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MEASUREMENT OF NOISE
Analog:
VAR(x)
Operation to be performed:
integrator: condensator
3-1
- filtering out high frequency components
<x> ∼ X(f=0)
RMS or VAR:
<x2>
3-2
p(x):
3-3
3.1.2. Measurement of spectral density
Problem:
Method:
measurement
3-4
3.1.3. Measurement of correlation
- direct measurement:
Problems:
processes
3-5
3.2. Digital measurements and digital signal
processing
Why digital?
measurements
Basic function:
3-6
3-7
Advantages:
- high precision
- easy isolation
- no aging
Applications:
- digital instrumentation
3-8
Resolution: 6..24 bits
Speed: 1Hz..1GHz
3-9
3.2.1.2. D/A converters (DAC)
Basic function:
3-10
Advantages:
- high precision
Applications:
- digital instrumentation
- digital control
Speed: 100kHz..500MHz
3-11
The R-2R ladder realization:
3-12
3.2.1.3. Digital signal processors (DSP)
Basic function:
Advantages:
to 1600 MIPS)
- digital format:...
function
3-13
3.2.2. Sampled data systems
sampling
3-14
Shannon’s sampling theorem:
∆t < 1/2fmax.
Reconstruction of x(t):
3-15
Proof:
3-16
3-17
3.2.3. Quantization and aperture jitter noise
RMS=ULSB/√12
3-18
Aperture jitter noise
Aperture jitter:
instants
signal)
3-19
3.2.4. Aliasing, antialiasing filters
For example:
f = kfs+∆f
3-20
Solution:
- oversampling
- filtering
3-21
Measurement system with anti-aliasing filter
Examples:
between 20kHz..22kHz
3-22
3.2.5. Using aliasing for frequency
conversion
3-23
3.2.6. Measurement of probability and p(x)
unimportant.
spectrum
Data:
- amplitude quantization
3-24
3.2.7.1. DFT, FFT
Method:
3-25
3-26
3-27
3.2.8. Window functions
If:
- Measurement time: T
- Periodic signal: T’
- T≠nT’, n integer
-> sideeffects
signal
3-28
- destroys resolution for T=nT’ correlated
sampling
- rectangular
w(t) = 1, if 0<t<T
- triangular
- Hann
w(t) ∼ 1-cos(2πt/T)
- Hamming
3-29
- Blackmann-Harris
q=2πt/T
- Gaussian
3-30
3-31
3.2.9. Time dependent spectral analysis
3.2.9.1. Wavelets
3-32
3.2.9.2. Windowed FFT
3-33
3.2.10. Measurement of special quantities
E.g.:
probability densities
- etc.
3-34
3.3. Small signal and low noise
measurements
- non-stationarity
- preamplifier noise
coupled noise
- quantization noise
3-35
- thermal fluctuations
- etc.
Opamp:
noise ratio
3-36
Noise voltage Multiplied by
Noise of Rs = Vs 1+R2/R1
Current noise in Rs 1+R2/R1
Voltage noise VN 1+R2/R1
Noise of R1 = V1 -R2/R1
Noise of R2 = V2 1
Current noise in R2 1
3-37
Total noise power spectral density referred to
the output:
where G=1+R2/R1.
3-38
Optimal choices:
<1nV/√Hz, 1..4pA/√Hz
3-39
3.3.2. Bandwidth considerations
<x2>=So BW π/2
3-40
3.3.3. External noise sources
- radio, TV broadcast
- lightning
- computers, monitors
- electric motors
- ignition
3-41
- thermal effects (thermocouples)
3-42
3.3.4. Noise reduction techniques
Example:
3-43
3.3.4.2. Paralelling systems
amplifiers
3-44
RMS value:
Sxy(f)=Sss(f)
3-45
3.3.4.3. Reducing source and other
impedances
S(f)=4kTR
S(f)=4kTRe(X)
S(f)=Sc(f)R
- source
3-46
3.3.4.4. Using lock-in techniques
- AC excitations of a bridge
amplifier
Example:
SNR=10µV/1.6mV=0.00625
3-47
Using a very good bandpass filter:
SNR=10µV/50µV=0.2
SNR=10µV/0.5µV=20
3-48
- analog realizations
3-49
3.3.5. Reducing external noise
3-50
Reducing inductively coupled noise:
3-51
- high permeability metals for LF fields
3-52
For long transmission lines:
- differential drivers/receivers
- current transmitters
- digitize first
3-53
3.3.6. Noise shaping
Example:
interest
reduction
3-54
3-55
Σ∆ A/D converter:
- noise shaping
3-56