Economic and Political Weekly

Status of Muslim Women

Author(s): Asghar Ali Engineer
Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 29, No. 6 (Feb. 5, 1994), pp. 297-300
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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 PERSPECTIVES
western countries ordination for women
Status of Muslim Women remains an unresolved issue. Recently the
Anglican Church was vertically divided
Asghar Ali Engineer on this issue. Though the Churchapproved
of women's ordination by a wafer-thin
All religions have accorded women an inferior status and relegated majority, it left a great deal of bitterness
them to a secondary position. This is true of Islam as well. However, among those opposed the measure. The
Catholic Churchhas still not allowed ordi-
religion itself is the end-productof patriarchal society and unless these nation of women. Only some Protestant
basic societal values change women will continue to sufferfrom a churches have approved of it.
situation where religion and patriarchlalsociety are in alliance.
QUESTIONSOF IDENTITY

IN a male-dominated society women have
to face numerous problems both specific
to their-religious group and specific to
their sex. All religions have accorded
women inferior status and relegated them
to a secondary position. In my opinion it is
not religion but patriarchy wlhich is the
real culprit. Religion per se cannot be
blamed for assigning inferior status to
woman. Religion itself is the end product
of patriarchalsociety andso is male-domi-
nation. So unless patriarchal values and
patriarchalstructures are dispensed with,
male attitudes towards women will con-
tinue to be one of domination.
Even the communist system failed to do
away with patriarchy. Women in Russia
could never achieve equal status with men.
Even wife-beating continued there though
women did get those jobs which were out
of bounds for them in other countries. But
that may have been more because of short-
age of male population than because of
communist ideology. Unless we success-
fully fight the patriarchalvalues we can-
not get rid of male-domination. It would
be in order to give an example from the
Propbet's time to illustrate tlhis. The
Prophet of Islam was very favourably in-
clined to bring about improvement in
women's status, even give her equality, if
possible. In one instance he even allowed
a woman the right to retaliate against her
husband (i e, to slap him as he slapped
her). But even a man of the Prophet's
prestige could not have his way in view of
prevailing strong patriarchalvalucs in the
society. In the then social context men
earned and spent their wealth on their
women and children and wieldecdpatriar-
chal power. Allah thus allowed men. in
view of the social context and societal
values, a slight edge over women but also
warned them elsewhere-a last revelation
in respect of women in the l-Ioly.Quran
(33:35) that men and women are equal in
the sight of Allah.
Thus if we keep the two significant
verses of the Quran related to the social,
economic and religious status of women
(i e 4:34 and 33:35) it will be seen that the
Quranhad not been unfair to her status and
yet we see that the Islamic shari'ah,
formulated by the great inmams(be it
Abu Hanifa, Hanbal, Malik or Shafa'i)
under the influence of the patriarchalval-
ues, assigned women a much inferior po-
sition than what was intended by Allah in
the Quran.However, one can hardlyblame
the four imams (and other Shi'i and
Isma'ili theologians) forwhat they thought
about women's status. In the society they
lived in, with all their fairness and hon-
esty, they could have hardly thought
otherwise.
But what is sad is that the theologians
and 'faqihs' (the jurists) are not ready to
rethink women' s issues even today. Islam
and its Prophet have provided the Mus-
lims with a dynamic and revolutionary
principle of 'ijtihad' (creative interpreta-
tion) so that they can, in the true spirit of
Islamic values, rethink many issues in
view of the changed context. But I am not
persuaded that the rigidity of theological
attitudes is applicable only to Muslim
theologians and jurists; it is true of the
whole tribe of theologians, whatever
religion they belong to. However, differ-
ence in degree and context must be
admitted.
Just as the Muslim 'ulema' refuses to
change the shari' ah provisionisin respect
of polygamy, divorce, etc, the Catholic
Churchrefuses to permit abortion.Even in
an advanced industrialised country like
the US, abortionofteniacquires the serious
proportions of a political controversy. It
was aniissue in the last presidential elec-
tion. Those against abortion (termed as
pro-life) do not fight shy of usinigcoercion
against those supporting'abortioni.Those
places where abortions are carried out are
attacked. It became a major conitroversial
issue in the US Supreme Court too. In the
Republic of Ireland also abortion)contin-
ues to be illegal. Even a raped girl who
becamnepregnantthere had to obtain per-
missioih from the Irish Court to go to
Londonfor abortion.Similarly in advanced
Social change is bound to meet with
great resistance in India where functional
literacy is so poor, let alone advanced
education -among substantial proportions
of population. Traditions are still very
strong. Take child marriage, for example.
The state of Rajasthan is notorious for it.
Every year. thousands of child marriages
take place despite a law to the contrary and
exposure in the media. Recently when a
'sathin' (a female health worker) in
Rajasthan objected child marriage in her
village she was brutally assaulted and
raped by the village notables and despite a
great deal of effort by many women's
organisations, the culprits could not even
be arrested, let alone be punished. Even
the campaign in the media did not succeed
in this respect.
A few years ago Rajasthan was dogged
with controversy about a woman, Roop
Kanwar, who was compelled to commit
sati. Not only was the act of sati justified,
it became a question of prestige and
identity for Raiputs. Rajput youth came
out with sworcds to guard the place of
sati. Roop Kanwar's in-laws were arrested
but later released on bail. The upsurge
of religious revival has created additi-
onal problemn for women fighting for
their place under the sun. All the funda-
mentalist movements, Hindu, Muslim,
Sikh or Christian, frown upon women's
liberty and want to send. them back to
their home and hearth. In fact, it is often
seen that the question of caste and com-
munal identity, becomes intimately re-
lated to women's rights (or rather lack
of them). Roop Kanwar's committing
sati became an issue of Rajput identity.
Anyone who attacked it was attackingthe
Rajputidentity.
The question of Muslim Personal Law
has also become an issue of Muslim iden-
tity in Inndia.
Many Muslims, perhapslakhs
of them, joine(dthe Shah Bano movement
more concerned with their Islamic iden-
tity thainthe immutable-divine laws. Any
clhange in the Muslim Personial Law is
opposed mainly on the ground of Muslim

Economic and Political Weekly February5. 1994 297

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identity. Changes in other spheres-not
related to male domination-are easier to
admit. These changes perhaps do not put
caste or communal identity to such grave
peril. However, even a slight change in
women-related laws do.
The whole question of change in Mus-
lim Personal Law in India has become
identity-related. Of course the argument
that the shari'ah is divine is also put for-
ward (though it is not sustainable as the
shari'ah has both the divine as well as the
human component and is mutable to the
extent that it has human component) but
more often the argument that it is the
question of Muslim identity carries more
tonviction. It should also be kept in mind
that the clhangesbeing demanded in Mus-
lim Personal Law are intimately connected
with women's rights i e, polygamy and
divorce. It is not merely coincidental. There
was not much resistance when the British
scrapped the Islamic criminal code. The
British too left the personal law in tact as
any change in it was thought to be risky,
not only in the case of Muslims but all
castes and communities.
Thus identities become very central if
male privileges are underchallenge. Male-
dominated values have percolated so
widely thateven Muslim women relate the
question of change in personal law to the
question of identity. Muniza Khaii, whio
conducted a survey of 25 educated Mus-
lim women in Benares found that though
these Muslim women resented the law
relating to polygamy and triple divorce,
they did not favour any change on the
grounds of Muslim identity. Muslim
women too participated in the Shah Banu
movement in not insignificant numbersto
protect the Muslim identity. Only those
Muslim women committed to the concept
of sexual equality-a tiny minority after
all-opposed any change in the Criminal
Procedure Code to exempt the Muslim
women from its application.
The argument here is not that identity is
not important. No community in a plural-
ist society like that of India can sacrifice
its religio-cultural identity. However, it
should not be hinged on the question of
women's social status. There are a tlhou-
sand other ways of protecting one's iden-
tity. How can one make women-related
issues so vital to the question of identity
that no change in women's status will be
admitted?If the triple divorce is abolished
(it is admitted even by the ulema that it is
a sinful form of divorce) and polygamy
restricted to certain exceptional cases (and
the Quran has also permitted polygamy
with strict condition andnot as free licence)
how can Muslim identity be endangered?
It is true that triple divorce which is
exercised in the most arbitrary manner
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(thus totally defeating the Quranic intent
and spirit) is the cause of misery of many
a Muslim women. Quite a few Muslim
women in every major city have been
arbitrarilydivorced. The Muslim Women
(Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act has
made their plight more miserable as they
cannot get any succour from the Wakf
Boards who have no money. In many cases
parents or relatives are also unable to
support them. Often the 'mehr' amount is
a pittance-in some cases as little as Rs 101
or 501. In many cases the divorcees
have children too. They really find it very
difficult to maintain themselves and their
children. Though it is beyond the reach of
many women to go to the court, there are
hundreds of cases pending in most of the
district courts. It is a clear indication of
the fact that a large numberof women are
suffering because of the arbitrarynature
of 'talaq-i-thalatba' (triple divorce, i e,
utterance of the word talaq thrice in one
sitting). The divorced woman has no de-
fence whatsoever.
The Quranunambiguously stresses gen-
der justice. It took care of the rights of
women in matters of marriage, divorce,
property,inheritance,custody of children,
etc. Marriagewas made a contract and the
bride's consent was made compulsory and
she was also given the right to stipulate
whatever conditions she,liked. She has
been given the right to what is called
'talaq-i-tafwid' (i e, delegated right to
divorce) whereby she can divorce herself
on behalf of her husband. She has also
been given right to what is called 'khul' a',
i e, to liberate herself from her husbandby
returning the mehir(dower) amount. She
need assign no reason for this. It amounts
to opting out of the contract. This right is
also absolute and she can exercise it at her
own will.
GENDER JUSTICEIN QURAN
As for the right to inherit, she inherits as
daughter,as wife and as mother. Thus she
inherits in three capacities. Of course she
gets half that of her brotherbut then nei-
ther she has to pay dower (on the contrary
she receives) nor has she to maintain her-
self. She is maintained by her father(as of
right) wlhileunmarriedand by her husband
after marriage (she is not obliged to give
anything of her wealth, whatever she pos-
sesses, to her lhusbandwho is obliged to
maintain her even if she is rich and he is
poor). Also, she has absolute right to prop-
erty, neither her father nor her husband
can claim any part of it unless she gives it
by her own consent. Alsd, as for mainte-
nance, lherlhusbandis obliged to provide
her' with cooked food (raw ingredients
would not do), sewn clothes (not a piece of
Economic and Political Weekly
cloth alone), a separate house and if not
possible, a separate, room with separate
access so that she is not obliged to stay
with her in-laws, and all other necessary
things like toilet items, hair oil, medical
charges in case of illness, etc.
However, what Islam had given her, the
male-dominated society has taken away.
Except in case of educated upper class
girls, women are not consulted before
marriage. The father considers it his right
to marry her off according to his choice
alone. She can hardly stipulate any condi-
tions. More often thani not, she has to
accept the customary mehr amount.andin-
case the mehr amountis substantially large
only a small portion of it is paid and the
rest deferred (which, in some cases, might
be paid at the time of divorce, or death of
her husbapd).
She can hardly exercise her right to
'khul'a'. The Hanafi school almost de-
prives her of this right. There is no quces--
tion of ever stipulating the condition for
'talaq-i-tafwid' (delegated right to di-
vorce). On the other hand she becomes
victim of triple divorce in many cases. The
triple divorce was strictly prohibited by
the Holy Prophet and naturally the Quran
does not mention it as it is highly unjust to
women. The Prophet strictly forbade this
form of divorce. It is, therefore, referred
to as 'talaq-i-bid'a' (innovated form of
divorce) or even as 'sinful form of di-
vorce'. Yet, it is most widely practied in
India and elsewhere. It leaves a woman
completely at the caprice of man. As the
Prophet was a great votary of gender jus-
tice, he forbade it as already pointed out.
This form of talaq was prevalent in the
'jahilliyyah' (i e, pre-Islamic) period. As
the Islamic revolution stressed genderjus-
tice, it was abolished. But it crept back
into the Islamic system in a male-domi-
nated society. The Quran bs prescribed
the procedureof talaq w4ch is very fair to
woman. It even prescribes hrbitration(wife
appointing one arbiter and the husband,
the other). The 'Qadi' is required to take
the recommendation of these arbitrators
into account, before giving his verdict.
Thus the Quranic procedure of the talaq is
quite fair to woman. However, it is never
practised.
The right to inheritance of a woman is
also observed more often in breach than in
practice. During the feudal ages the agri-
cultural property was never given to the
married daughter as it would divide it.
Though there is no concept of primogeni-
ture in the Islamic law of inheritance it
was in practice among the Muslim feudal
families. The British made it legal through
an enactment and no Muslim theologian
protested. It was made optional in Punjab
when thle ulema codified Islamic law and
February5, 1994
abolished customary laws in 1937. Even
with regard to non-agricultural property,
sbe hardly ever receives her share in in-
heritance. As Zainab points out in her
paper (based on a survey in UdaipurBohra
families), no daughter receives a proper
share in her father's porperty. The broth-
ers give her a token amount and even when
the sister is aware that her brothers have
not given her proper share they often re-
frain from litigation as it would disrupt
cordial familial relations. In times of cri-
sis the sister often has to look towards her
brothers and so she would not like to risk
disruption of normal relationship with
them.
As for property (mobile or immobile)
generally very few Muslim women work
and earn (though this trend is increasing
among educated middle and uppermid4le
class women). Islam does not prohibit
them from working at all. The Quran al-
lows her to earn (4:32) and it would be
hers. She is given the right to own property
in her own right. Thus her individuality
and her being a legal entity is recognised
in Islam. However, traditional society
hardly allow her to earn. In Islam there is
no concept that she has to confine herself
to domestic duties alone. In fact she is not
even obliged to suckle her child. If she
refuses to do so her husband has to make
alternative arrangements, such as a wet
nurse. This clearly shows that bringing up
children is not her responsibility alone but
is a joint one. The husband is equally
obliged to make arrangements,forrearing
children. But in a traditional society the
husbandoften requires his wife to confine
herself to domestic duties and disapproves
of her working to earn. It is only in some
enlightened families that slheis allowed to
work.
Producing children is also dependent on
m'utual consent as far as Islam is con-
cerned. It is not true that the husband can
force her to produce as many children as
he wants. Also, according to some 'hadith'
husbands cannot force wives not to give
birtlhto child. 'Azl' (which means coitus
interruptus but also includes other
contraceptory devices) can be practised
by the husband with the wifcq's specific
consent. According to imam Ghazzali, a
celebrated theologian, a woman can insist
on 'azl' even if she desires to preserve lher
charm and figure as well as if her life is in
danger due to childbirth. Abortion is also
permitted in such cases up to the period of
four months (of conception). Howiever,
many Muslim males consider it their right
to produce as many children as they like.
Enlightened educated women of course
are exceptions as are educated husbands
who do not insist on more children and
accept family planning techniques.
Economic and Political VUeckly February5, 1994
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Many of theproblems of Muslim women It is undoubtedly so but with/the acqui-
are on account of illiteracy. But here tco, sition of great deal of wealth attitudes in
it must be emphasised thatIslam has never the Arab,countries are fast changing and
proscribed literacy for women. It is highly female literacy is shooting up. Social tra-
misleading to think so. According to the ditions born in the past have their own
Quran both Muslim men and women are resistance to change and it takes a great
requiredto prbty"Lord, increase me in my deal of struggle to bring about change in
knowledge" (20:114). Also, the Prophet the attitudes and hence many traditions
has said '"Acquisition of knowledge is persist for long even after there is no
obligatory on every Muslim men and social base for them. Those who suddenly
Muslim women": Here the Prophet has acquire wealth cannot give up their old
specifically mentioned Muslim women attitudes. Thus socio-economic status and
('muslimatin'). He also could have used social change should not be linked me-
the word 'muslimin' which would have thanically. It is a complex and tortuous
included both men and women but he did ielationship and needs to be studied care-
not do so and specifically used the word fully.
'muslim women' so that men do not find Mehdi Hussain's survey of Muslim girls'
any excuse of depriving her of education. education establishes that if the parents,
particularly the father, is educated, chil-
ILLITERACY ANDPOVERTY dren have much better chance of educa-
tion. In the majority of cases the fathers
Yet we see that traditional societies are poor and illiterate: coolies, rickshaw
have tried to keep her uneducatedor gave pullers, mechanics, vendors and, there-
her only elementary religious education fore, there is not much motivation for
so that she can perform certain religious female literacy. Artisans too see little
duties, nothing more. However, this is benefit in educating their male children,
more a sociological thanreligious or ideo- much less female children. A large section
logical problem. Our attitudes are deter- of urban Muslim population comprises
mined as much by social factors as by artisans who too, use no benefits in send-
religious or ideological ones. At times ing their children to schools. Also, among
societal aspects prevail over religious or these backward sections of the society
ideological aspects. The education of there is a common belief that girls have to
women is a case in point. In the feudal mind their homes and hence, there is no
ages women were completely confined to need for them to go to schools. This is
domestic chores (with some honourable valid for all the communities. However,
exceptions, of course) and hence it was the bright side is that among Muslims too,
thought quite unnecessary to give them a new middle class and even an
advanced education. It would not have entrepreneurial class is emerging which
been of much use to her. Feudal traditions recognises the value of not only male but
persist and social attitudes remain hard- also the female education. Some field
ened.. Also, poverty and illiteracy go to- surveys establish it beyond doubt that
gether. It is an unchallenged fact that Muslim girls are going in for modern
Muslims inIndia arerelatively poor. Some education in substantial numbers, from
economic indices even indicate that their among these classes.
plight is worse than that of the scheduled Also, the understanding of religion de-
castQs.If female literacy is comparatively pends on one's social status. In other words
low among Muslims today, the cause is one should not go by religibnper se but by
socio-economic rather than religious. which social strata practices it. The poor
Ihere is an erroneous impression among and working classes have their own under-
many scholars that the lower rate of fe- standing and interpretationof religion and
male literacy is oti account of Islamic the middle and upper classes another.
teachings. Nothing could be farther from Religion is often used to rationalise one' s
the truth. own social behaviour. The poor and illit-
Syed Mehdi Hussain, in his paper 'Mus- erate would invoke it tojustify the preven-
lim women and Higher Education:A Case tion of female education (and even male
Study of Hyderabad'rightly says, "It may education in some cases) whereas the edu-
bc pointed out that education and socio- cated middle and upper classes justify
economic status are closely related. But it higher female education by invoking reli-
is also conditioned by the value system gion. The same is true of family planning
prevalentin a given society." He then goes also. Educated Muslim families
on to point out, "It is evident that despite unhesitatingly go for it while the poor and
higher levels of percapita income in Saudi illiterate Muslims invoke religion to re-
Ar-abiaandotherpetrol-producingSheikh- ject it. In fact producing more children is
doms, thierate of literacy is quite low in a functional need of the poorer classes
the'population in general and females in whereas it is an economic burden for the
particular." middle classes. Thus poorer classes, what-
299
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ever community they belong to, usually Jain compnsed 86 per cent ashraf (high the rule. But the 'ulema' remained lenient
refrain from family planning whereas the caste) and 14 per cent were ajlaf (low in enforcing this central provision of the
middle class consider it a vital necessity. caste). She examines the q,uestion of Quranand ploygamy became open. This is
We have already shown above that Islam modernisation in terms of (a) awareness nothing short of a gross misuse of the
is not against family planning. It encour- and access (b) socio-economic andvduca- Quranic provision. In fact taking of an-
ages it, on the other hand. tional background (c) political participa- other wife should not be permitted except
tion. Jainmaintains that "Given the socio- with the sanction of tile court and sanction
COMMUNALPROPAGANDA culturalandpolitical disabilities of women could be accorded with the permission or
in their religious scriptures as interpreted knowledge of the first wife and in cases
However, there is strong perception by theirreligious elites, women' s progress like medically proven barr'ennessof first
among non-Mtislims, particularlythe Hin- in literary enrolment, employment and wife or in case the wife is suffering from
dus, that Muslims do not practice family status has not been very remarkable as terminal disease. This would be in keep-
planning because Islam is against it. Field they are not effectively deriving the full ing with the spint of justice in the Quran.
studies also show that the middle class benefits of equality legislation in inde- Unfortunatelythe controversy aboutUni-
Muslims resort to family planning as the pendentIndia." This is a pertinentremark. form Civil Code also has communal over-
Hindus do. The issue of family planning Muslim women, despite their constitu- tones on the question of Muslims marry-
has been communalised and is being used tional rights suffer from greater disabili- ing more thanone wife as if it is a privilege
for communal propaganda.It is being said ties on account of lower socio-economic which is enjoyed only by the Muslim men
that the Muslims soon will overtake the status. Many of the problems being faced and not others. The question of rights of
Hindus in population and convert India by Muslim women would not arise if their women become quite secondary. Com-
into another Pakistan. Malika Mistry in socio-economic and educational status mon civil code or no common civil code
her paper shows that such a contention is improves. It would be erroneous to talk what is fundamental is women's rights
not borne out by the census data. Thierate only in religious terms. and status. Their rights should be as invio-
of increase in Muslim population has been It is unfortunate that in a male-domi- lable as those of men. The Quran accepts
marginally higher. "Davis (1951)", ac- nated society questions of social change this position (2:228). However, Muslim
cording to her, "examined I-lindu-Muslim and women's rights are politicised from 'ulema' who have learnt traditional theol-
fertility differentials for the period 1891- both sides, i e, from the side of Muslims as ogy which evolved during medieval ages,
1941 using child-woman ratio as an index well as Hindus. The Shah Banu movement do not accept the ringing declaration of
of fertility based on census data. This is one example and the question of com- sexual equality in the Quran (2:228), i e,
study revealed that Muslims had shown mon civil code, another.Thouglhthe Holy "Rights of women are equal to what is
higher fertility than Hlindus.David attrib- Quran nowhere prescribes that the main- against them in a just manner". The sig-
uted this to higher widow riemarriage, tenance to a divorcee be restricted to the nificance of this verse perhaps was lost on
higher marital fertility and a slightly lower period of 'idda'h'(it was the opinion of the the 'ulema' during the medieval ages.
infant mortality among Muslims." But jurists only in view of the then prevailing IHowever,they must realise its import in
this higher population growth among situation) the Supreme Court judgment the present epoch of women's conscious-
Muslims is far from alarming. Census was strongly opposed as it delivered a ness. Such an attitude will not only serve
reports show that the growth differential blow to male privilege. The IHolyQurani the women's cause butalso the trueQuranic
is 1/2 per cent per annum and at this rate it was so considerate that it made it obliga- spirit. Perhaps the 'ulema' may not accept
will take more tlian three centuries for tory for Muslim men to make provision sexual equality even though it is provided
Muslims to catclhup with the Hindus. But for the divorcees (2:241) still they are for in the Quran(though progressive theo-
until then the population cannot go on deprived of this'privilege in the name of logians like Maulana Azad did, see his
growing at the present rate. It will reach an 'shariah'. In fact, despite this provision in Tarjuntanal-Quran). Muslim women will
absurdfigure more than 300 crores. In fact the Quran no Muslim was making any have to struggle hard for it.
population growtlhis expected to stabilise provision for his divorced wife (at the '[here is also the question specific to the
around2050. It may not be possible for the most threemonths'maintenancewas given Bohra Muslim women. Rehana Ghadially
Muslims to take over even after three to her) until, as result of the Shah Banu has dealt with it in her paper. The Bohra
centuries! Moreover, as pointed out by movement, the Muslim Women (Protec- high priest oppresses all the Bohras, men
Mistry, "There is also evidence to show tion of Rights on Divorce) Act was passed. as well as wom,n, and it is unfortunatethat
that the fertility of Muslims has been When it came to the women's question, often he chooses women as an instrumentof
declining in recent times. Socio-economic even religious prescription could be to- oppressing the entire community as they
variables such as education and economic tally disregarded. The 'ulema' were not have greaterneed for religious rituals in the
status have slhown significant effect in enforcing the provision of the Quranic given social context. They themselves be-
reducing fertility rate. These,observations verse (2:241) as they are not enforcing come victims of oppression as well as in-
suggest that the onset of fertility decline strictly women's riglhtto property. Even strumentsof oppression by bringing pres-
among Muslims has already begun but the as regards the question of taking more sureon theirmenfolkto submitto thepriestly
pace of decline has been rather slow." than one wife the Quraniicverses (4:3) oppression.However, therearemany Bohra
Sushila Jain discusses in her paper 'Tlhe insist on justice between the wives and women who have challenged the priestly
Process of Modernisation in India and the even goes on to say that if you cannot do authority and have put up a courageous
Clhanging Status of the Muslim Women' justice betweetnthe wives then marryonly struggle against it. The Bohra women in
in Jaipur. Her conclusion is no different one. However, the provision forjustice, so Udaipurfought with great courage against
from otlhersimilar studies. Thncsocial sta- central to the Quranic verse, was never exploitation by the priesthood and created
tus very much depends on education and rigorously enforced and it almost bec.ame history. Their struggle continues. Udaipur
economic status of womcn. The Muslim a male privilege to marry.more than one women have convincingly shown that the
community in Jaipur is fairly backward. wife. If one goes by the rigorous provision stereotypeaboutBohra women as timid and
Most of them come from artisan back- of the HIolyQuranincidetices of bigamy or submissive is no more true. These are great
ground. I-however,thlesample ch)osen by polygamy would be exceptions rathserthan signs of changing times.

300 Economic and Political Weekly February5, 1994

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