately responsible for homogeneous ingot structures. Other less important heating mechanisms include the Joule effect
(I2R losses), which causes appreciable heat generation within the electrode itself.
The temperature between the anode and cathode during arc melting is most important in determining the extent of the
purification and the production rate. The maximum temperature of the electric arc is inversely dependent on the vapor
pressure of the metal involved.
Anode spot temperature: It is the temperature of the central surface portion of the molten pool contained in the
crucible. The anode spot temperature of a specific element varies inversely with its vapor pressure. In general, there is an
inverse relationship between the melting points of metals and their vapor pressures. For example, tungsten has a very high
melting point and extremely low vapor pressure relative to other metals at a given temperature. Chemical purification is a
function of the maximum temperature of the process. The degree of purification obtainable is directly proportional to the
operating temperature of the process.
The cathode spot temperature is also important, however its function is primarily limited to controlling the electrode
melt off rate by "gouging" out relatively large molten droplets from the electrode. Cathode spots are small relative to the area
of electrode tip. In case of higher melting point elements, thermionic emission is very
important in governing the current passed by the cathode. Consumable electrodes are not necessarily homogeneous. In
some instances oxides, nitrides, etc. of elements have lower work functions than do the parent elements. Consequently,
very small, high current cathode spots exhibit positional instability on the cathode surface in seeking out areas of high

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Vacuum Arc Melting Dr. Hasan Bin Awais

impurity content, i.e. areas of low work function. The net result is the "gouging" and the electrode is consumed by a
combination of melting and erosion.
The partition of the total electrical power between the anode and cathode which is dissipated in the arc melting
process differs from one metal to another. It is dependent on the proportion of the current which is thermionically emitted
electrons to that which is positive ion flow. This ratio governs the melt off rate of the electrode once a power setting has been
chosen. Usually this setting is chosen so that the liquid metal fills the cold crucible just to the edge. Any less power results in
a rough ingot surface full of "cold shuts", and power in excess of this results in high melt rates and excessively deep molten
pool which in turn causes a coarsening of the ingot structure.
Excessively deep pools also result in structural segregation similar to that which is found in large poured ingots.
Shallow molten pools result in a drastic reduction, if not the elimination, of ingot segregation.
The actual power required to arc melt depends directly on the melting point, the specific
heat, the heat of fusion, and the thermal conductivity of the metal or alloy under
consideration.
Metal Melting Point Voltage Direct Current (kA)

4in. dia 6 in. dia 8 in. dia

Fe 1537 °C 20-30 1 2.5 3.5

Zr 1852 °C 28-38 2 3.5 5

Mo 2610°C 30-40 4 6 8

W 3410 °C 35-45 6 10 15

Once the melting power has been established for a given crucible size and metal, some additional measures can
be taken to affect the electrode meltoff rate, which of course controls the rate of the process. A maximum melt-off is desired
for high production rates with the attendant minimization of impurity removal, and a minimum electrode meltoff rate yields
the maximum molten metal residence time and exposure to the vacuum environment which in turn results in maximum
purification.
The electrode melt-off rate can be altered in the following ways:
1. By varying the electrode diameter —— larger dia. electrodes yield lower melt rates.
2. By decreasing the ratio of crucible dia. to that of the electrode.
3. By adding a material which is a good thermionic emitter to the consumable electrode, an appreciable change in the
meltoff rate can be achieved.
Yttrium and thorium oxide have been used successfully to slow down electrode meltoffrate.
Containment of the Molten Metal
There is no chemical reaction between the crucible in which the molten metal is contained and the molten metal
itself. Contamination by the crucible does not occur in the cold crucible technique simply because the surface contact
between the ingot being produced and the crucible is very limited and the temperature at which it is in contact is so low that
contamination by diffusion, chemical reaction, etc. does not occur. The outside surface of the metallic crucible is maintained
at a temperature usually between room temperature and 100 °C by the application of large quantities of a good heat transfer
medium such as water. The initial molten metal solidifies upon contact with the crucible. In the process of solidification the
metal contracts and the contact with the cubicle is minimized. From this point on, the melting, say of tungsten, using a
copper crucible takes place not in copper at all but in tungsten itself. There is an extremely high temperature gradient in the
ingot itself. Thin high thermal gradient is responsible for the highly oriented structures.
The heat loss from the ingot is mainly by radiation. The cooling fluid is usually a liquid and by far the most
commonly used fluid is water. In some applications gas-cooled crucibles have been used. This has been done to avoid the
possible intermixing of molten metal and the cooling liquid. Water and molten reactive metals such as Ti and Zr, react
exothermically decomposing the water to form the oxide of the metal and hydrogen. Inert gas cooling of crucibles has been
demonstrated to be feasible. Liquid sodium and potassium are being used as a substitute for water-cooling systems in
reactive metal melting.
Elimination of Atmosphere
The lowest possible operating pressure is desired since it will maximize the removal of gaseous contaminants. The
arc melting process itself has no lower pressure limit beyond which it is inoperative.
Sources of Gases and Vapors
The primary sources of gases and condensable vapors are:
Gases Static 1) Atmospheric air 2) Adsorbed gases
Dynamic 3) Actual or real leaks 4) Products of reactions (gaseous)
Vapours Dynamic Impurity metals products of reactions (solids at R.T.)

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Vacuum Arc Melting Dr. Hasan Bin Awais

Atmospheric air fills the furnace when it is opened for raw material charging and ingot removal. The gas is
adsorbed on the interior surfaces of the equipment. A major contributor to the adsorbed gas load is condensed water vapour.
Usually hot water is passed through the cooling water ducts when the furnace is open in order to raise the temperature of
the inside surface.
The leak rate which is measured by a pressure rise shortly after the equipment is closed is known as the "apparent"
leak rate. It is made up of the "actual" leak rate, which is due to the ingress of gases from outside the vacuum chamber, and
the "virtual" leak rate which is due to the release of the adsorbed gases from the surfaces, such as the water mentioned
above.
The fourth principal source of gases is the dynamic evolution of impurity gases resulting from the chemical reactions
in the feed material and release of gases physically dissolved in the raw materials under the influence of the high
temperature and reduced pressure of the process.
Applications of Vacuum Arc Melting
One essential requirement for producing a successful consumable electrode arc melt is that the material to be
melted be fabricable in an electrode shape. This electrode must have a low enough resistivity so that the large electric
current necessary to maintain a molten pool in the cold crucible can be carried by the electrode. In the case of steel and
superalloy melting the electrodes are prepared by well-known air melting and casting techniques or by vacuum induction
melting and casting. The latter process is followed in those cases where the alloys contain reactive elements which are
liable to become contaminated in air melting. In either case the major alloying of the elements is accomplished in the
electrode fabrication step. VA melting which follows levels out compositional and structural inhomogeneities. In some
instances additional reactive elements are added along with the precast electrode to arrive at the desired alloy composition.
In the case of the refractory and reactive metals, precast electrodes are not generally used. The reactive metals
such as titanium and zirconium and the refractory metals such as tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum and columbium in
powder or granular form are mixed with proper alloying elements of appropriate particulate form. The material is pressed
either by closed die pressing or by isostatic pressing into "logs". These logs can be joined together by a number of methods
including welding, sintering, and a variety of mechanical coupling techniques.
Presintering of the electrodes prior to joining and melting in the arc furnace is required due to:
i) inadequate green strength of the pressed compact ii) extremely high impurity
content
Chemical Purification
One of the most important benefits of the VA melting process is the purification. Purification is particularly effective
and important in the case of the refractory metals. Interstitial elements like oxygen, nitrogen and carbon have severe
embrittling effect. VA melting is an effective method for removal of these deleterious impurities form both the refractory and
reactive metals. In case of melting of steels and high strength, moderate melting point alloys, purification, except for
hydrogen, is a much less important reason. In these cases, the main benefit is in structural control. In fact, superior vacuum
levels which are highly desirable for purification cause difficulties by removing intentionally added alloying elements to the
detriment of the final alloy composition. Therefore extremely good vacuums are not used in melting where desired alloying
elements have high vapor pressures. The degree of purification produced depends directly on the maximum temperature
achieved, the minimum pressure maintained, and the maximum time of exposure to these conditions.
There are three principal modes of purification which are important to the process.
1. Evolution of dissolved Gases Hydrogen causes a great difficulty in a number of alloy systems and it can be removed
with relative ease by moderate vacuum levels while arc melting. This purification is particularly important to
structural steels and titanium alloys which are particularly sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement.
Ti + Ti H (in solution) + heat vacuum -» 2 Ti + H 2
2. Purification due to chemical reactions
The products should be noncondensable gases, i.e., gases at STP. Carbon is commonly added as a deoxidizing
agent.
W + WO2 + C (all three solids) -> W (liquid) + CO (gas)
The lower pressure and the longer molten residence time results in significantly purer alloy w.r.t. the interstitial
impurities, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
At the same time a detrimental loss of the alloying elements also takes place. The loss is compensated by adding
the alloying elements in excess.
3. Purification by vaporization of impurity elements
Only those impurity metals and compounds which have vapour pressures higher than the base metal can be
removed.
Reference: Techniques ofMetals Research^ Volume I,
Techniques of Materials Preparation & Handling, Part 2, Interscience Publishers

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