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(SECOND ORDER)
Preliminaries
E C
Consider a circuit as shown in figure above. We assume the variables R,L and C to be constants.
We define the variable i for current and q for charge. Since it depends upon time we consider i and q
as the dependent variables i(t) and q(t). By krichoff’s law
ER + EC + EL = E(t)
q di
iR L E (t )
C dt
or
d 2q dq q
L 2
R E (t ) (1)
dt dt C
d 2i di i
L 2 R E (t ) (2)
dt dt C
Analysis of Model
d 2i di E (t ) R 2 1
Re-writing eqn.(2) as 2
2 p 02i (3) where 2 p , 0
dt dt L L LC
we consider the following cases:
Case – I LC Circuit without Voltage source(i.e R=0, E(t)=0)
d 2i
2
02i 0
dt
d
(D2+ω02)i=0, D=
dt
B
Where C0 A2 B 2 , tan . The arbitrary constants A and B are obtained from the initial
A
condition say i(0) i0 or i(0) 0 .
Interpretation
2
Eqn.(4) represents a Simple Harmonic Motion with period T given by T 2 LC .
0
1 1
Its frequency is given by , amplitude C0 and phase angle α.
T 2 LC
Case – II LC Circuit with a Voltage Source( i.e. R=0, E(t)ǂ0)
d 2i E (t )
2
02i (4)
dt L
E (t )
D 2
02 i
L
, D=
d
dt
B
Where C0 A2 B 2 , tan . The arbitrary constants A and B are obtained from the initial
A
condition say i(0) i0 or i(0) 0 .
d 2i E0
02i F0 cos t where F0
dt 2 L
1
i p (t ) F0 cos t
D 02
2
F0
cos t , 0
2
2
0
F0t
cos t , 0
2D
Ft
0 sin t , 0
2
Interpretation
F0
ap t
20
F0
ip t sin 0t
20
F0
ap t pure Resonance(case w=w0)
20
From eqn.6 it follows that the resulting motion is the superposition of two oscillations, one
natural frequency ω0 and the other with the external circular frequency ω.
From eqn.7 it follows that the resulting motion is the reinforcement of the natural vibrations of
the system given by cos(ω0t – α) by externally impressed vibrations at the same frequency ω0
F
but by ever increasing amplitude given by a p 0 t .The graph of the oscillations theoretically
20
increases without limit in the case ω=ω0. Thus the system can be destroyed by the resonance
vibration because the amplitude grows without limit.
LCR Network without Voltage Source( E(t)=0)
d 2i di
Eqn.3 gives 2
2 p 02i 0 (4)
dt dt
Re-writing eqn. 4 as (D2+2pD+ω02)i = 0 , the auxillary eqn. is D2+2pD+ω02=0 whose roots are
D p p 2 02
L
If p2>ω02 i.e. R 2 , the roots are real & distinct.
C
L
If p2 = ω02 i.e. R 2 , the roots are equal.
C
L
If p2< ω02 i.e. R 2 , the roots are imaginary.
C
L
Let us set 2 RC , and designate it as critical resistance. Three cases arise:
C
1 R2
where w1 w02 p 2 2 , C A2 B 2
LC 4 L
B
and tan ; A and B are constants of integration.
A
Interpretation
(i) R > RC (Overdamped case)
From eq. (5), it follows that as t , i t 0.
Thus the system settles to its equilibrium position without any oscillations. In the graph, we choose
i 0 i0 a fixed positive number as the initial point and illustrate the effects of changing the initial
slope i ' 0 . We notice that in every case, there would be oscillations which are damped out.
i(t)
i(0)
A Bt
i t , and using L’Hospital’s rule.
e pt
(b) Since e pt 0 and A Bt has almost the positive zero therefore the system passes
through its equilibrium position atmost once. The graph in this case, is similar to that as in case (i). In
this critically damped case, the resistance is large enough to damp out any oscillations but even a
slight decrease in the resistance will bring us to the case (iii) discussed below which exhibits a very
dramatic behavior.
(iii) R < RC (Underdamped case)
Eq. (7) represents exponentially damped oscillations of the system about its equilibrium
position. The graph of i t lies between the curves i t Ce (when cos w1t 1 ) and
pt
i t Ce pt [when cos w1t 1 ]. It touches them when cos w1t 1 ) or, when
w1t is an integral multiple of .
Ap(t)=Ce-pt
i(t)=Ce-ptcos(w1t-α)
Ap(t)=-Ce-pt
Pseudo period T1
In this case, the motion is said to be pseudoperiodic (as it is not fully periodic) with Ce -pt as its time
2
varying amplitude, w1 as its circular frequency and t1 as its pseudo-period.
w1
2 2
Further, we note that w1 < w0. Therefore T1 T , this implies that the pseudo-period
w1 w0
of damped oscillation is larger than the period of undamped oscillation of the same system
Thus, the damp exhibits the following three effects:
(a) it exponentially damps the oscillation according to the time varying amplitude,
(b) it shows the motion (since w1 <w0 )
(c) it delays the motion (effects of the phase angle in eq. (7)
LCR Circuit with Voltage Source
w E
i '' 2 pi ' w02i F0 cos wt , F0 0 (4)
L
E ' t w0 E
Here we assume a sinusoidal voltage source, E t E0 sin wt so that cos wt
L L
Re-writing eqn. 4 as (D2+2pD+ω02)i = 0 , the auxillary eqn. is D2+2pD+ω02=0 whose roots are
D p p 2 02
L
If p2>ω02 i.e. R 2 , the roots are real & distinct.
C
L
If p2 = ω02 i.e. R 2 , the roots are equal.
C
L
If p2< ω02 i.e. R 2 , the roots are imaginary.
C
L
Let us set 2 RC , and designate it as critical resistance. Three cases arise:
C
1 R2
where w1 w02 p 2 2 , C A2 B 2
LC 4 L
B
and tan ; A and B are constants of integration.
A
1
ip t 2 2 0
F cos wt
D 2 pD w0
1
F0 cos wt
2 pD w0 w
2 2
F0 2 pD w02 w2
1 cos wt
4 p 2 D 2 w2 w2 2
0
2 pD w02 w2 cos wt
F0
4 p 2 w2 w02 w
2 2
F0 2 pw sin wt w02 w2 cos wt
4 p 2 w2 w2 w2 2
0
Now putting 2 pw cos and w02 w2 sin , we get
F0
ip t sin wt (5)
4 p w w02 w2
2 2 2
w2 w02
where 4 p w w w
2 2
2
0
2 2
and tan
2 pw
E
i p t 0 sin wt (6)
Z
1
2 Lw
1 RC
where Z wL R 2
and tan
wC R
1
Finally, setting Lw S , we can write eq. (6) as
RC
i p t i0 sin wt (7)
E S
where i0 0 , Z S 2 R 2 and tan . In circuit analysis, Z is called the impedance and S,
Z R
the reactance. Eq. (7) is in the proper form for interpretation, given below.
Interpretation
Notwithstanding the specific form of ic t that is, whether it is given by eq. (5), (6) or (7), we note
that, in each case ic t . Thus, ic t is a transient solution and gives the transient current
which dies out with the passage of time.
2 E
From eq. (7), it is clear that i p t represents a S.H.M. of period and amplitude 0 . The
w Z
expression for i p t , being a sine term of constant amplitude, continue to contribute to the motion
in a periodic, oscillatory manner. Thus, ip gives the steady, periodic current.
Identifying eq. (7) as i p t i0 sin w t , and comparing it with imposed voltage,
w
E t E0 sin wt ,we conclude that the steady periodic current has a time lag of behind the
w
input voltage as shown in the figure:
ϕ/w
Time lag
R 2 Lw
wC
wm
For typical values of the constants R, L, C and E0, i0 is a function of w, say i0 (w); its graph is
similar to that shown. From eq. (9), it follows that
E 1 1
i0 max , where wL 0, or w (10)
R wC LC
Again, i0 0 as w
1
Since resonance occurs when w w0 , therefore, the amplitude is maximum at the
LC
1
resonance frequency wm
LC
(d) Utilization of Resonance Phenomena in Electrical Device
Many electrical devices utilize the resonance phenomena for their proper functioning for, this
purpose we note that resonance occurs when
1 1
Lw 0, or C
wC Lw2
In a highly simplified model of a Radio, the tuning circuit is a LCR circuit. Its inductance and
resistance R are constants while its capacitance C is varied as we operate its tuning dial (thereby,
varying the effective area of the plates of its variable capacitor).
Let us suppose that a particular radio station is broadcasting at frequency w so that it provides
an input voltage, E(t)=E0 sin wt, to the tuning circuit of the radio. As a result a steady periodic
current, ip(t), in the tuning circuit drives its amplifier and, in turn its loudspeaker with the volume of
the sound proportional to its amplitude i0. In order to pick up the given radio station of frequency w
1
loudest, we have to choose C so that i0 is maximized, that is, choose C . So we have merely
Lw2
turn the dial to set the capacitance at this value. This is the way the old crystal radio worked. (Today
we have sophisticated AM radios, in which there is a pair of capacitors).
(e) Comparison of maximum amplitude in LCR and LC circuit with same sinusoidal source
The maximum amplitude in LCR circuit is finite and the amplitude in LC circuit, with the same
source, grows infinitum, that is, increases without a limit.