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The control chart for variables has become known popularly as the Xbar & R

Chart. As its name implies, it is used where the inspection data is collected in
actual measurements. Thus the term variables. The chart can be used whenever a
quality characteristic can be reduced to a numerical scale, or the study of other
data which is in numerical form. The field of application for this type of chart is
extremely broad. The following list is included only to illustrate a few types of
applications, in hopes that it will excite the imagination of those who feel "It
can't be used in my work." 1. The temperature of iron, furnaces, air etc.
2. The strength of various products 3. The volume of containers 4. The
weight of packaged goods 5. The moisture content of lumber 6. The size of
formed dimensions 7. The chemical analysis of materials 8. The finish of
metal or glass PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS Before an Xbar & R Chart can be
put to use, certain decisions must be made. The success of the entire program may
depend upon how carefully these decisions are reached. Among the factors which must
be determined are: (1) What characteristic is to be used for study? (2) How often
should the checks be made? (3) How should the items be selected for checking? (4)
How many observations should be made at each check? (5) What gauges or equipment
will be needed to obtain the measurements? 1. Often it is difficult to
determine just what characteristics should be analyzed by Xbar & R Charts. For
instance, in turning a shaft to a certain size, we may also have to consider other
characteristics. We may be interested in the concentricity of the turned surface,
the parallelism of the turned surface with some other surface, the finish of the
surface, the run-out of the outside diameter with regard to centers or some other
diameter. It must be determined just which characteristics are important to the
specific shaft and then set up a separate control chart for each one to be studied.
2. Depending upon the characteristics to be studied, the frequency of checks
must be determined. Should a check be made every fifteen minutes, every four hours,
every other day? How frequently is it necessary that checks be made? This problem
basically becomes one of economics, balancing the cost of frequent checks against
the losses which may occur if the checks are not made often enough. No single
formula can possibly be determined to analyze the conditions peculiar to each
application. This decision must be based upon a knowledge of the process and with
an eye to ultimate It should be noted here that any fixed time of check should
be avoided. Let us assume that we desire hourly checks. Rather than to specifying a
check each hour on the hour, it is better to permit a certain amount of leeway.
This keeps the operators on their toes by eliminating the anticipation of a check
and may also balance out affects which operate in hourly cycles. Sometimes a
time schedule may be replaced by a production schedule. Rather than to check every
hour, the decision may be made to check after every one hundred pieces have been
produced. Many times this has benefits which exceed a time schedule. 3.
Whenever there is a group of items to be checked, a plan must be established to
eliminate any bias. The sample must be selected at random from the group. This
means that each and every item should have the same chance of being selected. This
often presents a problem which, however, may be overcome by proper planning.
When a check is made, how many observations should be involved? How large should
the sample be? This problem could be extremely difficult and would be cumbersome if
a theoretically correct size were desired. From a practical standpoint, it has been
simplified by commonly setting the sample size at 4, 5, or 6, and then adjusting
the frequency of check to obtain the desired control. This introduces a concept
which must be mastered to efficiently apply statistical quality control. A
constant-percentage sample does give equal quality assuredness at various sizes of
lots. A sample of 100 out of 1000 items is a far more stringent examination than is
5 out of 50, although both are 10% samples. Most Xbar & R Charts are based on a
sample size of 5. Only rarely does a person observe other sample sizes, even though
the size of the group from which the sample was taken may vary greatly. 5. The
gauging equipment or testing apparatus must be reviewed to insure that it
accurately measures the characteristic desired. The user of the equipment must be
certain that it is correctly calibrated and properly used. The decisions reached
from an analysis of the Xbar & R Chart can be no better than the data collected. If
the data is subject to bias or errors of measurement, the data is worse than
useless--it is misleading. The success of the entire quality control program is
dependent upon the care and consideration given the collection of the data. THE
Xbar & R DATA SHEET It is difficult to overemphasize the importance and need
for adequate information on the data sheet. Such information should include an
adequate description of the part, operation performed, location of the operation,
the specification and other pertinent inspection information necessary to
intelligently interpret the data. There is an example of a data sheet on the
page following this section. It contains data for an example of construction of an
Xbar & R Chart. Perhaps some of the symbols need explaining. The symbols
X(1),X(2),X(3),X(4),X(5) (read X sub-one, sub-two, etc.) indicate the order of
measurement for each value. Xbar is the average of the values. R is the range, or
variation of the X values. Note also that there are spaces for 20 samples. Initial
calculations should be made on no less than 20 samples. It will also be noted
that the X values are recorded as plus or minus values with some occurring as a
value of 0. This is a procedure called CODING. It involves selecting a value,
usually
the specified dimension, and recording the number of measurement
units the actual dimension varies from the selected value. This
permits calculations to be much simpler than those using the actual dimension yet
it is possible to obtain the actual dimension if needed. In our example the
measuring increment is 0.0001 and the nominal dimension is 2.1815". In the first X1
we see a +2. This means that the dimension was actually 2.1815 + 0.0002 or 2.1817".
The five coded values in the first sample are +2, -1, 0 +2, +2. The sum of these is
+5 and the average is +1.0. This value was placed in the X column. The range for
the first sample is -1 to +2 or 3. This value is then placed in the R column. This
procedure is continued until the average (Xbar) and range (R) has been calculated
and recorded for all twenty samples. THE Xbar & R CHART After all the
Xbar's and R's have been calculated and checked, we are ready to plot the chart. We
will plot both the averages and the ranges in the order they were obtained. This
involves two independent scales, although both charts are frequently shown on the
same graphing sheet. A representative form of an Xbar & R Chart is shown
following the sample data form. Notice that the same headings have been included as
were shown on the data sheet. Proper interpretation of the Xbar & R Chart depends
on a review of all pertinent information. Some forms include the data colection on
the same sheet as the charts. An example of such forms is provided in the appendix.
You will observe that there are two separate charts. The upper section of the graph
is labled "Averages" for Xbar's, and the lower section is labled "Ranges" for R's.
At the bottom of the sheet is a horizontal scale labled "Sample Number." This
indicates that the plottings are to be made in order of time. The first sample Xbar
and R are plotted on the first verticle line. The first Xbar is +1.0 and R is
3. Therefore, on the top portion of the charts we will circle the point where the
horizontal line representing +1.0 intersects the verticle line on the R Chart, the
point representing the range of 3 is circled. The Xbar and R values for the next
sample are plotted and a short line is drawn between the two Xbar plots and also
between the two R plots. This procedure is followed until all twenty values of
Xbar's and R's have been plotted. ANALYSIS OF THE Xbar AND R CHART After 20
to 30 plottings have been made on both the Xbar and R Charts, the data is ready to
be analyzed. This procedure consists of calculating center lines and control limits
for both charts. 1. The Average Range, R (Rbar) The first center line we
will calculate is the center line for the range chart. This line represents the
average of the ranges. The sum (Upper case Greek sigma [ ]) of all the ranges (R)
may be obtained from the data sheet and divided by the number (k) of samples
summed. Locate this value on the Range chart and draw a solid line across the
entire chart. A good check at this time is to observe the number of plottings above
and below this line. There should be approximately the same number of plottings
above as below. Calculations for the R Chart should be made first so as to
determine the control status of the variability of the data collected. 2.
Control Limits for Ranges At this point we are able only to observe how the R
values cluster about the center line. We need to determine the amount of spread
considered normal for this set of data. To do this we need to calculate the upper
and lower CONTROL LIMITS. These limits are normally set at +/- 3SD's of Rbar.
Mathematicians have made this calculation easy. From the table on the back of the
Xbar and R Chart in the appendix we see that the control limits are calculated by
multiplying Rbar by a value from the chart. Upper Control Limit (Range) =
UCL(R)= D(4)Rbar The Lower Control Limit for samples of 6 or less is 0 so there
is no need to calculate this value. Any text on quality control will explain the
factor to be used for samples larger than 6. The calculated value for UCL(R) is
located on the R Chart and a dashed line at this level is drawn across its length.
At this point we can see degree of "control" which exists with respect to the
range. If any plots are above the control line, a study should be conducted to
determine if an assignable cause can be attributed to the plot. If a cause can be
identified, the data for that plot should be removed and the calculations redone.
We are trying to establish a normal pattern of variation at this stage and any
abnormal variation will contribute errors to the remaining calculations. 3. The
Grand Average. Xbar (Xdouble bar) This represents the average of the averages
and is an estimate of the average of the total population of values generated by
the process. It is found by summing the averages and dividing by the number of
averages. Xdouble bar = sumXbar/k When using coded data, care must be
taken because of the positive and negative values. One way to avoid problems is to
summ all the + values and all the - values separately. Disregarding the sign,
subtract the smaller sum from the larger sum and take the + or - sign of the larger
sum. This value is now plotted as a solid line across the Xbar chart. Here too, the
plots should be evenly distributed on each side of the center line.

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