Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078

Influence of modified phenolic resins on the fade

and recovery behavior of friction materials
J. Bijwe a,∗ , Nidhi b , N. Majumdar b , B.K. Satapathy a
a Industrial Tribology Machine Dynamics and Maintenance Engineering Centre (ITMMEC),
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
b Department of Chemistry, Jamia-Milia-Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India

Received 2 August 2004; received in revised form 13 January 2005; accepted 13 January 2005
Available online 10 May 2005

Abstract

The formulation of a friction material requires the optimization of multiple performance criteria. These include achieving a stable and
adequate coefficient of kinetic friction (µ) and minimizing its sensitivity to the brake operating parameters in order to produce low fade
and high recovery characteristics. Low wear rates and a resistance to objectionable noise and vibration must be coupled with good strength
through appropriate fabrication practices. Among the foregoing requirements, resistance to fade is particularly difficult to achieve. Resin is
one of the most important ingredients in friction materials because it binds the ingredients firmly and allows them to contribute effectively to
the desired performance. Ideally, there should be no significant deterioration in the function of the binder when the brake is operated under
diverse conditions. However, when excessive frictional heat is generated, changes in the resin can deteriorate performance. Consequently, a
friction material’s thermal stability, its capacity to retain mechanical properties, and its ability to hold its ingredients together under adverse
conditions all depend on the resin. Despite this, little or no information on the effects of resin chemistry on friction braking under adverse
conditions has been reported in the open literature. Hence, the current work investigates the characteristics of five resins: (i) straight phenolic
resin, (ii) alkyl benzene modified resin, (iii) cashew nut shell liquid modified resin, (iv) NBR modified resin, and (v) linseed oil modified
resin. The same weight percent of each resin (10%) was used to make friction materials containing similar additions of 10 additives. The
mechanical properties of these materials were characterized using ASTM standards. Fade and recovery studies were carried out on a Krauss
testing machine following the Economic Commission for Europe regulation for replacement brake linings (ECE R-90). Friction and wear
characteristics varied with the type of resin, and no resin proved best for all the selected performance parameters. Alkyl benzene modified
resin composite proved best in terms of strength, friction, fade and recovery, but was poorest in wear performance. Results for linseed oil
based phenolic resin composites showed exactly the opposite behaviour. Scanning electron microscopy was used to help understand the wear
mechanisms and the causes for these differences.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Phenolic resin; Kinetic friction; Friction material

1. Introduction phenomenon in friction materials represents a deviation from

‘Fade’ is the term used to indicate a loss in braking ef-
fectiveness at elevated temperatures (typically in the range
300–400 ◦ C), because of a reduction in the kinetic friction
coefficient (µ). The return to acceptable levels of friction at
lower temperatures is referred to as ‘recovery’ [1]. The fade
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591280; fax: +91 11 26591280.
E-mail addresses: jbijwe@hotmail.com, jbijwe@gmail.com (J. Bijwe).
Amonton’s law of friction [2], and its occurrence reduces
braking efficiency and reliability. Three primary attributes
governing brake fade have been identified by Rhee [2]: load
fade, speed fade and temperature fade.
According to Blau and McLaughlin [3], high interfacial
temperatures can lead to a decrease in shear strength of the
pad and consequently a decrease in frictional force which
induces fade. Herring [4] proposed that fade is caused by
gas evolution at the braking interface as a consequence of

0043-1648/$ – see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wear.2005.01.011
 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078
pyrolysis. Fade has also been attributed to the formation of a
load-carrying friction film that leads to an effective increase in
the true contact area and thereby reduces the applied pressure
on the pad [5,6]. Thus, the interfacial films become more
prone to display shear thinning at increasing temperature. As
the deformability of an interfacial film increases, there is an
increase in the contact area, and that decreases the effect of
the applied normal force and precipitates fade.
Fade is reported to be highly-dependent on the tribo-
logical history of the material [7–9]. In non-asbestos or-
ganic (NAO) friction composites, the phenolic resin degrades
thermo-oxidatively leading to formation of organic compo-
nents in the interface at high temperatures. Therefore, resin
in the friction material should have minimal tendency for
thermo-oxidative degradation under the expected brake op-
erating range of pressures, sliding speeds, and temperatures.
The influence of friction material additives on fade has
been widely reported. Brass and copper powders in heavy-
duty organic linings are reported to improve the fade resis-
tance while aluminum and zinc powders are used for impart-
ing better recovery characteristics [10]. Fewer papers have re-
ported the effects of various fibres and their combinations on
both fade and recovery behaviour [8,11–13]. In contrast, very
little has been reported on the influence of resins and their
modification on fade and recovery. Bera et al. [14] modified a
cashew nut shell liquid polymer with ortho-phosphoric acid
and fabricated composites containing asbestos and other, al-
beit incompletely-identified ingredients. It was reported that
both fade and wear performance improved due to resin mod-
ification. The modified-resin composite proved superior in
all the properties except recovery behaviour. Kim and Jang
[15] developed a resin using phenol and alkylether to achieve
higher thermal stability than the conventional straight phe-
nolic resin. After developing model composites containing
conventional and modified resins that contained four other
ingredients, they studied fade and recovery behaviour on a
pad-on-disk type tester. Resin modifications improved fric-
tional stability and reduced friction fluctuations even at high
temperature. These observations were correlated with the ma-
terial’s high thermal resistance. Wear rate on the other hand,
was adversely affected by resin modification and was asso-
ciated with a decrease in porosity.
Zhang and Wu [16] developed friction composites with
three modified resins. Cashew oil modified, melamine and
cashew oil modified, and boron modified Bisphenol-A, were
designated as Y, S and P, respectively. They reported that the
friction coefficients for these composites were in the desired
range, but among them, the ‘S’ resin composite produced
the highest µ. Since the unmodified resin composite was not
studied and the influence of resin modifications could not be
directly determined.
Despite observations that composites made with modified
resins exhibited good performance and could be exploited for
producing friction materials for various types of vehicles, no
definitive trends have emerged to enable one to predict the
influence of resin modification on key tribological charac-
1069
teristics at various temperatures. While a variety of different
resins, in both liquid and dry form, are used for manufactur-
ing of friction materials, no organized body of information
seems to exist regarding the effects of their compositions on
friction, wear, fade and recovery characteristics.
The objective of the work reported here was to investigate
the properties and performance of friction materials made
with variants of several commercially popular resins. Stan-
dardized testing procedures were used. In particular, the fade
and recovery behaviour of non-asbestos organic fiber-based
composites, each containing the same ten additives but us-
ing10 wt.% of five different resins, was evaluated.
2. Experimental
2.1. Fabrication and characterization of the composites
Five resins were selected as the basis for preparing friction
materials. These resins and the code designations for the test
materials made from them are as follows: (i) straight phe-
nolic (S), (ii) cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) modified (C),
(iii) alkylbenzene modified (A), (iv) NBR modified (N) and
(v) linseed oil modified (L). All were procured from Nuform
Chemicals, Faridabad, India. Curing temperature and ther-
mal degradation temperatures were determined from differ-
ential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermo-gravimetric
analysis (TGA) studies respectively. They were also char-
acterized for flow distance, B-time,1 hexa content2 (wt.%)
and melting point with standard methods (see Table 1). The
fabrication of five composites containing ten additives was
based on varying the type of resin and keeping all other in-
gredients fixed. In addition to 10 wt.% of each resin, formula-
tions contained fibers of glass, steel, polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
and rock wool (totaling 26 wt.%), friction modifiers (totaling
24 wt.%), and a space filler (40 wt.%). Mixing was carried
in plough shear-type mixer to ensure the macroscopic ho-
mogeneity for the desired mixing using a chopper speed of
3000 rpm. The mixing sequence involved feeding of all the
powdered ingredients, then the metallic additives, inorganic
rock fibers, and organic fibers. E-glass fibers were added last
to minimize fiber damage and to open up the strands to pro-
vide mechanical isotropy to the mixture. The mixing dura-
tion was 5 min. The mixture was then placed into a four-
cavity mould supported by the adhesive-coated back plates.
Each cavity was filled with approximately 65 g of the mixture
1 B-transformation time: time required for the complete transformation
of powdered resin to gel state (rubbery mass). 0.3 g of resin is spread uni-
formerly over an area of 4 × 7.5 cm2 on a hot plate. Material is stroked as
per standard practice(ISO 8987 B) till it becomes a gel.
2 Hexa content: hexamethylene tetraamine is the cross linking agent used
in dry phenolic resins. Three gram of resin is dissolved in a mixture of
butanol and ethylglycol. Solution of pH 6.5–7 is titrated against 0.1N HCl.
Hexa content was calculated from the standard formula {1.4 × titrant value
(in ml) of 0.1N HCl/sample weight in g} = hexamethylene tetraamine in
wt.%}.
1070 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078
Table 1
Details of the properties of the selected resins (characterized in the laboratory)
Properties Straight CNSL-modified
phenolic
Hexa content (wt.%) (potentiometric method) 10.78 10.51
Flow distance in cm (ISO 8619) 2.4 2.9
B time (reactivity time) in seconds (ISO 8987 B) 41 30
Melting point in ◦ C 89 89
Curing temperature from DSC ◦ C 154 152
Initial degradation temperature from TGA (Ti ) ◦ C 330 437
and heat cured in a compression-moulding machine at differ-
ent temperatures (determined from the differential scanning
calorimetry curves for each one), under a pressure of 15 MPa
for 10–12 min. Three intermittent ‘breathings’ were also al-
lowed during the initiation of curing to expel volatiles. The
pads were then removed and were then post-cured in an oven
at 100 ◦ C for 8 h to relieve the residual stresses in the sam-
ple pads. The surfaces of the pads were then polished with
a grinding wheel [Carborundum Universal Ltd. GC 60, K5,
V0 and dry] to attain the desired thickness and to remove the
resinous skin.
A pearlitic, grey cast iron rotor disc of the kind used in a
production passenger car (Maruti Suzuki 1000 cc) was used
as the counterface material. It had a radius of 0.12 m and a
Brinell hardness of 183–212.
2.2. Testing procedure for fade and recovery evaluation
The fade and recovery tests were conducted using a Krauss
type RW DC 100C (450 V/50 Hz) machine. Shown schemat-
ically in Fig. 1, the Krauss machine was computer-controlled
and had data acquisition capabilities. The disc was connected
through an interchangeable flange to a shaft that generated a
moment of inertia of 2.5 kg m2 . Two brake pads with a total
area of 32 cm2 were press-fit into a pressure-actuated sliding
caliper assembly. Pads were forced against opposite sides of
the rotor disc at a mean contact radius of 101 mm. The load
on the pads was adjusted to keep the applied contact pres-
sure at 1.82 MPa. A load cell, mounted on the frame carrying
the caliper pad assembly, was used to measure the friction
force. The nominal surface temperature of the pad and disc
was estimated from a thermocouple held lightly against the
circumference of the disc. The friction force and temperature
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of Krauss testing machine.
Alkyl-benzene NBR-modified Linseed oil
modified modified
10.62 11.50 7.31
3.8 1.1 2.6
41 32 37
88 88 72
155 159 144
416 438 267
rise on the disc surface were recorded after every cycle of
braking in a synchronized manner.
In order to evaluate the cold friction-fade-recovery char-
acteristics of the friction materials, use was made of standard
regulatory test developed for the Economic Commission for
Europe (ECE R-90). This standard, described in Appendix A,
contains “uniform provisions concerning the approval of re-
placement brake lining assemblies for power driven vehicles
and their trailers.” The disc rotation rate was fixed at 660 rpm
to conform to that test.
Wear volume of the composites was calculated using
weight change and the density of the materials. The wear of
the counterface material was not measured. Scanning elec-
tron microscopy of worn lining surfaces was carried out on
a JEOL JSM-840. Specimens required gold coating prior to
examination to make the surfaces conductive.
3. Results and discussion
Mechanical properties of the test materials, tribological
test results, and surface observations are provided and dis-
cussed in the following sections.
3.1. Physical and mechanical properties
Selected physical and mechanical properties of the five
composites used in this investigation are listed in Table 2.
Composite A had the highest strength, and Composites S and
L had the least attractive mechanical properties. The prop-
erties of Composites N, S and C were intermediate. With
the possible exception of the flexural moduli of materials
N, C, and L, modifications in the resin tended to improve the
strength-related properties of composites. However, the mag-
nitude of improvement over the straight resin was dependent
on composition.
3.2. Measurements and indications of fade behavior
Test records from the fade experiments show the kinetic
friction coefficient (µ) and the corresponding temperature
variations for a series of repeated sliding contacts. There
are three sections in each test, referred to as the cold cycle,
fade cycles, and recovery portion. Results for the five se-
lected composites are provided in Figs. 2–6. Each sawtooth-
 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078 1071

Table 2
Physical and mechanical properties of composites prepared from five parent resins
Properties S C A N L
Density (g/cc) 2.45 2.39 2.40 2.42 2.28
Tensile strength (MPa) ASTM D 638 7.46 12.42 18.77 11.37 8.96
Tensile modulus (MPa) ASTM D 638 225 243 458 340 279
% elongation at break 2.03 2.02 1.65 1.44 2.07
Flexural strength (MPa) ASTM D 790 22.86 41 41.15 39.43 24.3
Flexural modulus (MPa) ASTM D 790 8775 5742 10862 6090 5291

shaped feature on the test record depicts a separate braking
event.
In case of Composite S (Fig. 2) severe fade was indicated
in the test record during the 9th and 10th braking events of
the cold cycle. Note that the friction trace peaks shortly af-
ter force is applied and then drops off toward the end of
the braking event. In the subsequent cycle, the first of five
fade cycles, the overall magnitude of µ suddenly decreased
and fade was noted only during the last few braking events,
that is, at the highest temperatures. In subsequent test cy-
cles, there was reduced evidence for fade, even when the
temperature reached its maximum. Hardly any change in
µ was observed during the recovery cycle. Thus, the max-
imum loss in µ occurred after the first fade cycle only; nev-
ertheless, this is still an undesirable feature for a friction
material.
During the first fade cycle for Composite C (Fig. 3), µ
dropped slightly in the 8th braking, and was followed by
a considerable decrease in 9th and 10th brakings. For suc-
cessive cycles, overall µ was as high as it was in the first
cycle.
Composite N (Fig. 4) proved worst in terms of fluctuations
in µ during the first fade cycle. In first cycle, fading began
on the 8th braking event and µ dropped very severely at 10th
braking event. However, for next fade cycle µ returned almost
to the peak value of the first cycle. For consecutive cycles, the
tendency to fade was reduced. From the second cycle onward,
marginal fade was observed, and it occurred only during the
10th braking.
Alkyl benzene modified composite (Fig. 5) showed several
trends. In general, in each fade cycle, plateaus are observed
up to the 8th braking. In each fade cycle, µ continuously

Fig. 2. Fade and recovery cycles for Composite S.

Fig. 3. Fade and recovery cycles for Composite C.

1072 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078

Fig. 4. Fade and recovery cycles for Composite N.

rose to a peak value at the 8th braking event (for first fade
cycle) and in the 9th braking for other cycles, including the
recovery cycle. Fading was seen in the last braking of each
cycle.
Linseed oil modified composite (Fig. 6) showed a regular
plateau pattern on the friction traces during the fade cycles.
In the first fade cycle, slight fading initiated from 8th braking
event and increased substantially by the 10th braking event.
The behavioral pattern was somewhat similar to that of Com-
posite S except that the drop in µ at 10th braking was higher
for Composite L than for Composite S.
In summary, the maximum loss in µ for all the compos-
ites occurred during the first fade cycle and usually began in
the eighth braking event when the temperature was approxi-
mately 300 ◦ C. This is about twice the resin curing tempera-
ture, but less that the initial degradation temperatures shown
in Table 1. However, it should be recognized that the actual
interface temperature between the pad and its counterface
could have been considerably higher than the apparent tem-
perature which was measured using a sliding thermocouple
on the disc rim.
There were also a number of subtle differences in behavior
between the various composites. These could be seen from
certain details of their test records such as (a) the magnitude
of the decrease in µ value at 10th braking event in first fade
cycle, (b) the magnitude of the gain in µ during the 2nd, 3rd,

Fig. 5. Fade and recovery cycles for Composite A.

Fig. 6. Fade and recovery cycles for Composite L.

 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078
4th fade cycles after this first decrease, and (c) the shapes
of the plateau regions in both the fade cycles and recovery
cycles.
Modification of the resins, particularly in the case of Com-
posite A, proved effective in arresting the kind of unwanted
fade behaviour shown by the straight phenolic resin. Several
possible reasons may be responsible for the gain in µ dur-
ing the second fade cycle of most materials. First, frictional
heating to higher temperatures than those used in curing may
have altered the properties of the materials near the surface
and raised their interfacial shear strengths. Second, if fade
is due to gas evolution, as proposed by Herring [4], then
the first high-temperature exposures would have locally out-
gassed the lining material. With less gas present, the amount
of fade was reduced the next time the surfaces got hot. Third,
the possibility exists that sliding contact work hardened the
metallic particles in the composite, which caused more abra-
sive wear (‘bite’) which compensated for the loss in µ due
to fade in the first cycle. These possibilities have yet to be
verified.
Fig. 7.
1073
3.3. Comparison of frictional behaviour using standard
matrices
Using definitions given in Appendix B, the friction data
from these experiments are displayed in Fig. 7(a–f), with each
set in rank order. As shown, no single composite performed
best using all metrics. For example, Composite N exhibited
highest performance µ (Fig. 7(a)) and recovery µ (Fig. 7(e))
but next-to-lowest fade µ (Fig. 7(b)).
For mid-size passenger cars, in general, the required brake
µ ranges from 0.3 to 0.35. As seen from Fig. 7(a), Composites
N, S and A clearly fulfil these conditions but modification of
straight phenolic resin with CNSL and linseed oil produced
only borderline acceptable performance.
Fade µ of all the composites (Fig. 7(b)) was below 0.3
indicating unsatisfactory stopping performance during fre-
quent braking or ‘panic braking,’ precisely the conditions
that are simulated by the fade cycle. Modification by alkyl
benzene was most beneficial in addressing this aspect. As
seen in Fig. 7(b) and (c) Composite L which showed the low-
1074 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078
est fade µ also displayed the highest rise in disc temperature.
Conversely, Composite A showed the best fade µ and the
least temperature rise.
3.4. Relationship of frictional performance matrices to
modifier characteristics
Composite L contained linseed oil which is very prone
to oxidation at elevated temperatures. This characteristic is
probably the reason why the µ values for this composite were
poorest in nearly all performance metrics.
The NBR (rubber) particles used in Composite N are or-
ganic matter and are known to enhance the µ under moderate
operating conditions [13]. This was likely to be the reason
why Composite N rendered the highest performance µ. Fade
µ of this material, however, was very low because rubber
loses its physical and mechanical properties rapidly when the
temperature exceeds 270 ◦ C. This led to a drastic reduction in
performance µ of Composite N, and was reflected in its fade
µ (see Fig 7(b)). The maximum percent fade demonstrated
by Composites L and N was consistent with the poor thermal
stability characteristics of their resins. Thus, Composites L
and N were found to be less suitable performers under severe
braking conditions. On the other hand, the rubber particles
in Composite N helped to more effectively restore its higher
friction behaviour during recovery tests, making it nearly as
effective as Composite A (Fig. 7(f)). In contrast, linseed oil-
modified composite, could not recover the µ level as effec-
tively after exposure because the oil degrades by charring and
its functionality is lost.
CNSL powder is known as a ‘friction dust’ and is com-
monly used by lining manufacturers to boost the friction per-
formance. However, the CNSL-containing composite did not
work well in the current experiments under the imposed fade-
producing conditions.
From the overall standpoint of fade and recovery, Com-
posite A performed best. Composite S was the second best,
except for its recovery performance. Composite L was worst
based on all of the friction performance metrics. Composites
N and C were moderate performers and did not standout in
any particular matrix.
3.5. Correlation of wear data with properties
The wear volumes for the five composites are plotted in
Fig. 8. Composites C and A wore the most, N and S some-
what less, and L wore least. There was a rough correlation
of wear volume to initial decomposition temperature (Ti in
Table 1). The three composites with the highest wear volumes
had the highest Ti ’s. Composite L, whose binder exhibited the
lowest thermal stability, turned out to be most wear resistant
material. Similarly Composites C and N whose resins had the
best thermal properties, showed moderate wear performance
confirming that there was no strong correlation between wear
and Ti . This observation is consistent with the findings of Kim
and Jang [15] who reported that enhancements in thermal sta-
Fig. 8.
bility of the resin, due to its modification with alkylether, led
to improvements in friction fade performance but also led to
a deterioration in wear resistance.
The strength-related properties of the composites failed to
correlate with wear performance. Composite A, which was
highest in strength, was also the poorest in wear performance,
but Composite L, which was among the poorest in strength
properties, had the best wear performance. Lack of correla-
tion between the mechanical properties, thermal properties
and the wear performance of composites, prompted mecha-
nistic studies of the wear surfaces by scanning electron mi-
croscopy.
3.6. Microscopy and wear mechanisms
Degradation in mechanical properties that arises from
damage to the additives and their bonding with the matrix
are not the only mechanisms that can control the wear of the
friction materials. Wear at high frictional temperatures is also
influenced by the mechanisms of “back transfer.” Organic
matter, whether degraded, melted, or charred, gets transferred
onto the disc surface easily. The tendency of this transferred
material to get back-transferred onto the pad surface affects
both friction and wear. If the surface is heavily covered with
secondary plateaus, the wear damage to the underlying mate-
rial may be reduced [17]. Scanning electron microscopy was
used to look for evidence of back transfer and to find surface
features that helped explain differences in the measured wear
volumes.
Scanning electron micrographs of the surfaces of the high-
est wearing Composite A are shown in Fig. 9(A1 , A2 ). Com-
pared to other composites, A had a higher amount of glass
fibre debris, more evidence for fiber/matrix debonding, and
differences in nature and extent of secondary plateaus. From
this, it could be inferred that the alkyl benzene modified resin
failed to bind the ingredients properly at high temperature.
There was insufficient load-carrying capacity from the sec-
ondary plateaus to protect the surface from further damage.
Therefore, the high wear of Composite A seems to be a result
of the deterioration in filler-matrix bonding and to a lesser
amount of protective back transfer.
 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078
In contrast to Composite A, Composite C had the second
worst wear characteristics. Even though the strength prop-
erties of this composite were the second best, its modulus
was low. The worn surfaces of Composite C (Fig. 9(C1 , C2 ))
showed few secondary plateaus and a high level of deterio-
ration in the filler/matrix bonding. In particular, Fig. 9(C2 )
shows an area fully covered with wear debris from the
damaged additive particles. The severe debonding of ad-
ditive particles to the filler and matrix, owing to the poor
binding capacity of the resin, could be the main cause
for Composite C’s poor wear performance. This condition
is exacerbated by thermal and mechanical stresses during
braking.
Fig. 9.
1075
Composite N was a moderate wear performer though it
was the second best in almost all the mechanical proper-
ties. Its surface appeared to be comparatively smooth (see
Fig. 9(N1 )). Just a few back transferred patches (secondary
plateaus) can be seen in the middle portion of Fig. 9(N2 ). The
surface showed some distinct features (see Fig. 9(N2 , N3 )).
A few particles appeared to be swollen, severely smeared,
and cracked into several parts but not separated. These could
be NBR particles which were responsible for highest perfor-
mance µ of this composite. Being organic in nature, such
particles are prone to thermal degradation. The worn surface
did not show much evidence of resin degradation but rather
showed smeared particles of rubber and some secondary
1076 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078

Fig. 9. (Continued ).

plateaus. Rubber additives are known to increase friction and
promote wear resistance in friction materials. These obser-
vations supported the good wear resistance of the composite.
Composite S exhibited very good wear resistance despite
its poor mechanical properties. Fig. 9(S1 , S2 ) both show very
fine debris accumulated on the primary plateaus, and Fig. 9
(S2 ) shows quite a few secondary plateaus as well. Few worn
fibres appear on the surface, and the extent of debonding is
much less than that seen in Composites A and C. Composite
S showed moderate back transfer, more extensive fine wear
debris accumulations on the primary plateaus and an appre-
ciable amount of longitudinally worn glass fibres but these
were not debonded. Overall these observations support mod-
erate wear performance.
Composite L had best wear performance, even though its
mechanical properties at room temperature were quite poor.
As shown in Fig. 9(L1 , L2 ), the wear surface appeared to be
fully covered with secondary plateaus. This heavy deposit of
back transfer of degraded organic materials was thought to
be a major reason for the lowest wear of Composite L, and
the reason for its highest degree of fade and its lowest fade µ.
4. Conclusions
Five composites, based on five different resin formula-
tions, were evaluated under fade and recovery tests and the
 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078
following conclusions were obtained:
a) There were no clear correlations between either friction
or wear and the thermal stability of the resins or the me-
chanical properties of the composites.
b) The composite based on alkyl benzene modified resin
proved best from a frictional point of view. It showed
highest fade µ, second highest recovery µ, lowest per-
cent of fade and highest percent of recovery along with
the lowest increase in disc temperature (best counterface
compatibility). The wear behavior of the same material,
however, was the worst of the five in spite of the fact
that this was the best in mechanical strength properties.
Given a choice, however, frictional performance is more
important than wear in brakes.
c) A composite based on a linseed oil modified phenolic resin
which had the poorest thermal stability had low strength
and was poorest in all friction related performance param-
eters; however, it gave the best wear performance.
d) The straight phenolic based composite proved better in
most of the tribo-performance properties than those pre-
pared with CSNL and NBR, suggesting that resin modi-
fication did not lead to enhancement in friction and wear
properties under severe braking conditions even though
the strength properties of the lining material were im-
proved.
e) Even if a composite has very good mechanical properties
at ambient temperature, or the resin has better thermal
stability, those factors are unsuitable to guarantee good
wear and friction behavior at elevated temperature.
f) Scanning electron microscopy revealed that several mech-
anisms operate simultaneously to control wear in the com-
posites rather than a single one.
g) Finally, it was concluded that performance assessment of
friction materials is a multiple criteria decision making
problem, and that resin modification was not effective in
enhancing all of the selected performance metrics.
Acknowledgements
Authors acknowledge funding by Department of Science
and Technology (Govt. of India) to carry out this work and Mr.
Rajesh Goyal, General Manager, Research and Development,
Allied Nippon, Sahibabad for permission to utilize Krauss
tester.
Appendix A
A.1. Procedure for ECE R-90 standard test
The nominal braking pressure of 1.82 MPa was applied
following the regulation, and in accordance with the given
pad surface area. The flat pad surfaces were polished to facil-
itate a required uniform contact. Before the pads were actu-
1077
ally subjected to the seven stepped friction assessment tests
consisting of one cold friction run, five fade runs and one
recovery run, they were allowed to bed-in for 30 braking ap-
plications in such a manner that the temperature of the disc
did not exceed 280 ◦ C. The disc was allowed to cool down to
100 ◦ C intermittently in the case of temperature rise exceed-
ing 280 ◦ C. The braking duration and the interval between
two successive brakings were 5 s. The uniform contact of the
friction surface was thus assured through 30 cycles of initial
bedding in operation under a bedding load of 2 MPa and a
speed of 660 rpm on the disc. This was done to ensure more
than 80% of conformal contact. The disc and pad surfaces
were allowed to cool to a temperature of less than 100 ◦ C
provided that the temperature rise was more than 280 ◦ C dur-
ing the course of bedding to ensure a controlled friction-
induced thermal history. After completing the bedding cycle,
the cold friction cycle was initiated. It consisted of 10 brak-
ings, where the initial temperature was maintained at 45 ◦ C
with the help of the air blower to dissipate the excessive fric-
tional temperature rise. This was followed by five cycles of
fade, termed the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th fade runs. The
fade experiments thus consisted of five fade runs each of 10
brakings, where the initial braking was at 100 ◦ C, allowing
the friction-induced temperature to rise uninterruptedly until
the completion of all the 10 brakings of each fade cycle. The
subsequent fade run began after the disc was cooled down to
a temperature of 100 ◦ C similarly to the first fade run (FFR).
This sequence was repeated till all the five fade runs were
completed. Finally, after completion of the fifth fade run,
the disc was cooled to a temperature of 100 ◦ C and with the
air blowers on, the recovery run was carried out. This was
the seventh and ultimate cycle of the ECE R 90 standard
run.
Appendix B
B.1. Definitions of friction coefficient in fade studies
µ minimum: this is lowest coefficient of friction for cold,
fade and recovery cycles.
µ maximum: this is highest coefficient of friction for cold,
fade and recovery cycles.
Performance µ: this is average of coefficient of friction
taken after 1 s for fade and recovery cycles at temperature
greater than 100 ◦ C.
µ fade: minimum coefficient of friction for the fade cycle
taken after 270 ◦ C.
%Fade: (performance µ − fade µ) × 100/performance µ.
µ recovery: maximum coefficient of friction for the re-
covery taken after 100 ◦ C.
%Recovery: recovery µ × 100 /performance µ.
1078 J. Bijwe et al. / Wear 259 (2005) 1068–1078

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