Computer-Aided Design ( ) –

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Computer-Aided Design
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cad

Complex concrete structures

Merging existing casting techniques with digital fabrication
Ena Lloret a,∗ , Amir R. Shahab b , Mettler Linus b , Robert J. Flatt b , Fabio Gramazio a ,
Matthias Kohler a , Silke Langenberg a
a
Architecture and Digital Fabrication, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
b
Institute of Building Materials, Civil Engineering Department, ETH Zurich, Switzerland

highlights
• An overview is given that combine existing casting techniques with digital fabrication for the fabrication of complex concrete structures.
• The focus is set on Smart Dynamic Casting a technique that combines digital fabrication with slipforming and building material science.
• An overview of the experimental set up and procedure is given.
• Experimental prototype results are described.

article info abstract

Keywords: Over the course of the 20th century, architectural construction has gone through intense innovation in
Complex concrete structures
its material, engineering and design, radically transforming the way buildings were and are conceived.
Casting techniques
Technological and industrial advances enabled and challenged architects, engineers and constructors
Formwork
Slipforming to build increasingly complex architectural structures from concrete. Computer-aided design and
Digital fabrication manufacturing (CAD/CAM) techniques have, more recently, rejuvenated and increased the possibilities
Smart Dynamic Casting of realizing ever more complex geometries. Reinforced concrete is often chosen for such structures as
almost any shape can be achieved when placed into a formwork. However, most complex forms generated
with these digital design tools bear little relation to the default modes of production used in concrete
construction today. A large gap has emerged between the possibilities offered by the digital technology
in architectural design and the reality of the building industry, where actually no efficient solutions
exist for the production of complex concrete structures. This paper presents construction methods that
unfold their full potential by linking digital design, additive fabrication and material properties and
hence allow accommodating the construction of complex concrete structures. The emphasis is set on
the on-going research project Smart Dynamic Casting (SDC) where advanced material design and robotic
fabrication are interconnected in the design and fabrication process of complex concrete structures. The
proposed fabrication process is belonging to an emerging architectural phenomenon defined first as
Digital Materiality by Gramazio & Kohler (2008) or more recently as Material Ecologies by Neri Oxman [1].
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The technological development of reinforced concrete1 has
been one great enabler of modern architecture. It is still one of
the preferred materials for realizing all kinds of structures, simple
and complex.2 In 2011 alone, 3.4 billion tonnes of cement were
produced to make concrete [5]. However, concrete itself is only
half the picture, since it is the formwork that determines what
is possible to build. It represents 35%–60% of the overall costs of

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 44 633 49 06; fax: +41 44 633 11 71.
E-mail addresses: lloret@arch.ethz.ch, ena3110@yahoo.com (E. Lloret).
1 In 1867 the invention of reinforced concrete changed this material into a fire-
proof material, which could take both tensile and compressive loads. This invention
has radically changed the way buildings have been conceived throughout the 20th
century. Further information on the topic in the book by [2]. Additional in [3].
2 ‘‘Complex geometries’’ in this text refers to a large number of distinct parts
where little or no repetition occurs. Complex is not constrained to formal qualities
but also have the intention of projects to be structurally optimized and unique in
direct contrast to industrial ‘standard’ projects. Complex was discussed in a similar
way at the exhibition at Centre Pompidou, Paris by [4].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2014.02.011
0010-4485/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design (
concrete structures [6] and represents a significant source of waste,
given that all formwork is discarded sooner or later, contributing
to a generally increasing production of waste worldwide.3
By integrating digital technologies and new insights from ma-
terial science, well-established casting techniques could be modi-
fied to create formwork-efficient and waste reducing approaches
for the construction of complex concrete structures. This paper de-
scribes construction techniques – static casting, concrete extrusion
and slipforming – in a brief historical overview, to emphasize how
they have influenced the way architecture is conceived today, and
might impact its future by integrating digital design and fabrica-
tion methods. In this context different ongoing research projects
are discussed, that represent the emerging change in architecture,
where artefacts evolve through interplay between the digital tool
and physical material properties.
The paper is divided into three parts. The first part gives
an overview on standard static formwork systems as well as
on the current research, which aims to enhance its versatility
towards complex concrete forming by applying digital fabrication
techniques to traditional casting processes. The second part
presents ongoing research that applies computer-controlled layer
based extrusion process with concrete for complex concrete
structures. The third part, the main subject of this paper, discusses
the well-established dynamic construction system, Slipforming
and introduces the pioneering fabrication method Smart Dynamic
Casting (SDC). SDC is a robotic slipforming process which exploits
the formability of concrete in the delicate period when it changes
from a soft to a hard material. This process is informed by
the physical properties of the material, which are tracked by
a feedback system during the production. In this process the
dynamic relationship of the formwork geometry, the robotic
trajectory and the material properties directly determine. The
aim of SDC is to investigate how the cost of forming complex
concrete elements could be reduced by eliminating the need for
custom-made formwork, with the added value of opening up
completely new and unexpected design possibilities. In addition
this fabrication method has the potential of becoming a low-waste
and ecologically sustainable construction technique for complex
concrete construction.
2. Static formwork systems in conjunction with digital fabrica-
tion
2.1. Overview of static formwork systems
The most common casting technique for concrete uses static
formwork systems.4 Static formwork refers to a temporary
structure into which fluid concrete is poured. After the concrete
has cured the formwork is removed. At the end of the 19th century
and outset of the 20th century such formwork were custom made
out of timber shuttering, supported by wooden frames which were
discarded after a single use.
In order to increase the efficiency of such systems some of the
first standardized, and thus reusable metal formworks were com-
mercially produced by 1910 for road construction [8]. Architects
and engineers of the 1920s took advantage of these new modu-
lar formwork systems for concrete construction, both by applying
them on the construction site as well as in prefabrication. Their
3 According to a study from 2011, 80% of the total waste production is created in
the construction industry, of which 1.97% comes from the formwork timber. Further
details can be found in [7].
4 Examples for typical static forms in construction are: slab cast, jump-form,
wall forms or column forms. Depending on the application, these forms can be
constructed out of steel, wood or plastics, further description can be found in [6].
) –
results are exemplified by Le Corbusier’s Domino system or the
housing by Ernst May (1886–1970) in Praunheim, Germany [2].
The latter example helped laying the basis for prefabrication tech-
niques adapted on a larger scale for housing in the 1950s [9].
Taking full advantage of the prefabrication technology, the
architect Pier Luigi Nervi, mainly known for his innovations in
structural design [10], introduced what he named ‘‘structural
prefabrication’’ for the construction of a large number of differently
shaped structural building elements.5 Structural prefabrication
was the result of empirical studies, integrating material and
structural properties with fabrication logics. The system was
used for the construction of some dome structures for the 1960
Rome Olympics, including the spherical vault of the Sports Palace,
a structure composed of 19 different kinds of prefabricated
elements [11].
Despite these early examples, the investigation of the archi-
tectural potential of such innovative approaches towards struc-
ture and fabrication remained isolated phenomena. Resulting in
the fact that, most advances that occurred since the 1950s and up
till today in prefabrication as well as in on-site construction with
concrete have mainly been directed towards more efficient and
rapid serial mass production of similar and standardized building
components.
2.2. Digital technology in conjunction with static formwork systems
Rapid developments in CAD technology have in the last decades
augmented the design possibilities for geometrically complex con-
crete structures. Such non-standard concrete elements are gener-
ally produced by applying custom made inlays onto a standard
static formwork system. A pioneering example using this tech-
nique is the Nationale-Nederlanden Building in Prague by Frank
Gehry [12], or more recently the Spencer Dock Bridge in Dublin
by Future Systems [13]. The formwork inlays needed to erect such
structures are generally fabricated by milling a homogeneous block
of foam or wood into shape with a CNC router—a production
method which allows almost any form to be made. Despite the
costs and energy consumption resulting from the extensive milling
process and the waste produced by their disposal after a single use,
this wasteful and expensive production process is until date the
most efficient technique for making custom formwork for concrete
constructions with complex geometries.
With regard to these problems, a number of companies and
research institutions have developed innovative approaches that
combine digital technology with static formwork systems, such as
those developed by PERI [14], a German producer of traditional
scaffolding systems; ADAPA6 a Danish spin off company for
adaptive concrete construction; or TailorCrete, 7 a research project
of the Chair for Architecture and Digital Fabrication at ETH
Zurich.
PERI 8 has introduced a flexible mould system illustrated in
Fig. 1 which is ideal for the construction of single curved elements,
beginning with a minimal radius of 1 m. The system applies a
re-adjustable scaffold system onto which e.g. fibreboards, metal
plates or plywood can be bent and attached in one direction. For
very low curvature, fibreboards can be bent in two directions.
This requires a lot of expertise and is complicated to execute.
5 The invention of ‘‘ferror cementi’’ consisted of various layers of metal netting
formed by small diameter (1 mm or less) steel wire, where mortar was pressed
into by using a trowel for the production of non-standard structural panels. The
invention is further described in the article [11].
6 Also described at: www.adapa.dk. (Accessed on 26. 01. 2014.)
7 For further information: http://dfab.arch.ethz.ch/web/d/forschung/164.html33.
8 For further information on PERI flexible formwork system [15].
 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design (
Fig. 1. Flexible formwork system from PERI© .
The system of PERI is applied for the construction of silos, water
tanks, pipes or recently for buildings such as ADAC Headquarters
in Munich, by Sauerbruch and Hutton, a building consisting of a
curved 5-storey plinth with an 18-storey curved tower [16,15].
For the construction and planning of such geometries PERI has
developed a software tool for architects and planners, which allows
to optimize a structure according to a feasible formwork division,
hence a software which has the potential of influencing both
the design and construction process in the early design phase.9
Nonetheless the formwork system is limited to creating single
curvatures.
Another system for a flexible formwork is developed by ADAPA.
This system aims to efficiently prefabricate non-structural double-
curved concrete façade panels. The flexible mould consists of
a membrane that is supported and adjusted by CNC controlled
actuators. The membrane is flexible enough to form smooth double
curved shapes and stiff enough to avoid sagging between the
actuators under the load of the concrete. The concrete is first
poured on the planar surface—after it has cured for a while
the actuators deform the surface into the defined double curved
geometry [18].
To obtain optimal results and avoid cracks a precise timing
and control of the viscosity of the concrete is required. This poses
a major challenge to the fabrication system since it is difficult
to precisely quantify the precise time to shape due to the fact
that concrete hydration is sensitive to the smallest environmental
changes. Nonetheless this system demonstrates a high potential
for an integrated digital design and production technique for
producing a large variation of double curved panel elements,
without the need for a custom formwork.
A similar approach is taken by the research project TailorCrete,
for which a digitally controlled flexible mould was also developed.
But in difference to ADAPA this system aims for an in-situ
construction of double curved structural elements. Instead of
casting the concrete directly on the mould, TailorCrete uses the
flexible mould to cast recyclable double-curved formwork inlays
made of wax. These wax inlays are subsequently brought on
site and applied onto a standard static formwork system. This
innovative system for the construction of complex double-curved
concrete structures combines the advantages of standardized
modular in-situ formwork technology with the efficient and
waste-free production of recyclable wax formwork inlays [19].
The systems described are not exactly comparable. While
PERI is a leading supplier of formwork technologies for the
9 For further information [17], Peri software, ELPOS and PERI CAD for formwork and
scaffolding planning.
) – 3
construction industry which limits its flexible mould catalogue
to single curvature structures, ADAPA, a recently started spin-
off company, limit its catalogue to non-structural double curved
panels. In contrast to these already available technologies Tailor
Crete, although it is an on-going research project that has not
yet reached industrial applicability, has the potential to raise the
productivity of the flexible mould by allowing a high throughput
of prefabricated reusable formwork inlays with complex geometry
and thus to reduce the cost price per element produced. Despite
the differences of the three projects, they all demonstrate how
contemporary digital technologies can integrate with century-
old techniques for the economically and ecologically sustainable
fabrication of complex concrete structures.
3. Concrete extrusion in conjunction with digital fabrication
3.1. Concrete extrusion
In a concrete extrusion process, still formable concrete is
continuously pressed through a die10 or nozzle of a predefined
cross-section. The complexity of the produced elements depends
on the geometry of the used die. One of the first concrete
extruders was invented in 1884 and applied for the construction
of underground conduits [21].
Today concrete extrusion is used for both on-site production
and prefabrication of concrete elements. Common examples here
are large scale pipe elements and pre-stressed elements such as
hollow floor slabs [22]. For on-site construction this technique
is extensively used for extrusion of curb stones and paving of
roads [23]. In a larger scale this technique has recently been
reinvented for the construction of the twin-tube metro line in
Lyon [24], for which a tunnel boring machine (TBM), with an
circumference of ∼6.5 m extruded 300 mm thick steel-reinforced
concrete for the construction of a 350 m long tunnel. This in-situ
construction system could in future reduce the need for transport
and production of prefabricated elements commonly used in the
tunnel construction.
In summary, concrete extrusion is today mainly applied for pro-
ducing simple geometrical forms. The use of this technique for the
production of complex concrete structures has only recently ex-
plored in research context through layer based extrusion systems.
3.2. Digital technology in conjunction with extrusion systems
Only about one decade ago, architectural research projects
began to combine concrete extrusion with digital fabrication
techniques for the construction of complex concrete structures.
Such approaches, which in principle correspond to scaling up a
desktop 3D-printer to the size of a building, have nonetheless
transformed the mono layered extrusion process into a system
that allows extruding multi-layered concrete elements in complex
geometrical shapes.
One of the pioneers of this system is Prof. Behrokh Khoshnevis
from the University of Southern California, whose project Contour
Crafting [25] uses a digitally controlled die which extrudes a
rather dry cementitious material against trowels in layers of about
10 cm. The system is constrained by the fact that the deposited
material must harden enough to sustain the weight of the next
deposited layer. This creates a particular challenge on the bonding
of the layers, putting various constraints in terms of the size,
height and geometrical freedom of the elements that can be
10 Die is the term used in the extrusion industry. The term refers to shaping tool
which the material is forces through when it is still in a formable state [20].
4 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design (
Fig. 2. Left, Peavey–Haglin experimental concrete grain elevator, St. Louis Park, 1908 [29,30]. Right: Manually driven slipform [31].
produced. Nevertheless, this technique has succeeded in producing
wall elements 2 m high with a width of 13.5 cm, at a speed of
approximately one square metre per hour [26–28].
A similar approach is taken in the project Free Form Construction
at the Construction Research Centre at Loughborough University.
However, unlike Contour Crafting, this research project applies a
wet concrete mixture in thinner layers ranging from 6 to 24 mm.
As a proof of concept a curved bench was extruded with a footprint
of 2 m by 0.9 m and 0.8 m tall. It consists of 128 layers, extruded
with a velocity of approximately 20 min/layer, which means that
the production time of the bench was about 41 h [20].
These two techniques face three major issues: the first is the
bonding between the layers. The second relates to controlling
the processing and hardening time of the material, which has a
direct impact on the third issue; the long production time. This
resulted in the fact that the systems discussed above are still not
ready for an industrial application. Nevertheless, these layer-based
extrusion techniques hold the promise to develop towards efficient
and environmentally sustainable production techniques, capable
of being employed at an architectural and civil engineering scale.
4. Dynamic formwork systems in conjunction with digital
fabrication
4.1. Slipforming
The dynamic casting process of slipforming was invented in
1899 by the engineer Charles F. Haglin in collaboration with the
grain company owner Frank Peavey. It is a single-step process,
in which the concrete is continuously placed into a delimited
formwork that moves vertically at a velocity set according to
the hydration rate of the concrete, ensuring that the material is
self-supporting when released by the formwork.11 In contrast to
extrusion, the concrete is not forced through the formwork with
pressure.
One of the first known structures erected with this technique is
a 20-m-high reinforced-concrete grain elevator (Fig. 2), for which
the slipforming was driven by hand [29,30].
In 1944, the invention of centrally controlled hydraulic jacks
[32] transformed slipforming into an almost automated casting
system, which enabled to erect tall structures efficiently. Today
11 Jump-forming, which will not be discussed in this text, is often mistaken with
slipforming. But jump-forming is a discontinuous process where the formwork is
jumped or moved to the next level of the construction after the concrete has cured.
Due to high cost jump-forming is mainly applied to simple structures such as cores
and silos, detailed description on Jump-form or Climbing-forms can be found on [6].
) –
slipforming is mostly applied for the construction of tower cores,
bridge piers, power plant cooling towers, chimney shafts, pylons,
the legs of oil-rig-platforms and structural facades of high-rise
buildings [6]. It is notably used to construct some of the tallest free
standing structures in the world, such as the CN Tower in Toronto,
Canada, finished in 1974 [33] or more recently for the 245-m-high
core of the Shard Tower in London [34].
Slipforming is a technique extensively used in practice, as it en-
ables a faster rate of construction with little use of formwork. How-
ever, it is constrained with respect to the freedom necessary for
producing complex concrete geometries. Furthermore, this tech-
nique is generally limited to structures taller than 10 m, because of
high initial set-up costs.
Re-evaluating this robust and efficient construction technique
in conjunction with digital fabrication could not only make this
system economically viable for smaller structures, but also help to
unlock the freedom of forming, which is inherent in dynamic pro-
cesses. Such an approach promises an almost waste-free construc-
tion technique for complex concrete structures.
4.2. Smart Dynamic Casting: a robotic slipforming process
Smart Dynamic Casting is a novel patented fabrication process
resulting from an interdisciplinary research conducted by the re-
search groups of Prof. Dr. Flatt, Prof. Dr. Hermann and Prof. Gra-
mazio & Prof. Kohler at ETH Zurich,12 which has pioneered the first
known combination of slipforming with digital fabrication tech-
niques [37].
In this process a formwork, significantly smaller than the struc-
tures produced, is attached to a 6-axis robotic arm. The robotic arm
replaces the hydraulic jacks commonly used in slipforming, allow-
ing for precise control of velocity and movement in space. This en-
hanced robotic control is informed by the physical properties of the
material, which are monitored by a feedback system measuring the
setting and hardening kinetics of the concrete and allowing for op-
timal formability during the very delicate phase when the material
changes from being soft to hard. In this process the complex dy-
namic relationship of the formwork’s geometry, its trajectory and
the rheological properties of the material are directly determining
the possible geometrical results.
As such, SDC integrates the material properties and the dynamic
nature of the process as design parameters, allowing for the
fabrication of complex and custom shapes, which would otherwise
require custom-made formwork for the production of each
12 Further information: [35] Gramazio F., K.M., Lloret Kristensen E., Flatt
R.J., http://dfab.arch.ethz.ch/web/e/forschung/223.html, in www.dfab.arch.ethz.ch.
2012. [36] Shahab, A., http://www.ifb.ethz.ch/pcbm/people/ashahab. 2012.
 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design (
Fig. 3. The research method for the development of the robotic slipforming process.
Iteratively conducted experiments produce the knowledge on the morphology of
possible geometries D; as well as their dependencies upon robotic fabrication—
movement and shape of the formwork C; and material properties A. In the current
research, the robot’s movement is directly responding to inline measurements of
the evolving material properties (discontinuous line). As more complex geometries
are investigated, material modelling through computer simulation B will mediate
between the measured material properties and the robots movement.
individual element. This promises an efficient and inherently waste
free fabrication technique for complex custom concrete structures.
4.3. Research process and experiments
With SDC, the possible formal and structural spectrum of the
fabricated element is defined by the trajectory and velocity of the
formwork in relation to hydration rate of the concrete applied. The
applied research method shown in Fig. 3 consists of empirically
conducted experiments aimed at understanding the mutual
relationship between material properties, material simulation
and digital fabrication. Through multiple production iterations of
physical architectural prototypes, possible morphologies can be
identified and validated.
This paper discusses two groups of experiments. The first
group, which was needed to kick-start the research, focused on
identifying the narrow time frame in which a high strength fibre
reinforced and self-compacting concrete is both formable and
self-sustaining. The second set of experiments focused on the
implementation of a new concept which integrates a custom made
feedback system to guide production in accordance to the material
strength evolution of a heavily retarded fibre reinforced concrete.
The material applied has been developed during the thesis project
Formwork Free Concrete13 as well as in the on-going research of
SDC. Details of the material can be found in the first published
paper on this issue by Shahab et al. [39].
4.4. Initial experiments: compression and velocity
To prove the fundamental feasibility of the process and
to collect first insights in the material behaviour, the initial
13 The initial experiments revealed challenges in the formability when using a
single batch of fibre reinforced concrete. To solve this problem PI of SDC Prof. Dr.
R. J. Flatt, proposed to use a highly retarded concrete which was subsequently
accelerated over time. Based on the concrete used in the first experiments a retarded
fibre reinforced concrete was developed. This was done during the Bachelor Thesis
project supervised by Prof. Dr. R. J. Flatt, Sara Mantellato, Amir Reza Shahab and
Ena Lloret Kristensen [38], p. 63. In this same bachelor project a validation of new
measuring method for the static yield stress, replaced the large scale compression
test with a digital penetrometer. The digital penetrometer is currently used for the
feedback system discussed in 4.5.
) – 5
Fig. 4. The graph shows an example of a test sequence where the red curve shows
increasing force over time. The starting time of the compression is depending on
the material design and is therefore not indicated with a specified time in the
graph. In period A the section was not yet self-supporting; in B the material was
self-supporting, formable, and easy to remove from the mould. In period C the
material started to crack and was no longer formable, generating high friction when
removing the mould.
experiments focused on the curing time needed for any column
section of the selected concrete to support itself, as well as the
additional load bearing capacity of a column section once the
formwork was removed. In the second stage, this was validated
on a prototypical scale in the robotic slipforming process, which
aimed at producing a series of curved column sections using a
cylindrical rigid formwork.
4.4.1. Compression tests
The compression load tests were performed on a Zwick ma-
chine,14 with specimens produced using a cylindrical PVC form-
work (d = 200 mm, h = 200 mm) with a lubricated inlay.
After mixing one batch of 80 L, the fresh concrete was cast
into 8 individual cylindrical formworks of 10 L each. After the
material had hydrated just enough to self-sustain the formwork
was manually slipped off from the first specimen. The specimen
was then placed centrally in the Zwick machine, whereafter
pressure was applied vertically onto the column with a constant
velocity of 5 mm/min. The test would run until a maximum force
had been reached which was determined by a decrease in the force
resistance or by visual observation of cracks. In the same tests
sequence the additional 7 specimens where subsequently slipped
manually and compressed in time intervals of 5 min over a period
of 40 min.
The results of the experiments allowed to identify three
distinct periods and material states, which are summarized in
Fig. 4.
4.4.2. Velocity of the slipping formwork
The compression test results served to determine the time
frame in which a column section can sustain its own weight
without formwork as well as its load capacity in that mo-
ment. Based on this, slipping times were selected for a series of
robotic slipforming experiments. These aimed at understanding
the formability of the concrete and identifying the ideal velocity
for slipping and shaping. Following an overview of the experimen-
tal methodology along with the major finding is described:
For these preliminary experiments a cylindrical steel formwork
with a diameter of 200 mm and a height of 1000 mm, coated
14 Zwick, refers to a testing machine which is used for the standard testing of
tensile and compression tests on a large variety of materials. Further information
can be found on [40].
6 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design (
with a lubricant foil of polypropylene, was attached to a 6-axis
robotic arm shown in Fig. 5. For each experiment a batch of
30 l of fibre reinforced self-compacting concrete was mixed and
placed to a height of 600 mm in the formwork. After a resting
time of approximately 130 min the robotic slipforming would
start.
Fig. 5. The 6-axis robotic arm with a cylindrical slip formwork attached.
For each experiment the formwork was slipped along the same
curved trajectory as illustrated in Fig. 6. To evaluate an optimal
speed for slipping and shaping the time-based evolvement of
the formworks velocity was individually programmed for each
experiment based on the following rules: slow in the beginning,
allowing the material to gain strength, then accelerating after
the material could carry more than its own weight. The iterative
experiments allowed fine-tuning of the velocity parameters
empirically.
In summary, the experiments allowed to draw the following
conclusions:
• velocity A: too high in the initial phase causes the material to
creep
• velocity B: too low, hydration advances too much in the mould
and generates too much friction and therefore breakages occur
• velocity C: the optimal velocity, slow in the beginning, to allow
the material to obtain the strength with an exponential velocity,
adjusted to setting of the mixture used.
Despite the discrete curvatures in the columns and the occur-
rence of creep and cracks, these experiments were still considered
as successful, since they identified the narrow time frame in which
the selected concrete is both formable and self-supporting. The re-
sults revealed an ideal velocity distribution along the slipforming
trajectory (Figs. 6 and 7), which enabled the fabrication of a first
Fig. 6. Left: graph showing the velocity curves A–C, in relation to the height of three experiments. Right: illustration of the results.
) –
Fig. 7. The images from left to right A, B, C are representative to the speed of
production discussed in Fig. 6.
column 650 mm tall in 19 min. This is more than 100 times faster
than the previously discussed layer-based techniques.
Additionally, the experiments revealed that the fibre reinforced
concrete could only be formed optimally for approximately 15 min
after the period of time where the material is sufficiently formable
and self-sustaining. After this period, friction in the formwork is
significant resulting in cracks. Hence, the experiments showed
the necessity of developing concrete in which hydration can be
controlled over time in order to maintain an optimal formability
during the entire production.
4.5. Current experiments: feedback, formwork, dynamic formability
In order to respond to the limitations in particular in re-
gards to the formability in the initial experiments, a new concept
was introduced. The concept employs retarded fibre reinforced
self-compacting concrete. In addition it applies a custom-made
feedback system which measures the material properties during
production. Finally, it introduces a new formwork system, which
allows to easily modify the cross section of the formwork and thus
to investigate different geometries. The concept has been tested
and has allowed fabricating columns with an elliptical section ro-
tated through 180◦ over its 1800 mm height. Recently this concept
has also been used to produce columns with different geometries.
4.5.1. Experimental setup
The 1:1 experiments described in the following chapter uses
the production process, illustrated in Fig. 8: A; a large batch of
retarded fibre reinforced self-compacting concrete is prepared. As
the production starts the batch is divided into smaller batches
and accelerated at different times with dosages of accelerator B;
the batches of accelerated material are sequentially placed into
the formwork E; simultaneously a small sample of the batch is
placed into an feedback system, consisting of a digitally controlled
penetrometer, measuring the setting and hardening kinetics of
the material C; the data measured by the feedback system on the
 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design (
physical material reflect the properties of the material inside the
formwork. The feedback system continuously sends real time data
regarding the material properties via a custom program D; which
automatically adjusts the slipping velocity of the formwork along
the path E; and doses the accelerator of the subsequent batch in
accordance with the current hydration of the concrete batch inside
the formwork.
Fig. 8. Schematic illustration of the experimental setup.
4.5.2. Material feedback system
To trace the period of time during which the material changes
from soft to hard the production process relies on continuous
measurement of the material strength evolution, in order to
guide production. The measurements determine when to start the
production, with which velocity to slip and shape as well as when
to add accelerator to the next batch and place it in the formwork.
Fig. 9. Penetrometer attached to tri-axial table. Data regarding the material properties are sent to the robotic control system.
) – 7
The integrated custom-made feedback system consists of
a digital penetrometer attached to a digitally controlled tri-
axial table as illustrated in Fig. 9. The model of the mounted
penetrometer is a Mecmesin, (AFG 1000N), using a cylindrical
needle head with a diameter of 19.4 mm and a height 4.1 mm. The
feedback system is controlled via custom software, which performs
two functions simultaneously. First, it measures the material
properties of a batch in time intervals of 5 min by submerging
the needle head into the material with a predefined velocity of
2 mm/s. Second, it automatically transmits the data to the robotic
controlling system, which adjusts the slipping and filling velocity
in accordance with the measured setting kinetics of each batch.
To integrate the feedback system into production, quantitative
and qualitative experiments were conducted. These determined
the load bearing capacities of the material using the penetrometer.
Together with the experiments described in Section 4.4 this served
to define the limiting values of section height, shaping time and
rate as well as their interdependence [39,41].
To produce a column with successive batches two main
conditions must be met. First, when a new batch is cast into the
formwork the already present material must still be soft enough
to bond with the new material casted. Second, adding a batch
must not lead to an excess load that cannot be sustained by
the previously placed batch. These two conditions have opposite
requirements with respect to the rate of placing new material. The
first requires adding accelerator and placing batches at a rate that
allows the lower batch to be soft enough to assure good bonding.
The second requires waiting for the placed batch to have enough
strength to sustain itself, avoiding that the material flows because
of its own weight. This is where the measurements performed by
the feedback system play a crucial role in the decision making
during production. However, to implement the feedback system
in the production process and to validate the quantitative and
qualitative results [38,40] additional 1:1 experiments had to be
conducted.
4.5.3. Dynamic formability
The 1:1 experiments had two major objectives. First of all
to produce an elliptical column with a rotation of 180◦ over its
full height (1800 mm), without cracks or flow of material. This
geometry was selected as it offers a well-defined challenge for
the formability approach, while it nevertheless keeps the problem
within well-defined boundaries. The second objective was to
define the optimal placement rate and height of the batches in
relation to the slipping velocity defined by the feedback system. An
overview of the methodology is given below along with the major
findings.
The 1:1 experiments applied the production process described
in Section 4.5.1. For this set-up a new formwork system was
developed. It consists of a generic space frame into which a
formwork of any geometry can be inserted e.g. a square, star or
triangle. The frame is attached to the robotic arm as illustrated in
Fig. 10. In these experiments an elliptical formwork with a radius
of 125 mm × 80 mm and a height of 600 mm was used.
8 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design ( ) –

Fig. 10. Left: illustration of the elliptical formwork attached to the robotic arm. Right: a top view of the elliptical formwork.

For each experiment the formwork was moved vertically and

rotated by 180◦ over the entire height of the column. As the form-
work was moved layers of accelerated concrete were placed in a
rate defined by the measurement provided by the feedback system.
Each experiment examined a particular batch height, placing rate
and slip velocities. The velocity of the robotic slip forming was syn-
chronized to the hydration kinetics of the concrete by the custom-
made feedback system measuring the material properties in real
time. In summary, the velocities were programmed to slip with:
• slow velocity: 0.4 cm/min when feedback measurements sent a
value between 2–4 N/cm2 . Indicating that the material was too
soft to carry its own weight;
• medium velocity: 1.2 cm/min when feedback measurements
sent a value between 4–6 N/cm2 . Indicating that the material
could carry its own weight, hence the optimal period forming;
• fast velocity: 2.4 cm/min when feedback measurements sent a
value between 6–8 N/cm2 . The material could carry more than
its own weight and started to lose its formability. Fig. 11. Left: The 1800 mm elliptical column with a rotation of 180◦ produced with
successive batches [42]. Right: two stages in the production process [43].
Iterations of experiments allowed to conclude that to obtain
the optimal formability the batches had to be reduced to
4.5.4. Future research
approximately 3–5 cm and placed at intervals of 2–5 min. The
optimal slipping velocity ranged between 1.2 to 2.4 cm/min. Here The aim is to develop SDC into a highly predictable and fully
it is important to emphasize that already small variations in the automated feedback driven fabrication system. To reach this goal
concrete composition and in particular in the room temperature a computer model is currently being developed15 by the group
can modify these variables and make the difference between the of Prof. Dr. Herrmann [44]. At the moment this model functions
layers that would fail (flow or crack) and ones that could be as a conditional tool in the feedback system which predicts the
properly shaped. load capacities of the material in the transition from liquid to solid
However, thanks to both quantitative and qualitative load allowing to precisely predict the dosage of chemical admixtures
analyses of the material in the initial experiments along with the needed, the amount of material to cast and to adjust the robotic slip
development of a custom-made measuring and feedback system, velocity accordingly. In a future perspective the aim is to develop
it was possible to develop a robust production process [20], with this tool to a level that it can be used to automatically control this
which, a large elliptical column without cracks or flow of material production. In addition this tool must function as a digital design
could be produced (as illustrated in Fig. 11). tool in which the physical material and fabrication parameters are
To prove the robustness of the system and to validate the integrated. This will allow planners to explore the design space
formability of the material with other geometries, three cross
while producing rationalized and responsive designs which are in
sections (a square, a cross and again an ellipse with the same
sync with the material properties and fabrication parameters of the
volume) were tested, and were used to produce three full-scale
robotic slipforming system.
columns with the method described in Section 4.5.1. The columns
were slipped in a rotational trajectory of 180◦ around the central A challenge will therefore be to validate and optimize this
axis of the formwork with an average velocity of 1.2 cm/min with simulation model based on quantitative and qualitative analyses
layers of approximately 3–5 cm. The results in Fig. 12 show the gathered through the physical experimentation of this on-going
three columns at their final height of 190 cm. research.
These structures clearly demonstrate that the implementation
of feedback-driven, computer-controlled systems, which can de-
termine the physical properties of the concrete, allows new pro- 15 The program is being developed by Ph.D. student Linus Mettler, specialized in
duction and design processes to be employed for the production of computational physics for building materials in the group of Prof. Dr. H. Herrmann
complex concrete structures. who is also research partner in SDC [45].
 E. Lloret et al. / Computer-Aided Design (
Another major part of the research relates to the material
design, developed in the group of Prof. Dr. Flatt—where a particular
focus will be on the adjustment of the chemical admixtures, their
impact on each other and with the cement hydration.
Last but not least, the current investigation is focused on the
development of a flexible formwork. This formwork should allow
to dynamically adjust the formwork geometry during the slipping
process, hence increasing the range of possible architectural
morphologies and thus radically enlarge the design space of this
robotic fabrication system.
Fig. 12. 3 columns produced with a three variation of formworks [44].
5. Conclusion
The novel fabrication technique presented in this paper, Smart
Dynamic Casting, is the result of an interdisciplinary research effort.
It aims at addressing a novel level of complexity in architectural
fabrication technology by capitalizing on the rapid technological
advances in the field of building material sciences, simulation and
robotic technologies.
One key prerequisite of this fundamental research is the
ability to understand and monitor the hydration process of the
concrete by implementing digitally controlled sensor systems in
line with robotics and thus to precisely control its evolution
through chemical admixtures.
The second prerequisite is the use of a robot. It is this generic
machine that makes it possible to perform precise and digitally
controlled spatial movements far beyond the skill of a human.
The robot, which can be driven by custom-made software, is
able to interlink the physical reality of the complex material
properties of concrete with the processing requirements of this
digital fabrication process, and thus enables to accurately explore
the formability of concrete in the phase when it changes from
liquid to solid. This has allowed to produce precisely shaped
complex column structures in 3D space, in line with the physical
properties of the material, while using a formwork significantly
smaller than the column produced. In these terms SDC genuinely
relates to the idea of ‘‘Digital Materiality’’, which has been
described by Gramazio & Kohler as ‘‘the synthesis of two seemingly
distinct worlds, the digital and the material, generating new, self-
evident realities as soon as data and material, programming and
construction are interwoven’’ [46].
In light of this, SDC promises to become a sustainable and
waste reducing, additive construction technique, combining dig-
ital fabrication systems with an existing and well-established con-
struction method.
Acknowledgements
Based on the initial experiments described in this paper, this
project received an ETH Research Grant ETH-13 12-1 under the
name Smart Dynamic Casting (SDC). Currently SDC is conducted
) – 9
as an interdisciplinary research project within the ETH Zurich
between (PI) Prof. Dr. Flatt (Institute for Building Materials), Prof.
Dr. Fisher (Laboratory of Food Process Engineering); Prof. Gramazio
and Prof. Kohler (Chair of Architecture and Digital Fabrication); and
Prof. Dr. Herrmann (Institute for Building Materials). This grant
provides financial support for Ms. Ena Lloret, Mr. Amir R. Shahab
and Mr. Linus Mettler.
We express our sincere gratitude to all those who have been
and are associated with these efforts in particular for their
remarkable contributions, fruitful discussions and critical reviews.
Heinz Richner, Sara Mantellato, Oliver Glauser, Lex Reiter, René
Käßmann, Andreas Thoma, Beat Lüdi, Adriano Alberti, Lukas
Ambühl, Daniela Christen, Dr. Timothy Wangler, Dr. Ralph Bärtschi,
Dr. Falk Wittel, Prof. Dr. Peter Fischer, and Dr. Jan Willmann.
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