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CAREER AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES

ELT1130 ROBOTICS 1
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES

Anatomy of a Robot
Nature provides the inspiration for robots and robotic
systems. Whether it is a human form, another animal, an
insect, or even a plant, we derive many robotic forms from
what we observe around us. Incorporating systems and
subsystems modeled after what we observe in nature allows
us to produce effective robots using desirable qualities from
several different sources. For example, we could design a
robot that can walk like a spider, but also have the ability to
locate objects without light, like a bat.

Design Considerations

There are a number of things to consider when constructing a


robot. First, a perceived need must be identified. This could be
for entertainment or to complete a task. Generally, the task to
be completed will have a large influence on what a robot will
look like. This doesn’t mean that there would only be one way
for the robot to be constructed. Often, we can complete one
task in several different ways. Similarly, we can construct
robots in different ways using diverse components to complete
the same task.

The environment that a robot has to work in will


play a role in the design of a robot. If a
robot is to work in a dusty location, then the
electronics and other dust sensitive parts would
have to be protected. This would be different
protection than if a robot was in a corrosive
location.

How a robot is controlled has a bearing on what it will look like. Stationary robots can be
anchored to the ground while robots that have to move need to be stable while
completing its task.
Tethered, Remote, and Autonomous Control

The decision on which type of control system to use depends on budget, whether the
robot has to move, and the environment it will work in. In the case of bomb recovery
robots used by law enforcement and the military, the operator would not want to be
anywhere near the robot while it is performing a recovery. Similarly, robots used to build
cars can be stationary and be hard wired to the control system.

Tethered Control :

A tethered robot is
direct wired to its
control system. The
control system can
be a computer, a
microcontroller, or an
operator controlling
the robot through
joysticks. The
advantage of this
type of system is that
either the robot or
the control system
can be saved while the other system is replaced. The actual robot would not
have to protect the control system as this can be housed in a safer location. In
nuclear power plants, robots are used to remove old fuel rods and load new rods
into the reactor. This environment is highly radioactive. Since the control system
is away from the dangerous environment, it won’t be affected by the radiation. A
large number of the automobile assembly robots are tethered and connected to a
master control system. This allows the feedback from one robot to control
another robot if there is a problem. Also, tethered robots can be much more
powerful since a large power cable can be connected to the robot allowing it to
complete much heavier lifting and manipulating tasks.

Remote Control:

Remote control uses signals such as radio, satellite or wifi


to control a robot. RC, or radio control, is how most hobby
robots are controlled. These have advanced from using
crystals to set the frequency that the signal is sent on to
digital signals that give a unique signal signature that it
operates on. Generally, RC is line of sight and has a
somewhat short signal transmission range. Wifi controlled robots also have a
relatively short signal range but offer the ability to work over networks and allow
control from remote locations. The advantage of wifi control is that there is the
ability to send video signals so that the operator would be able to see what is in
the environment the robot is operating in without having to be there. The
Canadian military use satellite signals to control their drone aircraft. The drones
are housed at a safe airport location within the drone range. The drone is
controlled by an operator stationed at a military base in Canada. The drone
sends back images to show enemy locations that the soldiers on the ground and
pilots can then target, making them much more effective and making their job
more efficient and safe.

Autonomous Control:

Autonomous robots are totally self-contained. They are designed to interact with
their environment on their own to complete the task. These robots contain
everything they need to perform their task. They would have the movement
system, power system, and information processing ability built in. There are
robots that can interact with their environment without having some sort of
processor (brain).
These have the
robot react directly
to a sensor signal.
In order to
customize robot
behavior,
processing signals
from sensors
through a device
such as a
microcontroller
enable the behavior
of the robot to be
easily adjusted
through
programming.
Sensors in a robot act just like our senses do. They bring in information from the
outside world for the processor to make decisions from. Autonomous robots are
designed to work in environments that do not allow them to be tethered. One
such example is the Martian rover. It is given instructions from a command centre
on earth, but it must adjust its solar panels to keep them pointed to the sun on its
own. If it cannot do this on its own it would die since instructions from earth would
take too long to get to it to keep the panels pointed at the sun.

Robot Structure

The robot structure


must support all the
systems. Robot
structures go by many
names such as body,
frame, and chassis.
Movement,
manipulators, sensors,
wiring, and circuitry
must all be housed
in/on the robot so that they can perform their function as well as be protected in
their environment. There are three main types of body structure, exoskeleton,
endoskeleton, and hybrid skeletal systems. These have been copied from nature.

Exoskeleton: Exoskeletons are an outside frame


configuration. In nature, shellfish such as lobsters
and crabs and spiders have this skeletal system
This structure type is popular as the delicate parts
can be placed inside and have a degree of
protection. These are also relatively easy to build.

Endoskeleton: These structures are based on a skeletal system similar to


mammals, reptiles, and most fish. With this type of robotic structure, the control
and movement capabilities are attached to the outside of the frame/skeletal
structure.
Hybrid skeletal systems: These structures use portions of the
other robot skeletal types. These systems use to advantage
the characteristics of the other systems. The rolling chassis
can be of an exoskeleton type while a manipulating arm may
be an endoskeleton type. With this mixed construction, the
critical systems are protected in the chassis portion. With a
manipulating arm, the structure can be on the inside while the
control motors, wiring, and linkages are on the outside.

Size and shape of a robot structure

There can be great variances in the


size and shape of robots completing
similar tasks. The two main
considerations in the size of a robot
is the task it is to complete and the
specifications that the robot has to
be built to.

In many cases the size of the robot can be determined by the robot designer and
built to the size necessary to contain the components needed to perform the job
the robot has to do. The size of sub-systems such as controller,
pneumatics/hydraulics, drive system, and manipulators will determine size to a
large extent. The strength of the materials used to build the robot must match the
task it has to perform. If small or weak materials are used, then the robot will fail
with use. Generally when engineering a robot, we want to design it stronger than
what we need to prevent failure. The size of the working components will
determine the overall size of the robot. During the design process, the decision
on the part size to use
will have a bearing on
your overall size.

Many times, a robot


must be built to a
certain size
specification. An
example of this is the
robotic cameras
(shown in the picture
on the left) used to
take video inside pipelines. If the robot won’t fit in the pipe it will be useless. In
this type of situation, the size of the robot will determine the size of components
that can be used and consequently the strength of these parts as well.

Material choice:

There are many choices of material that can be used for components of the
robot. The amount of strength required for a task will determine what can be
used.

Metals:

Aluminum: Aluminum is light weight, easy to cut, and


very strong considering its weight. It can be bought in
various shapes and extrusions. The drawback with
aluminum is its price and to weld aluminum, TIG
welding is required.

Steel and iron: these are very strong, relatively


inexpensive and there are several process that
can be used to weld it. The biggest downfall to
using steel or iron is that is relatively heavy.

Tin and sheet metal: Being fairly thin,


this material is very tough for its
weight and adds a lot of protection to
delicate parts. This material can also
have bends added to it to give it more
strength. Formed into shapes can
give this material a high strength to
weight ratio. This material is relatively
cheap. It can be spot welded or joined
using electric techniques with the right
settings.
Wood: Wood can be formed to shape fairly easily, but
pivot pieces would wear this down fairly easily. If this
material is epoxied, it becomes very strong. Wood is
not conductive, so it would be good to mount electrical
components on it. It can be cheap for the lower grade
types.

Plastics and laminates:


These man made
materials have a high strength to weight ratio. They
can be cut, drilled, heat formed if they are
thermoplastics, bonded with cyanoacrylate glue, and
plastic welded. Plastic is available in sheets or
extruded shapes.

Power Systems

There are several means to supply power to the robot. In ancient times, the first
robots were powered by steam and water. This meant that the robots would have
to be stationary to be near a water source, or large and unwieldy to contain the
boiler necessary to create the steam. More modern solutions have enabled the
size of robots to shrink since they no longer have to rely on the large size of the
older power units.

Batteries: The most common way to power a robot is with batteries. Batteries can
be broken down into two groups: disposable and
rechargeable.

Disposable batteries are easy to source and relatively


cheap. They provide a stable power source with a
predictable life span if you know how much load your
robot requires. The disadvantage of these is when they
die they must be thrown away.

Rechargeable batteries do not supply quite as much current as disposable


batteries, but they can be recharged many times. This eliminates a lot of waste.
Rechargeables can be lead-acid, nicad, and lithium are the most commonly used
rechargeables to use in a robot. Lead-acid batteries can supply a high current for
large loads like drive motors and compressors. A disadvantage of rechargeable
batteries is they are fairly expensive for newer technology batteries.

Pneumatic systems:

Pressurized gas (usually air)


is a very useful energy source.
Pneumatic cylinders of various
sizes can be used to perform
tasks. Compressors can be
mounted on a robot to supply
air pressure. Air tanks store
up pressurized air and then
regulators, valves, and tubing
are used to transfer the air to
the proper location and device
on the robot. The advantage
of these is that the pneumatic system can perform a lot of work with lightweight
components.

Hydraulic systems:

Hydraulic systems are much the same


as pneumatic systems, except they use
pressurized liquid instead of a gas.
These can perform more work than
pneumatic systems, and so are used in
heavy duty applications. The drawback
is if you have a leak in the system, the
liquid can create shorts and destroy
other components. These systems are more costly than pneumatic systems.

Solar cells:

“Free energy” is supplied by solar cells.


They convert radiant energy to
electricity. They can be used to
generate electricity and then store it in
batteries or capacitors for use later.
These work great for robots that will
work in remote locations where there
wouldn’t be anybody able to regularly
change batteries or recharge them. The
disadvantage of using solar cells is they do not produce a high current and
charging can be slow. If you need a high current to provide power to th systems
in the robot, then you would need a large amount of solar cells to provide this.

Fuel cells:

Fuel cells were used on the


first lunar buggy astronauts
drove on the moon. They can
provide a high current to
power larger motors and other
high current loads. These
work by passing oxygen and
hydrogen through a
membrane to get electricity as
a byproduct. These have
some specialized requirements and are quite expensive, making them a specialty
item.

Locomotion Systems

Robots that must move in their


environment need a locomotion system
that will enable them to perform their
task efficiently, There are as many
ways of making a robot move as we
have examples in nature and as we can
imagine. These systems can be
complex or very simple. The task that
the robot has to perform, the power
available, and the strength required to move the robot will determine the
locomotion system to use.

Wheels: Wheels are the most popular method of


conveyance (movement) for a robot. They can be
attached directly to a motor, or be powered
through a gearbox. Gearboxes can either make
the robot move faster or make it move slower, but
give it more torque (rotational power). There is a
huge assortment of wheels to select from. Wheels
are available in just about any diameter and with a
wide array of tread. Robots can have any number of wheels, two being the most
common for smaller units, while larger robots can have complex drive systems
with 6 wheels.

Legs: Legs are extremely difficult to use as conveyance. The robot has to
balance as well as coordinate all of the parts necessary to move. This becomes

very complicated, especially if the robot is to be a biped (walking on two legs).


Hexpods are popular as they are very stable and can maneuver very easily. The
disadvantage is the number of joints required to control each of the legs is
multiplied by six.

Tracks: Track drive systems


make a robot able to travers
very uneven terrain since the
tracks are usually as long as
the robot chassis. This allows
the robot to roll over rocks,
crevices, and other obstacles
in its way. Track drives are
somewhat complicated and
need good alignment for the
robot to move in a straight
line.
Propellers: If a robot is to move through air or water, then propellers would be an
efficient choice. If systems used to move ships, submarines, or planes are
mimicked, a robot can be propelled in the same manner. These can also be used
on a land based robot, but the amount of energy needed to move the robot would
make this an inefficient choice.

Flippers: There are new robots being developed that mimic nature in the use of
flippers for movement. These
have been found to be more
efficient than propellers and
create less turbulence. Robots
using this method of propulsion
are used in underwater
applications where the robot is
taking video and the silt churned
up by propellers would make the
images useless.
Gripping and Grabbing Systems

If a robot needs to carry or


manipulate objects in its
environment, a system to
complete the task must be
created. A human arm and
hand can be used as a
model and rudimentary
motion and grabbing can
be accomplished with rods,
linkages, and motors or
servos. Some lifting
mechanisms could look like
forklifts, while others may
look like a human arm
(Canadarm).

Hand components provide the dexterity the robot needs to


manipulate objects. The most simple gripper would be
modeled after a lobster claw where the fingers move together
to pinch the object to be manipulated. Sometimes the entire
robot unit is simply an arm system. An example of this is the
robot arms used on assembly lines to build automobiles. The
entire robot structure is designed to manipulate parts into place, weld pieces
together, or paint the auto parts. Most of
these robots can be programmed many
times to perform new tasks or adjusted to
perform the task more efficiently. Parts
on these can also be changed giving the
robot greater flexibility in its use.

Sensory Devices

Sensors for robots mimic our senses. They are designed to sense light,
temperature, pressure, speed, acceleration, tilt, position in the world, and just
about anything you could imagine. Sensors take in information for the robot
processor to use and react to. A lot of sensors were developed for specific
industry uses, and then it was found these would be perfect for applications
where a robot could use the information from the sensor to interact in the
environment. Information sent
back by sensors can be
processed by the robot to decide
what to do. Just like we react to
our environment, sensors allow
the robot to sense its environment
and then react accordingly.
Robots have been developed that
can be sent in to areas where
deadly gasses may be present
and send signals indicating if that
area is safe for human entry or
not. One of the most simple
sensors is a momentary contact
switch. When the switch is
pressed, it sends a signal to the
robot processor. The program in
the robot will receive this signal
and then have the robot react to it
in some way.

Output Devices

Just as there are many sensors for allowing a


robot to be aware of what is in its environment,
there are many devices that allow the robot to
react to this information. A simple output device
is an LED. When a robot senses a high
temperature, a robot could be programmed to
turn on a red LED indicating heat. Similarly, a
blue LED could be lit to indicate cold. Output
devices can also be very complex, such as a
speech synthesizer. With input, such as you
moving in front of a motion sensor, a speech
synthesizer could be made to “talk” and give a
message to the person close by. The most
common output devices for robots are motors and servos. Motors can power a
drive train or other motion needed. Servos are a type of motor that can be
controlled precisely. These require a special signal called PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) for control. Most processors can output a PWM signal to control
these devices. An advantage of using a servo is that it can send signals back to
the processor indicating its position.

Processing Ability

The ability of a robot to interact with its environment depends on the power of the
processor. The intelligence of a robot will determine the complexity of tasks it will
be able to accomplish.

No processor: If a robot has no processor,


then outputs are activated directly from
inputs. There is no ability to repurpose the
function of the robot easily. Also, if there is
to be time delayed or specific timing for
outputs to be performed, then added
circuitry is needed for timer circuits to
control this. Sometimes a robot needs to
perform a sequence of operations to
complete a task. With each new task, new
circuitry has to be built to complete the task.
This is time consuming and expensive if a task is changed and new circuitry has
to be built.

Microcontrollers: These are a family of processors that have processing ability,


memory, signal converters, timers, registers (temporary memory storage for
processing), and the ability to connect input and output devices such as sensors
and LEDs to it. These processors are like mini computers. In fact, hand held GPS
units, which have a microcontroller in them, are more powerful than the third
generation personal computers. These are low power devices are very small in
size. They typically
operate at 3 or 5
volts. The
microcontroller
circuitry in a robot is
considered “purpose
built” meaning that it
is designed for a
certain use. Even
though the circuitry
is designed for a
certain purpose, the microcontroller can be reprogrammed many times.
Additional sensors and output devices can be easily added if there are extra
input and output pins available on the microcontroller. This makes these much
more versatile than robots with no processor. Microcontrollers are very
inexpensive.

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs): These are larger in scale than


microcontrollers, in size, ruggedness, and processing ability. These are used by
industry to control large scale production lines and robots. Large robots also use
these for control since they can control larger current devices than
microcontrollers without a lot of extra circuitry. These generally operate at 24
volts. A typical robot using a PLC would have high power motors, pneumatic
valves, high power sensors, and other high power devices to control. PLCs can
be programmed using either a general programming language such as C++, a
specialized program such as LabView, or using something called ladder logic
programming.

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