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Benjamin Štular
Benjamin Štular
Figure 1: The research area (© author; sources used: DMV 12,5, November 2005 © The Surveying and Mapping
Authority of the Republic of Slovenia).
world since prehistoric times (Horvat 2006). Nowa- that the use of the pastures was relatively stable dur-
days this area is predominantly used for eco-farming ing the post-medieval period. Fortunately, the high-
and sustainable tourist activities. The latter remains mountain pastures in the Kamnik Alps have been
the only successful economic use of cultural herit- partially documented at the time of use (Čerček
age within the areas of outstanding natural beauty 1949), already before the large scale abandonment in
(e.g. Breznik 2006, 165–167). the 1950s took place (Petek 2005, 52–53). Therefore,
although some of the last used locations are known,
In recent decades the Kamnik and Julian Alps a significant share of the sites has been forgotten.
have been the main focus of Slovenian mountain
archaeology. In the case of the Kamnik Alps the re- The presented study originates from the re-
search focus is due to the well preserved ethnologi- search carried out within two projects that aimed
cal heritage on one hand and the large destructive to combine the cultural heritage management and
interventions into the landscape (ski resorts) on the sustainable economic development.
other hand. However, most of the research focus
must be credited to the dedicated work carried out
by Dr. Tone Cevc (1984; 1997; 2000; 2006a).
Medieval High-Mountain Pastures in the Kamnik Alps (Slovenia)
The Big Picture: Using GIS to Predict Pasture was not necessarily the case in all cultures through-
Systems out history. For example, there are ways to build a
crypt with less effort than the Egyptian pyramids.
The main aim of this article is to perceive the Another recurrent method is the (mis)use of re-
medieval high-mountain pastures in the Kamnik lief variables such as solar exposure, slope or water
Alps as a dynamic system. The dynamics pertain to source remoteness. These factors are the measure-
temporal, cultural and natural dynamics. Unfortu- ments of relief and were indeed often the key factors
nately, the latter has been included only marginally to influence human behaviour; however it would be
so far due to the lack of data specific to this area. a mistake if one was to understand them as the envi-
ronment itself (Church, Brandon, Burgett 2000).
Our study is mainly based on the previous ar-
chaeological research in the area (for an overview Synoptic predictive modelling can be used to
see Horvat 2006) and the GIS analysis (Štular 2006a; avoid the above described problem. These are de-
Štular 2008). To be more precise the GIS analysis in fined as a regional combination of variables relevant
question was the so called predictive modelling. to archaeological site locations rather than specific
site locations (Custer 1986). However, it is impor-
In order to fully appreciate the results a short tant to use paleo-environmental data and not data
methodological introduction of predictive model- pertaining to the modern environment (Church,
ling in archaeology is necessary (e.g. Stančič, Vel- Brandon, Burgett 2000, 136-138). Explanatory pre-
janovska 1998; Church, Brandon, Burgett 2000; dictive modelling uses the landscape perspective
Štular 2006b, see cited literature). In archaeology a in order to search for the processes that govern the
predictive model is defined as a hypotheses or sets correlations among various landscape agencies. The
of hypotheses which simplify complex observation expected end result is the understanding of these
whilst offering a largely accurate predictive frame- correlations as best possible.
work structuring these observations (Clarke 1968,
32). The simpler correlative predictive modelling Each predictive modelling exercise stand or
differs from explanatory predictive modelling. The falls on the quality of the input data. The exact in-
former are intended to detect the positive relations fluence the methodology has on the final result is
between the known agents within the landscape negligible compared to the quality and quantity of
whilst the latter strive to explain these relations the data used. Therefore, in this case study special
(Church, Brandon, Burgett 2000, 148-153). care was devoted to extracting the input data and to
the transparency of the metadata (figure 2).
The most common mistake made by practi-
tioners of predictive modelling is that they depend In the following exercise deductive weighted
on modern analogies. For example, the least effort predictive modelling was used. The former pertains
structure is one of the most important ones in capi- to a priori assumptions regarding the variables such
talist society: achieving something with the least as solar radiation, slope, etc. The latter pertains to
possible effort maximises the profit. However, this weights of each variable, such as the adequacy of the
Benjamin Štular
slope for pasture. used. In the Julian Alps these have been archaeo-
logically documented between 1500 and 1800 me-
It is important to mention that the above de- ters above sea level. In order to avoid circular ar-
scribed common mistakes are in practice often in- gumentation we have deliberately neglected the
curred by unsuitable data, such as the lack of high- topographic observation pertaining to the Kamnik
precision paleo-environmental data, etc. It was our Alps (Cevc 1997, 88) citing altitudes between 1450
general assumption that in marginal landscapes and 1800 metres. The younger pastures have been
(such as mountains) crucial paleo-environmental cleared from the forests between 1200 and 1500
oscillations (e.g. important changes in the tree limit metres above sea level, on certain occasions even as
or permanent snow line), would be detected in ar- low as 1000 metres. On the other hand some pas-
chaeological records. For example, since archaeo- tures can be found as high as 2000 metres above sea
logical finds originating from between the Bronze level (Štular 2006a, slika 1; data measured on DMV
Age and the Middle Ages are to be found up to 2000 12,5). Based on the determined altitude 3 weights
meters above sea level, the environmental oscilla- were applied (figure 3).
tions within this time span were apparently toler-
able or surmountable with the cultural adaptations. The second topographic variable used was slope
(figure 3). It is a known fact that slopes over 20 de-
Unlike much of the archaeological fieldwork this grees are not suitable for grazing modern cattle spe-
research was focused on documenting the potential cies (Petek 2005, 45). However, since the predomi-
for pastures rather than on the search for locations nant pasture species in the pre-modern times were
inhabited by herdsmen. On one hand this was due sheep and goats (Cevc 2006b, 117) slopes of up to
to practical reasons, since the actual settlement lo- 35 degrees were used. This is the slope of the steep-
cations are much harder to pinpoint (cf. Melik 1950, est meadows as documented in the Slovene Alpine
205) especially in view of input data precision (cf. area (Petek 2005, 38–39). Also, the early medieval
figure 2). On the other hand as we steered the re- huts archaeologically excavated in the Kamnik Alps,
search in this direction we were able to capitalise on presumably set at the edge of suitable grounds, were
the advantages of the GIS based method (covering built on a slope of 30 - 32 degrees (cf. Pleterski 2006,
large areas, more general data) rather than trying slika 8; the slope was calculated on DMV 12,5). De-
to ‘compete’ with archaeological topography (time spite this the majority of the settlements are expect-
consuming, more specific data). Due to the harsh- ed on slopes of 20 degrees or less since a flat area
ness of the mountain landscape the used predictive was needed for periodical gathering of the live stock
model is primarily based on environmental struc- (Bremšak 2006, 43).
ture. We agree that the agricultural use of the Alpine
landscape is - and has always been - heavily adapted The third topographic variable used was solar
to the topography (Petek 2005, 45–46). In search of radiation. Solar radiation is extremely important in
the topographic variables we have turned to data areas with steep slopes and low average tempera-
stemming from the well researched Bled and Bohinj tures since it has a strong influence on the melting
high-mountain pastures in the nearby Julian Alps of the snow in the spring, vegetation and the overall
(Melik 1950; Pleterski 1986, 114–119; Ogrin 2006; quality of pasture. The geological and consequently
Štular 2006a) and partially to the topographic ob- pedological bed also has a strong influence on the
servations from the Kamnik Alps (Bremšak 2006). quality of pastures (Čerček 1949, 48–50 and 69–71;
Melik 1950, 9–30), however not enough data is avail-
It seems (Štular 2006a, 237-238; cf. Ogrin 2006, able to use this data in the model. Therefore, we have
slika 1) that the oldest agricultural use was concen- calculated the sum of solar radiation in a 2 week in-
trated on the so called natural pastures above the terval for the usual time of grazing, i.e. from May 1st
forest line. Since the forest line depends on several to September 30th (Melik 1950, 117–130). Since the
variables including environmental oscillations, the result measured in kilo Watt hours per square meter
altitudes of the known natural pastures have been (kWh/m²) is by no means easy to interpret we have
Medieval High-Mountain Pastures in the Kamnik Alps (Slovenia)
made the same calculation for the known areas of The above described predictive model is meth-
the Bled high-mountain pastures. There the mini- odologically rather simplistic due to the lack of suit-
mum value was 101 kWh/m², the maximum value able data (geology, pedology) on one hand and the
1.100 kWh/m², the median value 786 kWh/m² and demanding environment (transparent eliminating
the average value 791 kWh/m². The latter has been factors) on the other. However, excellent data for in-
used as a reference value to calculate the weighted dependent statistic verification was available.
variables (figure 3).
One set of verification data was acquired
The 1st model was calculated using the present- through a historic geographic research that mapped
ed variables: height, slope and solar radiation. Since the high-mountain pastures (Čerček 1949, 86) and
the primary importance of both height and slope is had been carried out before the first wave of high-
as an eliminating factor - i.e. there are no pastures mountain pastures desertion in the 1950s (cf. Petek
higher than 2000 metres or on slopes steeper than 2005,78–80). The second data set was acquired by
35 degrees - the importance of these two as positive mapping place-names planina. This place-name
factors has been halved. Therefore, the used ratio of typically denotes both the herders’ settlements as
the weights was height : slope : solar radiation at a well as the high-mountain pastures (cf. Melik 1950,
scale 1 : 1 : 2. The results were categorized into 4 221–228). In the Bled region this name was predom-
classes (figure 4). inantly used for younger planine that were cleared
below the forest line in high medieval times (cf.
Figure 4: The first predictive model showing the potential for high-mountain pastures in the Kamnik Alps (© author;
used sources: DMV 12,5, November 2005 © The Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia).
Benjamin Štular
Figure 5: The percentage of each category for the first For the next independent test of the model the
(lighter columns) and the second (darker columns) pre- Velika planina (translates as the big high-mountain
dictive model. pasture) area was used. This well researched high-
mountain pasture (cf. Horvat, this volume) is situat-
ed on the edge of the study area. Thanks to the ideal
Štular 2006a, 234). Last, but not least, all confirmed conditions large portions are still in use today. Using
archaeological sites (Cevc 1997; Horvat 2006) were the same criterion as for the research area the pas-
mapped. tures documented in the late 1940s (Čerček 1949,
86) almost completely coincide with the predictive
Figure 6: The second predictive model that includes the proximity to water variable (© author; sources used: DMV
12,5, November 2005 © The Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia).
Medieval High-Mountain Pastures in the Kamnik Alps (Slovenia)
However, the quality of any predictive model is The aforementioned Bled high-mountain pas-
not measured merely by its accuracy, but also by tures study was based on the assumption that the
its capability to narrow down the potential area as pastures above the forest line are older than the
much as possible. If the accuracy of at least 83 % is ones below that line. This asserted hypothesis was
above average, the predicted area - 50.6 km² or 27 % furthered by the recognition that younger pastures
of the studied area - was larger than desired. were cleared in the vicinity of the paths leading from
the valley settlements towards the oldest pastures
In order to improve the results a fourth vari- (Štular 2006a). This was used as hypothesis A.
able was added, i.e. proximity to a water source. The
importance of water for animal herding is obvious. In archaeology there are several ways of mod-
Due to the predominantly limestone bedrock (see elling ancient and historical pathways using GIS.
above) the water sources in this area are scarce dur- Modelling optimal pathways or performing network
ing the summer months. However, the case of the analysis on a known path network are the two most
Bled and Bohinj Alps informs us that alternative wa- common (e.g. Conolly, Lake 2006, 234-256). Based
ter sources were available. The predominant type of on the available data for this study we have opted for
water supply was represented by the so called kali, the second method.
i.e. water-tight holes in the ground. These can oc-
cur naturally, can be altered by humans or they can The path network to be examined was the mod-
be entirely manmade. The best water source for a ern hiking path network (figure 7). Once again,
kal is a natural spring, however rainwater is also this decision was based on the assumption that the
commonly used. For the purposes of our predictive roughness of the mountainous terrain does not al-
model these differences were not considered to be low for numerous possibilities when travelling from
important and all water sources were mapped us- point A to point B. Therefore it was our hypothesis
ing the available mapped data (DTK 25 map © The B that some sections of the ubiquitous modern hik-
Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic ing paths coincide with the oldest paths. Or, from a
of Slovenia; scale 1 : 25.000). different perspective, that the modern path network
is based on (pre)historic paths. As sufficient exter-
The water variable is problematic for two reasons. nal data is available the oldest paths can be found
The first problem is the unreliability of the available with the use of network analysis.
data that can be neither influenced nor controlled.
The only spring that we know of that was the sole The network analysis was fairly straight forward:
water source of the large planina on Krvavec, for if both hypotheses are correct than the high-moun-
example, has not been charted. The second problem tain pastures situated below the tree line must be
is the issue of the maximum distance to which the placed in the vicinity of the paths that lead from the
herdsmen and their herds could travel daily in order valley settlements towards the high-mountain natu-
to obtain their water supply. The maximum distance ral pastures situated above the tree line.
of a 1 hour walk has been chosen rather arbitrary.
It was calculated using the tested PD 13 algorithm The result for the Kamnik Alps study area (fig-
(Štular 2006c). This variable has been weighted with ure 8) proves that both hypotheses are correct. Us-
the inverse distance algorithm (figure 3). ing the results obtained by predictive modelling 3
high-mountain pastures above the tree line (at 1800
This, the 2nd model (figure 6), achieved the pri- meters) have been determined. Each of these pas-
mary goal of reducing the predicted area to an ac- tures is connected to the valley with a path that in-
ceptable 40 km² or 21 % of the study area. However, cludes a group of pastures (figure 8: a, b, c) bellow
as expected, the accuracy deteriorated. 63 % of both the tree line. The majority of the lower pastures that
historically documented planina’s and place-names do not correspond to these groups can be explained
were within the predicted area, however they in- as either located in the proximity of the valley settle-
cluded a mere 50 % of the archaeological sites. The ments (figure 8: d, e) or belonging to a high-moun-
63 % accuracy is still close to the most commonly tain pasture system with the core area outside the
desired 66.6 % (e.g. Dalla Bona 2000, 81-87). Also, researched area (figure 8: f) - in this case Velika
the distribution of the area within each weight-class planina.
once again shows the desired bell shape (figure 3).
Benjamin Štular
Figure 7: The network of modern hiking paths within the research area (© author; sources used: DMV 12,5 and
DTK 25, November 2005 © The Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia).
The Particularities: Krvavec mented phases. The older (1st) phase - roughly dat-
ed with the use of pottery to the end of the Middle
Before turning to the interpretation a short in- Ages - can be interpreted as rubble and/or refuse
troduction of one of the most thoroughly researched from the previous building that stood on the same
sites in the area - the Krvavec site (cf. Pleterski, this location and for which the ground plan can not be
volume) - will be presented. So far the use of this identified. The younger (2nd) phase was dated with
area has been documented in at least four periods: the use of early post-medieval pottery (figure 11).
the middle Bronze Age, early medieval, high - late
medieval and modern. The remains that can be ar- Disregarding the loose dating at this stage of the
chaeologically documented, i.e. settlements and research we would like to draw attention to the 2nd
kali, shifted locations throughout the past (figure phase archaeological remains discovered within the
9). building. The distribution of the finds plotted against
the ground plan (figure 10) is unambiguous. The di-
In this article a late medieval/early post-medi- vision of the building into two areas, one with large
eval building will be presented. An exceptionally pottery shards and one without them, is clearly vis-
large building has been archaeologically document- ible. These two areas are divided by the only struc-
ed among several smaller buildings in the middle of ture within the building, in the proximity of which a
a relatively flat plateau (figure 10). concentration of smaller shards was discovered. The
The building has two archaeologically docu- The C14 dates were not available at the time of print.
Medieval High-Mountain Pastures in the Kamnik Alps (Slovenia)
Figure 8: Paths leading from the valley settlements towards the natural high-mountain pastures located above the
tree line. The pasture groups a - f are described in the text (© author; sources used: DMV 12,5 and DTK 25, Novem-
ber 2005 © The Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia).
largest concentration of small and medium shards It can be argued that it is too early in the re-
was located just outside the building. The area of the search to issue even an outline of the interpretation.
building with more pottery also houses a larger con- However it is undisputable that we are dealing with
centration of horseshoe nails. an unusually large two cell building. A building of
this size suggests that this was a higher status build-
It seems that these remains can be very convinc- ing. The likely connection with horse-herding deep-
ingly interpreted as belonging to a two-cell house. ens this notion that is further supported by the find
The eastern part was used as a stable. To be more of a table knife in the 1st phase deposits. The higher
exact, at least in one part or in one period this was status late medieval/early post-medieval building on
a horse stable. The western room was used as the Krvavec is in contrast to both early medieval (cf. Pl-
living quarters and was equipped with a clay-and- eterski, this volume) and ethnologically documented
stone-built low fireplace. The room has been kept modern settlements (Cevc 1984). These seem to be
clean (no medium or large pottery shards), at least small and highly functional single cell buildings that
when compared to the stable. Following the com- can be picturesquely described as ‘modest’ herds-
parison with some ethnological analogies (Cevc men’s huts.
1984, 105) and the interpretation of the early medi-
eval houses on the same site (Pleterski, this volume) Therefore, an important conclusion that can be
we can assume that the entrance was parallel to the drawn from the ‘particularities’ of the case study is
slope, on the east side where the refuse is situated. that without specific knowledge only the general ar-
Benjamin Štular
eas of the activity focus (the pastures) can be mod- temporal dynamics of the system. Once the input
elled, since the exact locations (settlements, etc.) data will be improved the interpretations regarding
of human activities are dynamic through time - in the everyday decisions reached by medieval people
regards to the activity and in regards to the social can be discussed. However, already at this stage of
status. the research we have ascertained that some areas
convenient for pastures have been utilised while
others, further removed from the original paths,
Conclusion: Medieval High-Mountain Pastures were not (figure 8). Thus not only natural conditions
in the Kamnik Alps - simulated with the predictive model - but also the
human agency behind the decision making process
In the first part of this article the medie- is recognized. Methodologically speaking this is a
val high-mountain pastures in the Kamnik Alps shift from the correlative towards synoptic predic-
were approached as a system consisting of three tive modelling.
major entities: pastures, human activity focal
points(predominantly settlements, both in the val- The Krvavec medieval archaeological site will
ley and in the mountains) and the connecting path be fully understood only once the data is thoroughly
network. This approach enabled us to recognize the analysed. At this point we would like to stress the
Figure 9: Archaeological sites at the Krvavec high-mountain pasture: 1 - bronze age, 2 - Early Medieval, 3 - High
Medieval, 4 - Late Medieval / Early Post-medieval, 5 - Modern (© author; sources used: DOF © The Surveying
and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia).
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Medieval High-Mountain Pastures in the Kamnik Alps (Slovenia)
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Benjamin Štular
Figure 11: Pottery from the Krvavec 2009 excavation (scale 1:3, © Dragica Knific-Lunder).
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Medieval High-Mountain Pastures in the Kamnik Alps (Slovenia)
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Benjamin Štular
bstular@zrc-sazu.si
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