SOCIETY I T O ) I

INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY

O C C A S I O N A L P U B L I C A T I O N S
Number T h r e e April 1978

SYMPOSIUM
INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY
and the
HUMAN SCIENCES

MARTHAS VINEYARD, MASSACHUSETTS

8 - 9 O C T O B E R 1 9 7 7

Dianne Newell, Editor

 T A B L E 0 F C O N T E N T S

INTRODUCTION

I INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY AS A SCHOLARLY DISCIPLINE

1. INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY: DISCOVERING ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOR I N THE PAST. Dlanne Newell.

2. THE "QUESTIONS" OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY. Vance P a c k a r d .

3. ARCHEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE AND THE STUDY OF HISTORICAL INDUSTRY. Theodore 2. Penn.

4. THREE DIMENSIONS REDUCED TO TWO: USING MEASURED DRAWINGS AS A MEANS TO RECORD I A SITES. L a r r y D. Lankton.

5. INDIRECT METHODS I N INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY. J e f f r e y L. Brown.

I 1 INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY AS A CULTURAL RESOURCE

6. ROLE I N CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.

INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY'S Brenda B a r r e t t .

7. INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY I N ITALY: BIRTH AND PERSPECTIVES. P a o l o Caputo.

8. INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY I N ITALY: EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY I N THE URBAN AREA OF MILAN. Ornella Selvafolta.

9. MUSEUM INTERPRETATION OF I A MATERIALS: A CONSIDERATION OF THE REVIEW PROCESS FOR GRANT APPLICATIONS.

Margaret S h a e f f e r .
10. AN ARCHEOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL EVALUATION OF WHAT MAY BE AMERICA'SFIRST INDUSTRIAL SUBURB. Thomas and J e a n n e

Scatchard.

THE COVER--Illustration from a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t (1913) by Coppley, Noyes, and R a n d a l l , L t d . ( " P r o p e r C l o t h e s

f o r Men and Boys"), Hamilton, O n t a r i o .

Published b y t h e Society f o r Industrial Archeology

R o o m 5020 National M u s e u m of H i s t o r y & Technology Smithsonian Institution Washington, D. C. 2 0 5 6 0

R o b e r t M. V o g e l , S e r i e s E d i t o r
 I N T R O D U C T I O N

T h i s Symposium r e p r e s e n t s t h e S o c i e t y ' s f i r s t f o r m a l a t t e m p t t o of industrial collections in museums and o f a " l i v i n g " i n d u s t r i a l

explore the relatively neglected analytical aspects of industrial community c o n c l u d e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s .
archeology. It is intended as a starting point for continuing The need t o d i s c u s s s u c h i s s u e s and t h e particular commitment
discussion on how the discipline might better contribute t o an to t a c k l e i n t e l l e c t u a l problems a s a g r o u p , r a t h e r t h a n i n i s o l a t i o n ,
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f human b e h a v i o r i n t h e p a s t . h a s a s i t s r o o t s t h e Landon P r o j e c t , a n interdisciplinary historical
study of Southwestern Ontario. Our d i l i g e n t c o l l e a g u e s from M i l a n ,
Originally prepared for Symposium discussion, the papers
O r n e l l a S e l v a f o l t a and P a o l o Caputo, c l e a r l y left more behind than
published here reflect in varying degrees criticisms and a d v i c e
ever they took away. Vance Packard, in addition to valuable
g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g i n t e n s i v e s e s s i o n s o v e r two days. Because of the
intellectual support attended to the finances and, with Brenda
common forum.and because each p a r t i c i p a n t a d d r e s s e s o n l y a n a s p e c t o f
Barrett, our e x c e l l e n t accomodation. Robert V o g e l ' s t i m e and t a l e n t
t h e o v e r a l l problem--the place of i n d u s t r i a l archeology i n the human
i n producing t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n a r e greatly appreciated. Others who
sciences--the papers should be read more as a "suite" than a s a
contributed in important ways i n c l u d e Richard S . A l c o r n , William B.
collection of individual works. Some repetition will be noted.
B a s s e t t , Richard M. Candee, Michael W. Robbins, and Edward and Mary
Readers are asked to be patient; this overlap r e s u l t s from a n
Jane Putsch. To a l l o f you and e s o e c i a l l y t h o s e c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h i s
editorial decision to preserve the internal logic of individual
r e w a r d i n g volume, my s i n c e r e thanks:..
essays.
Dianne Newel1
The o p e n i n g paper p l a c e s industrial archeology in a Social
London, O n t a r i o
scientific tradition. H i s t o r i c a l problems, data-fathering techniques,
1978
artifact analysis, and interpretive schemes are explored in
presentations t h a t follow. The t h r u s t o f t h e Symposium was> t o examine
i n d u s t r i a l archeology a s a s c h o l a r l y d i s c i p l i n e . However, the range
of c o n c e r n s r e f l e c t e d i n many o f t h e working p a p e r s r e p r e s e n t a second
l e v e l of discussion. Recognizing that the "data" of industrial
archeology are particularily threatened with l o s s o r d e s t r u c t i o n , a
number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s c h o s e to discuss issues related to public
awareness and government activity connected with an industrial
patrimony. The r o l e o f i n d u s t r i a l archeology in cultural resource
mangement and the intellectual and social context of i n d u s t r i a l
a r c h e o l o g y i n I t a l y a r e put forward i n t h i s s e c t i o n . The evaluation

F i g u r e 1. I n d u s t r i a l r e m a i n s o f f e r t o s c h o l a r s a u n i q u e s e t o f " u n -
intentional" s o u r c e s with which t o e x p l o r e i m p o r t a n t questions about
p a s t . I n o r d e r t o d o that s u c c e s s f u l l y , i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s u l t i -
mately m u s t r e g a r d factories, mines, and the like a s working places,
n o t s i m p l y as a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d e q u i p m e n t . T h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y d r a w -
i n g ( c l 8 0 0 ) of t h e B e d w o r t h M i l l ( w o r s t e d ) , W a r w i c k s h i r e ( T a n n ,
D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e F a c t o r y , p. 3 8 ) s e r v e s a s a r e m i n d e r of t h e b e -
h a v i o r a l b a s e of IA i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
F i g u r e 2. T h e p o t e n t i a l r e w a r d s of s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s of h i s t o r i c
a r t i f a c t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h i s m a p of M i d d l e V i r g i n i a a n d e n v i r o n s .
T h e b l a c k s p o t i n t h e w h i t e area s u r r o u n d e d b y s h a d i n g i s t h a t s u r -
v e y e d b y H e n r y G l a s s i e i n h i s f o l k h o u s i n g s t u d y (1975: 15). The
w h i t e s p a c e i s t h e r e g i o n of w h i c h the s u r v e y e d area is b e i n g p r e -
s e n t e d as a s a m p l e . T h e s h a d i n g i n d i c a t e s t h e z o n e t o w h i c h a r c h i -
t e c t u r a l a f f i n i t i e s a r e n e x t c l o s e s t . I n s t e a d of t h e m e r e c h r o n i c l i n g
of p a r t i c u l a r s i t e s , o r " i n s i g h t s " a b o u t the p a s t , G l a s s i e c o n t r i b u t e s
a n important analytical f r a m e w o r k within which t o study large-scale
a r t i f a c t s , a s w e l l as o f f e r i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s of p a r t i c u l a r a r c h i t e c t u r a l
p e t t e r n i n g t h a t a p p l y t o a n area m u c h l a r g e r t h a n that s u r v e y e d .
 2
I
INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY AS A SCHOLARLY DISCIPLINE

1 INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY: DISCOVERING MORE

ABOUT HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE PAST1

Dianne Newel1

Department o f H i s t o r y
The U n i v e r s i t y o f Western O n t a r i o
London, Canada

The human s c i e n c e s a r e , t o p a r a p h r a s e a widely known French males--in o t h e r words, a b o u t most p e o p l e .

historian, Marc Bloch, only "authentic" when they succeed in
To s a y , o f c o u r s e , t h a t anyone i n t e r e s t e d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the
e s t a b l i s h i n g e x p l a n a t o r y r e l a t i o n s i p s between phenomena.2 Throughout
p a s t s h o u l d i g n o r e w r i t t e n documents i s a b s u r d . H i s t o r i c r h e t o r i c can
t h i s c e n t u r y s e r i o u s s c h o l a r s of t h e p a s t have been d e v e l o p i n g new and b e s t u d i e d t o l e a r n o f t h e i n t e n t i o n s and p e r s p e c t i v e s o f i t s a u t h o r s ;
more s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . ? They recoenize otherwise, the greatest r o l e of l i t e r a r y evidence increasingly i s a
t h a t human a c t i v i t y i s l a r g e l y r a t i o n a l and v e r y complex and have come corroborative one.6 What is important here is simply that
t o abandon " f o r t u n a " and "chance" a s e x p l a n a t i o n o f p a s t b e h a v i o r . '
non-intentional sources have a much larger place than ever i n the
Moreover, they reject preoccupations with questions of s t u d y o f human b e h a v i o r i n t h e p a s t
origins--establishing t h e a e n e s i s of i n v e n t i o n s , determining b u i l d e r s '
names, and s o on--as an end i n i t s e l f . C o n t r a r y t o p o p u l a r views of What does this hpve to do with industrial archeoloey?

the historian's craft, establishing these and other facts is no Industrial archeology--the study of the physical evidence o f an

substitute for explaining them. There is a need t o s t u d y human i n d u s t r i a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l p a s t - - i s becoming an import,ant scholarly

behavior s y s t e m a t i c a l l y over time and across space in order to discipline. Its rich and p o t e n t i a l l y productive s e t of h i s t o r i c a l

d i s c o v e r p a t t e r n s and c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . s o u r c e s a r e u n i n t e r p r e t e d and c a n r e p r e s e n t t h o s e p e o p l e who o t h e r w i s e

left no records. Consefluently, t h e s e a r e s o u r c e s o f a s o r t t h a t c a n
E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e g o a l of t h i s new approach to history is to compensate f o r many o f the difficulties presented by the written
arrive at r e l i a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f a f u l l r a n g e of human e x p e r i e n c e . record. An i n d u s t r i a l s i t e , such a s a brewery, provides information
To t h a t end s c h o l a r s a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n a what happened to about t h e physical o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a workplace. From t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n
most people in the past. Of c o u r s e , many s t i l l c a r e t o examine t h e something c a n be d e t e r m i n e d a b o u t t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e of work,
famous p e o p l e and e v e n t s of h i s t o r y b u t many o t h e r s a r e finding more
about a c t u a l tasks performed, and even about the social values
fruitful such q u e s t i o n s a s why c h i l d r e n i n 1820 worked i n f a c t o r i e s , embodied i n t h e v i s i b l e work p r o c e s s e s .
y e t , by 1880, t h e y went t o s c h o o l . I n o r d e r t o undertake such s t u d i e s
as these a t t e m p t s a r e b e i n g made t o e x p l o r e a h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d t h a t Examination o f i n d u s t r i a l s i t e s a l s o o f f e r s i n s i g h t s into the
i s b o t h b r o a d l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n f o r m a t i v e . ^ levels of technological sophistication and, h e n c e , t h e p r o c e s s of
diffusion of technological innovation in industries ranging from
W r i t t e n documents, l o n g t h e k e y s t o n e of historical research,
button-making to steel production. Revealing patterns of
prove particularily inadequate in the sense that they usually
t e c h n o l o g i c a l change l e a d i n t u r n t o a n a l y s i s o f t h e impact of such
r e p r e s e n t o n l y t h o s e few p e o p l e i n a g i v e n c u l t u r e who c o u l d w r i t e , o r
change on t h e w o r k p l a c e , t h e community, and t h e s o c i e t y a t l a r a e . The
whose lives were judged important enough to report about. Many
i m p o r t a n t broad q u e s t i o n s l e n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o s u c h a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e :
s c h o l a r s a t t e m p t t o make p r o f i t a b l e u s e o f s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n and
L What d o e s t h i s s i t e t e l l u s a b o u t t h e r e s o u r c e b a s e when t h e s i t e was
even to make literary sources, like c o r r e s p o n d e n c e and newspaper
developed? (We l o o k f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f d r i e d up s t r e a m s , of roads,
accounts, quantifiable. The b u l k o f s u r v i v i n g w r i t t e n documentation,
quarrying, and land fill). What does this site tell u s about
however, c o n s i s t s o f p u r e l y e p i s o d i c , n a r r a t i v e a c c o u n t s s u c h a s t h o s e
population c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ? (How many w o r k e r s , what s k i l l s , what age
found i n d i a r i e s , e d i t o r i a l s , s p e e c h e s , and i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e c o r d s . In
and sex were likely s u p p o r t e d by a s i t e o f t h i s s c a l e and l e v e l o f
addition to their questionable r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s , such sources a r e
t e c h n o l o g y ? ) . What d o e s t h i s s i t e t e l l us about the economy? the
intentionally informative; their authors sought intentionally to
society? Industrial and technological remains w i l l n o t answer a
influence the opinion of contemporaries o r even, a s is t h e c a s e with
q u e s t i o n s a b o u t human b e h a v i o r in the past. IA sources tell us
early local histories and biographies, the impressions of future
little, for example, about formal p o l i t i c a l behavior o r about t h e
scholars. Non-intentional sources (maps, a r t i f a c t s , and t h e l i k e )
l i v e s of those a t the upper levels of society; such fluestions,
d i f f e r i n t h a t they are symbols less by the intention of their
however, a r e more e a s i l y. approached
.. through w r i t t e n source?
originators. Thus, a r t i f a c t s from t o y s t o t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s a r e among
t h e most g e n u i n e o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s . They do n o t have to be I n d u s t r i a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s , t h e n , o f f e r t o s c h o l a r s a
stripped of their "interpretation" in order to be a n a l y z e d . In unique set of unintentional sources with which to e x p l o r e many
a d d i t i o n , s u c h s o u r c e s c a n t e l l u s more t h a n t h e writt.en r e c o r d about important q u e s t i o n s about t h e p a s t . Why do we study old factories,
the young, the old, t h e p r o p e r t y l e s s , and a b o u t f e m a l e s a ? w e l l a s mines, canals, and v i a d u c t s ? Because we want t o know about t h e
past. But, what exactly do we want to know about the past? archeologist h a s r a i s e d t h e need t o i n c l u d e workers' graveyards i n I A
Industrial archeologists must know precisely what questions they i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , b u t h e o f f e r s n o way i n which t o u s e t h a t d a t a , other
i n t e n d t o a s k of t h e i r s o u r c e s , why t h e y want t h e a n s w e r s , and how t h e than considering it for t h e "sake of i n t e r e s t . " ^ One t h i n g t h a t
answers f i t i n t o some b r o a d e r e x p l a n a t o r y scheme. a r c h e o l o g i s t s need t o do is to establish the grammar (rules and
relationships) of industrial sites.
From t h e o u t s e t i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s must d e v e l o p o r adopt
appropriate theory in order t o i n f e r f i n d i n g s from n o n - i n t e n t i o n a l What i s l a c k i n g o v e r a l l i s a s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h t o industrial
data. The s o c i a l s c i e n c e s a r e a l o g i c a l c o u r s e of guidance.7 The archeology. Without this we are merely chronicline series of
common s u b j e c t m a t t e r of t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i s human b e h a v i o r ; what i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t s , o r s i t e s , o r " i n s i g h t s " about t h e p a s t . Most o f t e n
seems d i s t i n g u i s h each i s t h e f o c u s on a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of this the sites are studied simply as objects in themselves. Like
behavior and the techniques which each uses t o comprehend t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s , i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s have a tendency to
subject matter. Political science, for example, focuses on focus on t h e u n i a u e , t h e " s u c c e s s f u l , " and t h e e x q u i s i t e . The works
government. Economics c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n of Prominent a r c h i t e c t s and e n g i n e e r s , t h e n o v e l , and the structures
o f m a r k e t a b l e goods. S o c i o l o g y d e a l s w i t h t h e many human i n t e r a c t i o n s with the b e s t s u r v i v a l r a t e i n e v i t a b l y r e c e i v e t h e most a t t e n t i o n i n
and structures involved in human s y s t e m s . These t h r e e d i s c i p l i n e s North America and e l s e w h e r e . Consequently, t h e r e i s l i t t l e search f o r
s e e k p r i n c i p l e s t h a t a r e independent o f t i m e or place and together and study o f t h e r e m a i n s o f common i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y o r s i t e s more
with traditional history g e n e r a l l y a r e concerned w i t h " i n t e n t i o n a l " representative of the experimental and transitional stages of
documentation. development, or even of the f a i l u r e s . A s systematic investigators,
industrial archeologists must develop samplina procedures,
It i s t o t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s t.hat one generally turns in the classification schemes, and s e t s o f l o g i c a l l y d e r i v e d h y p o t h e s e s w i t h
s e a r c h f o r b a s i c t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t why p e o p l e behaved t h e which t o s e l e c t , i n v e s t i g a t e , and interpret their sources. Being
way t h e y d i d . For example, t h e v e r y h e a r t o f i n d u s t r i a l archeology's aware of the kinds of h i s t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t t h e i r sources can
disciplinary identity--the word industrial--represents an implicit answer w i l l be a n i m p o r t a n t f i r s t s t e p t o more useful surveying and
a c c e p t a n c e o f a broad r a n g e of a s s u m p t i o n s , d e f i n i t i o n s , and theories recording e f f o r t s .
from economics, history, and sociology about a major h i s t o r i c a l
Data g a t h e r i n g in the sense of identifyine and recording
transformation that occurred between humans and their material
industrial and technological remains is the only area i n which
surroundings.
i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s have concentrated t o d a t e . There i s a d a n g e r
For the methodological purposes of industrial archeology, in having proceeded w i t h t h i s s t a g e w i t h o u t f i r s t s t a t i n g e x p l i c i t , l y
perhaps it is b e s t t o pay c l o s e a t t e n t i o n a l s o t o t h o s e d i s c i p l i n e s what t h e q u e s t i o n s a r e , why t h e y miqht b e i m p o r t a n t , and e x a c t l y what
(and s u b - d i s c i p l i n e s ) t h a t r e l y mainly upon n o n - w r i t t e n records--human material w i l l b e used t o answer t h o s e q u e s t i o n s . None o f t h e p r e s e n t
geography, f o l k l o r e , a r c h e o l o g y , and a r c h i t e c t u r a l h i s t o r y . Of t h o s e manuals o n r e c o r d i n g t e c h n i a u e s a d d r e s s t h i s c r u c i a l problem. Whether
f o u r o n l y a r c h e o l o g y and f o l k l o r e a r e e s p e c i a l l y concerned with the or not they a r e s t a t e d , guiding p r i n c i p l e s always underly an a p ~ r o a c h
of non-written documentation, and, more p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h r e e to investigations; the implicit questions that industrial
dimensional data. The others use non-written documentation and archeologists u s e i n d e c i d i n g what t o s t u d y ; what d e t a i l s o r a s p e c t s
contribute considerably to developing t e c h n i q u e s f o r r e c o r d i n g and t o record; what t o draw o r p h o t o g r a p h ; and what t o d e s c r i b e i n o t h e r
d e s c r i b i n g d a t a , b u t have done s o w i t h o u t d e v e l o p i n g much i n the way ways, shape the f i n a l outcome o f t h e s t u d y , n o m a t t e r how o b j e c t i v e
of a theoretical framework w i t h i n which t o a n a l y z e and e x p l a i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s p r e t e n d t o be.
data. Archeologists and folklorists, by contrast, have devised
C o n s i d e r , f o r example, how It s i t e teams o f t e n w i l l faithfully
methods o f s t u d y i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l ( s p a t i a l ) and v e r t i c a l ( h i s t o r i c a l )
record floor plans of factories, c a r e f u l l y p o s i t i o n i n g a l l extant,
interrelationships of t h e i r data and infer conclusions from their
p r o d u c t i o n and power transmission equipment. Such scale drawings
sources through analogy with structures and p r o c e s s e s p e r c e i v a b l e
provide a record of the spatial relationships within a given
today. Thus. i n f e r e n c e by a n a l o g y i s t h e i r method to "observe" the
workplace, b u t t h e r e a l c o n t r i b u t i o n of s u c h m a t e r i a l t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g
unobservable. Artifacts are s t u d i e d , l i k e l a n g u a e e , a s symbolic of
the social impact of technological change remains undeveloped.
c u l t u r e and b e h a v i o u r .
Without p o s i n g q u e s t i o n s approaching t h e d a t a it i s l i k e l y t h a t
Because t h e symbolic c o n t e n t o f s u c h s o u r c e s a s factories is, recording teams will continue their current practice of including
by definition, not apparent, some methodology must b e developed t o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p r o c e s s and equipment i n drawings only when such
make s e n s e o f t h a t m a t e r i a l . Folklorists devise sets of rules, or information is abundant. I f i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s were f i r s t t o
'grammars" for language, music, and e v e n a r t i f a c t s l i k e f u r n i t u r e , d e t e r m i n e j u s t how many i m p o r t a n t Q u e s t i o n s a b o u t c h a n g i n g n o t i o n s of
costume, and most r e c e n t l y , housing.8 United States' folklorist, work, changing relationships between workers and management, and
Henry G l a s s i e , d e c i d e d t h a t , o f a l l c l a s s e s o f a r t i f a c t s , a r c h i t e c t u r e c h a n g i n g s t r u c t u r e of t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r k f o r c e , t o name but a few,
was t h e b e s t g u i d e to past culture because of its universality, could be measured by s u c h s p a t i a l d a t a , t h e n s u r e l y r e c o r d i n g teams
tenacity, complexity, and f i x e d n e s s . 9 Scholars a r e indebted t o h i s would be obliged to record spatial relationships--even when all
pioneering efforts in the structural analysis of domestic equpiment had been removed. A wealth of evidentiary
architecture, for h i s s t u d y s u r e l y p o i n t s t h e way t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n material--everything from e x t e r n a l b u t t r e s s i n g and b r i c k e d up windows,
of systematic techniaues to sites of interest to industrial t o e x c e s s i v e wear on t h e f l o o r s and l a r g e dimension s c r e w h o l e s i n t h e
archeologists. For their part, archeolopists tend to rely on supporting columns--will go a long way to supplying missing
classification as a prime analytical tool. While traditionally information.12 Relying on descriptions supplied by contemporary
dealing w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f form ( p a r t s ) , s t r u c t u r e ( r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d i c t i o n a r i e s of manufactures and surviving drawings will not do.
p a r t s ) , and c o n t e x t o f below ground a r t i f a c t s and assemblages, they Contempory descriptions of process and architecture are largely
recently a t t e m p t e d t o d e v i s e c o n c e p t u a l t o o l s w i t h which t o i n t e r p r e t i d e a l i z e d and t h e y , t o e e t h e r w i t h d r a w i n g s t h a t s u r v i v e , seldom c a n be
such s u r f a c e remains as tombstones.^ At lezst one industrial assumed t o r e p r e s e n t much more t h a n t h e most s u c c e s s f u l o f i n d u s t r i a l
enterprises. i n t h e brewing i n d u s t r y on brew house a r c h i t e c t u r e , a n a l y z e d written,
graphic, and physical data but never once suggested why such
Finally, descriptions, whether literary or graphic, seldom
i n f o r m a t i o n might be i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p a s t . 1 4 In the
inform of changing conditions over t i m e and a c r o s s s p a c e , whereas
case of the first s t u d y , t h e q u e s t i o n s were w e l l developed b u t t h e
p h y s i c a l r e m a i n s a r e much more l i k e l y t o p r o v i d e s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n . An
d a t a were insufficient to produce reliable conclusions; in the
e x c e p t i o n a l l y t h o u g h t f u l p i e c e was r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d on t h e impact o f
second, the dath were s t r o n g e r b u t a t h e o r e c t i c a l b a s e and t e s t a b l e
t h e indust,rial revolution i n Britain on the nature of work. The
q u e s t i o n s were m i s s i n g . The t a s k ahead f o r industrial archeologists
question tested was that mechanization in t h e "age of steam" was
seems c l e a r .
l a r g e l y c o n f i n e d t o a few, i s o l a t e d o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n most i n d u s t r i e s ;
as a r e s u l t , t h e i n c r e a s e i n s c a l e and r a n g e o f p r o d u c t i o n caused by
the industrial revolution proportionally increased, rather than The new scholarly horizons for industrial archeology are
decreased, manual labor and hand technology--a notion seldom behavioral and s c i e n t i f i c ones. As a b e g i n n i n g , f a c t o r i e s and mines
c o n s i d e r e d by s c h o l a r s . The e v i d e n c e used t o a n a l y z e this ouestion. c a n be r e g a r d e d a s working p l a c e s , not simply as architecture and
however, was limited t o contemporary a c c o u n t s o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s equipment; bridges and lighthouses can be viewed a s s i g n i f i c a n t
d i s c o v e r e d i n manuals on m a n u f a c t u r i n g and i n a handful of workers' e l e m e n t s o f human transportation and communications networks, not
diaries. The origins and b i a s o f t h e s e s o u r c e s went u n q u e s t i o n e d . merely as e n g i n e e r i n g and d e s i q n . By f o c u s i n q on a c t u a l r e m a i n s and
More i m p o r t a n t was t h e f a i l u r e t o c o n s u l t p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e presented developing a p p r o p r i a t e theoretical perspectives and investigative
by surviving i n d u s t r i a l s i t e s , s o t h a t the conclusions, while highly techniques, industrial archeologists are capable of expanding i n
i n t e r e s t i n g , do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t what actually happened.^3 s p e c i a l new ways o u r knowledge o f human b e h a v i o r i n t h e p a s t and our
Conversely, a n o t h e r s t u d y , t h a t o f t h e impact o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l change g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e human e x p e r i e n c e and i t s meaning.

Footnotes

1 . T h i s p a p e r owes a g r e a t d e a l t o i n t e r e a c t i o n w i t h c o l l e a g u e s 6 . G l a s s i e , F o l k Housing, p . 14ff

in the Landon Project, U n i v e r s i t y o f Western O n t a r i o . My g r e a t e s t
7. In t h i s section I rely heavily on Igartua, "Non-Written
i n t e l l e c t u a l d e b t i s t o P r o j e c t D i r e c t o r , Richard S . Alcorn, who b o t h
Document,ation," and Kuhn, U n i f i e d S o c i a l S c i e n c e .
encouraged the preparation of this paper and offered invaluable
criticism. 8. For a n e x h a u s t i v e r e v i e w o f t h e f i e l d , s e e : Henry Glassie,
"Structure and Function, Folklore and the Artifact.'' Semiotics 7
2. Marc B l o c h , The ~ i s t o r i a n ' s Craft: Reflections on the
( 1 9 7 3 ) : 313-51.
Nature and Uses of H i s t o r y and t h e Technioues and Methods of t h e Men
who W r i t e i t (1935; r e p r i n t e d . , New York: Vintage Books, 1953). 9. G l a s s i e , Folk Housing, C h a p t e r s Two, Three, and Seven.

3. In addition to Bloch, see: Lee Benson, Toward the 10. J. Deetz and E.S. D e t h l e f s e n , "Death's Heads, Cherubs,
Scientific Studv of History: Selected Essays of Lee Benson and Willow Trees: E x p e r i m e n t a l Archaeology i n C o l o n i a l C e m e t a r i e s . "
(Philadelphia: J. L i p p i n c o t t , 1 9 7 2 ) ; Robert B e r k h o f e r , A Behavioral American A n t i q u i t y 31 (1966): 502-10.
Approach to Historical Analysis (New York: The F r e e P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ) ,
11. Kenneth Hudson, v of Industry (London:
a n d , A l f r e d Kuhn, U n i f i e d S o c i a l S c i e n c e : A System-Based I n t r o d u c t i o n
Thames, 1976).
(Homewood, 111. : The Dorsey P r e s s , 1975).
12. A h i g h l y u s e f u l d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s i s found in Eugene J.
4. S e e e s p e c i a l l y , Benson, S c i e n t i f i c S t u d y , pp. 14, 220; and Webb, Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Research in the
B e r k h o f e r , B e h a v i o r a l Approach, pp. 11-I?. S c i e n c e s (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1 0 7 0 ) . F o r one e x p l a n a t i o n of the
'representivity" of contemporary drawings see, Jennifer Tann,
5. I m p o r t a n t discussions of the value of non-written and Development of t h e F a c t o r y (London: Cornmarket P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 2.
n o n - i n t e n t i o n a l documentat,ion a p p e a r i n Raphael Samuel, "Local H i s t o r y
13. Raphael Samuel, "The Workshop o f t h e World: Steam Power
and O r a l H i s t o r y . " H i s t o r y Workshop 1 ( 1 9 7 6 ) : 191-2Oq; Henry Glassie,
and Hand Technolory in mid-Victorian B r i t a i n . " H i s t o r y Workshop 3
Folk Housing in Middle V i r g i n i a : A S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s of H i s t o r i c
( 1 9 7 7 ) : 6-72.
Artifacts (Knoxville, Tennessee: University of Tennessee Press,
1975), Chapters Two and Three; and J o s e E. I e a r t u a , "Non-Written 14. Dianne Newel1 Macdougall, "Changing Brewing Technology and
Documentation as a Source for Interdisciplinary History.'' Related Effects on Brew-House frchitecture in 1 9 t h Century North ,
Mimeographed. London, Ontario: The Landon P r o j e c t , U n i v e r s i t y o f America." A p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Annual Meeting o f t h e Society for
Western O n t a r i o , 1977. I n d u s t r i a l Archeology, A p r i l 1973, a t Troy, New York. Mimeographed.
 2 T H E " Q U E S T I O N S " O F I N D U S T R I A L A R C H E O L O G Y

Vance Packard
P e n n s y l v a n i a H i s t o r i c a l and Museum Commission
H a r r i s b u r g , PA

The o n l y r e a s o n t h a t t h e r e a r e a r c h e o l o g i s t s i n the world is p a t t e r n e s t a b l i s h e d by O l i v e r Evans, and t h e uniqueness may be the

because historians have not been a b l e t o answer a l l t h e q u e s t i o n s . result of individual millwrights making i m p e r f e c t c o p i e s , b u t t h a t
U n f o r t u n a t e l y up t o t h i s p o i n t , i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s have barely e x p l a n a t i o n seems i n c o m p l e t e . There may b e b o t h r e g i o n a l and ethnic
been asking questions. Some t h o u g h t n e e d s t o be g i v e n t o t h e t y p e of patterns at work o r p e r h a p s t h e v a r i a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t
q u e s t i o n s we ought t o he a s k i n g and e v e n more t h o u g h t t o t h e ways in 'families" of millwrights.
which we a s a r c h e o l o g i s t s - - t h e s t u d e n t s o f objects--go about answering
Third: It i s o b s e r v e d t h a t v a r i o u s t y p e s of i n d u s t r i e s t e n d t o
them.
be located i n similar topographical situations. I n most c a s e s t h e r e
Industrial archeologists are fortunate i n a sense because the a r e c l e a r f u n c t i o n a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e l o c a t i o n s , a s Edward Rutsoh has
q u e s t i o n s most commonly asked by p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h e o l o g i s t s c a n u s u a l l y shown w i t h h i s s t u d y o f l i m e k i l n s i n n o r t h w e s t New J e r s e y . However,
be answered q u i c k l y and a c c u r a t e l y by industrial archeologists with i n some i n s t a n c e s r e a s o n s a r e o b s c u r e . For i n s t a n c e , s m a l l e a r l y saw
minimal historical documentary research. I t i s seldom n e c e s s a r y t o mills i n P e n n s y l v a n i a t e n d t o be l o c a t e d i n narrow g o r g e s . While t h e
e x c a v a t e a m i l l s i t e t o f i n d o u t what went on t h e r e . County h i s t o r i e s r e a s o n s f o r t h i s placement seem r e l a t i v e l y o b v i o u s ( a d e q u a t e supplies
contain t h a t information. I n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s must go beyond t h e of wood and w a t e r p o w e r ) , t h e f a c t t h a t many o f them h a v e t h e i r wheel
printed h i s t o r i e s i f they a r e to make any contribution. It took p i t s cut i n t o s o l i d rock suggests another dimension. Obviously, so
prehistoric archeologists decides of research before they located l a r g e a n i n v e s t m e n t was f o r a p u r p o s e .
c u l t u r e s i n t i m e and s p a c e p r e c i s e l y enough t o b e g i n looking at the
The above q u e s t i o n s a r e based on r a t h e r c a s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n and
other aspects of culture. For the industrial archeologist these
cannot P o s s i b l y be answered w i t h o u t some s o r t o f vis-orous methodology
c o n c e r n s c a n u s u a l l y be answered i n a few d a y s a t t h e l o c a l l i b r a r y .
t h a t includes both an analysis of the available written documents as
What t h e n s h o u l d t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t be s t u d y i n g ? They well a s t h e a r t i f a c t s , s t r u c t u r e s , and s i t e s t h e m s e l v e s . This l a t t e r
can, of course, s t u d y i n d u s t r i a l s i t e s and o b j e c t s w i t h t h e hope o f a n a l y s i s w i l l o n l y be e f f e c t i v e i f it d e a l s i n t h e discret,e a t t r i b u t e s
l e a r n i n g more a b o u t t h e o b j e c t s , b u t t h i s s h o u l d b e o n l y a temporary of objects. Once o b j e c t s t r u c t u r e s o r s i t e s a r e broken down t o t h e
or initial step. Ultimately the only reason f o r studying objects a t s m a l l e s t m e a n i n g f u l u n i t s o r a t t r i b u t e s , i t may b e possible to show
a l l is t o l e a r n more a b o u t t h e p e r s o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them and the relationships between different wholes through the use of various
greater network o f which t h e y form a p a r t . S p e c i f i c a l l y , they should s t a t i s t i c a l procedures. I n a t l e a s t some instances historical data
be concerned w i t h p e r s o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g and u s e o f may be analyzed along with observational data t o p r o v i d e a more
an object. The i n v e n t o r / d e s i g n e r i s p e r h a p s more c l e a r l y t h e f o c u s o f meaningful p i c t u r e . I n a l l s u c h e n d e a v o r s t h e s k i l l and p e r c e p t i o n o f
t h o s e concerned w i t h the history of technology. Usually, it is t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r w i l l g r e a t l y a f f e c t t h e outcome.
obvious who made an object and who used i t , b u t t o o r a r e l y do we
c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t t h i s making o r u s i n g may h a v e had on the person Up t o t h i s p o i n t i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y has at best taken a
and t o what e x t e n t t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o r u t i l i t y was p a r t of a system o r humanistic approach to knowledge. There h a s been a f a i r amount o f
p a t t e r n of behavior. i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d o v e r t h e l a s t few y e a r s , but lacking a common
methodology or even a good model of what can he done u s i n g a
A few sample "questions" should serve as illustration.
' s c i e n t i f i c f l method, i t is u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e f i e l d c a n progress past
Consider a metal planer from t h e 1870s. V a r i o u s p l a c e s on i t have
technical antiquarianism. Archeology in general tends to be
decorative moldings that serve no particular function, but are
r e v o l u t i o n i z e d e v e r y few years by a paper that sets out a new
pleasing to the eye. The a p p l i c a t i o n of s u c h moldings was f a i r l y
methodology and t a k e s i t t o i t s t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t . Most o f t e n t h i s i s
common on machine t o o l s of t h a t p e r i o d and can be considered as a
done by s i m p l y d e v e l o p i n g a more v i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s which p r o d u c e s the
custom or t r a d i t i o n even though t h e y would d i s a p p e a r w i t h i n t h e n e x t
data to prove some insight on the part of the investigators.
25 o r s o y e a r s . The q u e s t i o n i s t h i s : Did the use of decorative
R e c e n t l y , a r c h i t e c t u r a l h i s t o r y h a s been s i m i l a r l y revolutionized by
moldings on machine tools o r i g i n a t e w i t h t h e d e s i g n e r / i n v e n t o r who
the publishing of Henry Glassie's work on venacular housing i n
wished t o make t h e i r i n v e n t i o n more a t t r a c t i v e or with the pattern
Virgins. His methodology r e s t s p r i m a r l y on t h e statistical work of
maker who l e a r n e d wood workings from a c a b i n e t maker?
anthropologists and l i n g u i s t s and makes a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
Second: G r i s t m i l l s a p p e a r i d e n t i c a l t o each o t h e r ; each one the understanding of a cultural process. Industrial archeology
also appears unique. The sameness is no doubt t h e r e s u l t o f t h e d e s p e r a t e l y needs such a paper.
 3 ARCHEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE AND THE STUDY OF HISTORICAL INDUSTRY

Theodore Z . Penn
Old S t u r b r i d g e V i l l a g e
Sturbridge, M A

The purpose of t h i s b r i e f e s s a y i s t o explore the nature of economies c a n be s t u d i e d t h r o u g h p h y s i c a l r e m a i n s b u t i n f e r e n c e s from

archeological evidence and the part it plays in the study of artifacts to these aspects of culture a r e not a s direct a s i n the
industrial history. The i d e a s and c o n c e p t s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i r s t c a t e g o r y and i n v o l v e a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f a s s u m p t i o n . Answers t o
paees were developed through one and a h a l f d e c a d e s o f f i e l d w o r k , economic questions asked of m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e a r e n o t always i m p l i c i t
reading, and discussion and are intended to stimulate further i n the objects themselves but must be derived occasionally from
reflection rather than to serve as any sort of general rule. additional evidence. T h i r d , i n f e r e n c e and a s s u m p t i o n c a n be extended
I n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s today f i n d themselves i n a p o s i t i o n somewhat f u r t h e r t o a d d r e s s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . Great care must be
analogous to the e a r l y a r c h e o l o g i s t s who s e a r c h e d f o r works o f a r t , exercised here, however, for these p a r t s of c u l t u r e a r e extremely
not t h e physical remains of culture. Like our predecessors, we difficult to study from artifactual evidence. And, fourth, the
sometimes concentrate on the spectacular machine or site to intellectual and ideological a s p e c t s o f human b e h a v i o r a r e t h e most
"illu~trate'" what we have l e a r n e d from documentary s o u r c e s , rather d i f f i c u l t t o l e a r n a b o u t from p h y s i c a l r e m a i n s . &
than struggle to discover e x a c t l y what i t i s t h a t we or
A particularly important part of the work of industrial
l e a r n from m a t e r i a l c u t u r e a b o u t t h e i n d u s t r i a l p a s t .
archeology is t o i d e n t i f y and s t u d y t h e a r e a s o f i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y
Archeology i s d e f i n e d a s "The s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f t h e mat.eria1 t h a t s u r v i v e i n p h y s i c a l form o n l y . Today, t h e d i f f u s i o n of t e c h n i c 8 1
remains of past human life and past human activities."2 This knowledge is facilitated by specialized publications and formal
definition establishes that artifacts are the primary source of classroom t e a c h i n e . These d i f f u s i o n mechanisms were n o t a s organized
archeological knowledge and i t draws no a r b i t r a r y d i s t i n c t i o n between or as effective i n t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y . Instead,
o b j e c t s found above o r b e n e a t h the ground. Industrial archeology, e n g i n e e r s and mechanics l e a r n e d t h e i r t r a d e s o n t h e job in factories
then, can be interoreted as the s c i e n t i f i c study of the material and machine s h o p s by d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e and word-of-mouth. Information
remains o f p a s t human i n d u s t r i a l l i f e and activit,ies, regardless of moved from p e r s o n t o p e r s o n by v e r b a l r a t h e r t h a n w r i t t e n means. For
whether the p h y s i c a l m a t e r i a l s a r e s t a n d i n g i n t a c t on t h e i r o r i g i n a l this r e a s o n , many o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s o f machine b u i l d i n g
site or lying buried in ruins. Thus, the primary concern of o r the reasons f o r the use of particular materials for particular
industrial archeoloay i s with t h e material c u l t u r e of industry i n the applications were n e v e r r e c o r d e d on p a p e r . The g r e a t i n v e n t i o n s and
p a s t a s a unique s o u r c e of informat,ion a b o u t human b e h a v i o r . i d e a s r e c e i v e d some a t t e n t i o n i n t h e n a s c e n t t e c h n i c a l p r e s s , b u t few
documents can be found t h a t h e l p i n t e r p r e t commonplace and e v e r y d a y
Although t h e r e a r e e x p r e s s i o n s o f human life and activities
mechanisms and p r o c e d u r e s . The o n l y r e c o r d o f many o f t h e activities
that can be studied with equal facility from e i t h e r m a t e r i a l o r
and products of the early millwrights and machinists is i n the
documentwy s o u r c e s , some b e h a v i o r i s better preserved in physical
a r t i f a c t s they l e f t behind; once they a r e l o s t , p a r t of t h e record of
form than written form and v i c e - v e r s a . Thus, i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y
i n d u s t r i a l c u l t u r e i s gone--completely and i r r e v o c a b l y .
can provide a resource f o r t h e i n s p e c t i o n of those portions of the
industrial p a s t t h a t s u r v i v e e x c l u s i v e l y i n p h y s i c a l form and a r e n o t The f i r s t machine t o o l , f o r example, to find common use in
o b s e r v a b l e t h r o u g h t h e window o f h i s t o r y . America's shops and factories was the turning lathe. With t h e
i n v e n t i o n o f t h e s l i d e r e s t and t h e power f e e d t h e s e l f - g u i d e d c u t t i n g
The methods for recording and collecting artifacts are
tool of t h e l a t h e c o u l d t u r n , b o r e , and t h r e a d m e t a l o r wooden p a r t s
relatively straightforward but complex parts of the archeological
with g r e a t p r e c i s i o n . Single-handedly, t h e l a t h e caused a revolution
method. It is not so simple, however, for historians and
i n t h e way i n which machinery was c o n c e i v e d and c o n s t r u c t e d y e t a l m o s t
a r c h e o l o g i s t s t o a g r e e on how a r t i f a c t s c a n be used t o s t u d y t h e p a s t .
n o t h i n g was w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e s e early machines nor
We must d e v e l o p a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p r o p e r and e f f e c t i v e u s e of
I their similarities and differences. Such a l a t h e removed from t h e
physical remains as sources of archeological information, f o r there
Crown and E a g l e M i l l s o f North Uxbridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , i s now i n the
a r e l i m i t s t o what c a n be l e a r n e d from m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . A careful
- s t u d y o f q u i l l pens c a n n o t h e l p w r i t e p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , n o r c a n
collections of Old S t u r b r i d g e V i l l a g e . Machines o f t h e same e r a and
s i m i l a r t y p e a r e p r e s e r v e d by the National Museum of History and
machines inform u s of t h e s o c i a l c o n c e r n s o f t h e i r operators or the
Technology, t h e S l a t e r M i l l H i s t o r i c S i t e , and t h e American P r e c i s i o n
r e l i q i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s of t h e i r i n v e n t o r s .
Museum. Since t h e construction of spindle bearings, the evolution of
The c l a s s i c and orthodox statement of the limitations of advance mechanisms, and t h e provision f o r holding c u t t i n g t o o l s a r e
p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e was f o r m u l a t e d i n 1954 by C h r i s t o p h e r ~ a w k e s . 3 His n o t d e s c r i b e d i n any d e t a i l i n written form, these topics can be
ideas were developed further in the following decade by F.T. s t u d i e d o n l y by o b s e r v i n g t h e machines t h e m s e l v e s .
Wainwright. Hawkes and Wainwright s e p a r a t e d a r c h e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e
i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r c a t e g o r i e s which c a n be a p p l i e d t o the study It i s n o t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e few e a r l y l a t h e s t h a t a r e preserved
of human behavior only with increasing difficulty. First, the in museum c o l l e c t i o n s t o t e l l u s how widespread o r how common t h e u s e
a r t i f a c t s t h e m s e l v e s c a n s p e a k t o u s d i r e c t l y a b o u t t h e t e c h n i q u e s and of t h e machines was. I f t h e number of s u r v i v i n g l a t h e s were greater,
the seauence o f o p e r a t i o n s employed i n t h e i r m a n u f a c t u r e . They a l s o o r i f e v e n more were known a b o u t t h e o r i g i n a l l o c a t i o n and f u n c t i o n o f
c a n e x h i b i t e v i d e n c e o f t h e t e c h n i c a l s k i l l and a e s t h e t i c c o n c e r n s o f t h e p r e s e r v e d machines, Q u e s t i o n s a b o u t u s e and typicality could be
the individuals who produced them. Second, economic a c t i v i t y and a d d r e s s e d more e a s i l y by a r c h e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e . The l a c k o f m a t e r i a l
 r e c o r d s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t o t h e r mills were similarly equipped and a
pattern emerges from the historical documents that is useful t o
i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e machinery and work o f e a r l y t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s

The w r i t t e n s o u r c e s , however, c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e t h a t the three

machines listed i n t h e 1830 deed a r e t h e same a s t h e one i n c l u d e d i n
t h e 1852 p r o b a t e i n v e n t o r y . N e i t h e r , e x c e p t i n a g e n e r a l way, c a n t h e
documents suggest what tasks each l a t h e was c a p a b l e o f p e r f o r m i n g .
Thus, t h e w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o t h e lathes provided us with
economic i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t q u a n t i t y , l o c a t i o n , and c h r o n o l o g y b u t v e r y
little teChn0l0QiCal information about shape, materials, and
operation. Referring back to t h e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e a c t u a l
machines, t h e a r t i f a c t s c a n n o t s u p p l y easily the kind of economic
evidence preserved in the land and probate records (quantity,
l o c a t i o n , and c h r o n o l o g y ) b u t c a n p r o v i d e t e c h n o l o g i c a l evidence not
a v a i l a b l e i n t h e documents ( s h a p e , m a t e r i a l s , and o p e r a t i o n ) .

I f any o f t h e l a t h e s p r e s e r v e d i n museum c o l l e c t i o n s were found

in the Phoenix Mill, integrating t h e a r c h e o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l
e v i d e n c e would n o t p r e s e n t problems. No d i r e c t physical information
F i g u r e 1. Turning lathe f r o m the Crown & Eagle Mills, North
Uxbridge, Massachusetts, cl840. Old Sturbridge Village photograph about the particular type of machines used i n t h e Phoenix M i l l i s
b y H e n r y E. P e a c h . a v a i l a b l e , however, s o scholars are forced to infer from sparse
physical evidence gathered elsewhere i n o r d e r t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s i t e ;
t h i s c a n be done b u t a s s u m p t i o n s must be made i n order to integrate
e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o economic a c t i v i t y i n t h i s c a s e c a n be partiplly the archeological and h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e . The l a c k o f back-gearing
compensated for by the c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e which c a n and a n a d j u s t a b l e l o n g i t u d i n a l f e e d on t h e l a t h e from the Crown and
make some contribution to understanding early lathes in their Eagle Mills indicates that the machine was used f o r l i g h t t u r n i n g
contemporary environment. j o b s , p e r h a p s f o r wooden p a r t s . The steep clearance angles ground
into the tool-bit clamped in the toolpost a l s o suggests t h a t the
The Phoenix M i l l , a s m a l l s t o n e c o t t o n f a c t o r y c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t
machine was employed f o r wood t u r n i n g . One of the turning lathes
900 s p i n d l e s , was b u i l t i n t h e town o f Ashford, C o n n e c t i c u t i n 1823 a s
(excluding t h e e n g i n e l a t h e ) l i s t e d on t h e i n v e n t o r i e s of t h e Phoenix
t h e second m i l l i n a company-owned textile manufacturing village.
M i l l may have been v e r y s i m i l a r t o this machine. As part of the
Neither the early machinery n o r t h e company p a p e r s i s known t o have
equipment of the factory, a lathe of this t y p e would h a v e been
survived. B u t , h i s t o r i c ? ] , e v i d e n c e i n t h e form o f l o c a l history and
employed t o m a n u f a c t u r e and r e p a i r wooden rollers and bobbins for
land and probate records is available f o r study. Such r e c o r d s o f t e n
t e x t i l e machines.
contain inventories l i s t i n g the equipment owned by companies and
individuals, a l t h o u g h f i n d i n g them c a n be t e d i o u s and d i f f i c u l t work, The i n t e g r a t i o n o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l and historical evidence is

t o assure the f a i r disposition of a s s e t s i n the event of the sale of simplified for industrial sites that still have their ori~inal

property or d e a t h o f i t s owner. These r e c o r d s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y good equipment. An e x t r e m e l y r a r e example o f a c a s t i r o n shafting system

i n t h e c a s e o f t h e Phoenix M i l l , f o r a bankruptcy deed of 1830, a for transmitting power from the waterwheel i n t h e basement t o t h e

mortgage deed of 1840, an e x e c u t i o n t o r e c o v e r d e b t o f 1844, and a n machinery on t h e two f l o o r s above i s s t i l l i n p l a c e in the Gillette

i n v e n t o r y o f p e r s o n a l e s t a t e o f 1852, l i s t machinery i n the factory, Grist Mill, l o c a t e d i n New H a r t f o r d , C o n n e c t i c u t . In the very e a r l y

including three l a t h e s d e s c r i b e d a s a c u t t i n g e n g i n e and two t u r n i n g d e c a d e s o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y , c a s t i r o n s h a f t i n g began t o replace the

lathes. Thus, t h e p r e s e n c e of l a t h e s in a particular location at earlier, wooden transmission equipment. Cast i r o n s h a f t i n g , being
specific moments in time is confirmed by t h e documents. Similar made of b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l , b r o k e e a s i l y and was extremely arduous to

F i g u r e 2. T h e P h o e n i x M i l l , b u i l t i n 1832, A s h f o r d , C o n n e c t i c u t . F i g u r e 3. C a s t - i r o n s h a f t i n g a n d c o u p l i n g in t h e G i l l e t t e G r i s t M i l l ,
O l d S t u r b r i d g e V i l l a g e p h o t o g r a p h b y J. A l a n B r z y s . cl850. N e w H a r t f o r d , Connecticut. P h o t o g r a p h b y a u t h o r .
r e p a i r b e c a u s e t h e p u l l e y s and g e a r s were r i g i d l y f a s t e n e d i n p o s i t i o n c o m p a r a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n needed t o make s e n s e o f t h e archeological or
by d r i v i n g i r o n wedges between t h e p o l y g o n a l s h a f t s and the matching historical evidence f o r i n d u s t r i a l archeology; lacking is a sense of
hubs. These pulleys and g e a r s c o u l d be removed from a broken s h a f t c o n t e x t and p a t t e r n i n what i s observed. A sense of context and
and f i x e d on t h e r e p l a c e m e n t p a r t o n l y w i t h g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y . pattern will improve, however, as more descriptive studies of
machines, s i t e s , and o t h e r a r t i f a c t s a r e u n d e r t a k e n and completed
About 1840, American power t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s were improved
again by the introduction of the English plan of substituting Context and pattern are essential concepts for both the
m a l l e a b l e wrought-iron s h a f t i n g f o r i t s b r i t t l e c a s t - i r o n counterpart. archeologist and historian. Context s i g n i f i e s t h e concern f o r t h e
Improved methods for fastening p u l l e y s and g e a r s t o s h a f t s and f o r r e l a t i o n of a b i t of information t o other adjacent b i t s of information
c o n n e c t i n g one s h a f t t o a n o t h e r were adopted simultaneously. Cast that are not necessarily similar, but i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o each
iron power tramsmission equipment, which was w i d e l y used u n t i l t h a t other. P a t t e r n s i g n i f i e s t h e concern f o r t h e r e l a t i o n of a bit of
date, disappeared overnight. Today, o n l y f r a g m e n t s o f the old cast information to other similar bits of information that are not
iron systems can be found. The G i l l e t t e G r i s t M i l l provides the necessarily i n close proximity to each other. Historians usually
o p p o r t u n i t y t o o b s e r v e a complete c a s t i r o n power t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m . experience d i f f i c u l t y w i t h m a t e r i a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e same r e a s o n t h a t
We can s t u d y t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e c a s t i n g and machining o p e r z t i o n s used archeologists have trouble with historical evidence: each asks
t o manufacture t h e s h a f t i n g , t h e way i n which c o n n e c t i n g shafts were q u e s t i o n s of t h e u n f a m i l i a r e v i d e n c e t h a t i t c a n n o t answer p r o p e r l y .
coupled t o g e t h e r , and t h e b e a r i n g s employed t o s u p p o r t t h e equipment.
H i s t o r i a n s a r e v i t a l l y aware o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f documentary
This a r t i f a c t - s y s t e m preserves a wealth of technological information
evidence t o c o n t e x t and p a t t e r n b u t do n o t h e s i t a t e t o l i f t a r t i f a c t s
unavailable elsewhere. Public records similar t o those c i t e d f o r the
o u t of context or disregard pattern in the artifactual record.
Phoenix M i l l c a n t h e n be u t i l i z e d t o place the ffrist mill in its
Archeologists, on the other hand, recognize the relationship of
economic and s o c i o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g .
a r t i f a c t u a l e v i d e n c e t o c o n t e x t and p a t t e r n b u t a r e quick to remove
As Hawkes and Wainwright h a v e s u ~ g e s t e d ,a r t i f a c t s a r e capable written e v i d e n c e from o o n t e x t o r d i s r e g a r d p a t t e r n i n t h e d o c u m e n t ~ r y
of s u p p l y n g economic i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t t h a t i s n o t t h e c a s e i n t h e record. Our t a s k , a s i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o ~ i s t s , i s to interpret the
example o f t h e e a r l y t u r n i n g l a t h e o r t h e c a s t i r o n power Irani."mission material culture o f i n d u s t r i a l l i f e and a c t i v i t y t o l e a r n e v e r y t h i n g
system. Little documentation i s a v a i l a b l e t o i n t e r p r ' e t and e x p l a i n we c a n a b o u t t h e human b e h a v i o r embodied i n t h o s e remains. We must
mechanical equipment found i n t h e Phoenix M i l l o r t h e Gillette Grist s t r u g g l e t o u n d e r s t a n d what c a n and cannot. b e l e a r n e d from documentary
Mill but, as described above, artifacts can supply t h a t s o r t of and p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e and s e a r c h f o r ways t o maximize o u r k n o w l e d ~ eof
t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y t o t a k e u s beyond t h e point where past i n d u s t r y t h r o u ~ ht h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l and a r c h e o l o g i c a l
t h e w r i t t e n record ends. Economic i n f o r m a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , was information.
a v a i l a b l e i n w r i t t e n form f o r b o t h m i l l s b u t c o u l d not be recovered FOOTNOTES
from the artifacts. Presently, not enough is known about the
1. Brooke H i n d l e , "How Much i s a P i e c e o f True C r o s s Worth," in
l o c a t i o n , m a t e r i a l s , and c h r o n o l o g y o f comparable p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s to
Material C u l t u r e and t h e S t u d y of American L i f e , e d . I a n M.G. Quimby
a l l o w i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e economics o f t h e a r t i f a c t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e
(New York: W.W. Norton, f o r t h c o m i n g ) .
p r e c e d i n g p a g e s t o b e drawn from t h e p h y s i c a l r e c o r d .
2. Webster's New International Dictionary of the English
I n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s f a c e s i m i l a r problems on b o t h s i d e s o f Language, 2d. e d . , u n a b r i d g e d , S.V. "archaeology."
the historical coin. To d a t e , v e r y l i t t l e i s known a b o u t t h e a c t u a l 3. D.P. Dymond, Archaeology and History, a Plea for
a r t i f a c t s o f e a r l y i n d u s t r y and how t h e y evolved and diffused with R e c o n c i l i a t i o n (London: Thames and Hudson, 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 43.
time. Typologies exist for the potsherds and p i p e s t e m s of t h e 4. C h r i s t o p h e r Hawkes, " A r c h e o l o g i c a l Theory and Method, Some
h i s t o r i c a l a r c h e o l o g i s t , but not f o r t h e n u t s and bolts, gears and Suggestions from the Old World." American A n t h r o p o l o g i s t 56 ( 1 9 5 4 ) :
bearings of the industrial archeologist. A l s o , American h i s t o r i a n s 155-68; F.T. Wainwright, A r c h a e o l o m and Placenames and History, an
have n o t i n v o l v e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e s o r t o f l o c a l h i s t o r y s t u d i e s t h a t Essay on Problems of C o o r d i n a t i o n (London: Rutledge and Kegan P a u l ,
are useful to interpreting industrial s i t e s . They do n o t have t h e 1962).

4 THREE DIMENSIONS REDUCED TO TWO:

USING MEASURED DRAWINGS A S A MEANS TO RECORD I A S I T E S

L a r r y D. Lankton
H i s t o r i c American E n g i n e e r i n g Record
Washington, D.C.

There i s no s e t formula to follow when producing measured site maps, plans, e l e v a t i o n s , s e c t i o n s , and d e t a i l s . And i t is t o o
drawings o f i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i c a l s i t e s , n o r s h o u l d t h e r e be.* The complex t o b e r e d u c e d t o t h e sophomoric t e n e t t h a t you "draw i t a s it
r e c o r d i n g p r o c e s s i s t o o complex t o be reduced t o a l i s t o f requisite exists." Different industrial or s t r u c t u r a l t y p e s demand d i f f e r e n t
t r e a t m e n t s , and even structures of the same type often require their reproducibility. They c a n b e c o p i e d and e a s i l y t r a n s p o r t e d t o
individualized attention. S u r e l y two l o c o m o t i v e e r e c t i n g s h o p s s h o u l d anyone who has any interest in them. This advantage is often
n o t be drawn i n t h e same f a s h i o n , i f one is i n r u i n s , w h i l e t h e other overlooked, or even disparaged. Some people see no r e a s o n , f o r
i s i n t a c t and f i l l e d w i t h o r i g i n a l machinery. example, t o g r a p h i c a l l y r e c o r d a n I A s i t e that has been stablized,
Although a r e c o r d i n g team c a n n o t be s e n t out into the field restored, or turned into a museum. But t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t t h e
with a s e t formula t o f o l l o w , i t c a n be p r o v i d e d w i t h a n o v e r - r i d i n g s i t e , i n a l l i t s g l o r y , s t a y s put and is therefore inaccessible to

r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s work and w i t h a c e r t a i n modus operand!. Armed with most b e c a u s e o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t i m e , money, and d i s t a n c e . Drawings

these, and with their own g r a p h i c , d e t e c t i v e , and r e s e a r c h s k i l l s , c a n s p r e a d knowledge o f a s i t e f u r t h e r and f a s t e r t h a n t h e p r a c t i c e o f

team members s h o u l d produce drawings t h a t a r e informative, accurate, visitation. Also, t h e s i t e t h a t a p p e a r s s o w e l l p r o t e c t e d t o d a y c o u l d

and u s e f u l . b e gone tomorrow. Present protection is no guarantee of long-term

survival.
R a t i o n a l i z i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g p r o c e s s can be compared with the
acquisition and preservation of technological a r t i f a c t s a s practiced Having r e c o g n i z e d two a d v a n t a g e s of measured drawings, their

by b e t t e r museums. Above all else, an artifact is seen as a l i m i t a t i o n s must b e d i s c u s s e d v i s - a - v i s t h e r e a l t h i n g , photographs,

t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d a t a s o u r c e t h a t informs o f t h e c u l t u r e t h a t made i t and t h e w r i t t e n word.

and used i t . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n may b e v e r y d i v e r s e . Artifacts contain The real thing can be a veritable treasure trove of
evidence of cultural styles and tastes, of the a v a i l a b i l i t y of information, containing an infinite amount of data. It c a n be
materials, of manufacturing methods, of acauired scientific and r e v i s i t e d a g a i n and a g a i n , each t i m e t o investigate a new turn or
technical knowledge, and of t h e ways o f o r g a n i z i n g and d o i n g work. twist. Both major and minor q u e s t i o n s c a n be a s k e d o f i t , and i f
Because t h e a r t i f a c t c o n t a i n s t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , i t i s valuable as a s k i l l e d enough i n h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h and i n r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e ,
document of past human b e h a v i o r , s o i t i s a c q u i r e d , p r e s e r v e d , and i n v e s t i g a t o r s can g e t t h e a n s w e r s .
made a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c and t o s c h o l a r s .
The f i r s t t r i p t h r o u g h a n intact 19th century machine shop
I A s i t e s also contain diverse cultural information and are might b e t o examine i t s s t r u c t u r a l components--the b r i c k masonry, t h e
therefore v a l u a b l e a s documents. But t h e s e s i t e s and t h e i r a t t e n d a n t wooden-block f l o o r , t h e t r u s s e d r o o f , t h e windows, and t h e clerestory
s t r u c t u r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y f i x e d and immovable. I f they a r e moved, it monitor. The n e x t v i s i t might be t o s t u d y a l l t h e machine t o o l s and
is u s u a l l y n o t by t h e hands o f a s o l i c i t o u s c u r a t o r , b u t by a wrecking t h e way i n which t h e y were d r i v e n . On s u b s e q u e n t t r i p s , t h e t o o l room
ball. A few I A s i t e s w i l l be p h y s i c a l l y preserved as museums unto might be explored to d i s c o v e r how c u t t e r s and g a g e s were s t o r e d t o
themselves, and a number will be "preserved" through adaptive p r o t e c t sharpened e d g e s o r p r e c i s i o n s u r f a c e s . Yellowed sheets show
reuse. 1 But the vast majority of industrial and engineering how each machinist signed out for t h e t o o l s he used. Later, the
structures will ultimately come down, and l i k e Humpty-Dumpty, t h e y l a t h e s might be compared t o see if the carriages were gibbed or
w i l l n e v e r t o be put back t o g e t h e r a g a i n . counterweighted to prevent tool chatter. Kicking over an o l d can
whose bottom is caked w i t h t h e r e s i d u e o f an evaporated mixture of
Since the typical IA site cannot be shipped off to the
spit and tobacco j u i c e c o u l d r e v e a l t h a t a t l e a s t one m a c h i n i s t was
Smithsonian, the Henry Ford Museum, o r t o Old S t u r b r i d g e V i l l a g e , i t
fastidious; he d i d n ' t f o u l t h e f l o o r .
i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o r d i t ~ r a p h i c a l l y . The r e c o r d i n g of an i n d u s t r i a l
site can be s e e n a s t h e f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t of p h y s i c a l l y removing The s h o p h a s a f e e l i n g o f s p a c e . It h a s t e x t u r e , c o l o r , heat,
an a r t i f a c t from t h e c u l t u r e a t l a r g e and s h e l t e r i n g it i n a p r o t e c t e d l i g h t , o d o r s , and sounds. I t c o n t a i n s t h o u s a n d s of a r t i f a c t s , r a n g i n g
p l a c e , where i t is t o be k e p t i n p e r p e t u i t y . Drawings, l i k e a r t i f a c t s from d r a w e r s f u l o f t a p s , d i e s , n u t s , and b o l t s t o l a r g e machine tools
i n a museum, s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n . That i s a drawing's primary and a steam engine. These artifacts, taken together with the
function--TO STORE INFORMATION. s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f , compose t h e shop's "visible" h i s t o r y ~ a n d it is
impossible f o r drawings t o c a p t u r e a l l t h a t h i s t o r y . For example, i n
I n a s e n s e , a drawing h a s two a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e r e a l t h i n g i t
t h e corner of a t o o l c r i b stands a cabinet t h a t s t o r e s measuring and
represents. The site- itself often stands like the door t o t h e
gaging tools. Within it a r e micrometers of varying s i z e ; inside,
r o b b e r s ' c a v e i n Arabian N i g h t s . It d o e s n o t open to just anybody.
o u t s i d e , and v e r n i e r c a l i p e r s ; r i n g , p l u g , l i m i t , and thread gages;
The magic words must be known. Unless investigators have the
and steel rules. The c a b i n e t h a s i t s own h i s t o r y , and s o d o e s each
e x p e r i e n c e and e x p e r t i s e t o a s k i t t h e r i g h t questions, it provides
tool inside it. These a r t i f a c t s a r e i m p o r t a n t r e s o u r c e s f o r s t u d y i n a : ,
t o o few answers. The abandoned f a c t o r y complex d o e s n o t b r o a d c a s t t h e
if you will, "machine s h o p c u l t u r e . " Y e t , a f l o o r p l a n o f t h e shop
f u n c t i o n s o f i t s v a r i o u s b u i l d i n g s and t h e i r many compartments; it
simply cannot cope with the complexities of this well-stocked,
does not d e c l a r e t h a t t h e steam e n g i n e was added i n 1885; or that a
important cabinet. On the plan, i t becomes, o f n e c e s s i t y , a mere
v e r t i c a l b o r i n g m i l l once s t o o d on a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c r e t e pad; o r that
r e c t a n g l e , perhaps a half-inch l o n g and quarter-inch wide, labelled
workpieces were finished a s t h e y moved up t h e b u i l d i n g , r a t h e r t h a n
'Tool Cabinet." The real thing, in this instance, is i n f i n i t e l y
down.
s u p e r i o r t o its graphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
The I A s i t e - - p e r h a p s s h u t down, p e r h a p s i n ruins, or perhaps
To c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s , t h e r e i s a n e n t i r e "invisible" history
too complicated for the a v e r a g e viewer--may h i d e o r camouflage a l l
of the mill, one that cannot b e p e r c e i v e d d i r e c t l y by a v i s i t o r .
kinds of information. Through c a r e f u l , p r o b i n g r e s e a r c h on the Dart
There a r e g h o s t s . Numerous h i s t o r i c a l a g e n t s - - p e o p l e , machines, and
of a recording team, this i n f o r m a t i o n c a n he r e t r i v e d and b r o u g h t
tools--are no longer there. They h a v e l o n g s i n c e v a n i s h e d , and t h e y
forward. Drawings--with judiciously s e l e c t e d views, notes, symbols,
c a n n o t b e r e s u r r e c t e d s o l e l y by s t u d y i n g t h e s h o p ' s p h y s i c a l remains.
keys, flow charts, and t h e like--can o f t e n i m p a r t i n f o r m a t i o n more
The boiler room shows e v i d e n c e of h a v i n g been a l t e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l y ,
readily than the site itself. So another function of measured
b u t i t d o e s n o t t e l l why. It does not tell that the alterations
drawings--besides s t o r i n g information--is t o make a s i t e o r s t r u c t u r e
followed a boiler explosion in 1873 t h a t killed two men. Many
more u n d e r s t a n d a b l e : THE DRAWINGS ARE INTERPRETIVE TOOLS.
h i s t o r i c a l and economic q u e s t i o n s that the industrial archeologist
The second a d v a n t a g e t h a t drawings h a v e o v e r t h e r e a l t h i n g is should ask of t h i s shop s i m p l y c a n n o t b e answered by u s i n g m a t e r i a l
 F i g u r e s 4 and 5. Working in c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s i n the dome of the
Salt Lake City Tabernacle, a photographer cannot c a p t u r e enough of
the roof t r u s s i n g to show the viewer how i t r e a l l y looks o r works.
F o r a n o v e r a l l view, a drawing i s a n absolute must. Still, the photo-
graph complements the drawing showing us details. Note the
c i r c u l a r -saw m a r k s , the mortise-and-tenon construction, t h e i r o n
f a s t e n e r s , and the rawhide wrapped around s p l i t t r u s s m e m b e r s .

F i g u r e 1. (top) Gosport (Indiana) Station exemplifies the "train barn"

style of r a i l r o a d a r c h i t e c t u r e ; one s e t of t r a c k s p a s s e s through t h e
station. Such a f e a t u r e i s b e s t shown on a floor plan o r perhaps a
longitudinal section--either drawing would show m o r e than could be
captured with a c a m e r a . These elevations, however, a r e l a r g e l y
superfluous, because they s t o r e f a r & information than do photo-
graphs of the four s i d e s of the station. F o r example, can you r e a d i l y
identify the various building m a t e r i a l s 7 Can you find the wall a n c h o r s ?
Can you t e l l if the s t r u c t u r e was built in a slip-shod m a n n e r o r well-
constructed? This s h e e t a l s o typifies the s t r o n g a v e r s i o n that many
a r c h i t e c t s have towards "violating" elevations with any notes o r keys.
They like t h e i r elevations a s p r i s t i n e a s possible. Consequently,
elevations of h i s t o r i c engineering and i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e s too often
r a i s e f a r m o r e questions than they answer.

F i g u r e 2. (above) This view i l l u s t r a t e s the u s e of

speculative drawings to "reconstruct" o r "uncover" h i s t o r i c
technology. As shown h e r e , the buried anchorage of the
Delaware Aqueduct was "uncovered" by h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h
and a d e l i n e a t o r ' s skill. The drawing makes heavy u s e of
documentary information, permitting m a t e r i a l s , dimensions
and p r o p e r nomenclature to be shown.

F i g u r e 3. ( r i g h t ) Obviously a skilled and delicate hand

c r e a t e d t h i s drawing of a n 1861 West Point Foundry b e a m
engine located in P u e r t o Rico. H e r e the delineator s u c c e s s -
fully combined "art" and "information. " Still, the
delineator (an a r c h i t e c t ) could have improved h i s drawing
if h e had been m o r e f a m i l i a r with m a c h i n e r y and the con-
ventions of engineering ( a s opposed to a r c h i t e c t u r a l )
drafting. By drawing only a n "elevation" of the engine's
"facade, " h e failed to take full advantage of the "magic"
that drawings can perform. He could have shown us, f o r
example, c r o s s sections of the b e a m , flywheel r i m , and
spokes. He could have broken away p a r t of the front of the
engine bed to show us i n t e r n a l construction and piping.
And--if h e had had t h e h e a r t to do s o - - h e could have broken
away the left side of the e l a b o r a t e Gothic f r a m e to expose
the p a r a l l e l motion, s t e a m chest, and valves. Finally--
and this i s definitely a stylistic m a t t e r - - h e could have
decided that a l a r g e , c a s t - i r o n engine called for heavier
lines and a bolder approach. The drawing i s light and a i r y .
The engine m o s t definitely i s not.
 F i g u r e 6. P l a n s , elevations, and
sections of the Coggins Gold Mill
simply cannot communicate, in a
concise and r e a d i l y understandable
way, the p r o c e s s e s c a r r i e d out a t
this site. To r e c o r d work ( a s
opposed to design and construction),
it o f t e n i s n e c e s s a r y to r e j e c t stand-
a r d a r c h i t e c t u r a l drawings in favor
of i n t e r p r e t i v e flow c h a r t s . This
flow c h a r t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y good,
b e c a u s e while documenting pro-
c e s s e s , i t a l s o succeeds in giving
t h e u s e r s o m e idea of s h a p e s , s i z e s
and spatial relationships.

F i g u r e 7. (left) This drawing p e r f o r m s "double magic. " F i r s t ,

based on documentary and ~ h y s i c a levidence, it r e c o n s t r u c t s the
m i s s i n g undershot wheel and i t s pit wheel. Second, it peels away
b a r r i e r s (both f l o o r s and wa1ls)to a l l o w u s to s e e a t r a i n of m a c h i n e r y
and motion. Photographs of this m i l l could only show disconnected
bits and p i e c e s of the power and milling s y s t e m .

F i g u r e 8. (below) The Appomattox Iron Works could p a s s for the

"hypothetical machine shop" d i s c u s s e d in t h e text. T h e r e i s no way
for drawings to c a p t u r e a l l t h a t can b e s e e n in t h e shop. This view
admirably i l l u s t r a t e s the "inclusive" n a t u r e of photography. The
p u r p o s e of this photograph was to r e c o r d the h o r i z o n t a l milling
machine and the d r i l l p r e s s in the foreground. But t h e s e machines
could not be isolated. They w e r e captured on f i l m in t h e context
of a l l the m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e t h a t surrounded them.

All drawings and photographs on t h e s e two pages a r e f r o m H i s t o r i c A m e r i c a n Engineering Record r e c o r d i n g p r o j e c t s .

culture. They c a n be answered o n l y by r e s e a r c h i n g o t h e r d a t a s o u r c e s , tape and field notebooks are brought out, the delineators and
such a s the written record. The shop i t s e l f w i l l n o t t e l l who worked h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h e r s s h o u l d go o v e r t h e s i t e o r s t r u c t u r e c a r e f u l l y ,
t h e r e , and whether t h e y were content, well-paid, and well-fed, or 100kitIg i n t o a l l i t s nooks and c r a n n i e s . They h a v e t o be inquisitive
whether they were rebellious, e x p l o i t e d , and hungry. T h i s t y p e of and adventuresome. They h a v e t o a s k a u e s t i o n s o f e v e r y t h i n g t h e y s e e .
historical i n f o r m a t i o n ~ t h a t cannot be gotten from the site They must r e a d t h e s i t e ; identify artifacts and structural parts;
i t s e l f ~ c e r t a i n l yc a n n o t b e s t o r e d by any l i n e drawings r e p r e s e n t a t i v e follow processes; and be c o g n i z a n t o f c h a n g e s t h a t may h a v e o c c u r r e d
of t h e s i t e . over time. When confronted by a puzzle--something they do not

Drawings take considerable time and money to produce.

understand at first--they have to meet i t head on. Only i n t h i s
manner c a n t h e y t r u l y come t o u n d e r s t a n d a s i t e . And only if they
Consequently, it is r a r e f o r a s i n g l e s t r u c t u r e t o be documented by
u n d e r s t a n d a s i t e , c a n t h e y draw i t p r o p e r l y .
more t h a n 10 s h e e t s of drawings. But how, i n 10 s h e e t s o r less, can
you best cover the complexities of a structure such as our Once a r e c o r d i n g team h a s done i t s o n - s i t e homework, and once
h y p o t h e t i c a l machine shop? It is b e s t t o d i s p e n s e w i t h the idea of the researchers have s h a r e d t h e i r e x p e r t i s e and t h e f r u i t s o f t h e i r
simply "drawing what's there." Due t o n e c e s s i t y , and o f t e n due t o investigations i n t o other data sources, then the team is ready to
c h i o c e , a g r e a t d e a l w i l l have t o be left out. The drawings, as decide what is truly important about t h e s i t e - - what i n f o r m a t i o n
illustrated by the case of the tool cabinet, w i l l capture s h o u l d b e s t o r e d , i n t e r p r e t e d , and a n a l y z e d . Once t h i s judgement is
everything. The g r a p h i c r e c o r d must b e f l e s h e d o u t with photoarahs, made, then the team can d e c i d e what a s p e c t s o f t h e s i t e s h o u l d be
and t h i s g r a p h i c r e c o r d must a l s o be supplemented by a s t r o n g w r i t t e n t r e a t e d i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l monograph; what p a r t s should be recorded
report. photographically; and what parts and processes would be best
i l l u s t r a t e d by d r a w i n g s .
Photographs--both h i s t o r i c and modern--have several advantages
over drawings. For members of o u r modern "Kodak c u l t u r e , " who a r e I f t h e s i t e o r s t r u c t u r e t r u l y m e r i t s i t , and i f t i m e and money
more f a m i l i a r w i t h cameras t h a n w i t h d r a f t i n g t o o l s , photographs are are available for i t , t h e n a r e c o r d i n g team may d e c i d e t o do a f u l l
generally much easier to read and understand. Photographs o f t e n s e t o f drawings. Such a s e t might i n c l u d e : a s i t e location map; a
convey a s e n s e of human-scaled s p a c e better than dimensioned floor site plan; floor plans; elevations; l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e
plans, and t h e y w i l l c e r t a i n l y c a p t u r e t e x t u r e s and m a t e r i a l s b e t t e r sections; details; isometrics; process and flow charts; and
t h a n any l i n e drawings. Photographs are much less expensive to schematics. In many cases, however, the idea of doing such a
produce, so they are usually t h e b e s t way o f documenting numerous comprehensive " s e t " o f d r a w i n g s s h o u l d be d i s p e n s e d w i t h , i n lieu of
architectural or mechanical details. Also, photographs are more choosing just t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l d r a w i n g s t h a t a r e deemed most u s e f u l .
comprehensive, more inclusive. A delineator starts with a blank Industrial archeology is not just the architectural history of
s h e e t , and t h e f i n i s h e d drawing s t o r e s o n l y t h e d a t a c o n s c i o u s l y i n k e d industrial buildings. It goes beyond that. The industrial
onto it. The p h o t o g r a p h e r , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s h o o t i n g t h e i n t e r i o r a r c h e o l o g i s t may b e i n t e r e s t e d i n a s t r u c t u r e whose architect,ure or
o r e x t e r i o r of a s t r u c t u r e , may f o c u s on a particular feature, but building technology is literally "run-of-the-mill." They may be
more often than not, the film will also capture t h e images o f i n t e r e s t e d o n l y i n t h e p e o p l e , machines, tools, and processes that
s u r r o u n d i n g f e a t u r e s and background d e t a i l s . A photograph, i n short, operated within the structure. In such a case, it would be
may show u s more t h a n i t s o r i g i n a t o r i n t e n d e d , w h i l e a drawing seldom extravagant t o record the structure's architecture with numerous
does. d r a w i n g s , when f a r l e s s e x p e n s i v e p h o t o g r a p h s would s e r v e j u s t a s w e l l
t o document f a c a d e s and t h e l i k e .
P h o t o g r a p h s , t o o , have t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s . It is the camera,
more than t h e d r a w i n g , t h a t r e c o r d s a s i t e , f o r b e t t e r o r f o r worse, When a f i e l d team h a s d e c i d e d upon t h o s e views t h a t will best
' a s i t i s . " The p h o t o g r a p h e r is s t y m i e d by t h e u n d e r b r u s h , t r e e s , and show the site--on those views t h a t w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t h e most t o o u r
walls that block their line of sight. No filter c a n make a l l knowledge and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t,he s i t e - - m they can pull out the
obstructions disappear. No p h o t o g r a p h e r c a n u s e t h e i r camera t o take 100-foot tape and begin taking field measurements and notes.
a machine or structure apart. Nor c a n t h e y u s e i t t o put. t o g e t h e r Adherence t o t h i s regimen w i l l n e v e r g u a r a n t e e s u c c e s s , but it will
p i e c e s o f a machine o r s t r u c t u r e t h a t were separated long ago, and help minimize failure and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . The d r a w i n g s produced by
which a r e found a t a s i t e i n a jumbled p i l e . the most skilled and experienced field teams will never show
everything t o be s e e n a t t h e s i t e i t s e l f . But t h e y s h o u l d show, i n a
Drawings, i n c o n t r a s t t o more reality-bound photographs, can
c l e a r and b o l d way, what t h e f i e l d team members, intimate with the
perform magic. That i s t h e i r s t r e n g t h , and i t must be e x p l o i t ~ dmore
s i t e , deemed i t s most s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s .
and more. Delineators a r e tied t o the physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a
site, and a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o f a n t a s i z e . Yet t h e y c a n c r e a t i v e l y warp FOOTNOTES
reality. They c a n make a w a l l d i s a p p e a r t o show u s what i s behind i t ;
* E d i t o r ' s Note: While L a n k t o n ' s p a p e r was prepared for the
cut any structure in h a l f , horizontally o r vertically; e x p l o d e an
Symposium, unfortunately h e was u n a b l e t o a t t e n d t o t a k e p a r t i n t h e
a s s e m b l y , t o show u s i m p o r t a n t p i e c e s ; t a k e t h e p a r t s o f a demolished
discussions. S e e p a p e r s by Newell, Brown, Penn, and Packard for a
or disassembled mechanism and reconstruct it a s a whole; take a
different view o f t h e need t o f o r m u l a t e q u e s t i o n s t o a s k o f p h y s i c a l
complex m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s and i t s a t t e n d a n t machinery, and reduce
r e m a i n s , and t h e u s e o f i n f e r e n c e i n i n t e r p r e t i n g p h y s i c a l d a t a .
it to a readily understandable flow c h a r t ; and when c o n f r o n t e d by
b a r r i e r s t h a t block a c c e s s s t o t h e i n t e r n a l p a r t s o f a machine, they
1 . Adaptive r e u s e i s a n a i d t o p r e s e r v i n g a built environment
can nevertheless represent those parts and their motions
that is visually diverse, and it may well s e r v e a s an economic
schematically.
s t i m u l u s t o a community. But i t i s f a r l e s s s u c c e s s f u l in terms of
But i n a r e a l s e n s e , t h e success of the drawings meant to preserving t,he cultural evidence to be found a t any I A s i t e . The
represent a three-dimensional s i t e i s d e t e r m i n e d l o n g b e f o r e any i n k boutique-laden roundhouse and the train station-restaurant are
h i t s mylar. It i s determined even b e f o r e t h e r e c o r d i n g team p u l l s o u t uncomfortably reminiscent of the s u r v e y o r ' s t r a n s i t and duck decoy
its 100-foot tape and b e g i n s t a k i n g f i e l d measurements. Before t h e t h a t have become t h e b a s e s o f lamps i n someone's l i v i n g room.
 5 I N D I R E C T M E T H O D S I N I N D U S T R I A L A R C H E O L O G Y

J e f f r e y L. Brown
I n s t i t u t e o f Archaeology
U n i v e r s i t y o f Tennessee a t Chattanooga

The fundamental argument of a r c h e o l o g i c a l method is inference. archeological data. I n d i r e c t methods do n o t s i m p l y a t t e m p t to infer

In inferential arguments, conclusions about non-observable past behavior directly from material remains, but instead seek to
behavior a r e deduced from observable archeological remains. The understand past behavior indirectly through comparison of
argument may be o u t l i n e d a s f o l l o w s : archeological and historic data. These methods assume t h a t the
I f X i s present., t h e n Y i s (was) p r e s e n t . h i s t o r i c a l documentation of past events is incomplete and often
X i s present.
Y i s (was) p r e s e n t . reflects ideal patterns of behavior rather than r e a l events. As
I n p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h e o l o g y t h i s argument may a p p e a r a s f o l l o w s : a r c h e o l o g i c a l remains provide physical evidence of a c t u a l p a s t e v e n t s ,
I f arrowheads a r e p r e s e n t i n s i t e X , t h e n archeological data can be used t o d i s c o v e r i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s between
h u n t i n g was p r e s e n t .
Arrowheads a r e p r e s e n t . behavioral realities and documented idealizations. Once these
Hunting o c c u r e d a t s i t e X.
inconsistencies have been d i s c o v e r e d , a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l models c a n be
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between arrowheads and h u n t i n g i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n
offered a s explanation. 3
e t h n o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e , and a s a n a n a l o g y it forms the assumption
upon which further argument is based. The c o n c l u s i o n t h a t h u n t i n g A simple, readily available subject f o r indirect archeological
o c c u r s a t s i t e X p e r m i t s p r e h i s t o r i a n s t o compare and c o n t r a s t s i t e X study is the relationship between ideal building construction
with other sites in order to e s t a b l i s h g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about t h e s t a n d a r d s and a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s . Ideal statements of past
d i s t r i b u t i o n of h u n t i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h r o u g h t i m e and s p a c e . construction standards may b e o b t a i n e d from t h e l i t e r a t u r e . Actual
h i s t o r i c c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s c a n be o b s e r v e d i n t h e f i e l d . In the
In general, inference is not as powerful an argument in
summer of 1977, the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
industrial archeology a s i n prehistory. Past patterns of industrial
archeoloqical field school was conducted at the unlikely but
b e h a v i o r a r e f r e q u e n t l y s o w e l l documented t h a t inferring them from
convenient location o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y q u a d r a n g l e , where t h e r u i n s o f
a r c h e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e may b e r e d u n d a n t . We do n o t n e e d , f o r example,
the first campus building lie buried. This first university
t h e p r e s e n c e of a t r a i n d e p o t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t r a i n s in
structure, unimaginatively know a s "Old Main," was b u i l t i n 1886 and
19th c e n t u r y Chattanooga. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n f e r e n c e t o t h e o b v i o u s
t o r n down i n 1917. It was f o r t h e p l a c e and p e r i o d a massive building
i s s i m p l y game p l a y i n g , though i t i s an approach a p p a r e n t l y advocated
f i v e s t o r i e s i n h e i g h t and c o n t a i n i n g 80 rooms.^
by some a r c h e o l o g i s t s .
As a r c h a e o l o g i s t s we must depend on o u r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t o o l s A r c h e o l o g i c a l e x c a v a t i o n s were u n d e r t a k e n a t Old Main w i t h the
f o r o u r i n t e r p r e t i v e s t a t e m e n t s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a , and
n o t r e s o r t t o t h e e a s y e x p e d i e n t o f superimposing o u r e x p r e s s e d p r o b l e m - o r i e n t a t i o n of d e t e r m i n i n g i f t h e i d e a l s t a n d a r d s of
h i s t o r i c a l data onto the archaeological record. In our f i n a l
i n t e r p r e t i v e s t a t e m e n t s we d o , o f c o u r s e , u s e b o t h t h e t h e p e r i o d , 9 s o u t l i n e d by Baker and ank kine,^ had been f o l l o w e d in
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and t h e h i s t o r i c a l d a t a , b u t we s h o u l d n o t u s e
t h e documented h i s t o r y o f t h e s i t e a s a n I n t e r p r e t i v e c r u t c h c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e Old Main f o u n d a t i o n s . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e s t o n e
t o prop up o u r s t a t e m e n t s p u r p o r t i n g t o be a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n
nature I f we d e v e l o p s u c h h a b i t s and t h e n f i n d o u r s e l v e s f o u n d a t i o n r e v e a l e d c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t was i n a d e q u a t e a c c o r d i n g t o the
i n a s i t u a t i o n where t h e r e i s no documentation t o l e a n o n , we
may w e l l f i n d t h a t o u r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t o o l k i t i s empt or standards of these 19th century authors. S p e c i f i c i n d i c a t i o n s of
t h a t we do n o t know how t o u s e t h e t o o l s we h a v e a v a i l a b l e
w i t h which t o make i n t e r p r e t i v e s t a t e m e n t s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s u b - s t a n d a r d work i n c l u d e t h e f r e q u e n t u s e of spalls in horizontal
data. Such a leaninp-on-the-arms-of-history approach t o
historical archaeol?$ , is renderine a disservice t o joints, t h e e x c e s s i v e u s e o f m o r t a r i n j o i n t s and w a l l i n t e r i o r s , t h e
a r c h a e o l o g y by n o t u t i i z i n p t o t h e f u l l e s t t h e p a t t e r n e d
d a t a i t i s c a p a b l e of p r o d u c i n g . 1 presence of s i d e joints located immediately above each other in
Historical records of the recent past a r e s o voluminous t h e y a r e successive courses, and g e n e r a l uneveness o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . Not o n l y
frequently an embarassment to archeological approaches. Yet, does t h e foundation provide evidence of i n d i f f e r e n t workmanship, but
h i s t o r i c a l documents do n o t d e s c r i b e a l l p a s t e v e n t s w i t h e q u a l d e t a i l almost a l l recovered b r i c k s a r e a l s o d e f e c t i v e . The c o r n e r s and s i d e s
or reliability. The documentary r e c o r d i s generally incomplete and of most a r e misshapen and c r a c k e d due t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f air pockets
contradictory. It may, as well, be inconsistent with the not removed during extrusion from the pug m i l l . Many b r i c k s a r e

archeological record. over-fired to the point of severe vitrifiction and sub-surface

boilinq. A number o f e x p l a n a t i o n s c a n be o f f e r e d f o r t h e s u b s t a n d a r d
When contradictions between archeological and historical
building practices apparent at the Old Main site. Potential
documents ace discovered, a r c h e o l o g i s t s g e n e r a l l y seek t o determine
explanations currently being investigated include t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of
t h e "true" reconstruction of the past. Anthropologically-trained
i n a d e q u a t e f u n d i n g , d i s r u p t i o n of the organization of the skilled
archeologists, however, should be aware that contradictions and
building trades in the p o s t - C i v i l War p e r i o d , and mendacity o f t h e
i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s a r e b a s i c a t t r i b u t e s o f human thought and behavior.
contractor.
Differences between real events and ideal standards provide
o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e x p l a i n complex l e v e l s o f human b e h a v i o r and even to Obviously, comparative e f f o r t s a r e r e a u i r e d before t h e s t u d y of
e x p l o r e t h e h a z a r d o u s ground o f human m o t i v a t i o n . s u b - s t a n d a r d b u i l d i n g p r a c t i c e s c a n be approached s c i e n t i f i c a l l y . The
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t Old Main, however, d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t a u a l i t a t i v e d a t a
The a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f human c u l t u r a l contradictions is
regarding actual construction practices c a n b e e a s i l y o b t a i n e d and
generally known as dialectical a n t h r o p o l o ~ y . ~ The a r c h e o l o g i c a l
contrasted with contemporary construction standards in order to
application of the d i a l e c t i c a l approach m i ~ h t be termed "indirect
generate potential explanations of anthropoligical i n t e r e s t .
methods." Indirect methods differ from the usual direct,
inferential-reconstructive methods by t h e i r f o c u s upon the discovery A second example o f i n d i r e c t methods i s also drawn from the
and explanation of inconsistencies among various documentary and Chattanooga area and concerns the "Bluff Furnace," the first
c o k e - f i r e d b l a s t f u r n a c e i n t h e s o u t h e r n Appalachian r e g i o n . A brief Through r e c e n t e x p l o r a t o r y a r c h e o l o g i c a l work, t h e extent and
h i s t o r y of t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s o u t l i n e d below. major characteristics of the Bluff Furnace have been mapped and
S i n c e t h e c l o s e of t h e C i v i l War Chattanooga h a s b e c o m e t h e described.l0 I t h a s been p o s s i b l e , a s a r e s u l t , t o c l e a r l y identify
most prominent i r o n c e n t e r i n Tennessee h a v i n g s e v e r a l i r o n
e n t e r p r i s e s o f i t s own and o t h e r s i n its vicinity. Prior t o a p r e v i o u s l y u n r e c o g n i z e d 1860 photograph o f t h e f u r n a c e i n o p e r a t i o n .
t h e war, i n 1854, B l u f f f u r n a c e had been b u i l t by Robert
Cravens James A . W h i t e s i d e and James P. Boyce, t o u s e These i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f u r n a c e p l a n t occupied a n area
c h a r c o a l . I n 1859 t h e l i m e s t o n e s t a c k was t o r n down by t h e
E a s t Tennessee I r o n Company o f which James Henerson o f New approximately 180 feet by 150 f e e t . The m a s s i v e s t o n e w a l l s o f t h e
York was t h e manager and a n e w i r o n c u p o l a s t a c k 11 f e e t
w i d e a t t h e b o s h e s was e r e c t e d i n i t s p l a c e , and Racoon coke c a s t i n g shed were t h r e e f e e t t h i c k , n o t i n c l u d i n g f o o t i n g s . A blowing
was t h e r e a f t e r u s e & a s f u e l The new f u r n a c e was blown i n
1860 b u t owin t o a s h o r t s u p p l y o f coke t h e b l a s t engine was apparently p r e s e n t , a s was a h e a t - e x c h a n g e r o r h o t - b l a s t
?%ed o n l ? l ? n g enoug8 t o p e r m i t t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a b o u t 500
t o n s o f p ~ gi r o n . A l l t h e machinery and a p p o i n t m e n t s o f t h e device. The B l u f f F u r n a c e , t h e n , was n o t t h e " d i m i n u t i v e e f f o r t " o r a
f u r n a c e worked s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . The f u r n a c e was s t , a r t e d on a
second b l a s t on t h e 6 t h o f November t h e day o f t h e ' t r i f l i n g a f f a i r " t h a t McGowan would have r e a d e r s b e l i e v e .
P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n b u t p o l i t i c a l c o m ~ l i c a t i o n s and t h e
d e m o r a l i z e d s t a t e of t h e f u r n a c e workmen were o b s t a c l e s t o o Mythology, in the anthropological sense, deals with the
g r e a t t o b e overcome, and t h e f u r n a c e soon c h i l l e d from t h e
cause last mentioned. The s t a c k o f t h e f u r n a c e a t establishment of opposition. The post-Civil War industrialists
Chattanooga was used b t h e Union t r o o p s a s a l i m e k i l n , by
whom i t was s u b s e a u e n ~ l yt u r n down. T h i s was t h e f i r s t coke c o n t r a s t e d t h e g r e a t n e s s o f t h e i r accomplishments with the su~posed
f u r n a c e i n e i t h e r of t h e S t a t e s o f Tennessee o r Alabama,
which a r e now t h e t h e a t r e o f s u c h g r e a t p r e s e n t and primitiveness of their predecessors. Technological myths often
prospective a c t i v i t y i n t h e manufacture of p i g i r o n with t h i s
fuel. c o n t r a s t supposed p r e s e n t g r e a t n e s s w i t h a n imagined primitive past.

F i g u r e 1. E n g r a v i n g of Bluff F u r n a c e , 1 8 5 8 . F i g u r e 2. P h o t o g r a p h of B l u f f F u r n a c e , 1 8 6 0 .

The development of t h e p o s t - C i v i l War p i g i r o n i n d u s t r y o f the The o p p o s i t e , however, may a l s o o c c u r . The s h a b b i n e s s o f contemporary

Chattanooga area was largely due to t h e e f f o r t s of ex-Union Army c r e a t i o n s may b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e assumed m a s t e r craftsmanship of
o f f i c e r s who r e c o ~ n i z e dt h e i n d u s t r i a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e E a s t Tennessee the past. Industrial archeologists, therefore, through indirect
region during t h e i r military tours of duty. These i n d i v i d u a l s were, methods, c a n b e s e e k e r s o f i n d u s t r i a l myths, a s w e l l a s d i s c o v e r e r s of
i n t h e p a r l a n c e of the day, "carpetbaggers" and they had little industrial facts.
sympathy for the traditions and accomplishments o f t h e ante-bellum
I n d i r e c t methods, i n summary, a r e a p p r o a c h e s t h a t compare and
South. I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e y would r e - w r i t e the
contrast archeological realities with historic documents for the
industrial history of that r e g i o n f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s and would
purpose of discovering c u l t u r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . Such approaches are
minimize t h e r o l e of t h e B l u f f F u r n a c e . An example of t h e i r handiwork
not limited to archeological or historical data, but are truly
i s quoted below:
interdisciplinary. The b u r d e n s imposed by t h~-e s e methods ~ ~ are severe.
With t h e e x c e p t i o n of q v e r y d i m i n i t i v e e f f o r t no a t t e m t
was made i n t h e South p r e v i o u s t o 1868 t o u s e c o a l o r
i n iron smelting. That e f f o r t was by a gentleman named
cage Sampling problems, t h e bane o f b o t h a r c h e o l o g i s t s and h i s t o r i a n s , a r e
Churchi'bl, and h i s f u r n a c e s t o o d u n d e r t h e r i v e r b l u f f e a s t magnified a s archeological and historical data are brought into
o f t h e f o o t of Market S t r e e t i n t h i s c l t
-
i f-f a..
i-.
r*, m
. I t wasa trifling
...-a r-i -p a- f.e-w. t.o..n.-s o.f- i-r o n . was c h i f l e d and w i t h t h e war conjunction. L e v e l s of a b s t r a c t i o n must be c l a r i f i e d and t h e r o l e of
coming on was abandoned.. . . ~ h e ' m o n e y and e n e r g y were a C l e a r
l o s s a s t h e y demonstrated no p o s s i b i l i t y o f o u r c o a l a s a n f o r t u i t o u s d i s c o v e r y minimized s o t h a t i n d i r e c t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s do not
e f f i c i e n t f u e l , nor our f o s s i l i f e r o u s o r e s a s f i t m a t e r i a l
f o r makina good i r o n . No n o t i c e o f t h i s was t a k e n e i t h e r a s assume t h e c h a r a c t e r of u n r e l a t e d a n e c d o t e s .
a f a i l u r e o r s u c c e s s i n any r e s p e c t * by t h e r e a l p i o n e e r s i n
t h e Coke I r o n b u s i n e s s i n t h e S o u t h . /
I f i n d i r e c t methods a r e to succeed, it is imperative that
Col. J . E. McGowan, a u t h o r o f this quotation, was editor of the
investigator bias be minimized. I n d u s t r i a l s i t e s must b e r e c o r d e d
C h a t t a n o o ~ a ~ i m e s . ~ He was a n ex-Union o f f i c e r , and h e promoted a s
with t h e h i g h e s t decree of accuracy t h a t is p o s s i b l e . Idealization i n
t h e t r u e f o u n d e r of t h e l o c a l i r o n i n d u s t r y t h e Union military hero
the recording of sites f o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o r p r e s e r v a t i o n purposes
and industrialist, John T. Wilder. It i s u n l i k e l y t h a t Wilder was
must be a v o i d e d s o t h a t a r c h e o l o g i c a l r e a l i t i e s may b e compared with
unaware o f t h e B l u f f Furnace a s h e camped with h i ? ? men immediately
h i s t o r i c a l l y documented i d e a l s t a n d a r d s .
across t h e Tennessee R i v e r from i t d u r i n g t h e i r 15 d a y bombardment o f
Chattanooga. The s i t e i s c l e a r l y shown on a map drawn by one of his The g o a l s of i n d i r e c t methods a r e , i n t h e e n d , c o m p a r a t i v e . It
men.9 is hoped that these methods will produce data about Cultural
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t a r e t r u l y comparable and t h a t comparisons can be I r a C. Baker, A T r e a t i s e on Masonrv C o n s t r u c t i o n (New York:
conducted b o t h t h r o u g h t i m e and a c r o s s s p a c e .
John Wiley and S o n s , 1 1 .
lam . an ine anual of Civil
E n g i n e e r i n g (London: C h m f f i n &d"bo:paiy, \8! I?.

FOOTNOTES James M. Swank, H i s t o r v o f t h e Manufacture o f I r o n i n A l l

a( P h i l a d e l p h i a : The American I r o n and S t e e l l n s t l t u t e , lSY21.
S t a n l e y S o u t h H i s t o r i c a l Archaeolo Re o r t s : A P l e a f o r a
New Direction (coluhb~a: me lnstitu?; gf Archaeology a n 6
Anthropology, 1 9 7 4 ) , pp. 151-56. Col. J . E. McGnwan "Chattanooga: Its Past, Present and
Fut~re&
, ~ ~ Chattanooga ~ i m e ; , 1885.
Robert F. Mur hy, The D i a l e c t i c s o f S o c i a l L i f e (New York:
B a s i c Books, I n c . , 19717. C h a r l e s D. McGuffe Standard H i s t o r of Chattanoo~a,
Tennessee ( K n o x v i l l e : ~ n o x v i l t ; P r i n t i n g and Box Company, 191 1 ) .
3 J e f f r e y L. Brown "Problems w i t h C a t e g o r i e s o f People: Can
Archaeology He1 ? " ( ~ o l u h b i a : The I n s t i t u t e of Archaeology and John W. Rowell, Yankee Artillerymen (Knoxville: The
Anthropology, 19y5). University P r e s s , 1975).

G i l b e r t E. Govan and James W. Livingood The U n i v e r s i t of lo Jeffrey L

Chattanooga: s i x t v Years (Chattanooga: ~ n i v e ; s i t y o r ~ n a t t a n z o g a , a t the
1977).
luff urn aceBrown "Ex l o r a t o r y Archaeolo i c a l
site" ( c f i a t t a n o o g a : ~ n s t i t u f eo f
Excavations
Archaeology,

II
INDUSTRIAL ARCHEOLOGY AS A CULTURAL RESOURCE

6 I N D U S T R I A L A R C H E O L O G Y ' S R O L E

I N C U L T U R A L R E S O U R C E M A N A G E M E N T

Brenda B a r r e t t
National Register of H i s t o r i c P l a c e s
Washington, D.C.

With t h e i n c r e a s i n g flow o f governmental f u n d i n g from several caused by t h e boom town Fi t ti t u d e ,d t h e f i e 1 d a r e swee -d by t h e

l e g i s l a t i v e s o u r c e s ( H i s t o r i c S i t e s Act o f 1935, H i s t o r i c P r e s e r v a t i o n undoubted benefit,^ o f a h i g h l e v e l o f f u n d i n g and d i v e r s i f i e d r e s e a r c h
Act o f 1966, N a t i o n a l Environmental P o l i c y Act o f 1969, Archeological on a regional scale. These undoubted b e n e f i t s a p p l y d o u b l y f o r a
and H i s t o r i c P r e s e r v a t i o n Act o f 1974 u . 1 f i e l d work i n American developing discipline like industrial archeology. The cultural
a r c h e o l o g y h a s g r a v i t a t e d towards cultural resource management; a resource management approach is one route t o money, s u p p o r t , and
bureaucratic term for the consideration, p r o t e c t i o n , and p o s s i b l e recognition. Edward and Mary J a n e R u t c h ' s work i n P a t e r s o n New J e r s e y
s a l v a g e o f h i s t o r i c and p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e s and s t r u c t u r e s i n the path and the surveys of the Historic American E n g i n e e r i n g Record a r e
of oncoming f e d e r a l ~ r o j e c t s . The importance o f t h i s phenomenon may n o t a b l e examples of f e d e r a l l y funded i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y .
be judQed by t h e f i g u r e s . Last year the majority of all funds for
T h i s p a p e r r a i s e s a few i s s u e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s to
archeolopical field research in this c o u n t r y were spent under t h e
consider as t h e y s e e k t h e i r f o r t u n e i n c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e management.
a e g i s of c u l t u r a l n e s o u r c e management. 1
One must s t a r t w i t h a b e l i e f i n the product. It is necessary to
The t r e a t m e n t of a r c h e o l o g y a s t h e management of a national assume merit in treatinq America's industrial past a s a valuable
resource has been a s o u r c e o f c o n c e r n f o r t r a d i t i o n a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s . c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e which l o q i c a l l y s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a f t e r a study
They view t h e l e g i s l a t i v e l y sponsored work a s a possible threat to of the p r e h i s t o r y and e a r l y h i s t o r y o f a r e g i o n . The f i r s t l e v e l on
archeology as a n academic d i s c i p l i n e . The f l u o r e s c e n t a r c h e o l o g i c a l which t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i s t n e e d s t o d e a l w i t h c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e
c o n t r a c t i n g f i r m s and f r e e l a n c e s h o v e l s , t h e narrow orientation of management is that of public relations. The g e n e r a l c i t i z e n r y and
some r e s o u r c e s u r v e y s , and t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a p p l y i n g f e d e r a l s t a n d a r d s b u r e a u c r a c y i s unaware of t h e e x i s t e n c e of i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y a s a
of s i g n i f i c a n c e a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h i s f e e l i n g of unease. Problems field of study. Even w i t h t h e growing s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e v a l u e o f
preserving the past, old houses and arrow points have a more c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e management s t u d y . The f e d e r a l l y defined objective
marketable q u a l i t y than t h e average i n d u s t r i a l s i t e o r s t r u c t u r e . of these studies is the identification of sites and s t r u c t u r e s
e l i g i b l e f o r t h e N a t i o n a l R e g i s t e r of H i s t o r i c P l a c e s . While R e g i s t e r
I n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y a s a new f i e l d h a s only a small group
nominations may be p r e p a r e d f o r s i t e s o f p u r e l y l o c a l i n t e r e s t , v a l i d
l o o k i n g o u t f o r i t s i n t e r e s t s i n t h e p l a n n i n g of new f e d e r a l p r o j e c t s .
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of r a r e i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e s or processes from the
Although t h i s i s g r a d u a l l y c h a n g i n g , i n d u s t r i a l archeology has even
commonplace is difficult without an und~rstqnding of comparable
made the front page of the Wall Street ~ o u r n a l ,~ more p u b l i c
r e g i o n a l and n a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l . T h i s problem c a n b e overcome to the
e d u c a t i o n a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t is a necessary first step. Generating
degree the field worker p e r f o r m s a d d i t i o n a l background e x p l o r a t i o n .
p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t , because o u r i n d u s t r i a l p a s t
The N a t i o n a l R e g i s t e r c r i t e r i a must b e a p p l i e d to the resources in
i s d i s a p p e a r i n g f a s t e r t h a n any o t h e r c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e . Robert Vogel
each regional survey. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s used f o r p l a n n i n g p u r p o s e s
summed up some of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t have h a s t e n e d t h e o b l i t e r a t i o n of
and i s t h e o n l y d a t a t h a t by law need be attended to by a federal
i n d u s t r i a l r e s o u r c e s i n A Report of the Mohawk-Hudson Area Survev;
agency.
. . . unattractive surroundings, poor c o n d i t i o n s due t o l a c k o f
maintenance d u r i n g t h e f i n a l y e a r s o f u s e o r l o n g abandonment; and i n An even more fundamental problem is the next step of
the case of buildings, normally a s i z e too great o r a layout too recommending a "final solution" f o r important i n d u s t r i a l r e s o u r c e s
s p e c i a l i z e d f o r most a d a p t i v e u s e s . " 3 He a l s o p o i n t s t o t h e unsavory t h a t w i l l be a d v e r s e l y e f f e c t e d ( i . e . d e s t r o y e d o r a l t , e r e d by federal
psychological element c o n n e c t e d w i t h i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s . The f a c t t h a t action) .^ For a v a r i e t y o f food r e a s o n s i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e
f a c t o r i e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d with noise, dirt, and human exploitation d i f f i c u l t t o r e u s e once t h e i r day i s p a s t and t h e y r a r e l y p l a y a key
retards the recognition of t h e i r informational content. r o l e i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e atmosphere o f a neighborhood. More t h a n o t h e r

For years industrial sites have not been considered a r e s o u r c e s f o r e s i g h t e d , o r g a n i z e d d e s t r u c t i o n ( w i t h measured drawings,

protectable e n t i t y under n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n . T h i s a t t i t , u d e must be historical research, photographs etc.) may be an acceptable

changed i f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o e i s t i s t o p a r t i c i p a t e to a wider conclusion. I n d u s t r i a l s i t e s t h a t have been buried by neglect or

extent in c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e management. A l i t t l e judicious lobbying purposeful action pose another problem. O f t e n v a s t q u a n t i t i e s of

c o u l d be most helpful. A ready example is the promotion that overburden must be removed to reach the original level and the

industrial archeology gets i n the folder describing the services of stratigraphic accumulations of 2 0 t h c e n t u r y I n d u s t r i a l a r e a s c a n be
t h e " I n t e r a g e n c y A r c h e o l o g i c a l Program.114 staggering. The amount of information may be insignificant and
available from other sources. The excavation of large i n d u s t r i a l
I f a lack of public recognition is a problem, a lack of
s i t e s i s n o t t o be u n d e r t a k e n l i g h t l y .
c o h e s i v e p r i n c i p l e s making up t h e f i e l d is a more fundamental problem.
A t l e a s t t r a d i t i o n a l a r c h e o l o g i s t s and historians have a developed This paper is only indirect,ly concerned with industrial
body of theory and i n f o r m a t i o n t o a p p l y t o t h e s p e c i a l problems o f archeology's contribution t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of human c u l t u r e . It
c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e management. Industrial archeology draws on the s i m p l y d i s c u s s e s one method, c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e management, by which
skills of a variety of established fields: h i s t o r y , economics, the discipline c a n i n c r e a s e t h e sum o f i t s knowledge and p o s e s a few
archeology, engineering, e t c . Only a few p r a c t i t i o n e r s h a v e been a b l e i s s u e s t h a t need t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s a r e a . A s s h o u l d be e x p e c t e d
t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e t o t a l complex of i n f o r m a t i o n . Until recently l i t t l e issues of public education and technique are easier t o propose
t h o u g h t h a s been g i v e n t o e s t a b l i s h i n g a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e f o r t h e l e s s c o n c r e t e s o l u t i o n s t o t h a n t h e more d i f f i c u l t . q u e s t i o n o f formulating
c r e a t i v e t o follow. a theoretical basis for the field. While i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y ' s
c a t h o l i c approach g i v e s i t great creative potential, a diversifid
There h a s a l s o been i n s u f f i c e n t t i m e t o d e v e l o p a broad data
intellectual base is no replacement for i t s own u n i a u e g o 2 l s and
base or many examples of f i n i s h e d work i n t h e f i e l d . I n England,
objectives. If the field does not approach cultural resource
where i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y h a s a l o n g e r h i s t o r y , many local groups
management w i t h a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i t s e l f , i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y
have broken t h e back o f t h e work by p e r f o r m i n g r e g i o n a l s u r v e y s t h a t
will find its only methodology grounded in federal laws and
a t l e a s t i d e n t i f y t h e remnant of i n d u s t r y i n a g i v e n r e g i o n . General
regulations.
works on v a r i o u s g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s of t h e United Kingdom have a l r e a d y
been p u b l i s h e d . 5 Only a few broad based studies from which more Footnotes
specific work can be launched have been a t t e m p t e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y .
1. Michael B. Schiffer, and John H. House, " C u l t u r a l Resource
The Reoort of t h e Mohawk-Hudson Area ~ u r v e v h an
s e x c e p t i o n , one o f
Management and Archeological Research, Cache Project." Current
the s t a t e d g o a l s o f t h e book i s t o g i v e a n overview o f t h a t i m p o r t a n t
A n t h r o u o l o m 18 1977.
industrial area. The H i s t o r i c American E n e i n e e r i n g Record w i t h 5,000
sites on file has done p i o n e e r i n n work. The s u r v e y h a s f o l l o w e d a Z . " I n d u s t r i a l E v o l u t i o n , New ArCheOlogy Breed S e e k s t o Learn More
r e g i o n a l approach; however, many sections of the country remain of Manufacturing P a s t " Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l , 26 June 1975.
unexplored.
3. Robert M. Vogel, e d . , S m i t h s o n i a n P u b l i c a t i o n s i n Technology,
I n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o & i s t s involved i n a c u l t u r a l resource study u,
1973.
are challenged by t h e l a c k o f even b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n on a p a r t i c u l a r
4 . N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e , U.S. Department o f t h e I n t e r i o r .
area. A f t e r s t a r t i n g from scratch and identifying the industrial
r e s o u r c e s within t h e confines of t h e p r o j e c t , he o r she s t i l l has o n l y 5. For example, David s m i t h ' s book o n t h e I n d u s t r i a l Archaeology
a t e l e s c o p i c view o f t h e a r e a . The i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o e i s t d o e s have o f t h e E a s t Midlands (Devon: David and C h a r l e s L t d . , 1965).
the advantage of proximity in time to t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r and i n
comparison t o o t h e r a r c h e o l o q i s t s a w e a l t h o f w r i t t e n material. The
availibility of raw data and the l a c k o f organized research o n l y 7 . It i s l e s s l i k e l y t h a t t h e i n t r u s i o n of visual, audible or
i n c r e a s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e work. a t m o s p h e r i c e l e m e n t s w i l l b e o u t of c h a r a c t e r w i t h a n i n d u s t r i a l s i t e .
On a more p r a c t i c a l l e v e l t h e l a c k o f c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a hampers See Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Procedures for the
industrial archeologists in performing their obliaations under a p r o t e c t i o n o f h i s t o r i c and c u l t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s , 36 CFR 800.9. 1974.
 7 I N D U S T R I A L A R C H E O L O G Y I N I T A L Y : B I R T H A N D P E R S P E C T I V E S

P a o l o Caputo
U n i v e r s i t 6 d i A r c h i t e t t u r a d e l P o l i t e c n i c o d e Milano
Milan, I t a l y

This is t h e f i r s t time t h a t I t a l i a n scholars have spoken in consequence, t h e broadest n o t i o n of ncultural resources." At last,
this country about t h e f i e l d and, t h e r e f o r e , i t i s t h e f i r s t occasion environments and objects connected with industrial production,
t h a t we have had t o exchange i d e a s and e x p e r i e n c e s . Although Ornella machines, e t c . a r e esteemed a s c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , a s v a l i d t e s t i m o n y
Selvafolta and I represent the Italian Society for Industrial of h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e j u s t a s t h e work o f a r t o r t h e s i n g u l a r , r a r e ,
Archeology, we w i l l e x p r e s s o u r p e r s o n a l p o i n t s o f view; there are o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e monument.
many i d e a s and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , much d e b a t e on t h e t o p i c i n o u r S o c i e t y . The second c o n d i t i o n which gave b i r t h t o I n d u s t r i a l Archeology

Before e x p l a i n i n g the present and future programs of the in I t a l y i s t h e i n t e n s e u r b a n c o n f l i c t , which c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o two

I.S.I.A., it is important to discuss the birth of Industrial phases. Urban growth was v e r y s l o w . M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s were created

Archeology a s a n autonomous d i s c i p l i n e i n I t a l y . Three c o n d i t i o n s a r e in the f i f t i e s and s i x t i e s by t h e r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l development which

responsible for the rise of Industrial Archeology i n my c o u n t r y . caused m a s s i v e m i g r a t i o n s from t h e countryside to the towns, from

However, t h e s e , by t h e m s e l v e s , d i d n o t g e n e r a t e i t s s t u d y The first south t o north.

or "institutional" type of condition is connected d i r e c t l y with A t t h e end o f t h e f i r s t phase, the urban structure was as
' C u l t u r a l Resources Management" which numerous public agencies and follows: towns consisting of a c e n t r a l area u t i l i z e d f o r housing,
institutes practice at various levels in Italy. In fact, these t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s , commerce, t h e s t i l l - f l o u r i s h i n g a r t i s a n s , and a
activities are rather new here. What does Cultural Re-sources closed periphery with industries and immigrants', clerks', and
Management mean for us? It r e f e r s t o a l l a c t i v i t i e s which improve wurkmens' h o u s e s . I n t h e middle of t h e s i x t i e s , t h e economic powers
knowledge, the diffusion of knowledge, and the safeguards, rationalized industrial production. They moved f a c t o r i e s beyond t h e
preservation, and the correct use of h i s t o r i c a l t e s t i m o n y . Until p e r i p h e r y where, t h a n k s t o t h e l a r g e open s p a c e s , t h e y were able to
r e c e n t l y , o n l y monuments, works o f a r t , and a r c h e o l o g i c a l r e p o r t s from b u i l d new f a c t o r i e s and t o up-date t e c h n o l o g y . B u t , a t t h e same t i m e ,
what were c o n s i d e r e d t h e " e s s e n t i a l " p e r i o d s of a r t and a r c h i t e c t u r a l t h e y had p l a n s f o r c e n t r a l a r e a s . T h e s e , f r e e of o l d b u i l d i n g s , c o u l d
history were esteemed as historical documents worthy of being be used f o r more l u c r a t i v e v e n t u r e s : commerce, b u s i n e s s , and l u x u r y
preserved. The new c u l t u r a l point-of-view a r o s e i n t h e s i x t i e s and apartments.
s e v e n t i e s a s a response t o e v e n t s such as the crisis of "official
I n t h e l a t e s i x t i e s , t h e second phase was i n t h e l a s t s t a g e of
culture" created by the student protest,^ o f 1968, t h e i n t e r e s t o f
formulation. Many citizens from the lower c l a s s e s had o r g a n i z e d
g r o u p s s u c h a s t h e WWF, I t a l i a N o s t r a , e t c , in preservation of our
committees whose i n t e n t was t o r e c l a i m their "right" to the inner
historical h e r i t a g e , t h e b i r t h of t h e M i n i s t r y o f C u l t u r a l Resources,
c i t y , i n o t h e r words, t o economical h o u s i n g , s u p p o r t e d w i t h s t a t e a i d ,
and, l a s t but n o t least, the creation of regional administrative
i n t h e c e n t r a l zones o f t h e c i t y where t h e r e a r e t h e most public and
organizations which took i n t o account l o c a l s i t u a t i o n s . ( I believe
social services, such as schools, hospitals, transportation, etc.
B r a n d e l ' s t h e s i s a l s o had a great influence in this regard. F.
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e lower c l a s s e s were opposed to being dispersed in
Brandel, Civilisation materielle et capitalisme XV/XVIII siecle,
several districts, far from t h e v i t a l c e n t e r of t h e c i t y , when t h e
Paris, 1967.) And thus the distinctions between more and less
s t r u g g l e between t h e u n i o n s , government, and industry was becoming
important a r t s and between t h e r u l i n g c u l t u r e ' s power t o p r e s e r v e and
intense.
to ignore subordinate culture, and the contrast between the
"singularity" o f t h e monument and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g man-made o r n a t u r a l The above means t h a t , a t f i r s t , the urban conflict centered
environment a r e i d e a s which a r e no longer generally accepted. In exclusively on the housing problem. The c i t i z e n committees f o u g h t
b r i e f , we have a d o p t e d an a n t h r o p o l o a i c a l c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r e a n d , a s a against i n s t i t u t i o n s i n order t o obtain r e s t o r a t i o n s of old places of

F i g u r e 1. Bridge of P a d e r n o d'Adda, a late nineteenth-century s t e e l a r c h located n e a r Milan. The upper d e c k c a r r i e s highway t r a f f i c , the
lower railway traffic. Photograph by D. Newell.
residence and against private owners of t h e b u i l d i n g s i n o r d e r t o t h e C e n t e r f o r Documentation and R e s e a r c h : I n d u s t r i a l Archeology, and
prevent t h e i r transformation i n t o o f f i c e s and/or luxury apartments. then the I.S.J.A. with regional o f f i c e s i n Milan, Rome. Turin, and
Afterwards, i n conjunction with t h e economic c r i s i s and t h e e n s u i n g Padua. The S o c i e t y and c e n t e r s a r e formed by s c h o l a r s who come from
development p l a n , t h e c o n f l i c t was e n l a r g e d from t h e housing problem e x t r e m e l y d i v e r s e f i e l d s of s t u d y , from t h e h i s t o r y of art to folk
to include also the place of work. With t h e e n t r a n c e of l a r g e art, from the history of architecture t o restoration, etc. These
i n d u s t r i a l complexes i n t o t h e crisis, the lower classes began to s c h o l g r s meet i n o r d e r t o s h a r e a common work e x p e r i e n c e . The varied
defend, not only for economic b u t a l s o f o r p h y s i c a l r e a s o n s , t h e i r backeround of the components of the work group g i v e s i n d u s t r i a l
p l a c e s o f work. Examples o f such struggles include those of the a r c h e o l o g y r e s e a r c h an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y character. This does not
dockyard workers o f t h e Giudecca, i n Venice, t o defend t h e i r p l a c e of mean to s a y " g e n e r a l i t y , " b u t r a t h e r "a p a r t n e r s h i p of s p e c i a l i s t s . "
work and nearby residences, and those of the population of the And t h i s i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of that which we can
company-town of C r e s p i d l A d d a , which r e c e n t l y was p u t up f o r s a l e . It d e f i n e a s t h e I t a l i a n approach t o I n d u s t r i a l Archeology.
s h o u l d be emphasized t h a t a n economic c l a i m becomes a cultural claim
The S o c i e t y i s a l i t t l e more t h a n a y e a r o l d ; i n f a c t , it was
when it centers on the defense of historical structures and
founded i n J u l y 1976. I n t h i s f i r s t p e r i o d , i t s a c t i v i t y h a s c e n t e r e d
testimonies.
above a l l on i n s t r u c t i o n t o produce r e s e a r c h e r s and on the study of
The t h i r d c o n d i t i o n which lies at the base of Industrial the rapports with the state and regional agencies f o r "cultural
Archeology was created by t h e c u l t u r a l 2nd s c i e n t i f i c e x i g e n c i e s i n r e s o u r c e s , " a l r e a d y mentioned. The r e s e a r c h which h a s been done, b o t h
the field of historical disciplines. The experience of several in universities and by autonomous g r o u p s stemming from t h e S o c i e t y ,
studies resulted in the need to recognize not only the written had t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s : t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n f i n e s and of the
documents, b u t a l s o t o reconstruct the physical and environmental historical precincts of the discipline and the discovery of the
context of several phases o r h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . As a r e s u l t of c o r r e c t method of r e s e a r c h .
ext,ensive fieldwork, for example, research on the 18th century
From i t s b e g i n n i n g , t h e I . S . I . A . was otherwise engaged in a
m a n u f a c t u r i n g c e n t e r of San Leucio h a s b r o u g h t t o l i e h t a s i n g u l a r and
policy o f d e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f abandonment and o f t h e r u i n of
s t i m u l a t i n g s o c i a l - u r b a n experiment and the reconstruction of the
t h e a r c h e o l o g i c a l i n d u s t r i a l patrimony and t h e continual process of
Bourbons' vast plan t o organize Southern T t a l y . This reconstruction
d e s t r u c t i o n and d e g r a d a t i o n t o which i t i s s u b m i t t e d . S e v e r a l members
o v e r t u r n s t h e n e g a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l o p i n i o n h e l d up u n t i l now. Research
of t h e S o c i e t y have p e r s o n a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e struggle for the
is being conducted on the physical structures on the historic
c o n s e r v a t i o n of monuments which were t h r e a t e n e d w i t h d e s t r u c t i o n .
p e r i p h e r y o f Milan. These s t u d i e s sometimes c e n t e r e d on projects of
urban renewal. And finally, research on the preservation of A t t h e end of t h e f i r s t y e a r , a conference was organized in
h i s t o r i c a l , i n d u s t r i a l monuments i s b e i n g undertaken in the United Milan; the aim was to take a census of the i n t e r e s t s of I t a l i a n
S t a t e s by I t a l i a n s c h o l a r s t h r o u q h F u l b r i g h t proar?ms. s c h o l a r s and t o compare o u r r e s e a r c h w i t h t h a t , much more advanced, o f
foreign scholars.
These, i n b r i e f , were t h e g e n e r a l " h i s t o r i c a l " c o n d i t i o n s which
brought about the creation of Industrial Archeology as a more The f u t u r e programs o f I A i n I t a l y i n t h e a m b i t o f t h e a c t i v i t y
u p - t o - d a t e method of r e s e a r c h , a s an i n s t r u m e n t o f knowledge, and a s a of the I.S.I.A. c a n be summarized 3 s f o l l o w s :
f i e l d f o r a c t i v i t y i n t h e r e a l m of " c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s " and t h e u s e of
1. To produce a catalogue of the industrial archeological
t h e h i s t o r i c a l patrimony o f t h e c i t v .
patrimony in Italy. On t h e one hand, t h i s is t h e b a s e f o r a c o r r e c t
The n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e , f i r s t , was t h e f o u n d a t i o n i n Milan of p r e s e r v a t i o n p o l i c y a n d , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o r a s c i e n t i f i c knowledge

F i g u r e 2. C o t t o n mill at V a p r i o d l A d d a , n e a r F i g u r e 3. Abandoned c e m e n t works, l a t e r a w a r e h o u s e ; n o w a r e s i d e n c e , at A l z a n o ,

B e r g a m o , s e c o n d h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . n e a r Bergamo.
 of the phenomena connected w i t h i n d u s t r i a l i s m . I n f a c t , a profound w i t h h i g h s c h o o l s and c u l t u r a l a s s o c i - a t i o n s .
s t u d y o f a l l t h e c a t e g o r i e s of objects-documents-monuments and a c l e a r
3. To go beyond t h e p a s s i v e phase o f p r e s e r v a t i o n t o a policy
interpretation of the signs which they form mean the global
of conservation of the historical industrial patrimony. The
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d . We, t h e r e f o r e , t h i n k that it
c o n ~ e r v a t i o no f i n d u s t r i a l monuments must be planned in order to
will be possible to f o l l o w s c i e n t i f i c a l l y t h e i t i n e r a r y o f o u r own
p r e s e r v e t h e i r p r o d u c t i v e f u n c t i o n o r t o a l l o w f o r a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of
r e c e n t h i s t o r y from new points-of-view.
use. T h e r e f o r e , t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e s e monuments c a n b e d e c i d e d t h r o u g h
p l a n s produced w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e c i t i z e n s .
2. To i n t r o d u c e t h e i n s t r u c t i o n of IA in schools, cultural
centers and associations, and i n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s . A few y e a r s ago One c a n e a s i l y s e e t h a t t h e f u t u r e protagonists of I A i n I t a l y
c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e s were organized which centered on the will be those who have c r e a t e d i t : t h e s c h o l a r s i n s e a r c h o f more
understanding of the impact of c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s of t h e i n d u s t r i a l s c i e n t i f i c b a s e s f o r t h e i r work, t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s which o p e r a t e i n t h e
patrimony or, better yet, of the totality of the industrial field of Cultural Resources, and t h e l a r q e p a r t s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
environment, on t h e s o c i a l c o n s c i e n c e and on t r a d i t i o n s . The I . S . I . A . which more and more i d e n t i f y t h e i r own h i s t o r y and their own social
h a s o r g a n i z e d f o r 1978 s e v e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l programs in collaboration and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n w i t h t h e " m o n s t e r s of m e c h a n i z a t i o n . "

8 I N D U S T R I A L A R C H E O L O G Y I N I T A L Y : E X A M P L E S O F
I N D U S T R I A L A R C H E O L O G Y I N T H E U R B A N A R E A O F M I L A N

Ornella Selvafolta
U n i v e r s i t a d i A r c h i t e t t u r a d e l P o l i t e c n i c o d e Milano
Milan, I t a l y

I n d u s t r i a l archeology is beginning i n I t a l y at a moment not t h e r i g h t t o be p r e s e r v e d and t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s monuments.

onlv of economic crisis. but also of self identification and
It is t r u e t h a t 1 i t . e r a t u r e h a s o f t e n d e a l t w i t h t h e phenomenon
experimentation. I am r e f e r r i n g , e s p e c i a l l y , t o t h e traditional gap
of t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n , but i t is a l s o t r u e t h a t t h e r e i s s t i l l
between liberal and technical arts which has always, somehow,
a g r e a t d e a l t o b e s a i d a b o u t t h e p h y s i c a l environment which h a s meant
dominated the political and cultural programs of historical
for millions o f i n d i v i d u a l s a s e t way o f b e h a v i o u r , o f o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
preservation in our country. There is much t o be s a i d a b o u t t h i s a s
and o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s - - i n a few words, t h e i r own l i f e .
an i s s u e , e s p e c i a l l y i n a c o u n t r y which is so rich in historical
artifacts that sometimes they become a v e r y heavy i n h e r i t a n c e t o In this respect, the aim of the Italian Association for
p r o t e c t and s a f e g u a r d . As a m a t t e r o f fact, there isn't in Italy Industrial Archeology is mainly a p o l i t i c a l one which s t a n d s f o r a
s u f f i c i e n t economic power and p o l i t i c a l w i l l i n g n e s s t o be a b l e t o draw v e r y p r e c i s e p o i n t o f view and h a s , s o f a r , c r e a t e d a great deal of
a program o f p r e s e r v a t i o n f o r a l l o u r monuments. In t h i s context, of i n t e r e s t i n two o f t h e main u n i v e r s i t i e s o f Milano.
course, industrial artifacts are not likely to find favorable
I n 1976, a t t h e F a c u l t y o f A r c h i t e c t u r e , scholars have begun
r e a c t i o n s among t h e p e o p l e i n c h a r g e o f n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n .
research into the industrial a r c h e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s o f t h e 1 9 t h and
The a t t e n t i o n toward monuments h a s always effected artifacts 20th c e n t u r i e s i n t h e u r b a n a r e a o f Milano. This kind of research
linked with cultural and historical "peculiarities," which has assumes a very i m p o r t a n t meaning i f one p o i n t s o u t t h a t c i t i e s h a v e
determined some n e g l e c t f o r a r t i f a c t s t e s t i f y i n g of a s o r t of "minor"
always been the place where structural changes have ocurred.
I
civilization. The I t a l i a n delay i n t h e process of industrialization Therefore, here more t h a n anywhere e l s e , we c a n f i n d t h e dynamics o f
had caused an even g r e a t e r l a c k o f p u b l i c r e c o g n i t i o n for industrial c a p i t a l i s m and i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y . The modern city, born with the
monuments; they are not very "antiaue," but rather, appear a s industrial revolution and grown a c c o r d i n g t o i t s n e e d s , r e p r e s e n t s ,
o b s o l e t e ; " they d o n ' t belong to the glorious periods of Italian indeed, a synthetic section of t h e present social strata, of their
i s t o r y , t h e y t e s t i f y o f poor c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e , o f t e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h methods o f s e l e c t i n g and o f t h e i r way o f s u r v i v i n g .
isery, pollution, and human exploitation. The unattractive
urroundings i n which t h e y s t a n d , e s p e c i a l l y i n b i g c i t i e s , a r e o f t e n I n t h e f i r s t phase o f o u r r e s e a r c h we h a v e s t u d i e d the growth
een a s something t o be ashamed of, to hide away, or to cancel of Milan as an industrial center; there a r e , of course, certain
efinitely from the urban scene. The continuous process of s e l f f a c t o r s t h a t need t o h e s t r e s s e d more t h a n o t h e r s , s u c h a s t h e r o l e o f
e s t r u c t i o n o f abandoned i n d u s t r i a l buildings, the disappearing of the city as a p r o d u c t i v e and consumer c e n t e r f o r t h e l a r g e and r i c h
heir archives and w r i t t e n documents, t h e c e a s i n g t o be of t h e l a s t c o u n t r y s i d e which s u r r o u n d s i t , i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l p o s i t i o n which makes
c t o r s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n mean a n i r r e v e r s i b l e l o s s of human it a f o r c e d p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n f o r a l l t h e main r o u t e s o f c e n t r a l
ignity and of self awareness. Apart from t h e p u r e p l e a s u r e of Europe, its long established tradition of reasonable economic
o l l e c t i n g o l d f a s h i o n e d t h i n g s , a p a r t from t h e f e e l i n g of nostalgia legislation, and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f huge amounts o f c a p i t a l i n t h e
or old times, we believe that industrial a r t i f a c t s , a s well a s v a r i o u s banks o p e r a t i n g s i n c e t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y . Because t h i s r e s e a r c h
hunches, t o w e r s , and p a l a c e s o f which o u r c o u n t r y i s so rich, have was intended for a school of architecture it seems extremely
 a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t u d y f i r s t t h e complex way in which the industrial e f f o r t c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d rough and n a i v e , it meets a spontaneous
revolution has changed urban e n v i r o n m e n t s . Thus a s e c t o r i a l h i s t o r y need for a center of c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s i n a d i s t r i c t
such a s " i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y " h a s become p a r t o f t h e material-cultural where t h e r e i s none. As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i n d u s t r i a l b u i l d i n g s have
development of t h e whole c i t y . T h i s c a n be r e g a r d e d a s t h e f i r s t s t e p proved themselves useful for a lot of purposes. I n Torino, f o r
toward i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y i n i t s e l f and h a s p r o v i d e d s t u d e n t s with example, where local authorities seem to be more senstitive to
b e t t e r means o f comprehension f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . industrial a r c h e o l o g y , a g r o u p o f a r c h i t e c t s i s s t u d y i n g t h e b e s t way
Next was a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l e n t i t y of Milano at the t o a d a p t abandoned f a c t o r i e s t o J u n i o r High Schools, for which use
t u r n of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , assuming a s a main g o a l t h e r e c o r d i n g o f a l l s u c h b u i l d i n g s seem v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e .
productive a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e urban a r e a . Because o f t h i s archive it
A f t e r one y e a r o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t the
now will be possible to draw a map showing the industrial
industrial archeological r e m a i n s o f Milano a r e n o t due t o a s p e c i f i c
a r c h e o l o g i c a l remains of the city in comparison to its original
p o l i t i c a l w i l l i n g n e s s t o p r e s e r v e them a s monuments. I f they survive
patrimony. In the meantime, t h e a r t i f a c t s a l r e a d y known t o s u r v i v e
this occurs because of casual events, a s i n the case of old iron
a r e being recorded. A f t e r w a r d s we p l a n t o concentrate on the area
machinery which s t i l l b e a r a n economic v a l u e and c a n s t i l l be bought
with the most significant objects and t o work on them i n o r d e r t o i n j u n k y a r d s a t f a i r l y good p r i c e s p e r k i l o . Sometimes t h e remains o f
r e i n s e r t h i s t o r i c a l monuments into the social dynamics of modern the industrial revolution have survived because they have become
needs. familiar shapes i n t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f modern a r t , o r b e c a u s e t h e y a r e
I n one r a i l w a y d i s t r i c t i n t h e s o u t h o f Milano, for example, c o n s i d e r e d a p o l i t i c a l symbol. T h i s is t h e c a s e o f the monument to
there are s t i l l q u i t e a few i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g i c a l a r t i f a c t s . One Roberto Franceschi who d i e d i n t h e s t u d e n t s r i o t s o f 1972; t h i s huge
o f them is an abandoned p o t t e r y m i l l which h a s been t a k e n over by a hammer o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y i s i n f a c t d e d i c a t e d t o a l l t h e p e o p l e who
group of young people f o r new t h e a t r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s . Though t h i s have s u f f e r e d and d i e d t o r e s t o r e t h e w o r k e r s ' human d i g n i t y .

9 M U S E U M I N T E R P R E T A T I O N O F I A M A T E R I A L S : A C O N S I D E R A T I O N

O F T H E R E V I E W P R O C E S S F O R G R A N T A P P L I C A T I O N S

Margaret S h a e f f e r
J e f f e r s o n Count.y H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y
Watertown, NY

The J e f f e r s o n County H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y i n Watertown, NY, is 5 . Does t h e o v e r a l l conce t o f t h e e x h i b i t i o n h a v e p o t e n t i a l

the repository for the nation's d e f i n i t i v e collection of hydraulic
appeal t o a diverse public?
of t h e exhibition?
will
new a u d i e n c e s be developed because

turbines. But i t i s at h e repository for the nation's authority on 6. Does t h e p r o p o s a l r e l a t e t o t h e h u m a n i t i e s ?

hydraulic turbines. T h e r e f o r e , much l e a r n i n g h a s been n e c e s s a r y and 7 . I f t h e e x h i b i t i o n i s t o t r a v e l e i t h e r i n whole o r i n p a r t
will i t a p e a l t o o t h e r kinds of audiences n o t designed t o reach i n
has, indeed, taken place with the aid of some of the most t h e opening ( f i r s t i n s t a l l a t i o n ) of t h e e x h i b i t i o n ?
knowledgeable p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d a s made p o s s i b l e by m NEH p l a n n i n g 8. Is t h e c o s t r e a l i s t i c ? Does t h e cost-sharing seem
adequate? Is t h e c o s t of t h e I n t e r p r e t i v e component j u s t i f i a b l e ?
grant.
S p e c i f i c t o Community E d u c a t i o n A p p l i c a t i o n s :
The S o c i e t y now w i s h e s t o e x h i b i t t h i s outstanding industrial Is t h e a u d i e n c e t o b e r e a c h e d i n v o l v e d a s an i n t e g r a l part of
collection, but has been unsuccessful, thus far, i n meeting t h e t h e p l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n o f t h e proposed program?

h u m a n i t i e s c o n t e n t r e a u i r e d i n i t s p r o p o s a l t o NEH--the criteria are

While two p r o p o s a l s have been s u b m i t t e d f o r a n e x h i b i t i o n u s i n g
L> o u t l i n e d below.
the Kinne Hydraulic Turbine Collection--the second being made
N a t i o n a l Endowment f o r t h e Humanities
Museum Program f o l l o w i n g a $2,500 p l a n n i n g grant--no exhibition grant has resulted.
- C r i t e r i a f o r Review of A p p l i c a t i o n s
To date, two comoletely different a p p r o a c h e s h a v e been used and a
~ ~ p i i c a n at rs e a s k e d t o a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s to the follow in^
q u e s t i o n s i n p r e p a r i n g and r e v i e w i n g p r o p o s a l s : t h i r d h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h r o u g h p a n e l i s t s ' e v a l u a t i o n s , namely: that
1. Does this program--installation orientation a future proposal focus largely upon t h e e a r l y development of t h e
presentation--emplo methods o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t b r i n g t h e a d u l t
g e n e r a l p u b l i c i n z o d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h c o l l e c t ~ o n s o r 1s t h e American h y d r a u l i c t u r b i n e a s i t a f f e c t e d t h e l i v e s o f in the
p r e s e n t a t i o n an attempt a t s u b s t i t u t i n g technology f o r o b j e c t s ?
North Countrv.
2. Does t h i s p r o p o s a l b r i n g t o g e t h e r museum s t a f f s p e c i a l i s t s
to l a n and e x e c u t e t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e program a n d / o r e x h i b i t i o n , i . e . ,
curator. educator. d e s i m e r ? I n t e r m s of s c h o l a r s h i n . i s the I n s i s t e n c e upon t o o s p e c i f i c l i m i t a t i o n s w i l l , however, hamper
e x h i b i t i o n c o n t e n t sound s o t h a t t h e i n t e r o r e t a t i o n c a n be f u l l v and
c o m p e t e n t l y developed? the interpretation and presentation of the historical and
3. I s t e c h n o l o g y employed t o p r o v i d e a c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s , which a r e a s germane t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
context? If so does t h i s technology appear a s an a i d t o
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r a s ' a gimmick f o r rant justification? Does t h e value of waterpower during the developmental p e r i o d f o r American
a p p l i c a t i o n s t a t e t h a t p r o v i s i o n s w i l l be made f o r p r o e r maintenance
o f a u d i o - v i s u a l and o t h e r t e c h n i c a l equipment i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e h y d r a u l i c t u r b i n e s i n t h e mid-19th c e n t u r y , a s i s t h e i n t e r e s t i n g but
exhibition?
somewhat elusive exposition of the impact of hydraulic turbine
4. Do labels maps printed materials photogra h i e
i l l u s t r a t i o n s a s w e l l a s p r o rams a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x h i b i t which development upon the life and lifestyles of that period. What
a r e i n t e n d e d a s e d u c a t i o n a l a i d s s e e k p r i m a r i l y t o t r a n s l a t e and
j u x t a p o s e o b j e c t s t o a contemporary s o c i e t y where p o s s i b l e ? guidance can i n d u s t r i a l archeology provide? Where do we go from h e r e ?
 1 0 A N A R C H E O L O G I C A L A N D S O C I A L E V A L U A T I O N

O F W H A T M A Y B E A M E R I C A ' S F I R S T I N D U S T R I A L S U B U R B

Thomas and J e a n n e S c a t c h a r d
P h i l a d e l p h i a , PA

Northern L i b e r t i e s was e s t a b l i s h e d t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e o l d c i t y diversified i n d u s t r i a l l o c a t i o n s , more i m p o r t a n t , c o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t s

o f P h i l a d e l p h i a , which was o r i g i n a l l y l a i d o u t w i t h Vine S t r e e t o n t h e limits a viable population constantly maintaining and improving
n o r t h t o South S t r e e t on the south and between the Delaware and h o u s i n g by t h e i r own e f f o r t s .
Schuykill rivers. The particular sector investigated here is the
s e c t i o n n o r t h o f S p r i n g Garden S t r e e t and from Ninth S t r e e t east to N o r t h e r n L i b e r t i e s was o r i g i n a l l y a s e p a r a t e entity from the

t h e Delaware R i v e r . City of P h i l a d e l p h i a , o n l y becoming p a r t o f t h e C i t y i n 1854. I t had

i t s own g o v e r n i n g body, known a s The Commissioners, and i t s own p o l i c e
Because t h e f i r s t i n t e n t i o n o f Penn a p p e a r s t o have been the and fire companies. The fact t h a t i n d u s t r y and housing; from the
s a l e o f b u i l d i n g l o t s , p l o t s i n t h e o l d c i t y were l a i d o u t w i t h narrow b e g i n n i n g , were s p a t i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d had a definite bearing on the
f r o n t s f a c i n g t h e s t r e e t and c o m p a r a t i v e l y deep--a typical plot being life of the people. Neighbors were n e i g h b o r s b o t h a t home and a t
15-25 f o o t f r o n t and 75 t o 125 deep. work. The e a r l i e s t a r r i v a l s t o s e t t l e i n N o r t h e r n L i b e r t i e s were the

After the layout of the city and the subdivision of the German Lutherans and a German Society was formed i n 1764. L a t e r ,

r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l b u i l d i n g ; l o t s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e l a n d n o r t h of Vine German C a t h o l i c s a r r i v e d and a t t h e t i m e of the Irish famine many

Irish Catholics also settled there. The homes, many o f which s t i l l
S t r e e t was r e f e r r e d t o by Perm a t t h e t i m e o f h i s a r r i v a l i n 1682 a s
e x i s t , were row h o u s e s and l i m i t e d i n s t y l e by t h e b u i l d i n g materials
'Northern Liberties." This l a n d was a l l o t t e d t o t h o s e who purchased
a t hand, a s were t h e b u s i n e s s b u i l d i n g s .
building lots in the city in tracts of an average size of
approximately 80 acres, and the b o u n d a r i e s o f each p e r s o n ' s t r a c t ,
The p e o p l e i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e c i t y , many o f whom represent
r a t h e r vaguely d e f i n e d . Perm had i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e street lines in
the f o u r t h o r f i f t h g e n e r a t i o n t o l i v e i n t h e same home, s u r v i v e i n a
the old c i t y b e a t r i g h t a n g l e s and "not askew." N o r t h e r n L i b e r t i e s '
t i g h t l i t t l e i s l a n d s u r r o u n d e d by t h e r e s t o f t h e c i t y . They w i l l go
residents deliberately created s t r e e t patterns at all angles. The
a l m o s t t o any l e n g t h s t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r c u l t u r a l and e t h n i c i n t e g r i t y .
different plot size and shape gave w i d e r freedom t o i n d u s t r y . The
The p e o p l e f o r t h e most p a r t a r e working c l a s s ; mechanics o f a grade
p a t t e r n f o l l o w e d t h e l a t e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y s t y l e o f h a v i n g a home and work
superior to laborers. Boyd's D i r e c t o r y shows a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f
shop e i t h e r i n t h e same b u i l d i n g o r v e r y c l o s e t o g e t h e r .
c a r p e n t e r s , m i l l w r i g h t s , and plumbers t h a n t h i s one section of the
The e a r l y development o f t h e a r e s began with the growth of city would require. These people c o n t i n u e d t o l i v e h e r e b u t work
s h i p y a r d s a l o n g t h e Delaware R i v e r . The banks a t t h i s p o i n t were f i r m elsewhere throughout t h e c i t y .
and t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e t o s e v e n f o o t t i d e made for easy shipway
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t this area, which is such a
construction. The land behind t h e banks was s o l i d ground a l l o w i n g
mixture of industry, homes, and b u s i n e s s e s h a s remained i n s p i t e of
construction of the necessary supporting services--foundries, r o p e and
a l l t h e u p h e a v a l s of t h e second h a l f o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , more stable
cordage works, sailmaking and wood working s h o p s . In addition t o
and more homogenous t h a n many more " p r o p e r l y zoned" a r e a s o f t h e c i t y .
t h o s e i n d u s t r i e s t i e d t o s h i p b u i l d i n g , t h e r e were a wide variety of
One i s i n c l i n e d t o a g r e e i n some ways w i t h t h e l a d y s i t t i n g in front
plants and workshops, some going back t o p r e - R e v o l u t i o n a r y t i m e s .
of h e r s t o r e who r e c e n t l y p r o c l a i m e d t o t h e a u t h o r s t h a t t h i s was t h e
N a t i o n a l Lead made r e d and w h i t e l e a d i n 1772 ( t h i s i s their present
b e s t p a r t o f t h e c i t y , and s h e meant t o k e e p i t t h a t way. At least,
name). P h i l a d e l p h i a Q u a r t z s t i l l h a s a p l a n t on t h e o r i g i n a l s i t e .
if it isn't the "best p a r t o f t h e c i t y " n e c e s s a r i l y , i t ' s a good,
Although the Delaware Expressway and "redevelopment" have s t u r d y , hardworking i n d e p e n d e n t o n e . The q u e s t i o n now is what can
destroyed much, there still exists an i n d u s t r i a l section north of laymen w i t h some knowledge o f t h e methods o f i n d u s t r i a l a r c h e o l o g y d o
S p r i n g Garden S t r e e t and e a s t of S i x t h S t r e e t which n o t o n l y h a s many t o l e n d s u p p o r t t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f s u c h a n i n d u s t r i a l community.