Q: Classify solid engineering materials. Explain briefly.

Ans:

Materials

Materials due
Metals Non - Metals
to combination

Non – Ferrous Organic

Ferrous Metals Ceramics Alloys Composites
Metals polymers

Brief Explanation:
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that “glues"
the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to
light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.

Ceramics: atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces between them. Normally (oxides, nitrides, and carbides of metals). Examples: glass,
porcelain, many minerals, bricks, stone, tiles etc.

Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually based
on H, C and other non-metallic elements. Examples: plastics (nylon, teflon, polyester) and
rubber.

Composite: Is the combination of two or more dissimilar materials (metals, non-metals etc) in
intimate contact to achieve specific properties. Properties are that of the combination of constituent
materials. (Example: fiberglass, RCC).

Alloy: Alloy is a combination of two or more metals to achieve properties quite different that of its
constituent metals. Ex. HSS, Stainless steel, Brass, Bronze etc
Ferrous metals contain iron (Fe) as its main constituent eg MS, cast iron etc
Non Ferrous metals are Al, Cu, Ni, Mg etc

Advanced Materials
Materials used in "High-Tech" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and
normally expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for
computer disks, special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.

Q: Define atomic structure, crystal structure, space lattice, unit cell, Motif, Coordination No.,
and Number of effective atoms, APF, crystalline and non-crystalline materials, single and
polycrystalline materials and Miller indices.

Ans:
Atomic Structure: The structure inside the atoms i.e. proton, electron configuration, nucleolus
and their studies.
Crystal Structures: is a periodic array of the atoms. When the solid is not crystalline, it is
called amorphous. Examples of crystalline solids are metals, diamond and other precious stones,
ice, graphite. Examples of amorphous solids are glass, amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si,
most plastics. To discuss crystalline structures it is useful to consider atoms as being hard spheres,
with well-defined radii. In this scheme, the shortest distance between two like atoms is one diameter.
Crystal Lattice or space lattice is used to represent a three-dimensional periodic array of points
coinciding with atom positions.

Motif or basis: way of filling the atoms in space lattice is known as basis or motif.

Unit cell is smallest repeatable entity that can be used to completely represent a crystal structure. It
is the building block of crystal structure.

Coordination Number is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded.

Number of effective atoms (n) is effective number of atoms inside the unit cell.

APF is the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually occupied by
the hard spheres. APF = Volume of atoms per unit cell / Volume of unit cell.

Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials:

Single Crystals: where the whole solid is one crystal.
Polycrystalline Materials: A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each
other. It is called polycrystalline.
Non-Crystalline Solids
In amorphous or Non-Crystalline solids, there is no long-range order.

Miller Indices: A system of notation is for designating planes and direction within a unit cell.

Rules for Miller Indices (Planes)

• Determine the intercepts of the face along the crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell
dimensions.
• Take the reciprocals
• Clear fractions
• Reduce to lowest terms
For example, if the x-, y-, and z- intercepts are 2, 1, and 3, the Miller indices are calculated as:
• Take reciprocals: 1/2, 1/1, 1/3
• Clear fractions (multiply by 6): 3, 6, 2
• Reduce to lowest terms (already there)
Thus, the Miller indices are 3,6,2. If a plane is parallel to an axis, its intercept is at infinity and
its Miller index is zero. A generic Miller index is denoted by (hkl). A family of planes is represented
by {hkl} If a plane has negative intercept, the negative number is denoted by a bar above the
number. Never alter negative numbers. For example, do not divide -1, -1, -1 by -1 to get 1, 1, 1.

Miller Indices - Direction

 A vector of convenient length is placed parallel to the required direction
 The length of the vector projection on each of three axes are measured in terms of unit cell
dimensions
 These three numbers are made to smallest integer values, known as indices, by multiplying or
dividing by a common factor
 The three indices are enclosed in square brackets, [uvw].
 A family of directions is represented by <uvw>
Some General Principles
• If a Miller index is zero, the plane is parallel to that axis.
• The smaller a Miller index, the more nearly parallel the plane is to the axis.
• The larger a Miller index, the more nearly perpendicular a plane is to that axis.
• Multiplying or dividing a Miller index by a constant has no effect on the orientation of the
plane.
Why Miller Indices?
• Using reciprocals spares us the complication of infinite intercepts.
• Formulas involving Miller indices are very similar to related formulas from analytical geometry.
• Specifying dimensions in unit cell terms means that the same label can be applied to any face with
a similar stacking pattern, regardless of the crystal class of the crystal. Face 111 always steps the
same way regardless of crystal system.

Q: Describe bravais crystal systems.

The 7 Crystal Systems and 14 space lattices

Although there are only 7 crystal systems or shapes, there are 14 different crystal lattices, called
Bravais Lattices (3 different cubic types, 2 different tetragonal types, 4 different orthorhombic types,
2 different monoclinic types, 1 rhombohedral, 1 hexagonal, 1 triclinic).
Q: calculate APF of BCC, FCC and HCP crustal structure.

Q: Show that ideal c/a ratio of HCP crystal is 1.633.

Q: Describe imperfection or defects in crystalline materials.
Ans: Defects are classified on the basis of their geometry
a. Point defects (zero-dimensional)
b. Line defects (single dimensional) (also called dislocations)
c. Surface defects (two dimensional)
d. Volume defects (three dimensional)
Point Defects
A vacancy is a lattice position that is vacant because the atom is missing.
An interstitial is an atom that occupies a place outside the normal lattice position i.e. voids between
atoms. It maybe the same type of atom as the others (self interstitial) or an impurity atom. e.g.
carbon in Fe.
A substitutional atom is a foreign atom occupying original lattice position by displacing the parent
atom. (Cu-Ni)
Frenkel-defect when an ion displaced from a regular position to an interstitial position creating a
vacancy, the pair of vacancy-interstitial is called Frenkel defect.
Schottky-defect a pair of one cation and one anion can be missing from an ionic crystal.

Dislocations—Linear Defects:
Dislocations are abrupt changes in the regular ordering of atoms, along a line (dislocation line) in the
solid. They occur in high density and are very important in mechanical properties of material. They
are characterized by the Burgers vector, found by doing a loop around the dislocation line and
noticing the extra interatomic spacing needed to close the loop.

Line Defects – Burger’s Vector

 A dislocation in characterized by Burger’s vector, b.
 It is unique to a dislocation, and usually has the direction of close packed lattice direction. It is
also the slip direction of a dislocation.
 It represents the magnitude and direction of distortion associated with that particular
dislocation.
 Two limiting cases of dislocations, edge and screw, are characterized by Burger’s vector
perpendicular to the dislocation line (t) and Burger’s vector parallel to the dislocation line
respectively. Ordinary dislocation is of mixed character of edge and screw type.

Edge dislocations occur when an extra half plane seems to be inserted in a perfect crystal. The
dislocation line is at the end of the plane. In an edge dislocation, the Burgers vector is
perpendicular to the dislocation line.

Screw dislocations result when displacing planes relative to each other through shear. In this case,
the Burgers vector is parallel to the dislocation line.
Interfacial or surface Defects
Interfacial defects can be defined as boundaries that have two dimensional imperfections in
crystalline solids, and have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations on either
side of them. For example: external surfaces, grain boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking
faults, and phase boundaries
External surface: The environment of an atom at a surface differs from that of an atom in the bulk;
especially the number of neighbors (coordination) at surface is less. Thus the unsaturated bonds of
surface atoms give rise to a surface energy. To reduce the energy, materials tend to minimize, if
possible, the total surface area.
Grain boundaries: Crystalline solids are, usually, made of number of grains or crystal separated by
grain boundaries. Grain boundaries are several atoms distances wide, and there is mismatch of
orientation of grains on either side of the boundary.
When this misalignment is slight, on the order of few degrees (< 10°), it is called low angle grain
boundary.
If the low grain boundary is formed by edge dislocations, it is called tilt boundary, and twist
boundary if formed of screw dislocations.
For high angle grain boundaries, degree of disorientation is of large range (> 10°). Grain
boundaries are chemically more reactive because of grain boundary energy.
Twin boundaries: It is a special type of grain boundary across which there is specific mirror lattice
symmetry. Twin boundaries occur in pairs. The region between the pair of boundaries is called the
twinned region. Twins which forms during the process of recrystallization are called annealing
twins, whereas deformation twins form during plastic deformation.
Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have FCC crystal structure, while
mechanical/deformation twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals.
Stacking faults: They are faults in stacking sequence of atom planes. Stacking sequence in an
FCC crystal is ABC ABC ABC …, and the sequence for HCP crystals is AB AB AB…. When there is
disturbance in the stacking sequence, formation of stacking faults takes place.
Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials across which there is sudden change in
physical/chemical characteristics.

Bulk or Volume Defects

Volume defects are three-dimensional in nature. These defects are introduced, usually, during
processing and fabrication operations like casting, forming etc.E.g.: Pores, Cracks, Foreign
particles.

Q: What is diffusion? Describe Fick’s laws of diffusion (steady and unsteady). Discuss
factors affecting diffusion.

Ans: Diffusion is the process of mass flow in which atoms change their positions relative to
neighbors in a given phase under the influence of thermal and a gradient. The gradient can be a
compositional gradient, an electric or magnetic gradient, or stress gradient. E.g.: Carburizing
the steel, annealing homogenization after solidification, coffee mixing, etc.
From an atomic perceptive, diffusion is a step wise migration of atoms from one lattice
position to another.

Types of diffusion (Mechanism) are vacancy, interstitial, substitutional, self-interstitial and

self-diffusion as shown in above figure.

Steady-State Diffusion
The flux of diffusing atoms, J, is expressed either in number of atoms per unit area and per unit
time (e.g., atoms/m2-second) or in terms of mass flux (e.g., kg/m2-second). Steady state
diffusion means that J does not depend on time. In this case, Fick’s first law holds that the flux
along direction x is:

J = – D dC/dx
Where dC/dx is the concentration gradient and D is the diffusion constant. The minus sign in
the equation means that diffusion is down the concentration gradient.

Non-steady-State Diffusion

This is the case when the diffusion flux (J) depends on time, which means that a type of atoms
accumulates in a region or that it is depleted from a region (which may cause them to accumulate in
another region).

Factors that influence diffusion

As stated above, there is a barrier to diffusion created by neighboring atoms that need to move to let
the diffusing atom pass. Thus, atomic vibrations created by temperature assist diffusion. Also,
smaller atoms diffuse more readily than big ones, and diffusion is faster in open lattices or in
open directions. Similar to the case of vacancy formation, the effect of temperature in diffusion
is given by a Boltzmann factor: D = D0 × exp(–Qd/kT).

Q: Define ferrous materials? Describe plain carbon steels and alloy steels.

Ans: Ferrous materials are those in which iron (Fe) is the principle constituent. All other
materials are categorized as non-ferrous materials.
In ferrous materials the main alloying element is carbon (C).

Plain Carbon steels: Steels are alloys of iron and carbon plus other alloying elements. In
steels, carbon present in atomic form, and occupies interstitial sites of Fe atoms. Alloying
additions are necessary for many reasons including: improving properties, improving corrosion
resistance, etc. Arguably steels are well known and most used materials than any other
materials. Mechanical properties of steels are very sensitive to carbon content. Hence, it is practical
to classify steels based on their carbon content.
Thus steels are basically three kinds: low-carbon steels (% wt of C < 0.3), medium carbon steels
(0.3 <% wt of C < 0.7) and high-carbon steels (0.7 <% wt of C < 1.5)

Low carbon steels: These are arguably produced in the greatest quantities than other alloys.
Carbon present in these alloys is limited, and is not enough to strengthen these materials by heat
treatment; hence these alloys are strengthened by cold work. Their microstructure consists of ferrite
and pearlite, and these alloys are thus relatively soft, ductile combined with high toughness.
Hence these materials are easily machinable and weldable. Typical applications of these alloys
include: structural shapes, tin cans, automobile body components, buildings, etc.

Medium carbon steels: These are stronger than low carbon steels. However these are of less
ductile than low carbon steels. These alloys can be heat treated to improve their strength.
Typical applications include: railway tracks & wheels, gears, other machine parts which may
require good combination of strength and toughness.

High carbon steels: These are strongest and hardest of carbon steels, and of course their
ductility is very limited. These are heat treatable, and mostly used in hardened and tempered
conditions. They possess very high wear resistance, and capable of holding sharp edges. Thus
these are used for tool application such as knives, razors, hacksaw blades, etc.

Alloy steels: (addition of more alloying elements in plain carbon steel)

HSLA (high-strength low-alloy) steels: Common alloying elements are: Cu, V, Ni, W, Cr, Mo, etc.
These alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment, and yet the same time they are ductile,
formable. Typical applications of these HSLA steels include: support columns, bridges, pressure
vessels.

Stainless steels (SS): The name comes from their high resistance to corrosion i.e. they are rust-
less (stain-less). Steels are made highly corrosion resistant by addition of special alloying elements,
especially a minimum of 12% Cr along with Ni and Mo. Stainless steels are mainly three kinds:
ferritic & hardenable Cr steels, austenitic and precipitation hardenable (martensitic, semi-
austenitic) steels. This classification is based on prominent constituent of the microstructure. Typical
applications include cutlery, razor blades, surgical knives, etc.

Ferritic stainless steels are principally Fe-Cr-C alloys with 12-14% Cr. They also contain small
additions of Mo, V, Nb, and Ni.

Austenitic stainless steels usually contain 18% Cr and 8% Ni in addition to other minor alloying
elements. Ni stabilizes the austenitic phase assisted by C and N. Other alloying additions include
Ti, Nb, Mo (prevent weld decay), Mn and Cu (helps in stabilizing austenite).

Martensitic stainless steels Ms is made to be above the room temperature. These alloys are heat
treatable. Major alloying elements are: Cr, Mn and Mo.

HSS (High speed steel): is a material usually used in the manufacture of machine tool bits and
other cutters. It is often used in power saw blades and drill bits. It is superior to the high carbon
steel tools. It can withstand higher temperatures without losing its hardness (Hot hardness). This
property allows HSS to cut faster than high carbon steel, hence the name high speed steel.
The main use of high speed steels continues to be in the manufacture of various cutting tools: drills,
taps, milling cutters, tool bits, gear cutters, saw blades, etc., although usage for punches and dies is
increasing.
The common HSS is 18:4:1 HSS having 18% W, 4% Cr & 1% V.

Q: Describe various types of cast irons.

Ans: Though ferrous alloys having 2.14 - 4.5 wt.% C are designated as cast irons,
commercially cast irons contain about 3.0-4.5% C along with some alloying additions. It melts
at lower temperatures than steels i.e. they are responsive to casting. Hence casting is the
most used fabrication technique for these alloys.
Cast iron is Hard and brittle. Cementite is a meta-stable phase, and can readily decompose to form
α-ferrite and graphite. Tendency of cast irons to form graphite is usually controlled by their
composition and cooling rate. Based on the form of carbon present, cast irons are categorized as
gray, white, nodular and malleable cast irons.

Gray cast iron: These alloys consists carbon in form graphite flakes, which are surrounded by
either ferrite or pearlite. Because of presence of graphite, fractured surface of these alloys look
grayish, and so is the name for them. Alloying addition of Si (1-3wt.%) is responsible for formation of
graphite from cementite. It has high fluidity. Thus castings of intricate shapes can be easily made.
Due to graphite flakes, gray cast irons are weak and brittle. However they possess good
damping properties, and thus typical applications include: base structures, bed for heavy
machines, etc. they also show high resistance to wear.

White cast iron: When Si content is low (< 1%) in combination with faster cooling rates, there is
no time left for cementite to get decomposed into graphite, thus most of the brittle cementite
retains. Because of presence of cementite, fractured surface appear white, hence the name. They
are very brittle and extremely difficult to machine. Hence their use is limited to wear resistant
applications such as rollers in rolling mills. Usually white cast iron is heat treated to produce
malleable iron.

Malleable cast iron: These formed after heat treating white cast iron. Heat treatments involve
heating the material up to 800-900 0C, and keep it for long hours, before cooling it to room
temperature. High temperature incubation causes cementite to decompose and form ferrite and
graphite. Thus these materials are stronger with appreciable amount of ductility. Typical applications
include: railroad, connecting rods, marine and other heavy-duty services.

Nodular (or ductile) cast iron: Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these
materials. Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before casting can result in
graphite to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix surrounding these particles can be
either ferrite or pearlite depending on the heat treatment. These are stronger and ductile than
gray cast irons. Typical applications include: pump bodies, crank shafts, automotive
components, etc.

Q: What are the various types of brasses? Describe.

Ans: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It possesses excellent mechanical properties and good
corrosion resistance. Various types are
 Cartridge or spinning brass: (70% Cu and 30% Zn) used for automotive radiators,
ammunition components, and flashlight cells etc.
 Muntz Metal (60% Cu and 40% Zn) used for marine fittings, cast valves, condenser tubes
etc.
 Gliding Metal (95% Cu and 5% Zn) used for coins, medals, gold platings etc.
 Admiralty Brass (71% Cu, 28% Zn and 1% Sn) used for condenser evaporator and heat
exchange tubes.

Q: What are the various types of Bronzes? Describe.

Ans: Bronze is an alloy of primarily Cu and Sn with other alloying elements such as Al, Si and Ni.
They are somewhat stronger than brasses but still have good corrosion and wear resistance.
Various types are:

 Phosphor Bronze (94.8% Cu, 5% Sn and 0.2% P) used in bearings, springs, welding rods
etc.
 Gun Metal (88% Cu, 10% Sn and 2% Cu) used in gears, bearings, piston rings, bushings
etc.
 Aluminium Bronze (88% Cu, 10% Sn and 2% Cu) used in bearings, gears, worms etc.
 Beryllium Bronze (98% Cu, 1.7% Be and 0.3% Co) used in springs, diaphams, used against
fatigue and corrosion.

Q: What are the various types of Cu-Ni alloys? Describe.

Ans: German silver: (70% Cu and 30% Ni) may be other combinations 80/20, 75/25 etc. it is
extremely malleable, ductile and good corrosion resistance. Used in condenser tubes, high grade
plumbing hardware, fittings etc.

Monel Metal: (70% Ni and 30% Cu) high strength and corrosion resistance, used in chemical and
food processing plants, turbine blades, screws etc.

Q: What is Duralumin? Describe.

Ans: Duralumin is an alloy of aluminium having (94% Al, 4% Cu and 0.5% each of Mn, Mg, Si and
Fe). It possesses high tensile strength and high electric conductance. Applications are sheets, tubes,
rivets, surgical and orthopedic works etc.

Q: What are various bearing materials? Describe.

Ans: Bearing materials require high hardness, wear resistance and corrosion resistance.

 All bronzes (Define all bronzes here)

 Babbitts: are alloys of Tin, copper, lead and antimony. The tin provides hardness and
compressive strength, copper improves toughness, antimony prevents shrinkage and lead
contributes to ductility in Babbitts. Babbitts have high load carrying capacity and high impact
strength. A typical composition is 95 %Sn, 4 to 5 % Cu and Sb, 0.35 % Pb and 0.08 % Fe.
 Copper – Lead alloys (White Metal) alloys having large amount of lead have good bearing
characteristics at high temperatures.

Q: Define true stress and strain.

Ans: The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress.
Load per unit instantaneous area is termed as true stress and change in length per unit
instantaneous length is known as true strain. True strain is mathematically given as

As material volume is expected to be constant i.e. A L =AL, and thus

0 0

Q: Define elastic and plastic deformation. Define tangent and secant modulus.
Elastic deformation: Elastic deformation is reversible i.e. recoverable. Up to a certain limit of the
applied stress, strain experienced by the material will be the kind of recoverable i.e. elastic in nature.
This elastic strain is proportional to the stress applied. The proportional relation between the
stress and the elastic strain is given by Hooke’s law, which can be written as follows:
Where the constant E is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus,
Though Hooke’s law is applicable to most of the engineering materials up to their elastic limit,
defined by the critical value of stress beyond which plastic deformation occurs, some materials won’t
obey the law. e.g.: Rubber, it has nonlinear stress-strain relationship and still satisfies the definition
of an elastic material. For materials having non-linear elastic portion, either tangent modulus or
secant modulus is used in design calculations.
The tangent modulus is taken as the slope of stress-strain curve at some specified level,
Secant module represents the slope of secant drawn from the origin to some given point of the σ-ε
curve, as shown in figure below

The basis for elastic deformation is formed by reversible displacements of atoms from their
equilibrium positions. On an atomic scale, elastic deformation can be viewed as small changes in the
inter-atomic distances by stretching of inter-atomic bonds i.e. it involve small changes in inter-atomic
distances. Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material.
Hence values of modulus of elasticity are higher for ceramic materials which consist of strong
covalent and ionic bonds. Elastic modulus values are lower for metal when compared with ceramics,
and are even lower for polymers where only weak covalent bonds present.
Plastic Deformation:
When the stress applied on a material exceeds its elastic limit, it imparts permanent non-
recoverable deformation called plastic deformation in the material. Microscopically it can be
said of plastic deformation involves breaking of original atomic bonds.
The mechanism of this deformation is different for crystalline and amorphous materials. For
crystalline materials, deformation is accomplished by means of a process called slip that involves
motion of dislocations. In amorphous materials, plastic deformation takes place by viscous flow
mechanism.
Elastic deformation Vs Plastic deformation.

Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

Reversible Not reversible

Depends on initial and final Depends on loading path

states
 Stress is proportional to strain No simple relation between stress and
strain

No strain hardening effects Strain hardening effects

Q: Draw conventional and true stress-strain diagram of mild steel and show salient points in
it.
Ans:

Point-A is known as proportional limit and elastic limit. Slope of the line AB gives the elastic
modulus of the material.
Point-B is yield point and point-F, fracture limit. Yield strength and tensile strength are the
parameters that describe the material’s strength, while percent elongation and reduction in
cross-sectional area are used to indicate the material’s ductility.

Q: What is strain or work hardening? Discuss.

Ans: The Phenomenna where ductile materials become harder and stronger when they are
plastically deformed. During plastic deformation the dislocation density increases and their
interaction with each other increases the yield strength as they stop the motion of each other. For
causing further plastic deformation more load is required to be increased.

Q: Define yield point, tensile strength, ductility, resilience and toughness.

Ans:
Yield point. The point at which the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress is called the
yield point because there the material yields, deforming permanently (plastically).

Tensile strength: When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a
maximum, called the tensile strength and then falls as the material starts to develop a neck and it
finally breaks at the fracture point.

Ductility: The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be given
either as percent maximum elongation åmax or maximum area reduction. %EL = åmax x 100 %
%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0

Resilience: Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the area under the
strain-stress curve in the elastic region.

Toughness: Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the total area
under the strain-stress curve. It is measured by an impact test.

Q: What is CRSS? Derive Schmidt’s law for slip in single crystal.

Ans:
Plastic deformation in crystalline materials is caused by the Phenomenna of slip. Slip begins when
the shearing stress on the slip plane and in slip direction reaches a threshold (minimum) value called
Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS). In other words minimum resolved shear stress required to
cause slip in a slip system is called CRSS.
Q: What is slip system?
Ans:

Q: What is hardness? Discuss various methods of hardness measurement.

Ans:
Hardness: Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually
by penetration, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

Moh’s Hardness Scale

The Mohs hardness scale for minerals has been used since 1822. It simply consists of 10 minerals
arranged in order from 1 to 10. Diamond is rated as the hardest and is indexed as 10; talc as the
softest with index number 1. Each mineral in the scale will scratch all those below it as follows:
Diamond 10
Corundum 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7
Orthoclase (Feldspar) 6
Apatite 5
Fluorite 4
Calcite 3
Gypsum 2
Talc 1

The Brinell hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter
hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be
reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation.
The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30
seconds in the case of other metals.
The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope.
The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the
indentation.
Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone or
hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor
load usually 10 kgf. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is
applied with resulting increase in penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration,
resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the
Rockwell hardness number.
Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness number readout
and rapid testing time. Initial minor load is applied for seating of specimen and it also avoids
Sinking & Ridging.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter, in
the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite
faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The
two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are
measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the
indentation is calculated.
The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of
indentation.

F = Load in kgf
D =Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness
Microhardness Test
Knoop Hardness Test: The term microhardness test usually refers to static indentations
made with loads not exceeding 1 kgf.
The indenter is either the Vickers diamond pyramid or the Knoop elongated diamond pyramid.
The procedure for testing is very similar to that of the standard Vickers hardness test, except that it is
done on a microscopic scale with higher precision instruments.

The Knoop hardness number KHN is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter, P (kgf) to the
unrecovered projected area A (mm2)
KHN = F/A = P/CL2

Where:
F = applied load in kgf
A = the unrecovered projected area of the indentation in mm 2
L = measured length of long diagonal of indentation in mm
C = 0.07028 = Constant of indenter relating projected area of the indentation to the square of the
length of the long diagonal.

The Scleroscope Hardness Test (Rebound Test)

The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube
under the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height of the
rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a graduated scale, which represent the hardness of
specimen.

The Durometer
The Durometer is a popular instrument for measuring the indentation hardness of rubber and
rubber-like materials. The most popular testers are the Model A used for measuring softer
materials and the Model D for harder materials. The operation of the tester is quite simple. The
material is subjected to a definite pressure applied by a calibrated spring to an indenter that is either
a cone or sphere and an indicating device measures the depth of indentation .

Q: Define ductile and brittle fracture.

Ans: Fracture is a form of failure, and is defined as the separation or fragmentation of a solid
body into two or more parts under the action of stress. The process of fracture can be
considered to be made up of two components, crack initiation followed by crack propagation.
Different fracture modes are

Shear fracture, promoted by shear stresses, occurs as result of extensive slip on active slip plane.
On the other hand, cleavage fracture is controlled by tensile stresses acting normal to cleavage
plane. A shear fracture surface appears gray and fibrous, while a cleavage fracture surface appears
bright or granular. Actual fracture surfaces often appear as mixture of fibrous and granular mode.
The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on the ability of a material to undergo plastic
deformation during the fracture.
A ductile fracture is characterized by considerable amount of plastic deformation prior to and during
the crack propagation. On the other hand, brittle fracture is characterized by micro-deformation or no
gross deformation during the crack propagation. Plastic deformation that occurs during ductile
fracture, if monitored, can be useful as warning sign to the fracture that may occur in later stages.
Thus brittle fracture shall be avoided as it may occur without warning!

Under the action of tensile stresses, most metallic materials are ductile, whereas ceramics are
mostly brittle, while polymers may exhibit both types of fracture. Materials with BCC or HCP crystal
structure can be expected to experience brittle fracture under normal conditions, whereas materials
with FCC crystal structure are expected to experience ductile fracture.

Fracture profiles.
Ductile fracture:
Most often ductile fracture in tension occurs after appreciable plastic deformation. It occurs by a slow
tearing of the metal with the expenditure of considerable energy. It can be said that ductile fracture in
tension is usually preceded by a localized reduction in cross-sectional area, called necking. Further it
exhibits three stages - (1) after onset of necking, cavities form, usually at inclusions at second-phase
particles, in the necked region because the geometrical changes induces hydrostatic tensile
stresses, (2) the cavities grow, and further growth leads to their coalesce resulting in formation of
crack that grows outward in direction perpendicular to the application of stress, (3) final failure
involves rapid crack propagation at about 45 ◌ْ to the tensile axis. it is known as cup-and-cone
fracture. In this central interior region has an irregular and fibrous appearance, which signifies
plastic deformation.

Brittle fracture:
The other common mode of fracture is known as brittle fracture that takes place with little or no
preceding plastic deformation. It occurs, often at unpredictable levels of stress, by rapid crack
propagation. The direction of crack propagation is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of
applied tensile stress. This crack propagation corresponds to successive and repeated breaking to
atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes, and hence called cleavage fracture.
As mentioned earlier, brittle fracture occurs without any warning sign, thus it needs to be avoided.
Hence brittle fracture and its mechanism have been analyzed to a great extent compared to ductile
fracture.

Q: Define Griffith theory of brittle fracture. Derive the expression of fracture stress.

Ans: Griffith theory: Griffith proposed that a brittle material contains number of micro-cracks which
causes stress rise in localized regions at a nominal stress which is well below the theoretical value.
When one of the cracks spreads into a brittle fracture, it produces an increase in the surface energy
of the sides of the crack. Source of the increased surface energy is the elastic strain energy,
released as crack spreads. Griffith’s criteria for propagation of crack include these terms as: a crack
will propagate when the decrease in elastic energy is at least equal to the energy required to create
the new crack surface. According to Griffith, such as crack will propagate and produce brittle fracture
when an incremental increase in its length does not change the net energy of the system. Strain
energy released is as follows:

where E is Young’s modulus, and is the applied stress. At the same time, surface energy gained by
the system due to new surfaces formed as a crack, of length 2c, propagates can be given as
Griffith’s criterion can be expressed as follows for incremental change in systems energy with crack
length:

Q: What is fatigue? Draw S-N curve. Explain endurance limit, fatigue strength and fatigue life.

Ans: Fatigue: Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic or alternating loading are called
fatigue failures, presumably because it is generally observed that these failures occur only after a
considerable period of service. Fatigue failure usually occurs at stresses well below those
required for yielding, or in some cases above the yield strength but below the tensile strength
of the material. These failures are dangerous because they occur without any warning.
The stress cycles that are evident in fatigue studies are characterized using many parameters, such
as mean stress, alternating stress, stress ratio and amplitude ratio. If the applied stress varies
between σmax and σmin,

Range of stress, σr = σmax – σmin

Alternating stress, σa = σr/2 = (σmax – σmin)/2
Mean stress, σm = (σmax + σmin)/2
Stress ratio, R= σmin / σmax
Amplitude ratio, A= σa / σm = (1-R) / (1+R)

Fatigue data is usually presented by plotting stress amplitude (Range/2) (S) against number of
cycles to fracture (N), using a logarithmic scale for the latter variable. This form of curve, S-N
curve, shown in above, is significant because there is a stress below which the specimens do not
fracture. This limiting stress is called fatigue limit or endurance limit (σe), below which fatigue will
never occur.
For some materials the fatigue will ultimately occur regardless of the magnitude of the applied stress.
Fatigue response of these materials is specified for a number of stress cycles, normally 10 7, and is
known as fatigue strength. Another important parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue
behavior is fatigue life, Nf, number of cycles to cause fatigue failure at a specified stress level. For a
given stress amplitude, a mean tensile stress reduces the fatigue life of a material.
Q: What is creep? Draw a typical creep curve. What are various stages of creep? What are the
factors affecting creep life.

Ans: Creep: Time dependent permanent deformation of material under constant load/stress at
constant temperature is known as creep. For metals, creep in usually considered important at
elevated temperatures (temperatures greater than 0.4 Tm, Tm is absolute melting temperature of
metal). For polymers and rubber like materials it can occur at normal temperatures.

Generalized creep behavior

Creep behavior of a material is studied using creep test. In creep test, the tensile specimen is
subjected to a constant load or stress at a constant temperature. Most creep tests are conducted at
constant load.
During the creep test, strain (change in length) is measured as a function of elapsed time. The
slope of the creep curve is designated as creep rate.

 Upon loading the specimen, there is an instantaneous deformation (ε0) that is mostly
elastic.
 After initial rapid elongation, ε0, the creep rate decreases continuously with time, and is
known as primary or transient creep.
 Primary creep is followed by secondary or steady-state or viscous creep, which is
characterized by constant creep rate. This stage of creep is often the longest duration of
the three modes.
 The third stage of creep known as, tertiary creep occurs that is characterized by increase in
creep rate.

Stress and temperature effects

With increase in either stress or temperature (a) instantaneous elastic strain increases (b) steady
state creep rate increases and (c) rupture lifetime decreases. Figure-8.16 presents the influence of
stress/temperature on creep behavior.

Q: What are the mechanisms of creep deformation/ fracture?

Ans: The chief creep deformation mechanisms are:

Dislocation glide – involves dislocation moving along slip planes by overcoming barrier with help of
thermal activation. This occurs at high stresses, σ/G >10 -2.
Dislocation creep – involves movement of dislocations which overcome barriers by thermally
assisted mechanisms like diffusion of vacancies or interstitials.
Diffusion creep – involves flow of vacancies and interstitials under the influence of applied stress.
Grain boundary sliding – involves sliding of grains against each other.

Q: What is phase diagram? Define Gibb’s phase rule.

Ans: A diagram that depicts existence of different phases of a system under equilibrium is
termed as phase diagram. It is also known as equilibrium or constitutional diagram.

Gibb’s Phase rule: These include two external variables namely temperature and pressure along
with internal variable such as composition (C) and number of phases (P). Number of independent
variables among these gives the degrees of freedom (F) or variance. All these are related for a
chosen system as follows:

The degrees of freedom cannot be less than zero so that we have an upper limit to the
number of phases that can exist in equilibrium for a given system (i.e. 3).
Q: Classify various types of phase diagrams.

Ans: Phase diagrams are classified based on the number of components in the system.
Single component systems have unary diagrams, two-component systems have binary
diagrams, and three-component systems are represented by ternary diagrams, and so on.
When more than two components are present, phase diagrams become extremely complicated and
difficult to represent.
Unary diagrams: In these systems there is no composition change (C=1), thus only variables are
temperature and pressure. It is drawn as P verses v, or T/P etc.
Binary diagrams: These diagrams constitutes two components, e.g.: two metals (Cu and Ni), or a
metal and a compound (Fe and Fe3C), or two compounds (Al2O3 and Si2O3), etc. Binary diagrams
are usually drawn showing variations in temperature and composition only.
Hence, binary systems are classified according to their solid solubility. If both the components are
completely soluble in each other, the system is called isomorphous system. E.g.: Cu-Ni, Ag-Au,
Ge-Si, Al O -Cr O .
2 3 2 3

Q: Define Hume-Ruthery’s rule of substitutional solid solution.

Ans: The Hume-Ruthery conditions, summarized in the following:

- Crystal structure of each element of solid solution must be the same.
- Size of atoms of each two elements must not differ by more than 15%.
- Elements should not form compounds with each other i.e. there should be no appreciable
difference in the electro-negativities of the two elements.
- Elements should have the same valence.
All the Hume-Rothery rules are not always applicable for all pairs of elements which show complete
solid solubility.
Q: Draw and explain an isomorphous (e.g. Cu-Ni) / complete solid solubility phase diagram.
Ans:
Q: Draw and explain a eutectic phase diagram.
Ans:
Liquid (L) ↔ solid solution-1 (α) + solid solution-2 (β)
This eutectic reaction is called invariant reaction as it occurs under equilibrium conditions at a
specific temperature and specific composition which cannot be varied.
As shown in figure there exist three single phase regions, namely liquid (L), α and β phases. There
also exist three two phase regions: L+α, L+β and α+β.

Q: Define various invariant reaction of phase diagram with suitable example.

Ans:

.
Q: Define nucleation, growth and its types.

Ans: Nucleation- the formation of very small particles or nuclei, of the new phase which are
capable of growing. The second stage is growth, in which the nuclei increase in size; during this
process, some volume of the parent phase disappears. The transformation reaches completion if
growth of these new phase particles is allowed to proceed until the equilibrium fraction is attained.
Solidification = Nucleation + Growth
• Nucleation can occur in one of two ways
– Homogeneous nucleation occurs in the bulk
– Heterogeneous nucleation occurs at grain boundaries and other defects
Q: What is solid solution? What are various types of solid solution? Explain.

Ans: A solid solution containing a minor component uniformly distributed within the crystal lattice of
the major component is known as solid solution. These are mainly two types interstitial and
substitutional solid solution.

Substitutional – Solute atoms occupy the regular lattice sites of the parent metal (solvent).
Substitutional solid solutions can be random (Cu-Ni) or ordered (Cu-Au).
Interstitial – Solute atoms occupy the interstitial positions/ voids (Steel – C solute atoms in
Fe).

Q: Draw Fe-Fe3C or Fe-C phase diagram and describe it. Write invariant reaction in this
diagram.

Ans:
The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram
This is one of the most important alloys for structural applications. The diagram Fe—C is simplified
at low carbon concentrations by assuming it is the Fe—Fe3C diagram. Concentrations are usually
given in weight percent. The possible phases are:
• α-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution
• γ-austenite (FCC) Fe-C solution
• δ-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution
• liquid Fe-C solution
• Fe3C (iron carbide) or cementite. An intermetallic compound.

Fe-C system constitutes four invariant reactions:

- peritectic reaction at 1495 ◌Cْ and 0.16%C, δ-ferrite + L ↔ γ-iron (austenite)
- monotectic reaction 1495 ◌C ْ and 0.51%C, L ↔ L + γ-iron (austenite)
ْ and 4.3 %C, L ↔ γ-iron + Fe3C (cementite) [ledeburite]
- eutectic reaction at 1147 ◌C
- eutectoid reaction at 723 ◌Cْ and 0.8%C, γ-iron ↔ α–ferrite + Fe3C (cementite) [pearlite]
Q: Draw T-T-T (Time- Temperature-Transformation) diagram for eutectoid composition of
steel and explain it. How it is formed.

Ans: Time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagrams measure the rate of transformation at a

constant temperature. In other words a sample is austenitised and then cooled rapidly to a lower
temperature and held at that temperature whilst the rate of transformation is measured. Obviously a
large number of experiments are required to build up a complete TTT diagram.
Q: What is heat treatment? Define Annealing and its types, Normalizing, Hardening
(quenching) and Tempering, Austempering and martempering heat treatment process.

Ans:
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and mechanical
properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is done by heating the specimen to a
predetermined temperature then soaking/holding it at that temperature for some duration so that
microstructure at that temperature forms fully and the cooling it at some specified rate (slow ,
medium or fast cooling).
Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat treatment.
Annealing processes: Annealing can be defined as a heat treatment process in which the material is
taken to a high temperature, kept there for some time and then cooled very slowly (furnace cooling).
• relieve stresses
• increase softness, ductility and toughness
• produce a specific microstructure (normally coarse pearlite)
Depending on the specific purpose, annealing is classified into various types: process annealing,
stress relief, full annealing, spheroidizing and normalizing.
Full annealing is the process of slowly raising the temperature about 50 ºC (90 ºF) above the
Austenitic temperature line A3 or line ACM in the case of Hypoeutectoid steels (steels with < 0.77%
Carbon) and 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Austenite-Cementite region in the case of Hypereutectoid steels
(steels with > 0.77% Carbon).

It is held at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material to transform into Austenite or
Austenite-Cementite as the case may be. It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 ºC/hr (36
ºF/hr) in a furnace to about 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Ferrite-Cementite range. At this point, it can be
cooled in room temperature air with natural convection. The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with
ferrite or Cementite (depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid). The steel becomes soft and
ductile.

Normalizing is the process of raising the temperature to over 60 º C (108 ºF), above line A 3 or line
ACM fully into the Austenite range. It is held at this temperature to fully convert the structure into
Austenite, and then removed form the furnace and cooled at room temperature under natural
convection (air). This results in a grain structure of fine Pearlite with excess of Ferrite or
Cementite. The resulting material is soft; the degree of softness depends on the actual ambient
conditions of cooling. This process is considerably cheaper than full annealing since there is
not the added cost of controlled furnace cooling.

Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made out of low-Carbon steels (< 0.25%
Carbon). This allows the parts to be soft enough to undergo further cold working without fracturing.
Process annealing is done by raising the temperature to just below the Ferrite-Austenite region, line
A1on the diagram. This temperature is about 727 ºC (1341 ºF) so heating it to about 700 ºC (1292
ºF) should suffice. This is held long enough to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase, and then
cooled in still air.

This process is cheaper than either full annealing or normalizing since the material is not heated to a
very high temperature or cooled in a furnace.

Stress Relief Annealing is used to reduce residual stresses in large castings, welded parts and
cold-formed parts. Such parts tend to have stresses due to thermal cycling or work hardening. Parts
are heated to temperatures of up to 600 - 650 ºC (1112 - 1202 ºF), and held for an extended time
(about 1 hour or more) and then slowly cooled in still air.

Spheroidizing is an annealing process used for high carbon steels (Carbon > 0.6%) that will be
machined or cold formed subsequently. This is done by one of the following ways:

Heat the part to a temperature just below the Ferrite-Austenite line, line A1 or below the Austenite-
Cementite line, essentially below the 727 ºC (1340 ºF) line. Hold the temperature for a prolonged
time and follow by fairly slow cooling.

Hardening or Quenching:
Hardness is a function of the Carbon content of the steel. The steel is heated to Austenitic
region. When suddenly quenched, the Martensite is formed. This is a very strong and brittle
structure. When slowly quenched it would form Austenite and Pearlite which is a partly hard
and partly soft structure. When the cooling rate is extremely slow then it would be mostly
Pearlite which is extremely soft.
Usually when hot steel is quenched, most of the cooling happens at the surface, as does the
hardening. This propagates into the depth of the material.

Quench Media
Water: Water is a good rapid quenching medium, provided good agitation is done. However, water is
corrosive with steel, and the rapid cooling can sometimes cause distortion or cracking.
Salt Water: Salt water is a more rapid quench medium than plain water because the bubbles
are broken easily and allow for rapid cooling of the part. However, salt water is even more corrosive
than plain water.

Oil: Oil is used when a slower cooling rate is desired. Since oil has a very high boiling point, the
transition from start of Martensite formation to the finish is slow and this reduces the likelihood of
cracking.

Martempering: is a modified quenching procedure used to minimize distortion and cracking that
may develop during uneven cooling of the heat-treated material. It involves cooling the austenized
steel to temperature just above M temperature, holding it there until temperature is uniform,
s
followed by cooling at a moderate rate to room temperature before austenite-to-bainite
transformation begins. The final structure of martempered steel is tempered Martensite.
Austempering: is different from martempering in the sense that it involves austenite-to-bainite
transformation. Advantages of austempering are – improved ductility; decreased distortion.

Tempering is a process done after hardening process. Quench-hardened parts are often too
brittle. This brittleness is caused by a predominance of Martensite. This brittleness is removed by
tempering. Tempering results in a desired combination of hardness, ductility, toughness, strength,
and structural stability.
When the steel cools to about 40 ºC after quenching, it is ready to be tempered. The part is reheated
to a temperature of 150 to 400 ºC. In this region a softer and tougher structure Troostite is formed.
Alternatively, the steel can be heated to a temperature of 400 to 700 ºC (752 to 1292 ºF) that results
in a softer structure known as Sorbite. This has less strength than Troostite but more ductility and
toughness.

Q: What is Age or precipitation hardening? Explain.

Ans: Age or Precipitation hardening is achieved by:

a) solution heat treatment where all the solute atoms are dissolved to form a single-phase solution.
b) rapid cooling across the solvus line to exceed the solubility limit. This leads to a supersaturated
solid solution that remains stable (metastable) due to the low temperatures, which prevent diffusion.
c) precipitation heat treatment where the supersaturated solution is heated to an intermediate
temperature to induce precipitation and kept there for some time (aging).
The requirements for precipitation hardening are:
• appreciable maximum solubility
• solubility curve that falls fast with temperature
• composition of the alloy that is less than the maximum solubility
Hardening can be enhanced by extremely small precipitates that hinder dislocation motion. The
precipitates form when the solubility limit is exceeded. Precipitation hardening is also called age
hardening because it involves the hardening of the material over a prolonged time.

Q: Define various case or surface hardening processes.

Ans: Case Hardening: Case hardening produces a hard, wear-resistant surface or case over a
strong, tough core. The principal forms of casehardening are carburizing, cyaniding, and
nitriding. Only ferrous metals are case-hardened. Case hardening is ideal for parts that require a
wear-resistant surface and must be tough enough internally to withstand heavy loading. The steels
best suited for case hardening are the low-carbon and low-alloy series.

Carburizing is a case hardening process by which carbon is added to the surface of low
carbon steel. This results in carburized steel that has a high-carbon surface and a low carbon
interior. When the carburized steel is heat-treated, the case becomes hardened and the core
remains soft and tough. Two methods are used for carburizing steel. One method consists of
heating the steel in a furnace containing a carbon monoxide atmosphere. The other
method has the steel placed in a container packed with charcoal or some other carbon-rich
material and then heated in a furnace. To cool the parts, you can leave the container in the
furnace to cool or remove it and let it air cool.

CYANIDING: This process is a type of case hardening that is fast and efficient. Preheated steel is
dipped into a heated cyanide bath and allowed to soak. Upon removal, it is quenched and then
rinsed to remove any residual cyanide. This process produces a thin, hard shell that is harder than
the one produced by carburizing and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes vice several hours. The
major drawback is that cyanide salts are a deadly poisonous.

NITRIDING: This case hardening method produces the hardest surface of any of the hardening
processes. It differs from the other methods in that the individual parts have been heat-treated
and tempered before nitriding. The parts are then heated in a furnace that has an ammonia gas
atmosphere. No quenching is required so there is no worry about warping or other types of
distortion. This process is used to case harden items, such as gears, cylinder sleeves, camshafts
and other engine parts, that need to be wear resistant and operate in high-heat areas.

Flame Hardening: Flame hardening is another procedure that is used to harden the surface of
metal parts. When you use an oxyacetylene flame, a thin layer at the surface of the part is
rapidly heated to its critical temperature and then immediately quenched by a combination of
a water spray and the cold base metal. This process produces a thin, hardened surface, and at
the same time, the internal parts retain their original properties. Flame hardening may be either
manual or automatic. Automatic equipment produces uniform results and is more desirable.

Induction hardening: Here, an alternating current of high frequency passes through an

induction coil enclosing the steel part to be heat treated. The induced emf heats the steel. In
induction hardening, the heating time is usually a few seconds. Immediately after heating, water jets
are activated to quench the surface. Martensite is produced at the surface, making it hard and
wear resistant. The microstructure of the core remains unaltered. Induction hardening is suitable for
mass production of articles of uniform cross-section.

Q: What is hardenability? How it is measured?

Ans: Hardenability is the ability of steels to be transformed into martensite (the material which
is hardened easily by hardening heat treatment process). Hardenability should not be confused
with the ability to obtain high hardness. A material with low hardenability may have a higher surface
hardness compared to another sample with higher hardenability.
A material with a high hardenability has the ‘nose’ of the TTT curve ‘far’ to the right (i.e. at higher
times). Hardenability is measured by Jominey end-quench test. It is carried out by quenching a
standard specimen under standard mounting (shown in Fig. below) and hardness is measured along
its length. The hardness versus distance from quenched end is plotted.
Q: What are composites? Classify them. Briefly define various types of composites with their
properties and applications.

Ans: A Composite is combination of two more dissimilar materials, the purpose of which is to
combine the properties of constituent materials. The composites are classified as follows.

Composites

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Large- Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

particle strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented

LARGE–PARTICLE COMPOSITES: The particle–matrix interactions are at macro-level. Particulate

phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix. The matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the
particles, which bear a fraction of the load.
e,g. cermet (Ceramic – metal composites)
The most common cermet is the cemented carbide, which is composed of extremely hard particles
of a refractory carbide ceramic such as tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC),
embedded in a matrix of a metal such as cobalt or nickel. These composites are utilized
extensively as cutting tools for hardened steels.

CC (cement concrete): (gravel + sand + cement + water)

RCC (reinforce cement concrete): CC is reinforced with steel rods, wires, bars to increase
bending strength.
DISPERSION-STRENGTHENED COMPOSITES:
For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller, with diameters
between 0.01 and 0.1 m (10 and 100 nm). Particle–matrix interactions that lead to strengthening
occur on the atomic or molecular level. Examples are

Thoria dispersed Nickle: The high-temperature strength of nickel alloys may be enhanced
significantly by the addition of about 3 vol% of thoria (ThO2) as finely dispersed particles

SAP (sintered alumina powder): A very thin and adherent alumina coating is caused to form on the
surface of extremely small (0.1 to 0.2 µm thick) flakes of aluminum.

Fiber-reinforced composites
Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength and other mechanical properties and
strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating strong, stiff but brittle fibers into a softer, more ductile
matrix. The matrix material acts as a medium to transfer the load to the fibers, which carry
most off the applied load. The matrix also provides protection to fibers from external loads
and atmosphere.
The mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced composites depend not only on the properties of the
fiber but also on the degree of which an applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase.
Length of fibers, their orientation and volume fraction in addition to direction of external load
application affects the mechanical properties of these composites.
Laminar composites: there are composed of two-dimensional sheets/layers that have a
preferred strength direction. These layers are stacked and cemented together according to the
requirement. Materials used in their fabrication include: metal sheets, cotton, paper, woven glass
fibers embedded in plastic matrix, etc. Examples: thin coatings, thicker protective coatings,
claddings, bimetallics, laminates.
Sandwich structures: these consist of thin layers of a facing material joined to a light weight filler
material. Neither the filler material nor the facing material is strong or rigid, but the composite
possesses both properties. Example: corrugated cardboard. The core serves two functions – it
separates the faces and resists deformations perpendicular to the face plane; provides a certain
degree of shear rigidity along planes that are perpendicular to the faces. Typical materials for core
are: foamed polymers, synthetic rubbers, inorganic cements, balsa wood. Sandwich
structures are found in many applications like roofs, floors, walls of buildings, and in aircraft
for wings, fuselage and tailplane.

Main properties of composites:

 High specific strength and

 High specific stiffness Long fatigue life
 High creep resistance
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low density
 Low thermal conductivity
 Better wear resistance
 Improved corrosion resistance
 Better temperature dependent behavior

Applications: Space craft: Antenna structures, solar reflectors, Satellite structures, Radar, Rocket
engines, etc. Aircraft: Jet engines, Turbine blades, Turbine shafts, Compressor blades, Airfoil
surfaces, Wing box structures, Fan blades, Flywheels, Engine bay doors, Rotor shafts in helicopters,
Helicopter transmission structures, etc. Bearing materials, Pressure vessels, Abrasive materials, Electrical
machinery, Truss members, Cutting tools, Electrical brushes, etc. Automobile: Engines, bodies, Piston,
cylinder, connecting rod, crankshafts, bearing materials, etc.

Q: What are various types of matrix and reinforcements materials in fiber reinforced
composites?

Ans: Matrix:
-- The continuous phase
-- Purpose is to transfer stress to other phases
-- protect phases from environment
-- Classification: MMC (Metal matrix composites), CMC (Ceramic matrix composites), PMC
(Polymer matrix composites)

• Fiber Materials (Reinforcement)

– Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
• graphite, SiN, SiC
• high crystal perfection – extremely strong, strongest known very expensive
– Fibers
• polycrystalline or amorphous
• generally polymers or ceramics
• Ex: Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE (Ultra high molecular wt.
polyethylene)
– Wires
• Metal – steel, Mo, W

Q: What are ceramic materials? Classify them and define briefly. Mention their properties and
applications.

Ans: ceramics are most frequently silicates, oxides, nitrides and carbides of metals. Typically
insulative to the passage of electricity and heat. More resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers. Ceramics are hard but very brittle.

Glasses: glasses are a familiar group of ceramics – containers, windows, mirrors, lenses, etc. They
are non-crystalline silicates containing other oxides, usually CaO, Na O, K O and Al O which
2 2 2 3
influence the glass properties and its color. Typical property of glasses that is important in
engineering applications is its response to heating. There is no definite temperature at which the
liquid transforms to a solid as with crystalline materials. A specific temperature, known as glass
transition temperature or fictive temperature is defined based on viscosity above which material is
named as super cooled liquid or liquid, and below it is termed as glass.
Clay products: clay is the one of most widely used ceramic raw material. It is found in great
abundance and popular because of ease with which products are made. Clay products are mainly
two kinds – structural products (bricks, tiles, sewer pipes) and white-wares (porcelain,
chinaware, pottery, etc.).
Refractories: these are described by their capacity to withstand high temperatures without
melting or decomposing; and their inertness in severe environments. Thermal insulation is also an
important functionality of refractories.
Abrasive ceramics: these are used to grind, wear, or cut away other material. Thus the prime
requisite for this group of materials is hardness or wear resistance in addition to high toughness. As
they may also exposed to high temperatures, they need to exhibit some refractoriness. Diamond,
silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, silica sand, aluminium oxide / corundum are some typical
examples of abrasive ceramic materials.
Cements: cement, plaster of paris and lime come under this group of ceramics. The characteristic
property of these materials is that when they are mixed with water, they form slurry which sets
subsequently and hardens finally.
Aluminium oxide / Alumina (Al O ): it is one of most commonly used ceramic material. It is used in
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many applications such as to contain molten metal, where material is operated at very high
temperatures under heavy loads, as insulators in spark plugs, and in some unique applications
such as dental and medical use. Chromium doped alumina is used for making lasers.
Diamond (C): it is the hardest material known to available in nature. It has many applications
such as industrial abrasives, cutting tools, abrasion resistant coatings, etc. it is, of course, also
used in jewelry.
Lead zirconium titanate (PZT): it is the most widely used piezoelectric material, and is used as
gas igniters, ultrasound imaging, in underwater detectors.
Silica (SiO ): is an essential ingredient in many engineering ceramics, thus is the most widely used
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ceramic material. Silica-based materials are used in thermal insulation, abrasives, laboratory
glassware, etc. it also found application in communications media as integral part of optical fibers.
Fine particles of silica are used in tires, paints, etc.
Silicon carbide (SiC): it is known as one of best ceramic material for very high temperature
applications. It is used as coatings on other material for protection from extreme temperatures. It is
also used as abrasive material. It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based
composites.
Titanium oxide (TiO ): it is mostly found as pigment in paints. It also forms part of certain glass
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ceramics. It is used to making other ceramics like BaTiO .
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Titanium boride (TiB ): it exhibits great toughness properties and hence found applications in armor
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production. It is also a good conductor of both electricity and heat.
Uranium oxide (UO ): it is mainly used as nuclear reactor fuel. It has exceptional dimensional
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stability because its crystal structure can accommodate the products of fission process.
Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG, Y Al O ): it has main application in lasers (Nd-YAG lasers).
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Zirconia (ZrO ): it is also used in producing many other ceramic materials. It is also used in making
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oxygen gas sensors, as additive in many electronic ceramics. Its single crystals are part of
jewelry.

Q: What are the various methods of processing of ceramics? Explain some.

Ans:
Fabrication and processing of ceramics
Ceramics melt at high temperatures and they exhibit a brittle behavior under tension. As a
result, the conventional melting, casting and thermo-mechanical processing routes are not
suitable to process the polycrystalline ceramics.
Most ceramic products are made from ceramic powders through powder processing starting
with ceramic powders. The powder processing of ceramics is very close to that of metals,
powder metallurgy.
Glasses, however, are produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature
above which melting occurs. Different forming methods- pressing, blowing, drawing and fiber
forming- are widely in practice to fabricate glass products. Thick glass objects such as plates
and dishes are produced by pressing, while the blowing is used to produce objects like jars,
bottles and light bulbs. Drawing is used to form long objects like tubes, rods, fibers, whiskers
etc. The pressing and blowing process is shown in figure below

Figure: Schematic diagram of pressing and blowing processes

Ceramic powder processing consists of powder production by milling/grinding, followed by
fabrication of green product, which is then consolidated to obtain the final product. A powder is a
collection of fine particles. Synthesis of powder involves getting it ready for shaping by crushing,
grinding, separating impurities, blending different powders, drying to form soft agglomerates.
Different techniques such as compaction, tape casting, slip casting, injection molding and
extrusion are then used to convert processed powders into a desired shape to form what is
known as green ceramic. The green ceramic is then consolidated further using a high-
temperature treatment known as sintering or firing.
Ceramic powders prepared are shaped using number of techniques, such as casting, compaction,
extrusion/hydro-plastic forming, injection molding. Tape casting, also known as doctor blade
process, is used for the production of thin ceramic tapes.
The schematic diagram of tape casting process is shown in figure. In this technique slurry
containing ceramic particles, solvent, plasticizers, and binders is then made to flow under a blade
and onto a plastic substrate. The shear thinning slurry spreads under the blade. The tape is then
dried using clean hot air. Later-on the tape is subjected to binder burnout and sintering operations.
Tape thickness normally range between 0.1 and 2 mm. Commercially important electronic packages
based on alumina substrates and barium titanate capacitors are made using this technique. A
schematic diagram of doctor blade process is shown in the figure.
 Figure: Schematic diagram of tape casting process
Slip casting is another casting technique widely used. This technique uses aqueous slurry, also
known as slip, of ceramic powder. The slip is poured into a plaster of Paris (CaSO :2H O) mold. As
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the water from slurry begins to move out by capillary action, a thick mass builds along the mold wall.
When sufficient product thickness is built, the rest of the slurry is poured out (drain casting).

Figure: Schematic diagram of slip casting process

Extrusion and injection molding techniques are used to make products like tubes, bricks, tiles
etc. The basis for extrusion process is a viscous mixture of ceramic particles, binder and other
additives, which is fed through an extruder where a continuous shape of green ceramic is produced.
The product is cut to required lengths and then dried and sintered. Injection molding of ceramics is
similar to that of polymers. Ceramic powder is mixed with a plasticizer, a thermoplastic
polymer, and additives. Then the mixture is injected into a die with use of an extruder. The polymer
is then burnt off and the rest of the ceramic shape is sintered at suitable high temperatures. Ceramic
injection molding is suitable for producing complex shapes.

Figure: Schematic diagram of injection moulding process

Q: What are plastics? How they are classified? List their properties and applications.
Ans:
Plastics are moldable organic resins. These are either natural or synthetic, and are processed by
forming or molding into shapes.
They have a wide range of properties, some of which are unattainable from any other materials, and
in most cases they are relatively low in cost. Following is the brief list of properties of plastics:
light weight, wide range of colors, low thermal and electrical conductivity, less brittle, good
toughness, good resistance to acids, bases and moisture, high dielectric strength (use in
electrical insulation), etc. Plastics are again classified in two groups depending on their
mechanical and thermal behavior as Thermoplasts (thermoplastic polymers) and thermosets
(thermosetting polymers).
Thermoplasts: These plastics soften when heated and harden when cooled – processes that
are totally reversible and may be repeated. These materials are normally fabricated by the
simultaneous application of heat and pressure. They are linear polymers without any cross-
linking in structure where long molecular chains are bonded to each other by secondary
bonds and/or inter-wined.
Common thermoplasts are: acrylics, PVC, nylons, polypropylene, polystyrene, polymethyl
methacrylate (plastic lenses or perspex), etc.
Thermosets: These plastics require heat and pressure to mold them into shape. They are
formed into a permanent shape and cured or ‘set’ by chemical reactions such as extensive cross-
linking. They cannot be re-melted or reformed into another shape but decompose upon being
heated to too high a temperature. Thus thermosets cannot be recycled, whereas thermoplasts
can be recycled. The term thermoset implies that heat is required to permanently set the plastic.
Most thermosets composed of long chains that are strongly cross-linked (and/or covalently
bonded) to one another to form 3-D network structures to form a rigid solid. Thermosets are
generally stronger, but more brittle than thermoplasts.
Advantages of thermosets for engineering design applications include one or more of the following:
high thermal stability, high dimensional stability, high rigidity, light weight, high electrical and
thermal insulating properties and resistance to creep and deformation under load.
Elastomers: Also known as rubbers, these are polymers which can undergo large elongations
under load, at room temperature, and return to their original shape when the load is released. There
are number of man-made elastomers in addition to natural rubber. These consist of coil-like
polymer chains those can reversibly stretch by applying a force.

Q: Describe addition and condensation polymerization.

Ans:
Addition polymerization, also known as chain reaction polymerization, is a process in which multi-
functional monomer units are attached one at a time in chainlike fashion to form linear/3-D macro-
molecules. The composition of the macro-molecule is an exact multiple of for that of the original
reactant monomer. This kind of polymerization involves three distinct stages – initiation, propagation
and termination.
The process for polyethylene is as follows
 .
Here R represents the active initiator. Propagation involves the linear growth of the molecule as
monomer units become attached to one another in succession to produce the chain molecule, which
is represented, again for polyethylene, as follows

Condensation polymerization, also known as step growth polymerization, involves more than one
monomer species; and there is usually a small molecular weight by-product such as water, which is
eliminated. The repeat unit here forms from original monomers, and no product has the chemical
formula of mere one mer repeat unit. The polymerization of dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene
glycol to produce polyester is an important example.

This stepwise process is successively repeated, producing, in this case, a linear molecule. The
intermolecular reaction occurs every time a mer repeat unit is formed.

Q: Describe various methods of processing of polymers.

Ans: Different molding techniques are employed in fabrication of polymers.

Compression molding involves placing appropriate amount of polymer with additives between
heated male and female mold parts. After pouring polymer, mold is closed, and heat and pressure
are applied, causing viscous plastic to attain the mold shape.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a mould employed for compression molding

Transfer molding differs from compression molding in how the materials is introduced into the mold
cavities. In transfer molding the plastic resin is not fed directly into the mold cavity but into a chamber
outside the mold cavities. When the mold is closed, a plunger forces the plastic resin into the mold
cavities, where and molded material cures.
In injection molding, palletized materials is fed with use of hopper into a cylinder where charge is
pushed towards heating chamber where plastic material melts, and then molten plastic is impelled
through nozzle into the enclosed mold cavity where product attains its shape. Most outstanding
characteristic of this process is the cycle time which is very short.

Figure: Schematic diagram of injection-molding machine

Extrusion is another kind of injection molding, in which a thermoplastic material is forced
through a die orifice, similar to the extrusion of metals. This technique is especially adapted to
produce continuous lengths with constant cross-section.

Figure: Schematic diagram of a simple extrusion machine

Blow molding of plastics is similar to blowing of glass bottles. Polymeric materials may be cast
similar to metals and ceramics.