Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Trainer
Order Code – 46585
Table of Contents
01 SPECIFICATIONS .............................................................................................................. 03
03 THEORY ............................................................................................................................. 11
04 OBJECTS
05 GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................... 62
SPECIFICATIONS
Order Code 46585 Transmission Line is the key learning concept for Electrical Engineers.
Transmission Line Training System is exclusively designed to deliver the learning aspects of the
electrical transmission line. Digital display is provided for easy measurement of Voltage, Current,
Power, Power Factor, etc. These parameters help students to learn the characteristics of
transmission line and calculations of the ABCD, H, Z parameters.
Students can perform various objects like short, medium and long transmission line and their
behavior. Also one of the important object which can be performed with this training system is
Ferranti Effect.
OBJECT
01 To study Short Circuit, Medium, Long Transmission Line
02 Determine the ABCD, H, Z and Image parameters of Short Transmission Line
03 Determine the ABCD, H, Z and Image parameters of Medium Transmission Line
For T network
For p network
04 Determine the ABCD, H, Z and Image parameters for Long Transmission Line
05 Measure the receiving end voltage of each line under no load or lightly load condition to
understand Ferranti effect
06 Understand the performance of transmission line under different loads
FEATURES
01 240 x 128 Graphical LCD Display
02 RISC Microcontroller based design for measurement
03 Simultaneous display of sending and receiving parameters
04 Highly sensitive to change in reading for better controlling
05 High Resolution ADC for accurate measurement
06 Inbuilt Single Phase Variac to regulate supply
07 Equipped with fixed R, L & C Load
08 Facility to configure Short, Medium & Long Transmission Line using multiple value of R, L & C
09 Designed by considering all the safety standards
10 Diagrammatic representation for the ease of connections
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
Input : 230V
Output : 0-270V
Current : 2A
Display Measurement
Voltage : ≥ 25V
Current : ≥ 0.2A
Loads
Inductor : 800mH/ 0. 5A
SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS
03 Fire resulting from over-heated wires, appliances or electric fixtures. So always use wires and
electrical devices with correct specifications to avoid heating. The thicker wire is required to
carry large current.
Following are some safety measures which should always be followed while working with electric
system.
02 After turning a circuit OFF, it's a good idea to check it again to be sure even it is OFF. Never
assume that the circuit is OFF!
03 If any part of the device is damaged, it should not be used and get repaired immediately.
04 Never attempt electrical repairs or rewiring without proper experience. Always inform your
supervisor and consult supplier.
05 All tools and electric equipments should be unplugged when not in use and stored in dry areas.
06 Tools and components must be clean and in good condition, with no cracks or exposed wires.
Never use a patch chord whose wires are exposed. Use of such types of patch chords can
cause shock and severe injuries.
07 Avoid direct contact with the floor. Always wear rubber sole shoes. The rubber that you're
wearing will prevent the electricity from creating complete circuit using your body as a path to the
ground.
08 Always refer user manual of the equipment under use
09 Never use electrical devices or circuits if they are wet.
10 Use three-pronged plugs instead of two-pronged ones. The third prong (below the top two)
"grounds" the appliance. When a device is grounded, if it fails, the circuit will blow out
immediately instead flowing to other places. So, whenever possible, use appliances that have
three prongs unless it is stated in user manual to use 2 Pronged Plugs or provided with the
equipment. Always refer user manual of the equipment under use. Electricity cannot travel
through rubber. So, while using equipments that are potentially faulty or not grounded (no three-
pronged plugs), wear strong rubber gloves.
11 Wires should never be run under carpets, wooden blocks, wet areas because if wire heats due
to over current, It may fuse and cause fires.
12 Chords should be firmly plugged into outlets - if the cord is loose it can cause spark and can
damage the instrument.
13 Do not pull the cord. Always turn off the machine and then pull the plug. In this way, you keep
your electrical appliances in working order and avoid a possible short circuit.
14 It's dangerous to put too many plugs into an outlet. Most household extension cords and wall
adapters will only allow you to place up to six plugs to an outlet. If you use more than six plugs,
the risk of power overloads and fires due to the wires getting too hot increases.
Till Now we have learned to follow the safety rules while using Electrical Circuits and Power Supplies.
01 Shut off the current at the power box. Turn off the current at the circuit breaker or fuse box. This
is the preferred option.
02 If no shut off is immediately available, use a non-conducting item to move the victim, such as a
wooden broomstick, blanket, or rope. If they are holding onto a wire or other conductor, attempt
to knock their hand(s) free with a wooden or non conducting stick or dry towel.
IMMEDIATELY CALL AN AMBULANCE OR DOCTOR TO START THE VICTIM’S TREATMENT.
If the victim is unconscious, check to see if he is breathing and have a pulse. Electric shocks may
knock the person unconscious, halt their breathing, and stop the heart. If the victim is not breathing,
apply artificial breathing.
Do not attempt to move the victim unless they are in further danger. Other injuries may have occurred
that you are unaware of.
Cover the victim in a blanket and stay with him until help arrives. Do not leave him alone. Take steps
to prevent the severity of shock.
Read the following safety instructions carefully before operating the instrument. To avoid any
personal injury or damage to the instrument or any product connected to the instrument.
Do not operate the instrument if you suspect any damage within or the supply is not within
below specified limits
Observe input supply : To avoid any unexpected things, check whether single phase or
three phase balanced supply appears correctly.
THEORY
An electric power system is a network of electric components used to supply, transmit and use
electric power. Power system can be broadly divided into:
01 Generation system
02 Transmission system
03 Distribution system
01 Generation system:-
Electric power generating stations are used to provide bulk electric power economically. Power can
be generated using different methods. According to the method used for power generation, power
generating stations can be of following types:-
01 Steam power generation station
02 Hydro power generation station
03 Diesel power generation station
04 Nuclear power station
05 Gas turbine power station
Distribution systems:-
Distribution systems feed the power to nearby homes and industries. These systems are simply
formed by the local wiring between high voltage substation and customers.
Electric power transmission line or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk transfer of
electrical energy, from generating power plants to substations located near to population centers.
This is distinct from the local wiring between high voltage substations and customers, which is
typically referred to as electricity distribution.
Transmission Line
In many electric circuits, the length of the wires connecting the components can be ignored for the
most part. That is, the voltage on the wire at a given time can be assumed to be the same at all
points. However, when the voltage changes in a time interval comparable to the time it takes for the
signal to travel down the wire, the length becomes important and the wire must be treated as a
transmission line. Stated another way, the length of the wire is important when the signal includes
frequency components with corresponding wavelengths comparable to or less than the length of the
wire.
The line voltage V(x) and the current I(x) can be expressed in the frequency domain as
v(x)
= - (R+JωL) I (x)
x
i(x)
= - (G+JωC) V (x)
x
When the elements R and G are negligibly small the transmission line is considered as a lossless
structure. In this hypothetical case, the model depends only on the L and C elements which greatly
simplify the analysis. For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state Telegrapher's
equations are:
2 V(x)
+ ω2 LC . V (x) = 0
x 2
2Ix
+ ω2 LC . I (x) = 0
x2
These are wave equations which have plane waves with equal propagation speed in the forward and
reverse directions as solutions. The physical significance of this is that electromagnetic waves
propagate down transmission lines and in general, there is a reflected component that interferes with
the original signal. These equations are fundamental to transmission line theory.
2 Vx
= 2 V (x)
x 2
2Ix
= 2 I (x)
x 2
Where
= R+jL G+jC
And the characteristic impedance is:
R+jL
Z0 =
G+j C
V(x) = V + e- x + V - e x
I(x) =
1
Z0
V + e- x - V - e x
The constants V ± and I± must be determined from boundary conditions. For a voltage pulse Vin (t),
starting at x = 0 and moving in the positive x-direction, the transmitted pulse Vout(x,t) at position x
can be obtained by computing the Fourier transform, V(ω), of Vin (t), .
Characteristic Impedance:
Characteristic impedance of a finite length of line at a given frequency can be derived by taking two
impedance measurements, one with the open circuited end and the other with the short circuited end.
From these, Zo can be calculated as:
Zo = √ (Zoc*Zsc)
Zsc= short Circuit impedance
Zoc= open circuit impedance
Propagation Constant:
= R+jL G+jC = + j
We can also find it in the form of Zoc and Zsc by following formula
γ = √ (Zoc/Zsc)
Parameters:
ABCD Parameter:
In the model or transmission model, we assume V1 and I1 are known, and find V2 and I2 by:
Where V1 and I1 are the input voltage and current respectively and V2 and I2 are the output voltage
and current respectively
V1 = A V 2 + B I 2
I1 = C V2 + D I2
First short circuit the output terminal then V2 becomes zero i.e
B = V 1 / I2 where V2 =0.
D = I1 / I 2 where V2 =0
Now open circuit the output terminal then,
A = V1 / V2 where I2 =0
C = I1 / V 2 where I2 =0
Here A and D are dimensionless coefficients, B is impedance and C is admittance.
H- Parameter: If ABCD parameters are known, then we can easily find “H” parameters by using
following formulas:
H11 = B/D
H12 = (AD – BC)/D
H21 = - 1/D
H22 = C/D
Here H12 and H21 are dimensionless coefficients, H11 is impedance and H22 is admittance.
Z -Parameter: By using ABCD parameters, we can easily get Z parameters by using following
formulae.
Z11= A/C
Z12 = (AD – BC)/ C
Z21 = 1/C
Z22 = D/C
Where Z11, Z12, Z21, Z22 are all impedance.
Image Parameters: The characteristic impedance Zo and the propagation constant. Z0 is the
impedance at the input terminals of the two-port network when the output terminals are matched
(terminated by load impedance Z0). The propagation constant ρ is the natural logarithm of the ratio
(I1/I2), where I1 and I2 are the matched condition terminal currents.
01 Characteristic Impedance Zo
02 Propagation Constant
Characteristic Impedance Zo = √ (Zsc * Zoc)
Propagation Constant ρ = √ (Zsc/Zoc)
Classification of line
Transmission lines are classified as short, medium and long. When the length of the line is less than
about 80Km, the effect of shunt capacitance and conductance is neglected and the line is designated
as a short transmission line.
For medium transmission lines the length of the line is in between 80km - 240km.In this case the
shunt capacitance can be assumed to be lumped at the middle of the line or half of the shunt
capacitance may be considered to be lumped at each end of the line. The two representations of
medium length lines are termed as nominal-T and nominal- π respectively.
Lines more than 240Km long are known as long transmission lines. This classification on the basis of
length is more or less arbitrary and the real criterion is the degree of accuracy required.
Short Transmission Line: Up to 80 Km
In this experiment the capacitances are very small, on the order of 1μF using the equation for the
reactance of a capacitor.
Xc= 1/jwC
This gives an impedance of about 3.2 K ohm which can be considered an open since it is much
greater than any other impedances in this experiment, so the previous diagram?
Equivalent circuit
The equivalent circuit and vector diagram of a short transmission line are shown in the figure
given below? In the equivalent circuit, short transmission line is represented by the lumped
parameters R and L. R is the resistance (per phase), L is the inductance (per phase) of the entire
transmission line. Effect of shunt capacitance and conductance is not considered in the equivalent
circuit. The line is shown to have two ends: sending end (designated by the subscript S) at the
generator, and the receiving end (designated R) at the load.
Here Vs is the sending end voltage corresponding to a particular load current and power factor
condition. It can be seen from the equivalent circuit that the receiving end voltage under no load is
same as the sending end voltage under full load condition i.e. Vr (no load) = Vs.
Where R and X are the per unit values of resistance and reactance of the line, from the equivalent
circuit diagram we can observe that
Vs = Vr + Ir (R + jX) = Vr + IrZ.
Is = Ir
In a four terminal passive network the voltage and current on the receiving end and sending end are
related by following pair of equations
Vs = AVr + BIr
Is = CVr + DIr
Comparing the above two sets of equations, for a short transmission line A=1, B=Z, C=0, D=1. ABCD
constants can be used for calculation of regulation of the line as follows:
A=1
B=Z
C=0
D=1
Medium Transmission Line: The capacitance of medium transmission line is significant. When the
effect of capacitance is not negligible, it may be assume to be concentrated at one or more definite
point along the line. A number of localized model are used to make approximate line performance
calculations. The following models are commonly used.
01 Nominal T model
02 Nominal Pi Model
It should be noted that the nominal T and Pi model are not equivalent representation. They are
different representation of different line.
Nominal T model of a medium line: In nominal T model of a medium line, the total capacitance is
assumed to be concentrated at the middle point of the line, while the series impedance is split into
two equal parts. The nominal T model of medium line is shown below.
When capacitor voltage becomes equal to the output voltage of the transformer, Vc =Vs, and the
voltage across the inductor is zero for an instant Vb=0. However, current is still flowing in the circuit
because the current through an inductor cannot change because property of inductor is that it
opposes the change in current.
In order to do this the voltage across the inductor changes its polarity. Current is now flowing out of
the positive end of the inductor. This current continues to charge the capacitor to a voltage in excess
of the transformer output voltage. The capacitor voltage goes higher than the transformer voltage
because the voltage across the inductor adds to the transformer voltage.
Pi Model of a medium line: The nominal pi model of a medium line assumes that one half of the
total line capacitance is concentrated at each end of the line and the total resistance and inductive
reactance are concentrated on the line. Nominal pi model is shown in figure.
Vr = Vs + VL1 + VL2
Now we have Vr, Is, Vs then the remaining parameter can be calculated by using following formulas
A = Vs / Vr
C = Is / Vr
Long Transmission Line: The term long transmission line refers to the line having its length more
than 240 Km. The capacitance of long transmission line is more than the capacitance of medium and
short transmission line, 400Km long transmission line model is shown in fig.
Ferranti Effect: Long transmission line has a larger capacitance. If such line is open circuited or very
lightly loaded at the receiving end, the magnitude of the voltage at the receiving end become higher
than the voltage at the sending end. This phenomenon is called Ferranti effect. It was first noticed by
Ferranti on overhead line supplying a lightly loaded network, Ferranti effect occurs due to the
charging current of the line.
Charging Current: The value of current at the sending end at no load and normal operating
voltage applied at the sending end is called charging current-?
Proof: Ferranti effect can be explain by considering a normal pi model of the line. Following diagram
OE represent the receiving end voltage, OH represent the current Ic1 through the capacitor C/2 and
voltage Ic1*R across the resistor R as shown by EF. It is in phase with Ic1. The voltage drop across X
is (Ic1*X). It is represented by phasor FG which leads the phasor Ic1 by 90 degree. The phasor OG
represent the sending end voltage Vs under no-load condition. It is seen from the phasor diagram that
Vs<Vr. In other words, the voltage at the receiving end is greater than the voltage at the sending end
when the line is at no load.
In practice the capacitance of the line is not concentrate at some definite points. It is distributed
uniformly along the whole line.
At no load, Ir = 0
Vs = [1 +ZY/2]Vr
Vs-Vr = ZY/2Vr
Z = (r + j ω L)S , Y= j ωCS
If the resistance of the line is neglected,
Z=j ωLS
Vs – Vr = [(j ω LS) (j ωCS) Vr]/2
= - [(ω 2 * S2) LC *Vr]/2……. (1)
Equation (1) shows that Vs -Vr is negative. That is Vr>Vs, this equation also shows that Ferranti
effect depends on frequency and electrical length of the line.
01 Open Circuit the Output Terminal:
If we measure the voltage at output terminal, then we get more voltage than the sending voltage. This
is because of Ferranti effect.
Now measure the input voltage, input current and output voltage Vs, Is, Vr. By using these values, we
can calculate
A = Vs / Vr
C = Is / Vr
02 Short Circuit the Output Terminal:
By measuring the input current, input voltage and output current (Vs, Is, Ir)
By using these values we can find B and D parameter of transmission line
B = Vs / Ir
D = Is / Ir
Performance of transmission line under different loads: Performance of transmission line can be
determined by calculating the power factor of transmission line under different load.
What is Power Factor? To understand power factor, we will first start with the definition of some
basic terms:
KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real Power). It is the power that
actually powers the equipment and performs useful work.
KVAR is Reactive Power. It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and relay)
needs to produce the magnetizing flux.
KVA is Apparent Power. It is the vector sum of KVAR and KW.
For example Mac here is dragging a heavy load. Mac's Working Power (or Actual Power) in the
forward direction, where he most wants his load to travel, is KW. Unfortunately, Mac can't drag his
load on a perfect horizontal (he would get a tremendous backache), so his shoulder height adds a
little Reactive Power, or KVAR. The Apparent Power Mac is dragging, KVA, is this vector summation
of KVAR and KW.
The Power Triangle (next figure) illustrates this relationship between KW, KVA, KVAR,
OBJECT 01: determine the Abcd, H, Z and image parameters of short transmission line.
PROCEDURE:
01 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and connected to the terminal
provided on the back side of the panel.
02 Make sure that the AC supply is off and variac knob is at zero position.
03 Make the connection as shown in Fig-2. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-1. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
04 After completion of the entire connection connect the mains cord to the panel & switch 'On' the
power supply.
05 With the help of variac adjust the voltage up to 110 volt.
06 With the help of sending end instrument measure. Sending end voltage (Vs) and Sending end
current (Is). To measure Vs & Is. Push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vs
end voltage in displayed and Is. Then current in displayed. Record the value in observation
table.
07 With the help of receiving end instrument –measure receiving end voltage (Vr) and receiving end
current (Ir). To measure Vr & Ir push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vs
when voltage in displayed and Is. when current in displayed record the value in observation
table.
08 Switch 'Off' the power supply.
OBSERVATION TABLE
01
02
03
04
05
PROCEDURE
01 Make sure the AC supply in off and the variac in exactly in the same position as it was an open
circuit test
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-4. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-3. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
03 Make sure that the variac knob is still on 110 volt position.
04 Now switch on the power supply and measure Vs Is Ir Vr by the same procedure as measured in
open circuit test.
05 In short test you will get Vs, Is, Ir, values and the Value of Vr is zero because output terminal is
short circuited.
06 By using there value you can easily find the short transmission line Impedance B and
Dimensionless Coefficient D.
07 Switch off the power supply & disconnect the all patch cords.
NOTE:
Do not perform the short circuit test for long time because of high current, resistance gets heated.
OBSERVATION TAB LE
01 We have already measured the value of sending end voltage and current when short line's
output terminal was short circuited, the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zsc.
Zsc = Vs/Is
02 We have already measured the values of sending end voltage and current when short line's
output terminal was open circuited the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zoc.
Zoc = Vs /Is
03 By using there values characteristic impedance and propagation constant can be calculate by
using following formulas.
Characteristic Impedance (Zo) = √ (Zsc x Zoc)
Propagation constant (ρ) = √ (Zsc/Zoc)
H Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the H parameter as follow
H11 = B/D
H12 = (AD – BC)/D
H21 = -1/D
H22 = C/D
Z Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the Z parameter as follow:
Z11 = B/C
Z12 = (AD- BC)/C
Z21 = 1/C
Z22 = D/C
All Parameters
ABCD Parameters H Parameters Z Parameters IMAGE Parameters
A H11 Z11 Zo
B H12 Z12
C H21 Z21 ρ
D H22 Z22
OBJECT 02:- Determine the Abcd, H, Z and image parameters of medium transmission line
For T network
PROCEDURE
01 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and connected to the terminal
provided on the back side of the penal.
02 Make sure that the AC supply is off and variac knob is at zero position.
03 Make the connection as shown in Fig-6. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-5. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
04 After completion of the entire connection connect the mains cord to the panel & switch 'On' the
power supply.
05 With the help of variac adjust the voltage up to 220 volt.
06 With the help of sending end instrument measure sending end voltage Vs and sending end
current Is. To measure Vs & Is push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vs
when voltage (V) in displayed. Similarly measure. Is when current (A) in displayed. Record the
value in observation table.
07 With the help of receiving end instrument –measure receiving end voltage (Vr). and receiving
end current (Ir). To measure Vr & Ir push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vr
when voltage in displayed and Ir when current in displayed record the value in observation table.
08 Switch off the power supply.
OBSERVATION TABLE
02
03
04
05
01 Make sure that AC supply in switch off and the variac in exactly to the same position of previous
test i.e. open circuit test of medium transmission line (T network).
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-8. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-7 (only shorting the
output terminals of open circuit test).
03 Make sure that the variac knob is still on 220 volt position.
04 Now switch on the power supply.
05 With the help of sending end instrument measure sending end voltage Vs and sending end
current Is. To measure Vs & Is push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vs
when voltage (V) in displayed. Similarly measure. Is when current (A) in displayed. Record the
value in observation table.
06 With the help of receiving end instrument –measure receiving end voltage (Vr). and receiving
end current (Ir). To measure Vr & Ir push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vr
when voltage in displayed and Ir when current in displayed record the value in observation table.
07 Switch off the power supply & disconnect the all patch cords.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Impedance (B) = Vs / Ir
Dimensionless Coefficient (D) = Is / Ir.
Image Parameter of short line
01 We have already measured the value of sending end voltage and current when short line's
output terminal was short circuited, the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zsc.
Zsc = Vs/Is
02 We have already measured the values of sending end voltage and current when short line's
output terminal was open circuited the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zoc.
Zoc = Vs /Is
03 By using there values characteristic impedance and propagation constant can be calculate by
using following formulas.
Characteristic Impedance (Zo) = √ (Zsc x Zoc)
Propagation constant (ρ) = √ (Zsc/Zoc)
H Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the H parameter as follow
H11 = B/D
H12 = (AD – BC)/D
H21 = -1/D
H22 = C/D
Z Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the Z parameter as follow:
Z11 = B/C
Z12 = (AD- BC)/C
Z21 = 1/C
Z22 = D/C
Fig. 10: connection diagram of medium transmission line network open circuit
PROCEDURE
01 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and connected to the terminal
provided on the back side of the penal.
02 Make sure that the AC supply is 'Off' and variac knob is at zero position.
03 Make the connection as shown in Fig-10. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-9. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
04 With the help of variac adjust the voltage up to 220 volt.
05 With the help of sending end instrument measure sending end voltage Vs and sending end
current Is. To measure Vs & Is push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vs
when voltage (V) in displayed. Similarly measure. Is when current (A) in displayed. Record the
value in observation table.
06 With the help of receiving end instrument –measure receiving end voltage (Vr). and receiving
end current (Ir). To measure Vr & Ir push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vr
when voltage in displayed and Ir when current in displayed record the value in observation table.
07 Switch off the power supply.
OBSERVATION TABLE
01
02
03
04
05
Fig. 11: circuit diagram of medium transmission line network short circuit
Fig. 12: connection diagram of medium transmission line network short circuit
PROCEDURE:
01 Make sure the AC supply is switched off and the variac is exactly the same position as in the
previous test I.C. open circuit test of medium transmission line ( network).
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-12. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-11. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
03 Make sure that the variac knob is still on 220 volt position.
OBSERVATION TABLE
01
02
03
04
05
Impedance (B) = Vs / Ir
Dimensionless Coefficient (D) = Is / Ir
Image Parameter of short line
01 We have already measured the value of sending end voltage and current when short line's
output terminal was short circuited, the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zsc.
Zsc = Vs/Is
02 We have already measured the values of sending end voltage and current when short line's
output terminal was open circuited the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zoc.
Zoc = Vs /Is
03 By using there values characteristic impedance and propagation constant can be calculate by
using following formulas.
Characteristic Impedance (Zo) = √ (Zsc x Zoc)
Propagation constant (ρ) = √ (Zsc/Zoc)
H Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the H parameter as follow
H11 = B/D
H12 = (AD – BC)/D
H21 = -1/D
H22 = C/D
Z Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the Z parameter as follow
Z11 = B/C
Z12 = (AD- BC)/C
Z21 = 1/C
Z22 = D/C
All parameters
A H11 Z11 Zo
B H12 Z12
C H21 Z21 ρ
D H22 Z22
OBJECT 03: Determine the ABCD, H, Z and image parameters for long transmission line.
STEP-1
Circuit diagram of long transmission line is done in five steps which help the user to easily understand
the compact connection. Each next step has its previous connection.
PROCEDURE
01 First of all make sure that the earthing of your laboratory is proper and connected to the terminal
provided on the back side of the penal.
02 Make sure that the AC supply is off and variac knob is at zero position.
03 Make the connection as shown in Fig-14. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-13. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
STEP 2
PROCEDURE
01 Do not remove the connection mode in step-1.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-16. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-15. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
STEP 3
PROCEDURE
01 Do not remove the connections mode in step-1 and step-2.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-18. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-17. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
STEP 4
PROCEDURE
01 Do not remove the connection made in step-1, step-2 and step-3.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-20. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-19. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
STEP 5
PROCEDURE
01 Do not remove the connections mode in step-1, step-2, step-3 and step-4.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-22. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-21. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
PROCEDURE
01 Make the connection as shown in Fig-24. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-23. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
PROCEDURE
01 Make sure the mains supply is switched off and the variac is in zero position and Make the
connection as shown in Fig-26. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-25. Verify the connection
before switching on the mains supply.
04 With the help of sending end instrument measure sending end voltage Vs and sending end
current Is. To measure Vs & Is push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vs
when voltage (V) in displayed. Similarly measure. Is when current (A) in displayed. Record the
value in observation table.
05 With the help of receiving end instrument –measure receiving end voltage (Vr). and receiving
end current (Ir). To measure Vr & Ir push the button in steps given in the meter and measure Vr
when voltage in displayed and Ir when current in displayed record the value in observation table.
06 Switch 'Off' the power supply, do not change the variac position.
OBSERVATION TABLE
01
02
03
04
05
PROCEDURE
01 Make sure the AC supply in switched off.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-28. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-27. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
03 Make sure that the variac knob is still on 220 volt position.
OBSERVATION TABLE
01 We have already measured the value of sending end voltage and current when short line's
output terminal was short circuited, the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zsc.
Zsc = Vs/Is
02 We have already measured the values of sending end voltage and current when short line‟s
output terminal was open circuited the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zoc.
Zoc = Vs /Is
03 By using there values characteristic impedance and propagation constant can be calculate by
using following formulas.
Characteristic Impedance (Zo) = √ (Zsc x Zoc)
Propagation constant (ρ) = √ (Zsc/Zoc)
H Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the H parameter as follow:
H11 = B/D
H12 = (AD – BC)/D
H21 = -1/D
H22 = C/D
Z Parameter
By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the Z parameter as follow
Z11 = B/C
Z12 = (AD- BC)/C
Z21 = 1/C
Z22 = D/C
All Parameters
ABCD Parameters H Parameters Z Parameters IMAGE Parameters
A H11 Z11 Zo
B H12 Z12
C H21 Z21 ρ
D H22 Z22
OBJECT 04: MEASURE THE RECEIVING END VOLTAGE OF EACH LINE UNDER NO LOAD
OR LIGHTLY LOAD CONDITION TO UNDERSTAND FERRANTI EFFECT.
Fig. 29: circuit diagram of under no load or lightly load condition to understand Ferranti effect
RESULT
It in observation than the output voltage at receiving end in greater than the sending end which is the
most by Ferranti effect.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Sending End Voltage (In Volt) Receiving End Voltage (In Volt)
RESISTIVE LOAD
PROCEDURE
01 Make sure the AC supply in switched off and the variac is in zero position.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-32. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-31. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
03 Switch on the supply and with the help of variac adjusts the voltage upto 220V in steps.
04 Measure the sending end power factor with the sending end instrument and record the
observation table the power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in the
instrument when it displayed Pf.
05 Measure the receiving end power factor with the receiving end instrument and record in the
observation table. The power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in
the instrument when it displayed Pf.
Observation Table
Sending End Power Factor Receiving End Power Factor
INDUCTIVE LOAD
05 Measure the receiving end power factor with the receiving end instrument and record in the
observation table. The power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in
the instrument when it displayed Pf.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Sending End Power Factor Receiving End Power Factor
SERIES RL LOAD
PROCEDURE
01 Make sure the AC supply in switched off and the variac is in zero position.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-36. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-35. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
03 Switch on the supply and with the help of variac adjust the voltage upto 220V in steps.
04 Measure the sending end power factor with the sending end instrument and record the
observation table the power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in the
instrument when it displayed Pf.
05 Measure the receiving end power factor with the receiving end instrument and record in the
observation table. The power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in
the instrument when it displayed Pf.
OBSERVATION TABLE
PARALLEL LC LOAD
PROCEDURE
01 Make sure the AC supply in switched off and the variac is in zero position.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-38. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-37. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
03 Switch on the supply and with the help of variac adjusts the voltage upto 220V in steps.
04 Measure the sending end power factor with the sending end instrument and record the
observation table the power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in the
instrument when it displayed Pf.
05 Measure the receiving end power factor with the receiving end instrument and record in the
observation table. The power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in
the instrument when it displayed Pf.
OBSERVATION TABLE
PROCEDURE
01 Make sure the AC supply in switched off and the variac is in zero position.
02 Make the connection as shown in Fig-40. The circuit diagram in shown in Fig-39. Verify the
connection before switching on the mains supply.
03 Switch on the supply and with the help of variac adjust the voltage upto 220V in steps.
04 Measure the sending end power factor with the sending end instrument and record the
observation table the power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in the
instrument when it displayed Pf.
05 Measure the receiving end power factor with the receiving end instrument and record in the
observation table. The power factor (Pf) readings can be taken by the push button provided in
the instrument when it displayed Pf.
OBSERVATION TABLE
Sending End Power Factor Receiving End Power Factor
GLOSSARY
01 AC Power: This term refers to an alternating electrical current those changes between positive
and negative directions. Our utilities use AC power.
02 Ampere: The unit expressing the rate of flow of an electric current. One ampere is the current
produced by a difference in potential of one volt across a resistance of one ohm; an electric
current flowing at the rate of one coulomb per second.
03 Ampere-hour capacity (storage battery): The number of ampere-hours that can be delivered
under specified conditions of temperature, rate of discharge, and final voltage.
04 Ampere-hour meter: An electric meter that measures and registers the integral, with respect to
time, of the current of a circuit in which it is connected.
05 Ampere-Hour: The use of one Ampere for one hour.
06 Apparent Power (volt-amps): The product of the applied voltage and current in an ac circuit.
Apparent power, or volt-amps, is not the true power of the circuit because the power factor is not
considered in the calculation.
07 Autotransformer: A transformer in which at least two windings have a common section. They
are use to either "buck" or "boost" the incoming line voltage.
08 Auxiliary Power: The power required for correct operation of an electrical or electronic device,
supplied via an external auxiliary power source rather than the line being measured.
09 Bank: A group of electrical devices, usually transformers or capacitors, connected in a way to
increase capacity or to inter connect as three-phase.
10 Capacitor: A device that stores an electrical charge and is typically used to address low voltage
issues on a power system.
11 Conductor: A conductor is the part of a transmission or distribution line that actually carries the
electricity, in other words, the wire itself. The wire or conductor is just one part of a transmission
line; other parts include the poles and the insulators from which the conductor is hung. A
conductor must have enough capacity to carry the highest demand that it will experience, or it
could overheat and fail.
27 Kilowatt Hour (kWh): A common unit of electrical consumption measured by the total energy
created by one kilowatt in one hour. A 100 watt light bulb burning for 10 hours uses one kilowatt
hour. To determine the size of the solar system you'll need, we'll look at your electricity bills to
see how many kWhs you typically use and will need in the future.
28 kV (kilovolt): A kilovolt is one thousand volts. Volts and kilovolts are measures of voltage.
29 kWh (kilowatt-hour): A kilowatt hour is one thousand watt-hours. A watt-hour is a measure of
the amount of electric energy generated or consumed in a given period of time.
30 Load: A device which consumes electrical power and is connected to a source of electricity.
31 Load shedding: Intentionally turning off power to a customer or group of customers, usually for
reliability reasons such as to avoid a blackout or equipment damage.
32 Megawatt: A measure of power equivalent to one million watts.
33 Neutral: A conductor of an electrical system which usually operates with minimal voltage to
ground. Depending on the type of system, it may carry little current or only unbalance current.
Systems that have one conductor grounded use the neutral for this purpose.
34 Open circuit voltage: The maximum voltage produced by a power source with no load
connected.
35 Over current: Any current beyond the continuous rated current of the conductor or equipment.
This may be value slightly above the rating as in the case of an overload, or may be far above
the rating as in the case of a short circuit.
36 Overload: Operation of electrical equipment above its normal full-load rating or of a conductor
above its rated ampacity. An overload condition will eventually cause dangerous overheating
and damage.
37 Power: Power is the amount of electricity that is consumed (demand) or supplied at any given
time.
38 Power factor: The ratio of real power to apparent power delivered in an ac electrical system or
load. Its value is always in the range of 0.0 to 1.0 or 0% to 100%. A unity power factor (1.0)
indicates that the current is in phase with the voltage and that reactive power is zero.
39 Reactor: Device that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field, and then uses this energy to
induce current. Typically used to address high voltage issues on a power system.
40 Real Power: The average value of the instantaneous product of volts and amps over a fixed
period of time in an AC circuit.
41 Resistance: The characteristic of materials to oppose the flow of electricity in an electric circuit.
42 Skin Effect: In an ac system, the tendency of the outer portion of a conductor to carry more of
the current as the frequency of the ac increases.
43 Substation: A substation is a fenced-in area where several generators, transmission and/or
distribution lines come together and are connected by various other equipment for purposes of
switching, metering, or adjusting voltage by using transformers.
44 Sub transmission: Sub transmission lines are power lines the typically operate at a voltage of
34,000 to 70,000 volts and are generally below 100 kV.
45 Sub transmission lines: Sub transmission lines carry voltages reduced from the major
transmission line system. Typically, 34.5 kV to 69 kV, this power is sent to regional distribution
substations. Sometimes the sub transmission voltage is
46 Transformer: Transformer is a device that typically adjusts high-voltage to a lower-voltage.
Different voltages are used because higher voltages are better for moving power over a long
distance, but lower voltages are better for using electricity in machinery and appliances.
Transformers are commonly described by the two (or more) voltages that they connect, such as
“115/13.8-kV,” signifying a connection between 115-kV and 13.8-kV equipment or lines.
47 Transmission Bus: Steel structure arrays of switches used to route power into a substation.
48 Transmission: The process of transporting wholesale electrical energy at high voltages from a
supply source to utilities.
49 Voltage Drop: The loss of voltage in a circuit when current flows.
50 Voltage Transformer Ratio: The ratio of primary volts divided by secondary volts.
51 Voltage Transformer: Transformer used to accurately scale ac voltages up or down, or to
provide isolation. Generally used to scale large primary or bus voltages to usable values for
measuring purposes.
Q18. What are the different relays that employed for protection of apparatus and transmission
lines?
Ans: The relays that are usually employed for protection of transmission lines include
01 Over current relay
02 Directional relay
03 Distance relay
04 Under Voltage relay
05 Under-frequency relay
06 Thermal relay
07 Differential relay
08 Phase sequence relays
09 Pilot relays
Q19. How the electrical power system protection is divided?
Ans: The overall system protection is divided into
01 Generator protection
02 Transformer protection
03 Busbar protection
04 Transmission line protection and
05 Feeder protection
Q20. What is a substation and why is it necessary?
Ans: A substation is used to transform one voltage to another and for protecting and controlling
transmission and distribution lines. Substations are used to raise voltages for long distance
transmission and to lower transmission voltages for distribution to the end users. Without
substations, generation would have to be located very close to the customer load.
Q21. What's the difference between a single circuit and a double circuit transmission line?
Ans: A single circuit transmission line has three sets of conductors, while a double circuit
transmission line is two independent circuits on the same structure with each circuit made up of
three sets of conductors.
Q22. What is conductor?
Ans: Conductor is a wire made up of multiple aluminum strands around a steel core that together
carry electricity. Conductor is strung between transmission structures. A bundled conductor is
two or more conductors connected to increase the capacity of a transmission line.
Q23.What is an insulator?
Ans: An insulator is an object made of a material like glass, porcelain, or composite polymer that is a
poor conductor of electricity. They are used to attach conductors to the transmission structure
and to prevent a short circuit from happening between the conductor and the structure.
LIST OF ACCESSORIES
01 Patch cord 4mm length 50cm Red .............................................................................................. 12
02 Patch cord 4mm length 50cm Black............................................................................................. 12
03 Patch cord 4mm length 100cm Red............................................................................................. 12
04 Patch cord 4mm length 100cm Black........................................................................................... 12
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