Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Influence of gaseous fuel induction on the various engine characteristics of a T

dual fuel compression ignition engine: A review
⁎
Pali Roshaa,b, Amit Dhira, , Saroj Kumar Mohapatrab
a
School of Energy and Environment, Thapar University Patiala, 147004, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Thapar University Patiala, 147004, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Currently, the unsustainable fossil fuels have been chiefly used for power generation in CI engines. From the
Hydrogen standpoint of fossil fuels depletions and environmental concerns, it is imperative to hunt out alternative energy
Biogas resources that could replace hydrocarbon fossil fuels in the existing engines. In this regards, enormous studies
Syngas have focused on the utilization of renewable fuels along with conventional petroleum fuel in existing com-
Diesel
pression ignition (CI) engine. The induction of gaseous fuels under dual fuel mode have emanated as a potential
Combustion
energy carrier to address the environmental aspects related to CI engines. This review focussed to analyze the
Performance
Emissions influence of gaseous fuels (like H2, biogas, syngas) addition to CI diesel engine under dual fuel mode with diesel/
biodiesel as a pilot fuel. Various engine characteristics such as combustion, performance, and emission of the
dual fuel CI engine using gaseous fuels as a secondary fuel were analyzed and compared with CI engine working
under single fuel mode. Findings of some experimental studies have been presented in the form of graphs for
selective important parameters as case studies. The overall impression from the review suggests that the per-
formance of the dual fuel CI engine slightly deteriorates while enriching the gaseous fuel, but the improvement
in environmental emissions have been reported. Furthermore, various approaches are discussed comprehen-
sively in order to evaluate the performance of dual fuel CI engine along with a check on harmful emissions.

1. Introduction aforesaid dilemmas, it is imperative to move towards an eco-friendly

Today's world is mainly relying on CI engines for power generation,
especially in the transport sector. Furthermore, the power generation by
burning petroleum diesel fuel in CI engines comes at dual crises of fossil
fuel depletion and environmental degradation. It is a cogent proof that
the combustion of these fuels has a fatal impact on the environment,
which leads to deteriorated air quality because of the emission of air
pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate matter (PM)
and secondly, ignites the climate change issue due to the release of
carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere [1–3]. In fact, India is al-
ready the fourth largest greenhouse gas emitter of the world which is
expected to reach the top position in the near future [4]. No doubt, the
dwindling fossil-fuel reserve, and the environmental pollutants are the
well-known pressing issues that need to be addressed today. Fossil fuels,
at present, constitute about 80% of the total energy share with almost
50% of it being associated with the transportation sector, which is
mainly based on diesel engine [5]. It would be interesting to know that,
more than 6.5 million diesel engines exist at present in the Indian
farming sector for various activities [6]. Therefore, to address these
fuel to power CI engines. The mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions
from the environment is the key motivation for the utilization of re-
newable fuels in CI engine. The worldwide share of renewable energy is
about 9% and will rise up to 12% by 2040 [7]. The worldwide auto-
motive fuel consumption in the automotive sector is shown in Fig. 1.
Worldwide research is focussed on appropriate technology as well
as alternative fuel that would be used in these existing diesel engines
with no or fewer noxious pollutants. Use of sophisticated electronic
controllers in CI diesel engine enables reduced emission and better fuel
efficiency in comparison to previous counterpart [8]. However, the
positive effects of this technology are overshadowed by its high price
tag; hence, can’t be commercially employed. In the last few decades,
various alternative fuels have been proposed, targeting at cleaner and
sustainable energy sources in order to counteract the consequences of
the emissions from the CI engines. These include vegetable oil, alcohols,
biofuels, compressed natural gas (CNG), natural gas (NG), liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), syngas, methane (CH4), biogas, hydrogen (H2),
etc for the replacement of diesel fuels used in CI diesel engine [9,10].
Studies are being focussed on the usage of gaseous fuels like natural gas

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amit.dhir@thapar.edu (A. Dhir).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.055
Received 13 July 2016; Received in revised form 6 September 2017; Accepted 27 October 2017
Available online 02 November 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Rosha et al.
Nomenclature
CI Compression Ignition
IC Internal Combustion
H2 Hydrogen
BP Brake Power
BSEC Brake Specific Energy Consumption
SEC Specific Energy Consumption
BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
ITE Indicated Thermal Efficiency
BTE Brake Thermal Efficiency
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
CR Compression Ratio
CV Calorific Value
ATDC After Top Dead Centre
for CI engines worldwide, because of their better mixing characteristics
with air. Hydrogen is also one of the commonly known clean energy
resources; but, discovery of environment friendly technique to produce
H2 at a lower price is the challenging task for research.
Indeed, there are review articles published on different strategies
and alternatives fuels for CI engines; with some reviews on blending of
additives with biodiesel [11,12]. Rajasekar and Datta et al. [13,14]
published reviews on CI engines fuelled with biodiesel; their monu-
mental study set a milestone in the field of CI engines. Debnath et al.
[15] reviewed the application of emulsion as an alternative fuel. Singh
et al. [16] discussed about a methodology for the complete elimination
of diesel fuel in their review. Varun et al. [17] reviewed on the studies
based on the modification of combustion chamber geometry. Given a
multitude of these reviews, it is an apt time to make an attempt to
compile and analyze the research studies focussing on the influence of
potential gaseous fuels (like H2, biogas, syngas) induction on the
combustion, performance and emission characteristics of a dual fuel CI
engine. The emphasis of the current review is the exploration of new
alternative and clean renewable fuels to be used in conjunction with
diesel in existing CI engines without major modifications.
2. Gaseous fuel as an alternative fuel
Gaseous fuels have been emerging as attractive alternative energy
resources to replace diesel fuel either partially or completely in CI en-
gine. The injection of gaseous fuel in CI engine under dual fuel mode is
not a new technology; it has been investigated by many researchers
with widespread success [18,19]. Usually, gaseous fuel is mixed with
the intake air during the suction stroke of dual fuel CI engine, either
through manifold injection or through direct injection into the cylinder
[20]. Depending upon the availability of fuels, dual fuel CI engines can
be switched to either dual fuel mode or single fuel mode. In dual fuel
mode, a certain amount of pilot fuel must be sprayed as an ignition
source due to high auto-ignition temperature of the gaseous fuel.
Fig. 1. Projection of worldwide automotive fuel consumption [6].
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BTDC Before Top Dead Centre
CA Crank Angle
CO Carbon Monoxide
A/F Air Fuel Ratio
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
LPM Litre Per Minute
HC Hydrocarbon
NOx Nitrogen Oxide
PM Particulate Matter
DI Direct Injection
IDI Indirect Injection
HCCI Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
Usually, the quantity of diesel fuel (pilot fuel) required for adequate
ignition is around 10–20% of the quantity required for single fuel mode
operation [21]. The main objective of a dual fuel technology is to re-
duce the consumption of conventional fossil fuels with increased sub-
stitution by alternative renewable fuels, which are economically viable
and environmental friendly [22].
There are several issues associated with the performance of dual fuel
CI engines. For example, at lower load, the dual fuel engine operation
tends to exhibit poor thermal efficiency, lower fuel utilization, pro-
longed ignition delay and higher emissions which are attributed to low
ignition ability of gaseous fuels [23]. Moreover, the performance of
dual fuel CI engine largely depends on the combustion behaviour, en-
gine operating conditions, and design parameters; such as speed, load,
pilot fuel injection timing, compression ratio, inlet manifold condition,
pilot fuel mass, the composition of gaseous fuel, etc [24,25]. The pre-
sent study explores the utilization of mainly three gaseous fuels namely
H2, biogas and syngas in CI engine as an alternative fuel under dual fuel
mode. The properties of the H2, biogas, and syngas are shown in Table 1
[63,83,86,121,131,132].
2.1. Hydrogen as a gaseous fuel
Hydrogen (H2) has been explored as a fuel for IC engine in the
earlier of 20th century but in the last few decades, there has been a
strong interest in this area. H2 as an energy carrier is counted as a very
peculiar long-period renewable fuel because of its eco-friendly nature
and distinctive properties from the conventional fuel [26]. H2 as a fuel
can be acquired from several resources like biomass, water electrolysis,
industrial and chemical wastes, etc [27,28]. H2 as a fuel has zero carbon
content and combustion of H2 emits water vapour only, which would
play a key role in reducing the carbon footprint [29]. Major concerns
related to the combustion of H2 in air are its unique characteristics like
high flame speed, high energy density/unit mass, wide flammability
range, low ignition energy, high diffusivity, etc [30]. H2 based dual fuel
CI engines suffer an obstacle of premature ignition due to low ignition
energy of H2, which is one of the challenges related to its usage in CI
engine. In 1820, the practical attempt was done by Rev. W. Cecil on an
H2-operated engine, in which H2 gas was used to produce force [31].
Further, over 1000 vehicles were converted to H2 in Germany and
England in 1930 [32]. Various studies have been documented with
regard to the technical viability and challenges posed by the utilization
of H2 as a fuel in CI engine in the later 20th Century [37,38].
In 2007, a national H2 energy roadmap has been formulated by
MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy), which targeted
around one million H2 fuelled vehicles in India by 2020 [33]. Usage of
H2 in CI engine under dual fuel mode and effects on combustion, per-
formance and emission characteristics have been summarized in
Table 2.
P. Rosha et al.
Table 1
Some properties of the diesel and gaseous fuels like hydrogen, biogas and carbon monoxide.
Properties Diesel Hydrogen
Chemical composition C12H26 H2
Calorific value (MJ/Kg) 42.36 119.98
Density (kg/m3) 840 0.081
Maximum flame speed (m/s) 0.38 2.92
Octane number – 130
Cetane number 40–45 – –
Auto- ignition temperature (°C) 254–285 585
Stoichiometric A/F ratio (mass) 14.5 34.3
Minimum energy required for ignition (MJ) 0.06 0.02
Energy density (MJ/Nm3) 2.82 2.87
Flame temperature in air (K) – 2328
Diffusivity in air (cm2/s) – 0.63
Quenching gap in air (cm) – 0.064
Flammability limits (% by Vol.) 0.7–5 4–75
The addition of H2 under dual fuel mode was recommended as the
best method to improve emissions, as well as to enhance performance of
CI engines. Many studies focussed on the evaluation of the performance
of H2-diesel dual fuel CI engine [34–38]. Likewise, Kumar et al. ob-
served a small quantity of H2 as a secondary fuel with diesel/jatropha
oil as pilot fuel in CI engine lead to larger combustion rate due to high
flame speed and wide flammability limits of H2. As a result, BTE was
increased by 7.6% when compared to pure ‘Jatropha oil’ with an H2
mass share of 7% under full load condition [34]. Recently, Hamdan
et al. [35] utilized H2 supplement in a CI engine with Jojoba methyl
ester as a pilot fuel and reported a major improvement in thermal ef-
ficiency whereas, reduces SFC, which can be a potential supplement to
cut back the dependence of conventional fuels.
Due to high auto-ignition temperature (576 °C), the use of H2 in CI
engines necessitates some ignition facilitator. Researchers have been
working on different techniques to overcome this major barrier like
Homan et al. [36] used glow plug as a source of ignition for H2 and
found quicker engine operation with combustion taking place during
the injection period. In spite of increasing the CR to 29, IMEP hasn’t
changed because the injector pressure ranging from 8.3 to 9.8 MPa was
not enough to cause flow in the orifice to the sonic that resulted in high
fraction of H2 entering into the cylinder after TDC.
H2 has higher flammability limits; hence, a wide variety of power
output of a dual fuel CI engine may be possible by varying in the excess
air ratio of the mixture. Whereas, high flame speed and heating value of
H2 changes the combustion behaviour of the mixture when injecting H2
as a secondary fuel in CI engine. Generally, H2 based dual fuel CI en-
gines showed quicker combustion rate and the rapid rise in pressure
with the increasing proportion of H2 in the mixture [37]. It is being
noted that H2 assisted dual fuel CI engines suffer from major obstacle of
limited H2 injection. Beyond the limit, H2 create several issues such as
high in-cylinder peak pressure, auto-ignition of premixed H2-air charge
and too advanced combustion [38]. Lata et al. [39] reported a steady
rise in pressure rate (0.24 bar/°CA) with 50% H2 volume share at 80%
load, which is due to the different thermodynamic properties of H2 and
air, along with the varying intake pressure. Similarly, Wong et al. [40]
investigated the influence of H2 as a sole fuel in a modified low heat
rejection CI engine and reported a rapid rise in pressure rate during
compression of H2-air charge, the self-burning temperature of H2-air
charge is large enough when compared to other hydrocarbon fuels.
The in-cylinder pressure is regarded as an important parameter used
to predict combustion behaviour inside the cylinder. Moreover, at high
and medium loads, the in-cylinder pressure increased consequently
with increasing H2 energy share whereas at low loads, it follows a re-
verse trend [41,42]. The reduction of in-cylinder pressure at low load
was due to the deterioration in premixed charge combustion. A study of
Santoso et al. [43] confirmed that the in-cylinder pressure declined by
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
Biogas Carbon monoxide
CH4: 60–70%; CO2: 30–40%; CO: 0.18%; CO
H2: 0.18% (volume)
20–25 10.1
1.2 1.249
0.25 0.19
120 –
–
700 605
6 2.45
– 0.40
– 3.79
– 2394
0.111 0.208
– 3.15
7.5–14 12.5–74
11.2% continuously with increasing H2 energy share from 21.4 to
49.6 l/min at lower load. Moreover, these trends are in contrast at high
and medium loads due to a high burning velocity of H2, which leads to
complete and rapid oxidation of the charge that enhance in-cylinder
pressure. The studies of Yilmaz and Demir revealed that the maximum
cylinder pressure increased in the ranges between 1.1 to 11.2% with H2
addition when compared to diesel [44]. Study explored the induction of
H2 in CI engine and reported rise in-cylinder peak pressure up to 3% H2
induction, beyond which in-cylinder peak pressure reduced. Moreover,
the apparent rise in peak heat release rate could be observed with a
higher rate of H2. This may be due to the synergic effect of the diffusion
and fast turbulence of diesel and H2 that enhance the peak heat release
rate.
It may be noted that the maximum H2 energy share in a dual fuel CI
engine has been restricted by an onset of knocking, which found be the
main hurdle that plague the successful utilization of H2 as a fuel in CI
engine [45]. Further, the H2 energy share in a dual fuel CI was en-
hanced by using two different strategies; (a) retardation in pilot fuel
injection timing, (b) use water as an additive. It was experimentally
evaluated that the low-temperature combustion strategies would play a
dominant role in improving the H2 energy share in CI dual fuel engine
[46]. Among both strategies, water injection dual fuel mode offered
significant rise of 36.0% H2 energy [47]. Additionally, by varying
compression ratios of the dual fuel CI engine resulted in significant
enhancement in H2 energy share as shown in Fig. 2. It has been reported
that thermal efficiency improved with the increase in H2 energy share,
but the efficiency declined significantly with reduction in compression
ratios [48].
Normally, the thermal efficiency of any dual fuel CI engine largely
depends upon specific heat and compression ratio. With the rise of the
specific heat and compression ratio, the thermal efficiency increases
consequently. Many studies reported results on various H2 substitution
rates as a future fuel for CI engines without compromising brake torque,
thermal efficiency and power output [49–52]. In this vein, a wide range
of experiments was performed by varying H2 flow rates from 0 to 50
LPM with a step of 10 LPM. At 20 LPM, the thermal efficiency improved
by 14.9% and 8.18% for 5.90 and 6.65 kg/cm2 BMEP, respectively, as
shown in Fig. 3. With an increase in H2 induction to 30 LPM, knocking
starts with consequent loss in efficiency and power. This is attributed of
incomplete combustion caused by less quantity of air availability as
higher rates of H2 replaced the intake air and therefore led to power loss
[53]. As the availability of oxygen inside the combustion chamber is
reduced with H2 addition, BTE reduced at 7.5% H2 energy share, but
increasing the H2 energy share would increase the combustion effi-
ciency due its better combustion characteristics [54].
Similarly, the variable energy shares of H2 (8.39%, 8.73% and
10.1%) used in the experiments conducted by Geo and Nagarajan
 Table 2
Summary of the different characteristics of CI engine operated in dual fuel mode with H2 as a gaseous fuel.

Name of researcher Ref. Fuel Gaseous fuel Engine used Engine characteristics
P. Rosha et al.

Combustion Performance Emissions

Homan et al. [36] Diesel Hydrogen ASTM-CFR diesel engine High cylinder pressure and IMEP Higher ITE Higher NOx
Ikegami et al. [65] Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, air cooled, Higher peak cylinder pressure Higher brake power Higher NOx
DI diesel engine
Gopal et al. [61] Diesel Hydrogen 5 HP, single cylinder, four-stroke, constant Higher peak pressure and rate of pressure rise Lower BTE at lower loads –
speed,
CI engine
Varde et al. [56] Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, air cooled, Higher rate of pressure rise and cylinder pressure Lower BTE Higher NOx and HC but lower
DI diesel engine Smoke emissions
Wong et al. [40] Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, Lister STI diesel engine Higher pressure rise rate Fluctuation in engine power –
Mathur et al. [62] Diesel Hydrogen 4 kW, CI engine gen-set – Lower efficiency at high H2 Lower HC, CO and smoke
addition
Mathur et al. [53] Diesel Hydrogen single cylinder, 4 kW, four-stroke, water – Higher thermal efficiency below –
cooled, DI, 30 LPM
CI engine
Kumar et al. [34] Jatropha oil Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant speed, Higher ignition delay, peak pressure and Increase BTE by 7.6% at full load Higher NOx and lower CO,
DI diesel engine maximum rate of pressure rise smoke and HC emissions
Saravanan et al. [63] Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant speed, Higher peak pressure Increase BTE by 34.15% at Lower NOx, smoke, CO and HC
DI diesel engine 15 °ATDC emissions
Antunes et al. [86] Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, air cooled, Higher peak cylinder pressure and rate of pressure Lower BTE Lower NOx and negligible effect
DI diesel engine under HCCI mode rise on HC and CO emissions
Geo et al. [55] Biodiesel and Hydrogen single cylinder, four-stroke, air cooled, DI, Higher peak pressure and rate of pressure rise Higher BTE and lower volumetric Lower smoke, HC, CO and
Diesel CI engine efficiency at higher load Higher NOx emissions
Shirk et al. [83] Biodiesel (B20) Hydrogen 5.3 kW (peak), turbocharged, common- Higher exhaust gas temperature Negligible changed in efficiency Lower NOx emissions

3336
Szwaja et al. [85]
Antunes et al. [76]
Saravanan and Nagarajan [87]
Liew et al. [46]
Bari and Esmaeil [137]
Roy et al. [64]
Lilik et al. [70]
Gatts et al. [81]
Miyamoto et al. [75]
Birtas et al. [77]
Lata et al. [39]
Debnath et al. [59]
Kose et al. [80]
Ghazal [54]
An et al. [57]
rail, direct-injection diesel engine
Diesel Hydrogen Two-cylinder in-line CI engine and HCCI Ignition advanced and heavier knock in HCCI and – –
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, air cooled, Higher peak in-cylinder pressure – Lower NOx emission
DI diesel engine
Diesel Hydrogen 3.7 kW, Single cylinder, DI, water cooled, Higher peak pressure Higher BTE and lower SEC Higher NOx and lower smoke
CI engine emissions
Diesel Hydrogen 1999 Cummins ISM370 diesel engine Higher cylinder pressure and heat release rate – –
Diesel H2/O2 mixture Hino WO4D, 4-cylinder, DI, water cooled, – Higher BTE and lower BSFC Lower HC, CO2 and CO but
CI engine higher NOx emissions
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, water Higher peak pressure and IMEP w.r.t. injection Higher thermal efficiency Higher NOx but HC and CO
cooled, DI diesel engine timing within limits
Diesel Hydrogen DDC/VM Motori 2.5 L, 4-cylinder, Higher heat release rate Lower performance Higher NOx
turbocharged, common rail, DI desel
engine
Diesel Hydrogen Six cylinder heavy duty diesel engine – Lower BTE at low loads Higher H2 emission at low loads
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant speed, Lower maximum rate of in-cylinder pressure – Lower NO at middle and high
DI diesel engine load
Diesel Hydrogen Four cylinder, In-line, tractor diesel engine Higher In-cylinder pressure Lower BTE at part loads Lower CO and CO2 but higher
NOx emissions
Diesel Hydrogen 4-cylinder, turbocharged, gen set dual fuel Higher cylinder pressure and heat release rate – –
CI engine
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, 5.2 kW, NA, – Higher BTE, EGT, lower BSEC and –
water cooled, DI diesel engine BSEC
Diesel Hydrogen Four cylinder, turbocharger,4-stroke, CI – Higher BTE and torque, but lower Higher NOx but lower HC and
engine BSFC at 2.5% H2 CO emissions
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, air cooled, – Higher BTE and ITE Lower CO emission
DI diesel engine
Diesel Hydrogen Four cylinder, 2KD-FTV Toyota car engine Higher ITE at 1600 rpm Higher cylinder pressure and heat Lower CO and CO2 but higher
release rate at 1600 rpm NOx emissions
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
 Table 2 (continued)
Name of researcher
Santoso et al. [43]
Sandalci et al. [73]
Zhou et al. [78]
Talibi et al. [69]
Chintala et al. [67]
Karagoz et al. [68]
Chintala and Subramanian [47]
Kumar et al. [60]
Chintala and Subramanian [48]
Karagoz et al. [79]
Hamdan et al. [35]
Yilmaz et al. [44]
3337
Pana et al. [138]
Ref. Fuel Gaseous fuel Engine used Engine characteristics
P. Rosha et al.
Combustion Performance Emissions
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, CI engine Lower cylinder peak pressure and pressure rise Higher SEC and lower ITE –
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, 5.1 kW, NA, air Higher cylinder pressure and heat release rate Higher ITE Lower CO,CO2 and smoke but
cooled, DI diesel engine higher NOx emissions
Diesel Hydrogen Inline 4 cylinder, naturally aspirated, CI Higher cylinder pressure and heat release rate Higher BTE and Lower BSFC at full Lower CO, CO2 but higher HC
engine loads and NOx emissions
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, air cooled, Higher cylinder temperature and heat release rate Lower thermal efficiency at part Lower CO and PM but higher
DI diesel engine loads NOx
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant speed, Higher in-cylinder pressure – Lower NOx and smoke
DI diesel engine emissions
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant speed, Higher peak in cylinder pressure and heat release Lower BTE and higher BSFC Lower CO2, CO but HC, smoke
DI diesel engine rate and NOx higher at full load
Diesel and Hydrogen 7.4 kW, DI, CI dual fuel engine Lower in-cylinder temperature – Lower HC, CO and Smoke but
Biodiesel higher NOx emissions
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant speed, Higher heat release rate and cylinder pressure Higher BTE and lower BSFC Lower HC and CO but higher
DI diesel engine NOx emissions
Diesel Hydrogen 7.4 kW, DI, CI dual fuel engine – Higher thermal efficiency Higher NOx emissions with
higher CR
Diesel Hydrogen Single cylinder, 4-stroke, water cooled, DI Higher cylinder pressure Lower BTE Lower CO and smoke but higher
diesel engine HC emissions
Biodiesel Hydrogen Ricardo E6, single cylinder, CI engine Higher pressure rise rate and maximum heat Higher BTE and lower BSFC Higher NOx
release rate
Diesel Hydrogen 4-cylinder, four stroke, water cooled, Lower maximum cylinder pressure, rate of – –
turbocharged, CRDI engine pressure rise and rate of heat release but higher
ignition delay
Diesel Hydrogen D2156 MTN8, CI engine – Lower BSFC and BSEC Lower NOx and smoke
emissions
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
P. Rosha et al.
Fig. 2. Comparison of maximum H2 energy shares for different compression ratios [48].
revealed improved BTE with H2 injection almost at all flow rates when
compared to the absence of H2. Although BTE was enhanced to 29.3%
from 27.9% with 8.73% H2 energy share at full load condition, but the
increase was still less than the diesel alone [55]. Varde et al. [56] in-
dicated that, at low H2 aspirating rates, the BTE either declined or re-
mained constant relative to the diesel operation. Since the stoichio-
metric A/F ratio of H2 is 2.3 times larger than the diesel. Low rates of H2
showed a high value of lambda; therefore high combustion temperature
is needed to burn the H2 mixed charge. Further, higher peak cylinder
pressure was measured at full rated load relative to 6% H2 energy share.
An et al. [57] reported that, at low load conditions, a small amount of
H2 like 3% (vol. basis) increased the ITE by 34.7% with 1600 rpm rated
speed. On the other side, at 2400 and 3200 rpm, no change in ITE was
observed under same loading conditions; which might be due to the
higher burning velocity of H2.
Since H2 carries 1.17% more energy than diesel; therefore achieving
same power output requires a lower quantity of H2 to displace diesel
under same loading conditions. This could be postulated that H2 ad-
dition improves brake power/brake thermal efficiency under all load
conditions. The investigations of Yadav et al. indicates improvement in
BTE of a H2-diesel dual fuel CI engine due to the better combustion and
higher calorific value of H2 when compared to other fuels [58]. It is
evident from Fig. 4 that at low load, H2 couldn’t burn properly, thus
resulting in poor thermal efficiency. Moreover, BSFC decreased conse-
quently due to high energy rate H2 when compared to diesel, results
portray in Fig. 5 [59].
It is worth noting that the gaseous fuel in dual fuel CI engine would
Fig. 3. Variation of thermal efficiency with BMEP [53].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
Fig. 4. Variation of BTE with diesel replacement [59].
not self-ignite spontaneously, which may lead to knocking, overheating
of cylinder walls, high peak pressure and rate of pressure rise [60].
Gopal et al. [61] represented the combustion process of a H2-diesel dual
fuel CI engine at variable loading conditions and reported that at lower
diesel flow rate; there was an instantaneous drop in BTE, a problem of
knocking and abrupt change in the peak pressure rise rate with H2 in-
duction. Further, Mathur et al. [62] found the optimum full load energy
of 38% with H2 and at given energy substitution rate, there was neg-
ligible loss in thermal efficiency and power with no knocking. After-
ward, rapid reduction in thermal efficiency and BMEP occurred with
serious engine knocking, which was explained on the basis of differ-
ences in cetane ratio, stoichiometric ratio and combustion character-
istics of the fuel-air mixture.
The fuel injection timing is the most influencing factor for the
performance of dual fuel CI engine. BTE has been reported to improve
by altering the injection timing of the dual fuel CI engine. For instance,
Saravanan et al. [53] reported, at injection timing of 5° and 15° ATDC
(After Top Dead Centre) with duration of 90° CA, the BTE escalated by
24.5% and 34.1% respectively, when compared to diesel. This kind of
behaviour may be because of enhanced combustion caused by the
better mixing of H2 and air. Roy and Tomita identified the optimal
conditions for maximum brake power output i.e. at 0.20 and 0.25
equivalence ratios, for 17 °CA BTDC and 12 °CA BTDC injection timing,
respectively. Even, the advancement in injection timing leads to high
peak cylinder pressures, and therefore, more NOx emission was ob-
served [64]. For instance, Ikegami et al. [65] reported that terribly
early injection lower the quantity of fuel delivery and the mixture may
fail to ignite within the normal phase during the combustion stroke,
hence, inviting a misfiring. These aforesaid handicaps could be over-
come by a specially fabricated high-pressure injector, which has high
resistance to resist in-cylinder pressure and temperature.
A considerable amount of literature has stated that stoichiometric
ratio of H2-air mixture become weaker at intermediate loads, which
results in lowering the flame speed but with increasing load, the
Fig. 5. Variation of BSFC with diesel replacement [59].
P. Rosha et al.
Fig. 6. Classification of combustion process in CI engine [66].
mixture would be shifted towards stoichiometric condition; hence give
comparable peak heat release rate. Heat release rate curve for a CI
engine could be classified as; premixed combustion phase, diffusion
combustion phase and after burning phase, as depicted in Fig. 6. The
large portion of the heat release might occur during premixed and
diffusion combustion phase [66]. Chintala et al. [67] also stated the
similar analogy for CI diesel engine; it has been observed that in all
three phases the total heat release would be ended at 90° CA-ATDC.
Although, both after-burning and diffusion combustion phases de-
creases by increasing energy share of premixed charge. On the contrary,
Karagoz et al. [68] described the negative effect caused by these ad-
vance faces of combustion, just like on thermal efficiency and reported
that maximum reduction in BTE of 10.9% at 40% load with H2-diesel
fuel mode was observed when compared to diesel.
In a H2-diesel dual fuel CI engine, an abrupt change in the ignition
delay period could lead to increase the energy losses and a portion of H2
didn’t burn in the cylinder, which kept escaping from the tailpipe, thus
deterioration the thermal efficiency [69]. However, Lilik et al. reported
a fluctuation in the ignition delay period with the increasing amount of
H2 fraction [70]. There are several explanations corresponding to an
initial increase in ignition delay which might be due to a decrease in
partial pressure of O2 with the rising fraction of H2 as a fuel and due to
reduction in the in-cylinder charge (H2-air) temperature owing to high
overall specific heat [71].
Since H2 fuel is considered as an eco-friendly fuel, therefore, its
combustion in CI engine would not emit carbon-based pollutants.
Heywood stated that the formation of HC and CO in CI diesel engine is
primarily due to incomplete combustion of fuel, which might be further
controlled by proper fuel/air ratio of the mixture inside the combustion
chamber [72]. Notable, fuel-rich mixture promotes CO emission for-
mation, which tends to rise constantly corresponding to equivalence
ratio. The emissions of CO and HC originate from the boundary layers
and crevices, which are too cold to allow for complete combustion of
Fig. 8. Variation of BSHC, BSCO and BSNOx with BMEP [78].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
Fig. 7. Variation of NOx emissions with IMEP [76].
fuel. In general, adding the H2 to CI engine would provide high H2 to
carbon ratio of the combined charge that contributes the inner cylinder
to reduce CO and also the more homogeneous mixture of fuel enables
complete combustion [73]. Furthermore, increasing the amount of H2
increased the NOx emissions because H2 causes the generation of ra-
dicals, which promote NOx formation. Also, the impact of a small
match between the peak cylinder pressure and increased heat release
rate is responsible for producing NOx emissions [74].
Miyamoto et al. [75] stated that H2 addition with a late injection of
diesel fuel results in a reduction of combustion temperature; hence
reduction in NOx emissions. The addition of small amount of H2 (2%)
has a negative impact in terms of brake power and efficiency but has
the positive impact in terms of emissions. For example, at 40% load
condition, the NOx emission reduced with a lower substitution rate of
H2 (< 8%), and later on increases at higher loads. The reduced in-cy-
linder heat transfer losses were reported in the H2-fuelled mode because
of better air-fuel mixing with reduced heterogeneity of fuels, thereby
reducing peak gas temperatures and subsequent reduction in NOx
emissions (Fig. 7) [76]. Carbon based emissions showed a reduced
trend under most of the engine operating conditions due to the “carbon
free” H2 fuel. The CO2 and CO emissions decreased consecutively with
an increase in H2 fraction due to the absence of carbon in the fuel
changed with H2 [77]. Zhou et al. [78] reported 34.9% and 39.0%
advancement in combustion phase for 30% and 40% H2 addition, re-
spectively. Fig. 8 portrays the variation of BSHC, BSCO and BSNOx with
respect to BMEP. It can be observed that all emissions were under
control but smoke and NOx levels increase with H2 addition owing to
outweighing peak in-cylinder pressure at full load condition. Karagoz
and Guler tested the effect of H2 enrichment on the emission char-
acteristics of CI engine at full rated load and found that the CO and
smoke emissions were improved, but HC emission increased with in-
creasing H2 percentage [79,80].
Few scattered studies explored the measurement of the unburned H2
P. Rosha et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349

Fig. 11. In-cylinder pressure plot for H2 HCCI operation [86].

measured in the H2 HCCI mode and this quick pressure rise suggests
Fig. 9. Effect of the H2 addition on H2 emissions and its combustion efficiency [81]. that a considerably higher heat release rate, as shown in Figs. 11 and 12
[86]. A negligible effect on HC and CO emissions was observed,
whereas some H2 in the exhaust could be seen due to injection of H2
emissions of dual fuel CI engines. In this aspect, Gatts and Liew focused
under non-optimized conditions. Interestingly, lesser NOx levels were
on the H2 emissions emitted from a H2-diesel dual fuel engine [81] and
observed in an H2-HCCI mode in comparison to the diesel engine.
reported that unburned H2 emission increased but its combustion effi-
Although, direct H2 injection into the cylinder has some advantages
ciency decreased linearly with H2 addition up to a threshold value.
like high volumetric efficiency, high engine power output but it re-
However, improvement in combustion efficiency and reduction in H2
quires especially designed injectors that should be durable against high
emissions was observed with increasing engine load. For instance, the
temperature and pressure in the cylinder. Indeed, some modification
maximum combustion efficiency reached to 83% with 7.5% H2 volume
must be required to install these injectors on the cylinder head. An
share, which is 16.5% less when compared to neat diesel (Fig. 9). High
effort has been done by Saravanan and Nagarajan by using the aforesaid
H2 emissions confirmed the incomplete combustion of H2 in dual fuel CI
injector to inject H2 into the intake manifold, whereas diesel was used
engine when ignited by diesel fuel [82].
to initiate the H2 combustion. H2 was fed at a constant flow rate
As the heat content of H2 is 2.82 times higher than diesel fuel,
(5.51 min−1) throughout load spectrum. At 75% of rated load, NOx
moreover, the faster burning rate of H2 leads to increase the in-cylinder
emission was increased because of improvement in the fuel combustion
temperature earlier during the power stroke in dual fuel CI engine with
zone with H2 induction that also leads to higher BTE as shown in
H2 combustion when compared to diesel. Shirk et al. [83] recorded
Figs. 13 and 14 [87].
higher EGT with 5% H2 substitution along with biodiesel blended (B20)
pilot fuel, which was slightly higher than diesel as shown in Fig. 10.
Higher EGT could be due to a higher heating value of the H2 (120 MJ/
kg). The other reason may be due to high flame temperature and rapid
combustion with H2 indication under dual fuel mode.
In order to reduce the fossil fuel consumption and emission levels,
another alternative technique homogeneous charge compression igni-
tion (HCCI) engine concept was explored. In this engine, a premixed
homogeneous air-fuel mixture is injected into the cylinder. Diesel fuel
alone is not appropriate for HCCI engine operation because of its high
propensity and low volatility [84]. Szwaja et al. [85] analyzed the re-
sults of H2 combustion by using HCCI engine and disclosed that H2-air
combustion under HCCI mode generated extremely high knocking;
which could be overcome by adopting lean combustion. When com-
pared to diesel fuel, around 40% higher peak cylinder pressure was
Fig. 12. Effect of inlet air temperature on peak pressure for H2 HCCI operation [86].

Fig. 10. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with different operating conditions [83]. Fig. 13. Variation of NOx emissions with load [87].

3340
P. Rosha et al.
Fig. 14. Variation of BTE with load [87].
Findings of various studies revealed that the utilization of H2 as an
energy carrier to existing CI engine under dual fuel mode is a promising
option to enhance the performance and improve the emissions char-
acteristics. The injection of small amount of H2 to a CI engine can re-
duce the heterogeneity of a diesel fuel spray, which offers better cir-
cumstances throughout the combustion process. However, the
implementation of H2 as a fuel largely depends upon its availability,
competitive price, and its safe storage system.
2.2. Biogas as a gaseous fuel
In a scientific world, when safety and viability of energy alternatives
are being debated, it is pertinent to consider one of the dominant re-
newable energy alternatives, particularly biogas. Biogas is a cheaper,
cleaner and potentially renewable fuel produced by fermentation or
anaerobic digestion of organic matters like non-edible seed cakes, cow
dung, food waste, animal waste, agricultural waste, sewage sludge,
municipal waste, etc [88]. In addition, energy recovery of biogas from
biomass is extremely rewarding and a viable alternative option to re-
place conventional fossil fuels. Biogas is primarily methane (CH4) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) with small traces of carbon monoxide (CO), hy-
drogen (H2), oxygen (O2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The energy
content of biogas mainly depends on its concentration of CH4. Biogas
with a high percentage of CH4 could be marked as good quality gas,
which has high heating value and produces blue flame after burning in
the air. The presence of diluents like CO2 in biogas lowers its energy
content, which significantly reduces the fuel quality in terms of com-
bustion. The origin of biogas plant traced back to 1859 in Bombay. In
1898, the United Kingdom used anaerobic digestion to convert sewage
into biogas which was then used to light street lamps. In 2002, biogas
used in the urban transport sector of Sweden alone has successfully
reduced greenhouse gases by 9000 t/y [89]. Moreover, a huge potential
for biogas generation has been available throughout India. In fact, India
has already enhanced the biogas plants capacity by 42.3% from 2002 to
2012 [90]. During 2014-15, around 20,700 lakh cubic meter of biogas
was produced within the country, which is equal to 5% LPG consumed
[91]. Even, rural households have been using biogas for the heating and
cooking purpose. Biogas is a renewable fuel which is easy availability
and makes a good substitute for conventional diesel. Moreover, it is also
used in dual fuel CI engines owing to its high anti-knock properties
when compared to conventional diesel fuel. It also requires additional
ignition source to initiate the ignition, as in the case of H2 fuel [92].
Combustion, performance and emission characteristics of the biogas
dual fuel CI engine have been briefly summarized in Table 3.
The long-term utility of a biogas-diesel dual fuel CI engine has been
tested by Tippayawong et al. [93] and reported negligible effects on
power output and efficiency up to the first 2000 h run of dual fuel CI
engine. Thereafter, a little quantity of carbon deposition inside the
combustion chamber was observed. The energy conversion efficiency
under dual fuel mode was significantly less, which may be due to the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
large replacement of pilot fuel by gaseous fuel [94].
Gaseous fuel, which complies with the requirements of the stan-
dards, could be used in dual fuel CI engines; while biogas produced by
anaerobic digestion contains an excessively high concentration of water
vapour and H2S, and therefore, doesn’t meet the standards of engine
fuels. A part from that, the extent of CO2 in biogas is higher, which
reduces its energy content. Many studies have been reported in the past
evaluating the effect of CO2 concentration in biogas. Makareviciene
et al. [95] revealed that increasing the CO2 percentage in biogas de-
creases the fuel quality in term of combustion, thereby increasing fuel
consumption. CO2 behaves as an inert gas that subsequently increased
the specific heat of the intake charge, and causes a reduction in the
flame propagation speed [96]. Generally, biogas-diesel dual fuel engine
offers low BTE and high BSFC due to the presence of CO2. The findings
confirmed that at part load (BMEP: 4 bar), BTE of a biogas-diesel dual
fuel CI engine decreased from 30% to 27%. Bari [97] reported an in-
crease in BSFC for CO2 percentage above 30% (Vol. basis) in the biogas.
This may be due to the effect of diluents like CO2 in the combustion
chamber, which lower local gas temperature by absorbing heat energy
from the combustion and affecting the burning speed of the biogas-air
charge. It means increasing proportion of CO2 in biogas decreases BTE
because of low mean combustion temperature. Nathan et al. [98] ex-
plained that CO2 content in biogas up to 40% did not affect the per-
formance of dual fuel CI engine, but beyond that, CO2 may affect the
ignition delay period due to dissociation into O2 and CO. Kovacs et al.
[99] stated that, the CO2 content in the tailpipe emissions depends
largely on the CO2 presence in the biogas itself. Cacua and Villalba
figure out that CO2 emission of the trigeneration system under biogas-
diesel dual fuel mode was successfully decreased by 24.9% when
compared to single generation mode [100]. This trigeneration tech-
nology involves the simultaneous production of heat, cold and elec-
tricity from the same primary energy.
It has also been reported that by using O2 enriched air in a biogas-
diesel dual fuel CI engine attenuates the effect of diluents (CO2) in
decreasing the burning velocity, ignition delay timing of CH4 and
adiabatic flame temperature [101]. Moreover, Cacua et al. examined
the effect of O2 enriched air on the engine characteristics of a dual fuel
CI engine and revealed that CH4 emission and ignition delay time were
belittled with 27% O2 enriched air while the BTE was inflated. These
changes are attributed to the decreases in the temperature of the overall
gas-air mixture and low burning velocities of biogas relating to CH4
[102]. Luijten et al. [103] also inferred that BTE is hardly affected at
higher loads, but largely depends on the CH4/CO2 ratios in biogas
composition.
Methane (CH4) is the main component in biogas composition (up to
65%), and its high octane rating exhibits a greater resistance to knock
and makes it appropriate for engines which have typically higher CRs.
Moreover, the increase in CH4 content of biogas resulted in higher BTE
due to higher heat release rate, as reported [104,105]. The lower
carbon content in CH4 compared to petroleum diesel fuel simulta-
neously decreases the tailpipe exhaust emissions [106]. Apart from
that, replacement of pilot fuel with biodiesel [104], increasing com-
pression ratios [105], using H2-enriched biogas, using EGR technology
to preheat the inlet charge [107], are the different strategies for in-
creasing BTE.
The combustion process under dual fuel mode is more complex than
the single mode. In fact, the use of any gaseous fuel having high auto-
ignition temperature will acts as a heat sink within the combustion
period of dual fuel CI engine. As a result, an uneven increases in the
specific heat capacity of the working fluid due to induction of biogas,
further decreases the combustion temperature [108]. Moreover, biogas
charged dual fuel CI engine permits the co-combustion of a premixed
diluted mixture involving low in-cylinder temperature and increased
homogeneity in charge which results in low smoke/NOx emissions.
Numerous studies available in literature are dedicated to dual fuel CI
engines have proven that the successful use of said engines is possible
 Table 3
Summary of the different characteristics of CI engine operated in dual fuel mode with biogas as a gaseous fuel.
P. Rosha et al.

Name of researcher Ref. Fuel Gaseous fuel Engine used Engine characteristics

Combustion Performance Emissions

Tippayawong et al. [93] Diesel Biogas Mitsubishi DI-800, diesel engine – Higher power output and efficiency –
Duc et al. [94] Diesel Biogas Kubota – Lower EGT and higher efficiency Lower soot but higher HC emissions
RT120, Single cylinder, IDI, diesel
engine
Bedoya et al. [96] Diesel Biogas Lister petter TR2, DI, two cylinders, – Higher thermal efficiency Lower CO emissions
NI, air cooled diesel engine
Nathan et al. [98] Diesel Biogas Modified single cylinder, water Lower cylinder pressure and maxi rate Lower BTE Higher HC and CO emissions but
cooled, of pressure rise lower NOx emissions
DI, HCCI engine
Yoon and Lee [110] Diesel and Biogas 4-cylinder, turbocharged, pre- Prolonged ignition delay also lower Lower fuel consumption but higher BSFC and lower Lower NOx and soot emissions but
biodiesel chamber CI engine peak combustion pressure and heat BTE higher HC and CO
release rate
Luijten et al. [103] Diesel and Biogas 1.093 L Single-cylinder, NA, DI diesel – Lower thermal efficiency at part load but improve at –
Jatropha oil engine higher loads
Cacua et al. [102] Diesel Biogas Lister petter TR2, DI, two cylinders, Lower ignition delay Higher efficiency Lower CH4 emissions
NI, air cooled diesel engine
Barik et al. [124] Diesel Biogas Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant – Higher BSEC but lower volumetric efficiency and Higher HC and CO but lower NOx
speed, DI diesel engine exhaust gas temperature and smoke emissions
Pattanaik et al. [108] Biodiesel Biogas Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant – Lower BTE and higher BSFC Higher HC and CO but lower NOx
speed, DI diesel engine emissions
Makareviciene et al. Diesel Biogas Four cylinder, 1Z type turbocharged – Increasing fuel consumption with increasing CO2 Lower HC and CO emissions but
[95] DI, diesel engine higher NOx emissions at low CO2

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content
Barik and Murugan Diesel Biogas Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant Higher peak cylinder pressure and Higher BSFC and lower BTE Higher HC and CO but lower NOx
[118] speed, DI diesel engine maximum rise of heat release rate and smoke emissions
Bora et al., [119] Diesel and biogas Biogas Single cylinder, 3.5 kW, water Lower ignition delay but higher peak Higher BTE and lower BSFC with respect to Lower CO and HC emissions but
cooled, DI, VCR, CI engine cylinder pressure and heat release rate compression ratio but lower than diesel higher NOx and CO2 emissions
Bora et al. [119,120] Diesel Biogas 3.5 kW single cylinder, DI, water Higher ignition delay, peak cylinder Higher BTE and lower BSEC Higher NOx and lower CO and HC
cooled, VCR diesel engine pressure and heat release rate emissions
Barik et al. [122] Diesel Biogas Single cylinder, 4-stroke, constant Higher peak cylinder pressure and heat Higher BSFC and higher BTE Lower HC and CO also smoke
speed, DI diesel engine release rate emissions but higher NOx
Ramesha et al. [125] Biodiesel (B20) Biogas 10 HP-Single cylinder 10 HP, Higher peak pressure and heat release Lower BTE and higher BSFC Higher HC and CO but lower NOx
constant speed, water rate and smoke emissions
Cooled CI engine
Ramesha et al. Biodiesel (B20) Biogas 10HP-single Higher heat release rate and peak Lower BTE Higher HC and CO but lower NOx
[125,126] Cylinder, water cooled, CI engine cylinder pressure and smoke emissions
Bora et al. [127] Emulsified Biogas 3.5 kW single cylinder, DI, water – Higher BTE and exhaust gas temperature Higher NOx and lower CO and HC
Biodiesel cooled, VCR diesel engine emissions
Bora et al. [127,128] Diesel and Biogas Single cylinder, 4-stroke, naturally Longer ignition delay, lower peak Lower BTE Higher CO, HC and CO2 but Lower
biodiesel aspirated, 3.5 kW, DI diesel engine cylinder pressure and lower heat release NOx emissions
rate
Bora et al. [120] Biodiesel Biogas Single cylinder, 4-stroke,DI, NA,VCR Lower ignition delay but higher heat Higher BTE and lower BSFC with respect to Lower CO and HC but higher NOx
diesel engine release rate and peak cylinder pressure compression ratio but lower than diesel also the drop and CO2 emissions
in volumetric efficiency
Cacua et al. [100] Diesel Biogas YANMAR 3TNE84, DI, 4-stroke, 3- – Higher thermal efficiency with Micro-trigeneration –
cylinders, NA, CI engine
Kalsi et al. [109] Biodiesel Biogas 7.4 kW, single cylinder, NA, (EA10) Lower heat release rate Lower BTE and higher BSFC Higher HC and CO but lower NOx
diesel engine and smoke emissions
Barik et al. [123] Biodiesel Biogas 4.4 kW, Single cylinder, NA diesel Lower peak cylinder pressure but longer Higher BTE with increasing injection timing Lower HC, CO and smoke but
engine ignition delay higher NOX emissions
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
P. Rosha et al.
Fig. 15. Variation in BSFC with loads [110].
Fig. 16. Variation in BTE with loads [110].
within the wide range of loads. Recent findings of Kalsi et al. reveal that
the CI engines could be run with the maximum biogas energy shares at
a part and high loads [109]. At higher loads, the in-cylinder pressure in
dual fuel mode is higher when compared to the conventional diesel
mode. This behaviour may be due to the consequence of the higher heat
release rate. On the other hand, at low engine loads, the lower BTE and
higher BSFC are usually caused by incomplete combustion of biogas-air
mixture due to over lean mixture and lower temperature. Further, im-
provement in BSFC and BTE is shown in Figs. 15 and 16 under dual-fuel
combustion at 80% loads [110]. Previous studies revealed several
strategies for improvement of dual fuel operation at part load viz. use of
low substitution levels [111], preheating of inducted air–fuel mixtures
[112,113], changes in the initial charge pressure and temperature with
EGR [114,115] and modification of the pilot fuel injection system
Fig. 17. Variation in ignition delay with loads [110].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
Fig. 18. Variation of peak cylinder pressure with loads at different compression ratios
[119].
[116,117].
Ignition delay is a critical parameter that affects the combustion of
any gaseous fuel as longer ignition delay periods results in unacceptable
pressure rise that ends up in knock drawback. For gaseous fuels, a
prolonged ignition delay is observed with the increase of their per-
centage levels in the mixture. Barik et al. [118] carried out a series of
experiments on the utilization of biogas as a secondary fuel in the single
cylinder, direct injection CI engine at flow rates (0.3, 0.6, 0.9 and
1.2 kg/h), and at variable engine loads. The findings illustrate that the
biogas-air mixture undergoes prolonged ignition delay under biogas-
diesel dual fuel combustion in comparison to single fuel (Fig. 17). The
longer ignition delay with a biogas-operated engine was explained
through the established fact of O2 deficiency, which may cause in-
complete combustion and subsequently decrease fuel energy conversion
[110].
The comparative study has been conducted by Bora and Saha [119]
on the effect of compression ratios on various engine characteristics of a
biogas-diesel dual fuel engine. Generally, the peak cylinder pressure is
lower under dual fuel mode when compared to diesel for all compres-
sion ratios. The findings confirmed that with an increase in compression
ratio, peak cylinder pressure of a biogas dual fuel engine increased from
38.13 bar with CR 16–45.66 bar with CR 18 as shown in Fig. 18.
However, the ignition delay decreased as the compression ratio in-
creased (Fig. 19). This prolonged ignition delay of biogas dual fuel
engine is due to the larger amount of biogas fuel accumulated in the
first & second stroke of the engine, and reduction of mixture charge
temperature, when compared to neat diesel operated CI engine. It may
be noted that greater rise of temperature with higher compression ratio
during compression stroke leads to better combustion of fuels; hence
higher NOx and lower HC/CO emissions were found. As a consequence,
the volumetric efficiency might drop, while the improvement in BTE
with regards to compression ratio [120]. The reduction in the volu-
metric efficiency greatly depends on engine parameters and operating
conditions.
Study showing the effect of injection timing on BTE deficits that a
Fig. 19. Variation of ignition delay with loads at different compression ratios [119].
P. Rosha et al.
Fig. 20. Variation of BTE with loads at different injection timings [121].
maximum BTE of 25.81% for biogas dual fuel engine was attained by
optimizing injection timing of diesel fuel i.e. 29°bTDC at full rated load
as shown in Fig. 20 [121]. This significant improvement in BTE of a
biogas-diesel dual fuel CI engine could be due to the sufficient time for
pilot fuel to make a homogeneous mixture with biogas and air. Gen-
erally, there is an optimal injection timing for every hydrocarbon fuel
for a particular CI engine beyond which thermal efficiency does not
increase either with retarding or advancing injection timing [122]. Si-
milarly, Barik et al. [123] found a significant increment in CO emissions
by varying injection timing in biogas-biodiesel duel fuel mode than that
of biodiesel mode as shown in Fig. 21. This may be attributed to the
existence of flame rich zone and the incomplete oxidation of biogas
under dual fuel mode.
NOx formation is largely dependent on the oxygen availability,
combustion temperature and retention time for reaction [109]. The
findings of various researchers confirmed the significant reduction in
Fig. 21. Variation of CO emissions with loads [123].
Fig. 22. Variation of NOx emissions with loads [125].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
Fig. 23. Variation of Smoke opacity with loads [125].
NOx and smoke emissions throughout load spectrum using biogas as a
secondary fuel with diesel/biodiesel as pilot fuel in CI engine, as shown
in Figs. 22 and 23 [124–126]. On the contrary, the HC and CO emis-
sions were found to be higher with increasing biogas energy shares. At
part load, the CO and HC emissions were increased from 1.7 g/kWh
with biodiesel to 39.0 g/ kWh with 50% CO2 in biogas [109]. This
enhancement was affected from the dilution of premixed charge with
CO2 that results in incomplete oxidation; therefore a suitable tech-
nology needs to be developed to overcome this issue.
An excellent deal of work was published by Bora and Saha on
biogas-biodiesel/diesel dual fuel engine [127,128]. It was revealed that
the EGT of biogas dual fuel mode was higher than that of diesel mode.
The attainable reason of higher EGT with biogas dual fuel mode can be
the late combustion of biogas fuel, which tends to shorten the length for
extraction of power. On the contrary, the combustion of emulsified fuel
tends to lower the EGT owning to the cooling impact of micro-explo-
sion.
Hence, the use of biogas in existing diesel engine under dual fuel
mode offers both environmental and economic benefits. It's been also
reported that dual fuel engine needs higher fuel energy for producing
same power output when compared to diesel mode. The emission
parameters were observed to reduce considerably with biogas addition
to CI engine working under dual fuel mode.
2.3. Syngas as a gaseous fuel
Over the past decade, global climate variations affected by several
environmental issues such as the rising greenhouse gases concentration
(including CO2) into the atmosphere, has gained wide attention. Efforts
to utilize biomass energy must be concentrating on those applications
that have favourable prospects of market development, for example,
generation of power using syngas produced from biogas through dual
fuel CI engines route. Syngas could be an important energy source and
is that form of energy, which is not present naturally. Moreover, the
syngas (a mixture of H2 and CO) produced from biogas not only reduces
the amount of greenhouse gas emissions but in fact, it recycles and
increase the usability of these gases by producing H2-rich energy pro-
duct [129]. Syngas can also be produced by a great deal of sources that
contain carbon, including coal, natural gas, gasification, or virtually
any hydrocarbon feedstock, by reaction with oxygen or steam [130].
Syngas can be used in dual fuel CI engines, and this option is more
attractive because CI engines are more widely used in off-road appli-
cations, owing to their fuel efficiency and robustness. The use of syngas
in a dual fuel CI engine has provided additional advantages, such as the
reduction of CO2 emissions, but, it won’t burn directly in CI engines due
to its high self-ignition temperature. So, it can be used as a secondary
P. Rosha et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349

Lower HC and CO but higher NOx

Lower NOx but higher HC and CO

Higher NOx and lower CO and HC

Higher HC and CO but lower PM

Emissions

emissions
with H2

with H2

–
Higher exhaust gas temperature and

Lower indicated thermal efficiency

Fig. 24. Variation of diesel substitution rate with loads [133].

Higher efficiency with H2

fuel in dual fuel CI engines in a similar way as other gaseous fuels. The
improve BTE with H2

combustion, performance and emission characteristics of CI dual fuel

engine with syngas as a gaseous fuel reported in the literature have
been summarized in Table 4.
Performance

Higher BTE

Lower ITE

The renewable fuels having a composition of CH4, CO and H2 are

particularly interesting as the depletion of fossil fuels has become a
major issue worldwide. The work of Hernandez et al. highlighted the
effect of CH4, CO, and H2 separately, when the petroleum diesel fuel is
Lower rise in heat release rate and higher
Higher heat release rate and in-cylinder

partially replaced with aforementioned gases [131]. It has been re-

ported that the replacement of diesel fuel with said gases may dete-
Higher cylinder pressure and peak

Higher cylinder pressure and peak

riorate the thermal efficiency because of the shift of combustion caused

by higher premixed ratios and unburned gaseous fuel, which escape
from the combustion chamber. The injection of syngas in dual fuel CI
Engine characteristics

engine not only provide lesser fuel consumption but in addition, en-
pressure with H2

pressure with H2

hances the combustion quality as described by Rinaldini et al. [132].

ignition delay

However, the volumetric composition of H2 and CO in syngas lar-

Combustion

gely depends on the source and the production technique. Sahoo et al.
pressure

[133] tested three different compositions of H2 and CO in syngas as a

dual fuel in CI engine. The combustion of syngas with H2 and CO
–

proportion of 100:0 resulted in the 72.3% replacement of diesel fuel in

HSDI 4-S diesel, 4-cylinder, common rail diesel engine
Single cylinder, four stroke, water cooled, CI engine

dual fuel mode as shown in Fig. 24. At low and higher loads, decrement
Single cylinder, 4-stroke, NA, air cooled, DI diesel
Summary of the different characteristics of CI engine operated in dual fuel mode with syngas as a gaseous fuel.

in diesel substitution rate was found due to the insufficient O2 avail-

ability, which leads to incomplete combustion of syngas. On the other
hand, the volumetric efficiency reduced for all the combinations of
Single cylinder, NA, DI diesel engine

syngas throughout the load spectrum due to the displacement of sucked

with two intake and exhaust valve

air by syngas (Fig. 25). NOx emissions reduction was observed with
increase in CO concentration in syngas, which was attributed to the
lower adiabatic flame temperature of CO enriched syngas. However,
AVL 501 single-cylinder

increase in unburned HC and CO emissions were reported with rise in

CO proportion present in syngas as shown in Fig. 26.
In addition, Sahoo et al. [134] tried to investigate theoretically the
Engine used

performance limits of a syngas-diesel dual fuel CI engine by using

availability analysis. An increase in destruction availability was ob-
engine

served on lower loads at all H2 enrichment levels in syngas due to re-

duced heat transfer availability losses and poor fuel combustion. At the
higher load conditions beyond 40%, a reduction in destroyed
H2, CO and CH4
Gaseous fuel

H2-enriched
Syngas

Syngas

Syngas

biogas
Ref. Fuel

Diesel

Diesel

Diesel
Diesel

Diesel
Hernandez et al., [131]
Rinaldini et al., [132]
Name of researcher

Azimov et al., [135]

Sahoo et al., [133]

Talibi et al., [136]

Table 4

Fig. 25. Variation of volumetric efficiency with loads [133].

3345
P. Rosha et al.
Fig. 26. Variation of NOx, CO and HC emissions with loads [133].
availability was noticed, attributed to the higher combustion pressure
and temperature.
There is strong evidence in the literature that the H2 and CO2
content affected the dual fuel CI engine performance and emission
characteristics. Syngas enriched with H2 depicted better thermal effi-
ciency and higher combustion flame temperature, which enhance the
heat release rate and in-cylinder pressure that subsequently increased
NOx emissions. However, the decrease in NOx emission was observed
for the CO2 rich syngas dual fuel mixtures when compared to diesel fuel
alone. This was attributed to the relatively higher specific heat capacity;
and the lower in-cylinder combustion temperature for the syngas en-
riched with CO2 operated under dual fuel mode when compared to neat
diesel fuel [135].
Another recent investigation has also studied the effect of various
CH4-CO2-H2 and CH4-CO2 mixtures, diesel injected by two flow rates
[136]. The authors reported that the increase in heat release rate for the
CH4-CO2-H2 dual fuel mixtures was considerably lower in comparison
to diesel fuel only. This could be due to the presence of CO2 proportion
in mixture impending combustion through lower flame temperature.
Lower CO2 emissions were observed relative to 0.6CH4− 0.4CO2 mix-
ture, still equivalent to CO2 emission from 0.8CH4− 0.2CO2 when
compared to diesel alone. It has been underlined the desirability to
scrub the biogas post production in order to reduce CO2 emissions. The
CO2 enhancement in mixtures considerably decrease in-cylinder flame
temperature which significantly reduces NOx emissions, but at the same
time higher CO, PM and HC emissions owing to the reason of reduction
in thermal oxidation.
It has been established that the utilization of Syngas in existing CI
engine under dual fuel mode not only reduces the diesel consumption,
but also enhances the combustion quality due to faster combustion rate.
Moreover, there is a need to find the optimum H2 and CO percentage in
syngas composition for better combustion, performance and emission
characteristics of a dual fuel CI engine.
3. Conclusions
Reviewing various studies on the utilization of gaseous fuels
(especially H2, biogas and syngas) with diesel/biodiesel as pilot fuel in
dual fuel CI engine reveals the following:.
•H 2 has higher laminar flame speed, shorter ignition delay and lower
minimum ignition energy that enhance flame propagation process
and initial flame development inside the cylinder.
• Large number of studies reported improvement in engine perfor-
mance in terms of BTE and brake power with increase in H2 energy
share in dual fuel CI engine because of shorten combustion duration,
and increase in heat release rate as well as in-cylinder pressure.
However, knocking was reported to increase with H2 enrichment.
Further, BMEP reduced significantly with raising H2 proportion at
fuel rich zone, but it increased gradually under lean burn conditions.
• Since H2 doesn’t contain carbon atoms, therefore significant reduc-
tion in carbon emissions are reported in case of H2-assisted dual fuel
mode at all loads. Thus, lower CO, CO2, and HC emissions have been
3346
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 3333–3349
documented, but NOx emissions were observed to increase primarily
due to high in-cylinder temperature.
• Several studies reported biogas to be another alternative gaseous
fuel, which can be used in CI engine under dual fuel mode.
Increasing the proportion of biogas energy share in the dual fuel CI
engines has been reported to increase heat release rate and peak
cylinder pressure. Moreover, BTE of a biogas-diesel dual fuel CI
engine decreased because of the effect of diluents like CO2 in the
combustion chamber, which reduce local gas temperature by ab-
sorbing heat energy from the combustion and affecting the burning
speed of the biogas-air charge.
• It has been further documented that the PM and NOx emissions of
biogas-diesel dual fuel CI engine were smaller when compared to
neat diesel operations under same loading condition. However, HC
and CO emissions were raised by increased extent of biogas in CI
engine, which can be attributed to both the heating value of biogas
and lower flame propagation velocity.
• Utilizing syngas under dual fuel mode in CI engine showed positive
impacts of lower CO2 and NOx emissions, but negative impacts in
terms of lower brake power and increase in CO as well as HC
emissions, when compared to normal diesel operations. Moreover,
at lower loads, the inferior engine performance was observed, but it
was found to improve gradually when the load was increased, due to
faster combustion rate of H2 corresponding to CO.
• Published literature suggests lower emissions and better thermal
efficiency with increased proportion of H2 in syngas composition
due to accelerated flame propagation. Although, NOx emissions
have been reported to increase, but HC emissions were found to
decrease with increasing H2 content in syngas.
• It can be concluded from the literature that induction of alternative
gaseous fuels in conjunction with diesel/bio-diesel can be con-
sidered as a technical viable and cost effective technique in existing
CI engine without major modifications.
4. Future scope
Although, this detailed literature review highlighted the use of H2,
biogas and syngas in CI engine under dual fuel mode, but there are
certain allied areas which needs further attention:
•H 2 energy, additionally to hydro, biomass and solar, is also one of
the long term renewable fuel. Nevertheless, the technologies for H2
production at an affordable cost and safe storage are the great
challenges for the utilization of H2 in CI engines. Moreover, the
transportation of H2 needs standards related to safety aspects like
safety distance for in/outdoor operations, refuelling rate, leakage
sensing, etc. which needs to be formulated and notified to the
public.
• The combustion characteristics of the engine powered with gaseous
fuel will depends upon the injection duration and timing, therefore,
their impact on combustion uniqueness of dual fuel CI engines need
to be further explored.
• H2 has faster burning rate which results in increase of in-cylinder
P. Rosha et al.
temperature earlier during the power stroke and injected the pilot
fuel towards the end of the injection stroke, so, alternative tech-
nology needs to be assessed and identified to overcome this issue.
• Abnormal combustion and higher NOx emissions are major pro-
blems associated with H2 assisted dual fuel operation at high H2
energy share, which could be investigated by using other strategy
like low temperature combustion.
• There's a necessity to explore a technology to reduce HC and CO
emissions from CI engines operated under dual fuel technology with
biogas as a secondary fuel.
• The performance of syngas operated dual fuel CI engine needs to be
optimized in order to reduce HC and CO emissions, which may be
affected with H2 fraction in syngas composition. Moreover, other
engine operational parameters should be tuned in addition to the
amount of combustible mixture inside the combustion chamber for
achieving better engine characteristics. Therefore, detailed numer-
ical and experimental studies with varying syngas compositions in
CI engines and engine parameters need to be further evaluated.
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