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(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 1

Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Performance of TCP/IP over wireless Networks


using unaware Approach
Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa1 , Parminder Singh ² and Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal ³
1
Department of Computer Science and Information Technology,
B.B.S.B.Engg.College,Fatehgarh Sahib,147407,Punjab,India
kdhindsa@ gmail.com
2
Department of Information Technology,
CEC,Landran,140307,Punjab,India
Singh.parminder06@gmail.com
3
Department of Computer Engg.,
Punjabi University,Patiala,147001,Punjab,India
himagrawal@rediffmail.com

Abstract: This paper focuses on the existing vulnerability of the receiver, link sender keeps track of the all
speed mismatch and sluggish performance of TCP/IP when used unacknowledged packets by maintaining a buffer known as
with wireless medium. This paper highlights the unaware transmission buffer. Re-Transmission list is also attached
approach with the implementation of Transport Unaware Link with the buffer to keep the list of packets to be retransmitted.
Improvement Protocol (TULIP) as the probable solution to the
degraded performance of TCP/IP with Wireless Medium as
1.1 TULIP Operations
Channel of Communication. TULIP protocol portrays the
problems associated with TCP/IP when used with the wireless 1. Sender sends a packet to the receiver.
media. TULIP protocol is useful in the detection and
retransmission of lost packets so as to enable reliable 2. Sender then waits for the acknowledgment of the packet.
communication between client and server. This protocol is state- 3. Sender maintains a transmission buffer for fast delivery of
full as it keeps track of the packets and corresponding fragments packets and retransmission list to ensure reliability of
of packets so as to ensure that only after the complete
communication
acknowledgment of all fragments packet is forwarded. TULIP
makes use of buffered system to increase the performance of
4. Whenever acknowledgment is not received by the sender,
transmission and omit all the associated problems related to it retransmits the same packet again.
transmission by supporting queue based retransmission 5. Before sending the new packet, sender firstly verifies the
mechanism. TULIP makes utilizes multiple buffers to ensure contents of the retransmission list, so in this way higher
timely delivery of packets and it also aids in error correction priority is always given to the lost packets.
before the actual transmission of the packets. The various
functional and operational aspects of TULIP and comparative
1.2 Importance of TULIP Protocol
account of its performance measured in terms of various
parameters.
Keywords: TULIP, Source Based Algorithm, Receiver Based The following importance of TULIP protocol is:
Algorithm, MAC.
1. It is robust as it avoids bit error rates:
1. Introduction
2. It retransmits only dropped packets whenever are
TULIP (Transport Unaware Link Improvement protocol) is required.
a link layer protocol designed for inter-operatability with
base station oriented wireless networks [4]. This protocol 3. It doesn’t estimate round trip time to calculate
utilizes the bandwidth of the half duplex channel for its propagation delay instead of using own tulip timer.
performance. Two services are offered by the TULIP via
reliable service and Unreliable service. Reliable service of 4. It just checks data parts, and doesn’t access header
TULIP ensures the timely delivery of the packets without part of a packet.
redundancy of the packet basically it is meant for the TCP
packets. Unreliable services do not perform any re- 5. It implements encryption.
transmission and therefore, it is meant for the UDP packets,
link layer and TCP acknowledgments. 6. It works with IPV4 & IPV6
The main impetus of the TULIP in case of reliable service
7. It is used on multihop structure.
is to minimize the loss of packets and timely delivery of the
packets. It makes use of Sliding window protocol in
selective repeat type Configuration for local recovery of the
lost packets. Whenever the packet is sent by the sender to
2 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

2. Experiment Setup
The fig. 4, shows the different steps that help to run the
In this paper, the following scenario is used to implement TULIP protocol. There are two different algorithms which
the TULIP protocol. In this paper, there is one sender and are executed in different machines.
one receiver that communicate with each other in both wired
and wireless networks. The communication functioning of
TULIP is shown in the following fig.1.
The Protocol is implemented in Java as well as in C++ and
testified on two machines, and thereafter its performance is
estimated. After this, it is implemented in C++ and otcl and
is run on NS2, and calculated its performance. It performs
different operations as shown in the fig. 2.

Figure1. TULIP scenario

In the beginning, it is implemented in java using the steps


mentioned in fig no.3. TULIP implementation is divided Figure4. Steps to execute TULIP
into two phases. Phase 1 deal with the sender side of the
implementation. Sender is implemented with the help of
javax.swing and java.net packages available in jdk 1.4. 2.1 Source Based Algorithm
These packages help in developing socket based Graphical In practical consideration [4], it is assumed that size of a
User interface which is used for transmitting data to the window is 42K, which is available as a communication
receiving end. channel. This algorithm sporadically checks the status of
MAC layer before transmission of data. The value
associated with term macState signifies whether channel is
available for transmission or not. Boolean value 1 represents
that channel is already holding a packet and transmission is
not permitted over the channel and value 0 signifies that
channel is available for communication proceedings.

Definition of Terms
ACK= received pkt is an ACK
WAIT=RTS received by MAC Layer
TRANS=MAC has acquired channel and pkt is to be
transmited
macState=1 if MAC layer has a Packet, 0 otherwise
S= {S Nmin,----,S Nmax}
Figure2. TULIP operations W=Window Size
Figure5. Source Algorithm [4]
Phase 2 of the implementation deals with the receiver side
of the application. Here, the receiver is implemented using This Source Algorithm is implemented in java and shown
socket programming concepts of java and instantiated as:
receiver can receive the data from the sender. For ease of public class a
functioning, receiver is implemented on local host { //////////////declarations
configurations. String ack="ack";
String wait="wait";
String trans="trans";
//////////////////procedure when sender receives a signal or a
pkt
void rec_from_mac(String ins)
{ timer obj=new timer();
obj.stop();
System.out.println("recmac");
if(ins.equals("wait"))
{ System.out.println("wait");
obj.stop();
Figure3. TULIP Implementation
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 3
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

2.2 Receive Based Algorithm module assists in implementing the server instance using
The receiver Algorithm receives the packets from the sender java based TCP/IP network packages and classes shown in
side. The receiver algorithm shows in figure 6. fig. 8.

Initialization
CumACK = -1
BitVector = {0,…..,0}
[this procedure is called when a pkt is received]
Procedure prcess_incoming_pkt (incoming_pkt.sn)
begin
if incoming_pkt.sn E {CumACK+1,…..,CumACK + W}
if incoming+pkt.sn = (CumACK +1) mod 2W
release to network layer
release any other in sequence packets Figure8. Receiver End (Running receiver class)
for each packet released
Figure6. Receiver Algorithm [4]
The following figure 9 represents the server instance
The implementation of receiver Algorithm is given below: working as receiver for the packets generated by the user
public static void main(String x[]) using graphical user interface
{ try
{
byte b[] = new byte[1024];
ds=new DatagramSocket(4444);
ps = new DatagramPacket(b,1024);
while(true)
{ d=new Date();
ds.receive(ps);
String s = new String(b,0,ps.getLength());
System.out.println(s);

3. Results
TULIP protocol run on the machine having platform Java .It
produce the following result as shown in the fig. 7, 8 and 9. Figure9. Receiver End (Packets Received)
This algorithm provides an interface to user to create packet The fig. 10 shows the packet delay graph and then the code
with ample amount of data before its actual transmission is executed in the java. This code is more effective than
over the network shown in figure 6. Once the packet is TCP. The losses are minimum as shown the graph.
created we can submit the packet for further Normally, packet loss is occurred when buffer resources
communication. Submit button preprocesses the information have been exhausted but using TULIP we maintain the
before submission and delivery to another node on the Buffer.
network.

Figure7. Source End (Interface)


Figure10. Packet Delay Graph
Before implementing the protocol, we need to create a server
instance which will act as receiver for the packet. This
4 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
The Goodput means the number of bits per unit of time forwarded graph is shown using Trace graph. Table 1 shows the result
by the network from a source address to a destination but it is of receiving packets.
lower when TCP is Slow. In the present work, we avoid congestion Table 1: TULIP Delay Variance
control using TULIP algorithms to maintain Goodput. It is fig.11 Parameter Value (Seconds)
shows the Goodput of TULIP protocol. Minimal Delay (CN,ON,PID) 0.0321829 (4,3,1)
Maximal Delay (CN,ON,PID) 2.232183 (3,4,0)
Average Delay (CN,ON,PID) 0.0446600789

In this paper, the delay is calculated when the sender sends


the packet to the receiver. The figure 14 shows the result of
sequence no. of received packets in wireless media. We can
see there are three retransmissions around time 7, 8 and 9.
At each of these three points we can also see that only one
segment is retransmitted, because only one dot below the
upward slope.

Figure11. TULIP Goodput


The TULIP protocol is implemented using C++ and
simulation is done by NS2 Simulator. The following
performance parameters are calculated for checking the
performance of TULIP protocol over Wireless Networks.

Figure14. Sequence no. of Received Packets

The simulated results are show in the following figure 15.


The Delay variance of all dropped packets is calculated and
their values are in table 2.

Figure12. Delay Variance of Sent packets

Figure15. TULIP dropped Packets

Figure13. Delay Variance of Received packets


The following table 2 and 3 shows the Statistics from above
results are:
The above fig. 12 and 13, shows the Delay Variance (Jitter).
The implementation is done using NS2 simulator and the
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 5
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Table 2: Simulation Statistics Networks”, ACM/IEEE Transaction on Networking,


November 1995, pp.756-769.
Factor Value
[6] C. Partridge and T.J. Shepard, “TCP/IP Performance
Simulation length in seconds 9.998972 over Satellite Links,” IEEE Network Magazine,
Number of nodes 5 September/October 1997, pp. 44–49.
Number of sending nodes 2 [7] K. Fall and S. Floyd. “Simulation-based comparisons of
Number of Receiving nodes 2
Tahoe,Reno, and SACK TCP”, In Computer
Communication Review, volume 26 ,No. 3, July, 1996
Number of generated packets 1485 ,pp.5 – 21.
Number of sending packets 1482 [8] sheng-tzong cheng,yeh-hsi cheng and yuh-rong leu,
Number of dropped packets 91 WTCP: an Efficient Transmission Control Protocol for
Number of Forwarded Bytes 1593280 Wired/Wireless Internetworking, Natl. Sci. Counc.
Number of received bytes 889720 ROC(A),Vol.24, No.3, 2000, pp.176-185.
[9] I. Rhee, N. Balaguru, and G. Rouskas “MTCP: Scalable
Number of dropped bytes 92640
TCP-like Congestion Control for ReliableMulticast”,
IEEE INFOCOM, March 1999, pp.1265–73.
[10] K.H.Walse and D.R.Dhotre,”Wireless Network:
Table 3: CURRENT NODE STATISTICS Performance Analysis of TCP”, Information Technology
Journal, Vol.6, No.3, 2007, pp.363-369.
Factor Value
Number of Forwarded Packets 1399
Authors Profile
Number of Received Packets 1568
Number of dropped Packets 91 Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa is currently an
Assistant Professor at CSE & IT
Number of Forwarded Bytes 716960
department of B.B.S.B.Engg.College,
Number of dropped bytes 92640 Fatehgarh Sahib (Punjab), India. He is
M.Tech. from Punjabi University, Patiala
(Punjab) in 2003 and currently pursuing
4. Conclusion PhD degree in Computer Engineering from
the same university. His research interests
This paper emphasizes the problems associated with the
are Information Systems, Relational Database Systems and
performance of TCP/IP over Wireless media. To provide an Modelling Languages. Member of IEI, ISTE & ACEEE.
optimal solution, protocol namely TULIP (Transport
Unaware Link Internet protocol) is used. TULIP is an
optimal solution to the degrading performance of TCP/IP. It
Parminder Singh is B.Tech in Information
makes use of various buffers to ensure quick and timely
Technology (2006) from Punjab Technical
delivery of packets instead of wasting time on interpreting University, India. He is doing M.Tech in
TCP header. This protocol is mainly concerned with computer science and Engineering from
performance based delivery of the data. This problem also Punjab Technical University, India. His
solves the related problem of scalability and compatibility research interests are TCP/IP, Wireless,
associated with TCP/IP and provides an optimal solution Networks issues,etc. He is member of CSI.
with ADHOC and Multi-HOP Network configuration by
eliminating the need of TCP header Authentication at each
HOP. Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal is currently an Reader at department of
Computer Engg. of Punjabi University,Patiala(Punjab),India. He
received his PhD degree in Computer Engineering from Punjabi
References University in 2007. His research interests are Information Systems,
[1] W.Richard Stevens, TCP/IP Illustrated,Volume 1: The Parallel Computing and Software Engineering. He has contributed
Protocols , India: Pearson Education, 2005. 14 papers in reputed journals and 35 papers in national and
[2] G. Xylomenos and G.C Polyzos, “TCP and UDP international conferences. He is also on the editorial and reviewer
board of some international journals.
performance over a wireless LAN”, IEEE INFOCOM
’99, March 1999, pp. 439-446.
[3] A.Bakre and B.R.Badrinath,” Implementation and
performance evaluation of Indirect-TCP”, IEEE
Transaction on Computers, Vol. 46, no. 3, March 1997,
pp.260-278.
[4] Christina Parsa and J. J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves, “
Improving TCP Performance over Wireless Networks at
the Link Layer”, Mobile Networks and Applications,
2000, pp.57-71.
[5] H. Balakrishnan, S. Seshan, E. Amir and R. H. Katz,
“Improving TCP/IP Performance over Wireless
6 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

An Improved Implementation of Brain Tumor


Detection using Soft Computing
Marcus karnan1 and T.logeswari2
1
Tamilnadu College of Engineering
Coimbatore, India
drmkarnan@gmail.com
2
Research Scholar, Dept of Computer Science
Mother Theresa women’s University
Kodaikkanal, India
saralogu4uin@gmail.com

Abstract: Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) metaheuristic is a tools are expected to be helpful to the radiologist. Thangavel
recent population-based approach inspired by the observation of et al., [12,13] presented a study on methods of various stages
real ants colony and based upon their collective foraging stages on automatic detection of micro calcification in digital
behavior. In ACO, solutions of the problem are constructed digital mammograms. According to those studies it is noted
within a stochastic iterative process, by adding solution that the ACO has not been implemented in the field of
components to partial solutions. Each individual ant constructs mammogram analysis. In this paper, meta-heuristic
a part of the solution using an artificial pheromone, which algorithms such as ACO are implemented to extract the
reflects its experience accumulated while solving the problem, suspicious region in the MRI Brain Image. The textural
and heuristic information dependent on the problem. In this features can be extracted from the suspicious region to
paper, the proposed technique ACO hybrid with Fuzzy and classify them into benign or malign. two different methods
Hierarchical self organizing Map(HSOM) Hybrid with Fuzzy ACO hybrid with Fuzzy and HSOM Hybrid with Fuzzy is
describe segmentation consists of two steps. In the first step, the used for segmentation
MRI brain image is Segmented using HSOM Hybrid with Fuzzy
and the second step ACO Hybrid with Fuzzy method to extract
the suspicious region from Background tissue Both techniques 2. Segmentation
are compared and performance evaluation is evaluated
Segmentation is the initial step for any image analysis.
Keywords: MRI Brain Image analysis, ACO, HSOM, Fuzzy Segmentation is an important process to extract information
C-Means. from complex medical images. Segmentation has wide
application in medical field [1,4,10].The main objective of
the image segmentation is to partition an image into mutually
1. Introduction
exclusive and exhausted regions such that each region of
Brain tumors are abnormal growths in the brain that can be interest is spatially contiguous and the pixels within the
either cancerous (malignant) or non cancerous (benign). The region are homogeneous with respect to a predefined
The effects on the brain of malignant and benign brain criterion.[15] Widely used homogeneity criteria include
tumors are very similar and can cause the same types of values of intensity, texture, color, range, surface normal and
problems depending upon the type of tumor and where it is surface curvatures. During the past many researchers in the
located in the brain. Each year more than 2Lakhs people in field of medical imaging and soft computing have made
the United States are diagnosed with a primary or metastatic significant survey in the field of image segmentation [5,9,10]
brain tumor. Primary brain tumors comprise approximately
40,000 of these diagnoses. Brain tumors are the leading
cause of solid tumor cancer death in children under the age of
of 20, now surpassing Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia 2.1 Hierarchical Self Organizing Map (HSOM)
(ALL). They are the second leading cause of cancer death in Image segmentation techniques can be classified as based on
male adults ages 20-29 and the fifth leading cause of cancer edge detection, region or surface growing, threshold level,
death in female adults ages 20-39. Metastatic brain tumors, classifier such as HSOM, and feature vector clustering or
cancer that spreads from other parts of the body to the brain, vector quantization. Vector quantization has proved to be a
are the most common types of brain tumors. They occur in very effective model for image egmentation process [2]. Siyal
10-15% of people with cancer. Primary brain tumors Siyal et al described a new m method on Fuzzy C-means for
generally do not metastasize to other parts of the body. segmentation purpose Multiforme[10]. Murugavalli1 and
Although computer-aided Magnetic Resonance Rajamani , A high speed parallel fuzzy c-mean algorithm for
Imaging(MRI) brain image has been studied over the last two for brain tumorsegmentation [11]. Murugavalli1, and
two decades, automated interpretation of segmentation still Rajamanil An Improved Implementation of Brain Tumor
remains very difficult. Double readings, as carried out, for Detection Using Segmentation Based on Neuro Fuzzy
example, by two radiologists, usually improve the quality of Technique Self Organizing Map (SOM) is a member of the
diagnostic findings, thus, greatly reducing the probability of Competition learning Neural network (CLNNs) and thiscan
misdiagnosis. On these grounds, adequate computational be the best choice when implementing vector quantization
using neural network. The importance of SOM for vector
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Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
quantization is primarily due to the similarity between the of iterations (N), number of ants (K), initial pheromone
competitive learning process employed in the SOM and the value(T0).
vector quantization procedure .The HSOM directly address Pheromone Initialization: The initial pheromone value T
the aforesaid shortcomings of the SOM. HSOM is the 0 has been initialized for each ant and a random pixel is
combination of self organization and graphic mapping chosen from the image, which has not been selected
technique. HSOM combine the idea of regarding the image previously. To find out the pixels is been selected or not, a
segmentation process as one of data abstraction where the flag value is assigned for each pixel. Initially the flag value is
segmented image is the final domain independent abstraction assigned as 0, once the pixel is selected the flag is changed to
abstraction of the input image.. The neuron with weight 1. This procedure is followed for all the ants. For each ant a
vector most similar to the input is called the Best Matching separate column for pheromone and flag values are allocated
Unit (BMU). The weights of the BMU and neurons close to in the solution matrix.
it in the SOM lattice are adjusted towards the input vector.
Local Pheromone Update: Update the pheromone values for
The magnitude of the change decreases with time and with
all the randomly selected pixels using the following equation:
distance from the BMU. The update formula for a neuron
with weight vector Wv(i) is T new= (1 – ρ) * Told + ρ * T 0(2) (6)
where Told and T new are the old and new pheromone values,
Wv(i+ 1) = Wi(i+1)=wi(i)+hci(I)*[(x(i)-w(i))] (1) and ρ is rate of pheromone evaporation parameter in local
Here hci is neighborhood function to calculate it pdate, ranges from [0,1] i.e., 0 < ρ < 1. Calculate the
h(i)=h(rc-r1)*a(i)*alpha (2) posterior energy function value for all the selected pixels by
Here rc-r1=current neuron-next current neuron the ants from the solution matrix.
a(i)=sigma 0 * exp(-i/nsm) (3) Global Pheromone Update: Genetic algorithm [7,8,14] is
Initialize the variable used to compare the posterior energy function value for all
Sigma=number of neighborhood pixels (8 or 24 or 48 or the randomly selected pixels from each ant, to select the
80 or 120) minimum value from the set, which is known as ‘Local
if sliding window size(3*3=8),(5*5=24),(7*7=48),) Minimum’ (Lmin) or ‘Iterations best’ solution. The
(9*9=80),(11*11=120) subsequent algorithm implements genetic operators to find
Sigma N= Sigma 0 * exp(-i/taul) (4) out the local minimum
Taul= total number of pixels / log(neighborhood number
of pixel) 3. Implementation Of ACO And HSOM With
Similarly find the sigma value for each and every pixel This Fuzzy
process is repeated for each input vector for a (usually large)
number of cycles λ. The network winds up
Fuzzy C-Means Based on the previous equation,
associating output nodes with groups or patterns in the input the first step of the regularized FCM-HSOM algorithm is
data set. If these patterns can be named, the names can be the following:
attached to the associated nodes in the trained net.
Step 2: Calculate the cluster centers.
The winning neuron formula is C = (N/2)1/2 (7)
||x-wc||=maxi{[=x-wi]} (5) Step 3: Compute the Euclidean distances
X is a neuron ,wi is the weight vector Dij = CCp – Cn (8)
Step 4: Update the partition matrix
2.2 Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)
Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) is a population-based
1
U ij = 2 / (m-1)
approach first designed by Marco Dorigo and coworkers, c
 d ij 
inspired by the foraging behavior of ant colonies [3]. ∑  
k= 1  d kj 
Individuals ants are simple insects with limited memory and (9)
capable of performing simple actions[6,13]. However, the
collective behavior of ants provides intelligent solutions to (Repeat the step 4)
problems such as finding the shortest paths from the nest to a Until Max[ │Uij(k+1)-Uijk│] <€ is satisfied
a food source. Ants foraging for food lay down quantities of a
a volatile chemical substance named pheromone, marking Step 5: Calculate the average clustering points.
their path that it follows. Ants smell pheromone and decide c c n
to follow the path with a high probability and thereby Ci = ∑ J i = ∑∑Uij n dij 2
reinforce it with a further quantity of pheromone. The
i =1 i =1 j =1
probability that an ant chooses a path increases with the (10)
number of ants choosing the path at previous times and with Step 6: Compute the adaptive threshold Adaptive threshold
the strength of the pheromone concentration laid[3,5,16]. In =max (Adaptive threshold, ci ) i=1...n
this work, the labels created from the MRF method and the
posterior energy function values for each pixel are stored in a In the first step ,the algorithm select the initial cluster from
a solution matrix. The goal of this method is to find out the HSOM Clustering algorithm. Then, in later step after several
optimum label of the image that minimizes the posterior iteration of the algorithm, the final result converges to actual
energy function value. Initially assign the values of number of cluster center achieved and it is very important for an FCM
algorithm.
8 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
Table2 shows the result of image segmentation of ACO .In
4. Result And Analysis any computer aided analysis ,the execution time is one of the
important parameters of medical image segmentation .In these
Table1 shows the result of image segmentation of HSOM .In result, we have calculated the number of tumor cells of
any computer aided analysis ,the execution time is one of the different neighborhood pixel of 3×3, 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, 11×11
important parameters of medical image segmentation .In these windows. In that 3×3 window is chosen based on the high
result, we have calculated the number of tumor cells of contrast than 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, and 11×11.
different neighborhood pixel of 3×3, 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, 11×11
windows. In that 3×3 window Table 2: Adaptive threshold Number of segmented pixel,
is chosen based on the high contrast than 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, Execution time, weight

Value / Value / 3x3 5x5 7x7 9x9 11x11


Neighbor
Neighborhood
hood
pixels 3x3 5x5 7x7 9x9 11x11 pixels
Adaptive 188.338 164.752 161.138 150.749 139.38
Adaptive Threshold 6 4 5 1 62
threshold 184.07 152.09 149.70 141.15 133.22 Number of
Number of Segmente
d 765 1894 2260 4050 8299
segmented Execution 19.292
pixels Time 40.9446 27.4551 24.8271 24.163 5
883 3732 4319 7417 12025
Weight 8 40 50 87 122
Execution
time 31.83 33.14 29.50 27.02 28.364
Figure 2 shows the tested segmented image with various
Weight 28.28 51.22 55.05 74.56 93.91 neighborhood pixels .the original image of(256x256).
and 11×11.

Table 1: Adaptive threshold Number of segmented pixel,


Execution time, weight

Figure 1 shows the tested segmented image with various


neighborhood pixels .the original image of (256x256)

Figure 2. Input image (256x256), output 3x3, output 5x5,


output 7x7

Figure 1. input image (256x256), output 3x3, output 5x5,


output 7x7, output 9x9, output 11x11
5 . Performance Analysis
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Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
It is very difficult to measure the performance of
enhancement objectively. If the enhanced image can make
observer perceive the region of interest better, then we can
say that the original image has been improved. Here we are
giving input image in that neighborhood pixel of 3×3, 5×5,
7×7, 9×9, 11×11 windows are analyzed. In that 3×3 window
is chosen based on the high contrast than 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, and
11×11

Figure3 shows the wining neuron for HSOM is 3x3 is 209,


5x5 is 201, 7x7 is 194, 9x9 is 186 and 11x11 is 177. Figure
4 shows the Execution time in HSOM of 3x3 is 13.76 , 5x5
is 14.96 , 7x7 is 15.20, 9x9 is 11.05 and 11x11 is 11.53.
Figure 5 shows the weight vector for HSOM is 3x3 is 14 ,
5x5 is 8 , 7x7 is 15, 9x9 is 23 and 11x11 is 32 .. Figure 6
shows the number of segmented pixel in HSOM of 3x3 is Figure 5. relationship between weight and neighborhood
795, 5x5 is 1073, 7x7 is 1285, 9x9 is 1594and 11x11 is1881. Pixels
Below the figure shows the performance analysis of given
input image.
Figure 3. relationship between Adaptive threshold and
neighborhood pixels

Figure 6. relationship between no of segmented pixel


and neighborhood pixels
In above 3×3, 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, 11×11 windows are analyzed
in that 3×3 window is chosen based on the high contrast than
5×5, 7×7, 9×9, and 11×11.

6. Conclusion
In this work, a novel approach applied to MRI Brain Image
segmentation based on the combination of HSOM with fuzzy
fuzzy and Ant Colony System with Fuzzy Algorithm is
Analysised. In that The self-organizing map describes a
mapping from a higher dimensional input space to a lower
dimensional map space. The procedure for placing a vector
from data space onto the map is to find the node with the
closest weight vector to the vector taken from data space and
to assign the map coordinates of this node to our vector. Ant
Colony Optimization (ACO) with Fuzzy Algorithm have
been used to find out the optimum label that minimizes the
Maximizing a Posterior estimate to segment the image. The
ACO search is inspired by the foraging behavior of real ants.
ants. Each ant constructs a solution using the pheromone
information accumulated by the other ants. In each iteration,
local minimum value is selected from the ants’ solution and
Figure 4. relationship between execution time and the pheromones are updated locally. Fuzzy Algorithm is used
neighborhood pixels used to find out the local minimum. If this value is less than
global minimum, the local minimum is assigned to global
minimum. The pheromone of the ant that generates the global
global minimum is updated. At the final iteration global
10 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
minimum returns the optimum label for image segmentation. [12] S. Murugavalli1 , V. Rajamani,” An Improved
segmentation. In the above 3×3, 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, 11×11 Implementation of Brain Tumor Detection Using
windows are analyzed the ACO with Fuzzy of 3×3 window Segmentation Based on Neuro Fuzzy Technique” Journal
is chosen based on the high contrast than 5×5, 7×7, 9×9, and of Computer Science 3 (11): 841-846, 2007.
11×11. [13] K. Thangavel, M. Karnan, R. Siva Kumar, and A. Kaja
Mohideen. Automatic Detection of Microcalcification in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Mammograms-A Review. International Journal on
Graphics Vision and Image Processing, 5(5):31-61, 2005
The author wishes to thank Doctor Pankaj Metha for his [14] K.Thangavel, M.Karnan, P.Jaganathan, Pethalakshmi,
helpful suggestion on tumor recognition with his knowledge R.Siva Kumar and Geetha Ramani, “Ant Colony
and experience in medicine area. The MRI Image data Algorithms In Diverse Combinational Optimization
obtained from KMCH Hospital.in Coimbatore Problems –A Survey,” International Journal on Automatic
INDIA Control System and Engineering, vol. 6, no. 1, pp: 7-26,
2005.
References [15]K.Thangavel, M.Karnan, R.Siva Kumar and
A.Kajamohideen, “ Segmentation and Classification of
Microcalcification in Mammograms Using the Ant
[1] Aaron Lefohn, Joshua Cates, Ross Whitaker,”Interactive
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GPU-Based level sets for 3D Brain Tumor
Intelligence and Machine Learning, vol. 5, no. 3, pp: 29-
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[2] Bilbro, G., M. White and W. Snyder, 1987. “Image
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[3] M. Dorigo, V. Maniezzo and A. Colorni. The Ant
System:
Optimization by a Colony of Cooperating Agents. IEEE Authors Profile
Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics-Part B,
1(26):29-41, 1996 Marcus Karnan received the BE
[4] M. Dorigo and T. Stuztle, Ant Colony Optimization, PHI Degree in Electrical and Electronics
ed, 2005. Engineering from Government
[5] J. A. Gamez and J. M. Puerta. Searching for the best College of Technology,Bharathiar
elimination sequence in Bayesian networks by using ant University, India. Received the ME
colony optimization. Pattern Recognition Letters, 23:261- Degree in Computer Science and
277, 2002. Engineering from Government
College of Engineering,Manonmaniam
[6] Haralick, R.M. and L.G. Shapiro, 1985. “Survey ,image Sundaranar University in 2000.
segmentation techniques”, Computer Vision, Graphics Received the PhD degree in CSE from Gandhigram Rural
Image Process, 29: 100-132[9] University, India in 2007, Currently he is working as Professor,
[7] M.Karnan and K.Thangavel, Automatic Detection of the Department of Computer Science & Engineering Department,
Breast Border and Nipple Position onDigital Tamilnadu College of Engineering, India. He has been in teaching
Mammograms Using Genetic Algorithm, International since 1998 and has more than eleven years in industrial and
Journal on Computer Methodsand Programs in research experience. His area of interests includes medical image
Biomedicine (Elsvier). VOL 87, pp.12-20 2007 processing, artificial intelligence, neural network, genetic
algorithm, pattern recognition and fuzzy logic
[8] M.Karnan, R. Sivakumar, M. Almelumangai, K.
Selvanayagi and T. Logeswari,” Hybrid ParticleSwarm
Optimization for Automatically Detect the Breast Border T.Logeswari received MCA degree
and Nipple position toIdentify the Suspicious Regions on in the year 2006 and Mphil degree
Digital Mammograms Based on ymmetries”,International in the year 2007 from Alagappa
Journal of Soft Computing 3 (3): 220-223, 2008 university , Karakudi, India. She has
has registered Phd In Mother Terasa
Terasa Women’s University,
[9] Kohonen, T., “Self-Organization and Associative Kodaikanal ,India in the year 2007.
Memory”, 2nd Edition (Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Germany, 1988. She has 3 year of teaching Experience. She has presented 5
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(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 11
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

MCDMfJ : Mining Creational Design Motifs from


Java source code
Praneeth Kumar G1 , Aditya Kumar K2
1
Corresponding Author,
Department Of Computer Science And Engineering,
Medha College Of Engineering,
Bibinagar, Andhra Pradesh, India
praneethkumar@hotmail.com
2
Department Of Computer Science And Engineering,
Krishna Murthy Institute Of Engg. & Tech.,
Ghatkesar, Andhra Pradesh, India
Kommera_adi@yahoo.com

Abstract: Design patterns are important in object-oriented implementation of the model. Section 7 shows the results on
programming because they offer design motifs, elegant solutions applying the model.
to recurrent design problems, which improve the quality of
software systems. Design motifs facilitate system maintenance by 2. GOF CREATIONAL PATTERNS
helping maintainers to understand design and implementation.
Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson and John
However, after implementation, design motifs are spread
throughout the source code and are thus not directly available to Vlissides with a foreword by Grady Booch. Often called as
maintainers. We present MCDMfJ, a tool to semiautomatically Gang of Four(GoF). GoF Creational patterns are Abstract
identify microarchitectures that are similar to creational design Factory , Builder , Factory Method, Prototype, Singleton.
motifs in source code and to ensure the traceability of these
microarchitectures between implementation and design. Thee Abstract Factory provides an interface for creating families
model followed consists of two layers: first layer to recover an
of related or dependent objects with out specifying their
abstract model of the source code, including binary class
relationships, and another layer to identify design patterns in the concrete classes.
abstract model.
Builder separates the construction of a complex object from
Keywords: Design pattern Identification. Design patterns in its representation so that the same construction process can
Java, Interclass Relationships. create different representations.

1. Introduction Factory Method defines an interface for creating an object,


but let subclasses decide which class to instantiate.
A major task in software comprehension is the
understanding of its design and architecture. As software Prototype specify the kinds of objects to create using a
can get large, this task should be supported by tools prototypical instance, and create new objects by copying this
performing automatic analyses. Design, however, is hard to purpose.
detect automatically, as it is not tangible. Fortunately,
standard solutions to solve certain design problems have Singleton ensures a class has one instance, and provide a
been established. These design patterns are described global point of access to it.
together with the design problem(s) they intend to solve [1]. Most GoF patterns have concrete definitions on their
Many of them have been formalized, for example to realization in code structure and system behavior. Such
introduce them automatically into software [2]. If it were concrete definitions are traceable.
possible to detect these patterns in software systems, one
would be able to deduce the intended design.
3. Juxtaposition of current approaches
GoF creational patterns encapsulate standard ways of
These approaches analyze inter-class relationships to
creating objects in object-oriented design. The GoF
identify the structural aspect of patterns, regardless of their
catalogue describes, using a standard but informal notation,
behavioral aspect. The targeted inter-class relationships
five such patterns, each of which offers different features.
include: class inheritance; interface hierarchies; modifiers of
classes and methods; types and accessibility of attributes;
The rest of this paper is organized as follows :
Section 2 deals with a brief description of GoF creational
method delegations, parameters and return types. Some
Patterns . Section 3 juxtaposes the current pattern detection
approaches first extract inter-class relationships from source
tools. Section 4 presents the microarchitectures of different
code and then perform pattern recognition based on the
patterns. Section 5 and 6 gives a brief structure and
12 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
extracted information. For example, DP++ [15], SPOOL
[14], Osprey [16], and Reference [13] extract interclass
relationships from C++ source to a database; patterns are
then recovered through queries to the database. Reference
combines the Columbus reverse-engineering framework
with the MAISA architectural metrics analyzer (which
analyzes software at the design level and had reported
limited results on recovering anti-patterns [12]) to build a
pattern recognizer. However, pattern recognition requires
analyzing program behavior, which can be abstracted away
at the design level. Reference [2] use the Columbus schema
for the extracted abstract semantics graphs (ASG) and
recover patterns based on graph comparison. Reference [11] Factory method :
extracts inter-class relationships and then uses software
metrics to reduce search space. SOUL [10] is a logic
inference system, which has been used to recognize patterns
(in Java and SmallTalk) based on inter-class-based code
idioms and naming conventions. SPQR [9] uses
denotational semantics to find patterns on the ASG obtained
by gcc. The accuracy of these approaches depends in part on
the capability of the program facts extractors they use.
FUJABA [7] extends the work from [8] and uses a bottom-
up-top-down approach to speed up the search and to reduce
the false positive rate (due to more complicated inter-class
relationship, such as aggregation [8,7]). It uses a
combination of inter-class relationships to indicate a pattern.
Thus, when such information is obtained from the bottom-
up search, even partially, FUJABA assumes the existence of
a possible pattern and tries to complete the rest of the
search—i.e., the top-down search—to confirm that such a
pattern actually exists. This iterative approach allows going
back to their annotated abstract syntax tree (AST) for Prototype Pattern :
further analysis on demand.

4. Micro Architectures Of GoF Creational


patterns

Abstract Factory pattern :

Singleton Pattern :

Builder Pattern :
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 13
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
5. MCDMfJ : A Bi-layered Approach reference for the Singleton instance also acts as the flag) and
boolean are more common. Although a flag may be an
MCDMfJ relies on a bi-layered approach, detailed in integer, it is not as common in this case and would require
the following sections. This model is developed on the basis much more computation
of reference[17], DEMIMA, Which is a generalized one for MCDMfJ only analyzes lazy instantiation that uses
identifying Design patterns from any kind of Source code. boolean or java.lang.Object types. Inter-procedural data-flow
and alias analyses are only used for detecting patterns that
5.1 First Layer : Source Code Model often involve method delegations in practice, such as
The first layer consists of an infrastructure, e.g., parsers, to Abstract Factory, Factory Method.
Obtain models Ms of the source code of system. It includes
all the constituents found directly in any Java object-orinted
system: class, interface, member class and interface, 7. Results and Analysis
method, field, implementation and inheritance relationships, We compared MCDMfJ with three other similar tools:
and rules containing their relationships. The constituents PINOT[1], HEDGEHOG [4] and FUJABA 4.3.1 (with
describe the structure of systems and a subset of their Inference Engine version 2.1).HEDGEHOG reads pattern
behavior. We have implemented this layer in java. specifications from SPINE, which allows users to specify
inter-class relationships and other path-insensitive semantic
5.2 Second Layer : Design-Level Model analysis (e.g., for Factory Method pattern, the predicate
In this layer, we first describe a model MDM of a design “instantiates(M, T)” checks whether a method M creates
motif with java, then MCDMfJ looks for the micro- and returns an instance of type T.), but other more
architectures similar to the design motif we described complicated semantic analysis is hard-wired to its built-in
earlier. predicates (e.g., “lazyInstantiates(...)”). Thus, SPINE is
bounded by the capability of semantic analysis provided by
6. Implementation HEDGEHOG. To use the tool, the user specifies a target
class and a target pattern to verify against (i.e., attempt to
Based on our methodology (Section 5), we have recognize).
implemented a fully automated pattern detection tool, called
MCDMfJ (Mining Creational Design Motifs form Java
Source code ). The current implementation of MCDMfJ Table 1: three tools
recognizes all the GoF creational patterns. Tools
MCDMfJ is implemented as a GUI tool, with an FUJA
Pattern MCDMfJ PINOT HEDGEHOG
embedded pattern analysis engine. There are number of BA
advantages of using a compiler as the basis of a pattern Abstract
detection tool. A compiler constructs symbol tables and AST Y Y Y N
Factory
that facilitate the inter-class and static behavioral analyses. Builder Y - - -
Compilers also perform some semantic checks that help Factory
pattern analysis. Most importantly, compilation errors Y Y Y N
Method
reflect the incompleteness of symbol tables and AST, which Prototype Y - N -
result in incorrect pattern detection results. However, some
Singleton Y Y Y Y
tools, such as FUJABA and PTIDEJ, are able to partially
Y the tool claims to recognize the pattern and is able to
(with a fuzzy number) detect patterns from incomplete identify it in the AJP example
source. Such tools can be desirable if pattern detection is N the tool claims to identify this pattern but fails to identify
used as part of software forward-engineering, such as in AJP
building and incorporating patterns on the run. In our case, - tool excludes recognition for this pattern.
pattern detection is reserved for reverse- engineering, where
accuracy is vital. FUJABA has a rich GUI for software re-engineering. Its
MCDMfJ begins its detection process for a given pattern inference engine provides a UML-like visual
pattern based on what is most likely to be most effective in language for user-defined patterns. The language allows
identifying that pattern (i.e., declarations, associations, or specifying inter-class relationships and a “creates”
delegations). This reduces the search space by pruning the relationship (which is the same as the “instantiates”
least likely classes or methods. The completeness of a predicate defined in SPINE). FUJABA is easy to use: the
pattern detection tool is determined by the ability of user simply specifies the location of the source code and
recognizing pattern implementation variants. For practical then runs the pattern inference engine. FUJABA displays
reasons, MCDMfJ focuses on detecting common the results graphically. FUJABA can run entirely
implementation variants used in practice. Thus, some automatically or incorporate interactive user guidance to
behavioral analysis techniques are not fully applied to each reduce its search space. PINOT is fully automated; it takes a
behavior-driven pattern. As an example, data-flow analysis source package and detects the pattern instances. All
is applied to analyzing the activities of the flag variable that detection algorithms are currently hard-coded to prove the
guards the lazy instantiation in the Singleton pattern. The correctness of our techniques on the structure- and behavior-
flag can have any data type, but java.lang.Object (when the driven patterns.
14 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
Although these three tools were built for different uses, [10] J. Fabry and T. Mens. Language Independent Detection
they all involve pattern recognition. Thus, we compare these of Object-oriented Design Patterns. Computer
tools in terms of accuracy. Table 1 shows the results of Languages, February 2004.
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Java Patterns”(AJP) [3]. Each AJP pattern example is tern recovery in object-oriented software. In Proc. Of
similar to the one illustrated in the GoF book [6]. Thus, the 6th International Workshop on program
MCDMfJ tests a class against all pattern definitions. Comprehension, pg.’s 153-160. IEEE Computer
FUJABA was also tested in the same fashion. HEDGEHOG, Society Press, June 1998.
however, is not an automated verification tool and users are [12] J. Paakkii, A. Karhinen, J. Gustafsson, L.Nenonen, and
responsible of picking the patterns to verify against the A.I Verkamo. Software metrics by architectural pattern
target class. Thus, HEDGEHOG’s results shown in Table 1 mining. In Proc. Of the International Conference on
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patterns were verified against a class [4]. World Computer Congress, August 2000.
[13] M. Vok´aˇc. An efficient tool for recovering design patterns
Future Work from C++ code. Journal of Object Technology,5(2), March-
April 2006.
[14] R. Keller, R. Shauer, S. Robitaille, and P. Pag´e. Pattern-
The future work with MCDMfJ will : expand its pattern based reverse-engineering of design components. In Proc. Of
identification capability to recognize more complicated user- the 21st International Conference on Software Engineering,
defined data structures; experiments with its use in tracking pg.’s 226-235. IEEE Computer Society Press. May 2002.
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[17] Gue´he´neuc and G. Antonoil “ DEMIMA: A Multi-
[1] Nija Shi and Ronald A. Olsson, “ Reverse Engineering layered approach for Design Pattern Identification.
of Design Patterns from Java Source Code”. 21st IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. Sep/Oct.
IEEE/ACM International Conference on Automated 2008.
Software Engineering, August 2006.
[2] Z.Balanyi and R. Ferenc. “Mining Design Patterns
Authors Profile
form C++ Source code”. In Proc. Of International
Conference On Software Maintainence. Praneeth Kumar G received the B.Tech
[3] Stephen Stelting and Olav Maassen, Applied Java degree in Computer Science And
Patterns, Prenctie Hall PTR. Engineering from Progressive Engineering
[4] Alex Blewitt, Alan Bundy and Ian Stark “Automatic College in 2008 . During May 2008-August
Verification Of Java Design Patterns,” In Proc. of the 2009, he worked in Concepts Of
16th annual conference on Automated Software Computing(CIC) as a Software Engineer.
Engineering. Nov. 2001 Pg.’s 324-327 Now he is working with Medha College Of
[5] Pattern Stories : Java AWT. http://wiki.cs. uiuc.edu Engineering as an Assistant Professor. His
/PatternStories/JavaAWT area of interests include software
engineering, Information Security.
[6] E. Gamma, R Helm, R Johnson, and J. Vlissides.
Design Patterns : Elements of Reusable Object –
Oriented Software. Addison – Wesley,
Aditya Kumar K received the B.Tech
Reading,Masachussets,1995. degree in Information Technology from
[7] J. Niere, W. Shafer, J.P. Wadsack, L. Wendehals, and Aurora Engineering College in 2008 .
J.Welsh Towards Pattern Based Design Recovery. In During May 2008-August 2009, he worked
ICSE, pg.’s 338-348. IEEE Computer Society Press, in Concepts Of Computing(CIC) as a
May 2002. Software Engineer. Now he is working
[8] J. Seemann and J. W. von Gudenberg. Pattern-based with Krishna Murthy Institute Of
design recovery of Java software. In Proc. of the 6th Engineering and Technology as an Assistant
ACM SIGSOFT International Symposium on Professor. His area of interests include
Foundations of Soft-ware Engineering, pg.’s 10-16. software engineering, Information Security.
ACM Press,1998
[9] J.M.Smith and D.Stotts. SPQR : flexible automated
design pattern extraction from source code. In ASE,
pg.’s 215-224. IEEE Computer Society Press, October
2003.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 15
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Improving Computing Efficiency of a Wavelet


Method Using ECG as a Biometric Modality
Jianchu Yao1 and Yongbo Wan2
1
Department of Engineering, East Carolina University
East 5th Street, Greenville, NC 27858
yaoj@ecu.edu
2
Department of Engineering, East Carolina University
East 5th Street, Greenville, NC 27858
wany@ ecu.edu

Abstract: Used extensively in cardiac diagnosis for decades, system signals, represent the myocytes’ conductive activities
electrocardiogram (ECG) has recently been investigated as a caused by ionic electrical signals. It has been demonstrated
new biometric modality. Existing research reveals that ECG initially that ECG signals present a unique pattern of each
identification using wavelet coefficients as the “statistic person’s heart properties and may be utilized for individual
attributes” outperforms other classification algorithms such as identification [3, 5-8].
correlation analysis. When wavelet coefficients are used, the
classification process requires significant computation power, R
which may pose an issue in circumstances where the device’s
computation capacity is limited. The paper examines the effect
on identification accuracy when only a subset of the wavelet
T
coefficients is used to calculate the signal difference/similarity
measures. A Birge-Massart strategy is employed to select the P
coefficient subset. Results demonstrated that classification with
Q
the wavelet coefficient subset can achieve comparable S
performance as when the entire coefficient structure is utilized.
The substantial reduction of the number of involved wavelet
coefficients improves real-time performance and eases Figure 1. An ECG trace cycle.
computation requirements so that this new identification
modality can potentially be implemented on portable devices. ECG as a new biometric trait will be useful for those
applications where ECG data are already collected and/or
Keywords: Accuracy rate, computing efficiency, stored in the system because, in these applications,
electrocardiogram (ECG), human identification, wavelet identification does not require extra equipment or data
coefficients. collection, making prompt identification possible without
increasing cost. One particular area that can benefit from
ECG identification is body sensor networks [7, 10], which
1. Introduction and Background
will be widely employed in future telemedicine and
Since the “9/11” terrorism attack on the United States, homecare systems. These sensor networks monitor the
interest in biometric technologies has surged due to growing patient’s status in an autonomous manner and require the
security concerns from the public and the government. networks to be self-descriptive. In other words, the system
Biometric technologies can be generally classified into two should be able to register the owner of the signal
categories: physiological characteristics (e.g., fingerprint, automatically and store the collected data to correct
facial pattern, hand vein structure) and behavioral electronic medical records. Identifying users with ECG
characteristics (e.g., gaits, keystrokes) [1]. As the signals (instead of conventional biometrics that require
applications of existing bioidentification technology are additional data collection) simplifies the configuration and
wide spreading, new biometric modalities are being lowers the cost of such systems. ECG can also serve as a
explored to address these issues [2-4]. These new traits convenient identification tool in the battle field: when
include electrocardiogram (ECG) [3], information about injured soldiers is sent back to hospital
photoplethysmography (PPG) [2], and facilities, their ECG signals can be conveniently used as
electroencephalograph (EEG) [4]. Among these, ECG has identifiers. Other applications may include identifying
gained substantial attention during the last decade [3, 5-8]. patients from natural disasters, fire sites, terrorism attacks,
A typical ECG wave cycle, as shown in Figure 1, consists of etc. It should be noted that recent advancements of
a P wave, a QRS complex, and a T wave. Largely, the P noncontact, miniature, and low-cost ECG devices should
wave represents the depolarization of the myocytes further make collection of ECG signals convenient and
spreading from the sinoartrial (SA) node to the affordable for non-hospital settings [11, 12].
atrioventricular (AV) node; the QRS complex represents the Identification with ECG signals has been studied in both
ventricular depolarization, and the T wave reflects the time and frequency domains [3, 5, 6, 13, 14]. The time
ventricular repolarization [9]. ECG waveforms, governed domain method [3] extracts time intervals and magnitudes
by the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic heart between ECG peaks and troughs as statistical classification
16 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
attributes. While using temporal distances and magnitudes collect ECG signals as show in Figure 2. Data acquired
for identification appears intuitive, the acquisition of these through a LabVIEW program were processed for
attributes might not always be easy for ECG waveforms identification with MATLAB scripts using the wavelet
corrupted by noises. Furthermore, extraction of time approach. The contribution of wavelet coefficient subsets is
intervals as statistical attributes ignores the details of the analyzed based-on a signal difference/similarity measure
singular points and lacks a comprehensive exploitation of defined similar to that in [5].
information contained in the ECG waveform. For example,
2.1 Data Acquisition and Signal Preparation
the QRS complex shape of different subjects may vary
substantially, yet the Q-R and R-S intervals remain the same In the experiment, a three-lead ECG sensor employing a low
(refer to Figure 1). The time interval method does not power precise instrumentation amplifier [16] was built to
account for these informative variations. collect signals. The three Ag/AgCl electrodes were attached
Alternatively, wavelet transform decomposes time series to both wrists and the left ankle of a subject to collect the
signals into spectral and temporal dimensions, offering sensed electrical cardiac signals to a conditioning circuit
inclusive insights about energy distribution of the signal through nickel plated brass snap type connectors. These
along the two axes. Wavelet decomposition has been analog ECG signals, after being amplified and initially
employed recently to develop classification algorithms [5, conditioned by the circuits, were acquired by a LabVIEW
7]. In a wavelet transform, a signal is decomposed into program running on a personal computer with a National
Instrument multifunction input/output card (DAQCardTM-
a combination of a set of basis wavelet functions , 6062E). The DAQCardTM-6062E data acquisition card is
where is the scale factor and is the translation equipped with sixteen 12-bit analog-digital conversion
parameter. The result of the wavelet transform is a structure channels which can sample at a rate up to 500 KS/s. Since
of wavelet coefficient . That is, no filtering function is provided by the conditioning circuit,
ECG data were first acquired at a rate of 10 KS/s and high
(1)
frequency noises were then filtered out by taking average of
Signal analysis with wavelet decomposition eliminates the every 50 samples, resulting in a sampling rate of 200 S/s. A
need for time interval extraction, as recognized by Chan, et LabVIEW interface displayed ECG signals real-time so that
al. and Yao, et al. [5, 7]. The former proposed a wavelet only data when the subjects were in stable condition would
distance approach for ECG identification, where the sum of be collected. Experimental parameters, such as sampling
normalized differences between wavelet coefficients was rate, record duration, and storage paths could be adjusted
used as the classification score to evaluate the similarity through the interface.
between two ECG signals. The research showed that the
wavelet approach outperforms the time domain approach
that uses correlation coefficient to measure difference
between signals.
Interested in innovative use of vital signs as biometrics [2,
7, 15], the authors evaluated the effectiveness of the wavelet
classification approach [7] and soon realized a computation
issue involved in this approach: the existing wavelet
distance algorithm did not distinguish the coefficients
containing salient information from those less informative
or even noise-corrupted ones. That is, it treated the
coefficients at all scales equally when calculating the
Figure 2. An "in-house" ECG sensor for data collection.
wavelet distances. Given that hundreds of coefficients are
obtained from an ECG wavelet transformation, the
After appropriate internal research board approval,
computation involved may exceed the capability of the
volunteers were recruited for this study. The subjects were
wearable/portable platforms for those potential user
comprised of 26 males and 4 females, with ages ranging
scenarios mentioned earlier (i.e., body sensor network, etc).
from 18 to 51 years. A total of 121 datasets from 30
This paper hence investigates two issues: (1) whether a
subjects were collected. Each subject participated in
subset of wavelet coefficients works equivalently as the
multiple data collection sessions. Session intervals varied
entire structure of coefficients in determining the distance
from several hours (morning and afternoon sessions) to a
measure; and (2) if a coefficient subset can obtain
few weeks. Each session lasted around five minutes: after
comparable classification results as the entire structure,
the subject rested in a chair for two minutes, the ECG leads
determine the saved computation consumption.
were placed; two minutes of consistent data were then
acquired and stored. Each subject participated in at least
2. Methods two sessions. The maximum of sessions participated in
This section describes the steps to investigate the two were by two subjections who participated in five sessions.
critical issues for computation efficiency improvement. In other words, for the ith subject, the number of collected
These steps include data collection, signal pre-processing, datasets : and where i is the subject number.
subject classification, coefficient selection, and computation The stored raw signals were pre-processed with a
experiments. This study employed an “in-house” device to MATLAB program. Two major noise sources—signal drifts
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 17
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
at around 0.06 Hz and spikes at 60 Hz—were first filtered select constant for normalization purpose. To obtain the
with hard thresholding after a scale 12 Daubechies’s db6 DDWC measure, a scale 6, bior1.1 wavelet transform [18]
[17] wavelet transform to all the heart beat cycles. Detail was applied to the pre-processed ECG waveforms, resulting
wavelet parts at scales 2, 3, and 4 were reconstructed so that in coefficient structures of 256 elements. The ‘Bior1.1’
the R peaks (refer to Figure 1) could be located as the basis function belongs to the Biorthogonal Wavelet Pairs
fiducial point to identify ECG cycles. Identified ECG cycles wavelet family; the orthogonal discrete wavelet transform
were interpolated to a pre-defined length for the functions have excellent localization properties both in time
convenience of future steps. Sixty consistent heartbeat and frequency domains [19] and coefficients obtained
cycles from each dataset were selected and normalized to the contain distinctive information. Note that the basis function
range of [-1, 1]. In this step, the consistency of data was chosen here is different from that in [5], where a db3
examined with Euclidean distances of each cycle to the function was used.
mean of all cycles.
2.3 Wavelet Coefficients with Salient
A wavelet transform was applied to these time series
Information
signals and a set of coefficients were calculated for each of
the sixty heart beats. Depending on the wavelet transform The magnitudes of the wavelet coefficients decomposed
(continuous or discrete) applied, the number of coefficients from an ECG signal differ substantially from scale to scale.
vary (more information is provided when the specific Table I illustrates the ranges of coefficients from a scale 6
measures are introduced). Nevertheless, for each of the 121 discrete wavelet transform. The magnitudes of the detailed
ECG datasets acquired earlier, wavelet coefficients for their coefficients at scale 3 (from -6.89 to 0.52) were significantly
sixty heart beats were saved. From this point on, all the greater than those at scale 1 (in range of -0.27 to -0.297).
operations were performed on these wavelet coefficients. Considering all the coefficients in such a broad range, one
They served as the “statistical features” from which would conclude that the major components with larger
classification scores were calculated and subsequent magnitudes contribute more in discriminating one subject
classification decisions were made. from another. On the other hand, since ECG waveforms are
Out of the Ni coefficient sets (each corresponds to sixty similar, their major components must be largely alike.
heartbeats), one coefficient set is enrolled in the database, Therefore, one might argue that it should be those minor (or
creating a database of 30 coefficient sets. The other Ni-1 subtle) components that really make the difference in
coefficient sets of the ith subject were used to test the distinguishing subjects. A more general hypothesis
classification accuracy; altogether there are 91 (that is, 121- warrants investigation: a subset of the coefficients from the
30=91) coefficient sets available for classification test. wavelet coefficient structure can obtain equivalent
identification results as when the entire structure is used.
2.2 Distance of Discrete Wavelet Coefficients In this study, subsets of coefficients from the
(DDWC) decomposition structure were selected using a MATLAB
The classification method in the experiment finds the function ‘wdcbm(C, L, ALPHA, M) [20]. This function
distances (D) from the to-be-tested coefficient set employs an adaptive coefficient selection rule based on the
to those enrolled coefficient Birge-Massart (BM) strategy [21]. The input arguments of
sets in the database and uses these the function C and L describe the wavelet coefficient
structure; and ALPHA and M are constants and control the
distances as the quantitative measure of signal number of selected coefficients. The function returns the
difference/similarity. After all the distances were compared, number of selected coefficients and the scale-dependent
is classified to the closest enrolled subject . i.e., thresholds. Once the coefficient subset was selected, the
unknown coefficient set distance measure ( , distance of main discrete
wavelet coefficients) was calculated using the equation
, where (2) below:
To classify a subject, a “distance” measure needs to be
defined to represent the level of similarity/difference
between unknown wavelet coefficient set and the enrolled
coefficient sets. Here a distance of discrete wavelet (4)
coefficients (DDWC) is defined similar to [5], where it was
referred as WDIST in [5]. For an unknown subject, its Where is the coefficient subset selected with BM
DDWC to the n-th enrolled subject is given by: strategy; all other notations follow those in (3), except that
the denominator takes a slightly different form.
(3) Identification performance of different coefficient subset
sizes, ranging from 10 to 100 with an increment of 10, was
where is the th wavelet coefficient at the th scale of the examined with the measure. For each specific
the unknown coefficient set; is the th wavelet number of selected coefficients, a cross-validation of ten
trials was utilized to estimate the relationship of accuracy
coefficient at the th scale of the enrolled coefficient set; is
rate ( ) versus the coefficient numbers.
the number scales of the wavelet transform; is the
number of coefficients at a specific scale. T.H. is a pre-
18 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Table 1: Magnitudes of Wavelet Coefficients Vary from Scale to Scale

Approximation Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed


Components
at scale 6 at scale 6 at scale 5 at scale 4 at scale 3 at scale 2 at scale 1
Number of
4 4 8 16 32 64 128
Coefficients
Range of -7.17 -0.05 -2.09 -0.40 -6.89 -0.79 -0.27
Magnitudes ~-5.78 ~1.68 ~0.98 ~2.28 ~0.52 ~0.59 ~0.297

And the standard deviations from these trials were larger number of subjects, more detailed, high-frequency
compared to find the performance trend as the coefficient information is required.
number increases. Additionally, possible variations of this
Figure 3 also shows that, when the number of selected
relationship with the number of subjects changes was also
coefficients is 40, there appears to be an unusual drop in
investigated by analyzing results from five cases, each of
performance (i.e., lower performance than when the number
which include data from 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25 subjects.
of selected coefficients is 30 or 50). A closer examination
2.4 Computing Time versus Number of on coefficients at different wavelet scales was taken to find
Coefficients Used for Classification out the causes. The coefficients after the first thirty were
The significance of computation saving because of the selected primarily from scale 3 (frequency range of 12~25
reduction of the number of wavelet coefficients utilized for Hz). At first, only a small portion of coefficients (~5 out of
classification was studied by examining the execution time 32) at this frequency range were selected. Both magnitudes
of the classification algorithms. In the experiments, the and locations (along the time axis) of the selected
code was programmed in MATLAB R2007b and run on a coefficients change considerably and consequently introduce
personal computer with Microsoft XP Professional operating variations to the distance measure, causing performance
system. The computer CPU operates at a 3.4 GHz clock and deterioration. As the number of used coefficients increases
works with 1.0 GB physical memory and 2.0 GB virtual to 50, more scale 3 coefficients would be included, the
memory. Computing time for different tasks required to detailed components of the ECG signal vary less and
identify unknown datasets was recorded. These tasks classification performance resume.
include signal preprocessing (wavelet transform, filtering, 100

signal selection, and necessary BM coefficient selection) and


classification of the unknown dataset with reduced number 95

(out of 256) of coefficients. Note that the computing time to


90
obtain wavelet coefficients enrolled in the database is a one-
Accuracy Rate (%)

time cost and does not affect real-time identification.


85
Therefore, database enrollment preparation was not
included in the study.
80
5 Subjects
3. Results 75
10 Subjects
15 Subjects
20 Subjects
25 Subjects
Figure 3 depicts the identification performance when only a 70
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
subset of discrete wavelet coefficients selected with the Number of Coefficients in the Selected Subset
Birge-Massart strategy was employed for discrimination. It
can be seen from the figure that, for all the cases, the Figure. 3 The DDWC identification accuracy rate vs. the
identification rate starts to decrease noticeably if fewer than number of selected coefficients.
50 out of the 256 coefficients are used in the DDWC
calculation. It is also interpreted from this figure that, when
the number of subjects to be identified is small (5 or 10), the Figure 4 shows the normalized computing time saving as
performance starts to deteriorate noticeably with a small the number of wavelet coefficients used for classification is
subset (< 30) of the 256 coefficients. These coefficients reduced. As illustrated by the figure, computing time
selected with the Birge-Massart strategy are mostly the required for classification is proportional to the coefficient
wavelet approximation and low-frequency components (<12 number: when only the classification computation is
Hz) of the original signal. Other coefficients that provide concerned (“Classification Only”), using 50 coefficients
more detailed information (frequency >12Hz) do not seem to takes about 45% of time as that required by using 256
improve the accuracy rate in these cases. coefficients, demonstrating a computation saving of 55%.
In large subject number (20 or 25) cases, however, a slight The preprocessing of the unknown dataset takes 0.4~0.5
performance improvement can be noticed when the number seconds. When this coefficient preparation was included,
of coefficients increased from 50 to 100. This small the overall computing time saves 22% when 50 out of 256
accuracy increase could be a result of a higher degree of coefficients are used as suggested by the “Prep Included”
freedom as a larger number of coefficients were involved in curve.
classification or it may indicate that, in order to identify a
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 19
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

The reduction in the number of involved coefficients can


100
bring considerable computation saving (>20%) to the
90 distance classification method used in this paper. This
Normalized Required Time (%)
reduction in the number of used coefficients is expected to
80 bring more computation benefits for biometric systems that
use intelligent classification/discrimination methods (e.g.,
70 artificial neural network), whose computation efficiency and
performance are sensitive to the size of input vectors. The
60
computation improvement will make ECG better suited to
50
those applications where computation power is limited, such
as those body area sensor networks that are supposed to be
40 Classfication Only ubiquitous in the healthcare sector in the near future.
Prep Included

30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 5. Conclusions
Number of Coefficients Used for Classification
This paper investigated a possible ways of improving
Figure 4. Computing time saving with the reduced number computing efficiency of a wavelet approach for human
of coefficients used for classification. identification with ECG signals. The project collected data
with an “in-house” ECG sensor. Wavelet coefficient sets
4. Discussion after pre-process served as the statistical features for
classification; the linear classification method used a
Our experiment results with the wavelet approach obtained discrete wavelet distance measure to describe the similarity
an identification accuracy rate of higher than 80%. These between these statistical features. The paper examined the
results are generally in agreement with those from identification performance as a function of the number of
previously published work and demonstrate the promise of wavelet coefficients included for calculating the distance
ECG waveforms as a biometric modality, confirming the measure. Results from the research shows that it is possible
potential of using ECG signal as a biometric modality for to use only a portion of the wavelet coefficients in the
security purposes. Compared to many existing biometric classification process to gain the best identification
traits, ECG is promising to address several concerns: (1) the performance. The reduction of the number of coefficients
collection of ECG signals is not expected to change with will improve identification efficiency and performance,
environmental conditions as those conventional traits particularly in those methods whose computation
collected from body surfaces. In other words, the operation requirements are sensitive to the number of elements
of systems with ECG identification may be less susceptive to contained in the input vectors.
external noises and demonstrate more stable performance;
(2) ECG signals, originating from the deep interior of the
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(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 21
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

New Clustering protocol for increasing Wireless


Sensor Networks Lifetime
Ahmad Khadem Zadeh1, Ali Hosseinalipour2, Shahram Babaie3
1
Iran Telecommunication Research Center (ITRC)
Zadeh@itrc.ac.ir
2
Islamic Azad University- Tabriz, Iran
Ali.Hosseinalipour@yahoo.com
3
PhD students, Islamic Azad University, Olom VA Tahghighat Branch, Tehran, Iran
Sh.babaie@iaut.ac.ir

Abstract: Clustering in wireless sensor networks is one of The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2
the crucial methods for increasing of network lifetime. LEACH protocol is produced. Section 3 consists of SEP
There are many algorithms for clustering. One of the cluster protocol and in section 4 we provide novel protocol. In
based algorithm in wireless sensor networks is LEACH section 5, simulation results were presented and finally in
algorithm. In this paper we proposed a new clustering
method for increasing of network lifetime. The performance
part 6, conclusion will be discussed.
of the proposed algorithm via computer simulation was
evaluated and compared with other clustering algorithms. 2. LEACH Protocol
The simulation results show the high performance of the
proposed clustering algorithm. LEACH protocol is hierarchical routing algorithm that can
Keywords: Clustering, Lifetime, wireless Sensor Networks organize nodes into clusters collections. Each cluster
controlled by cluster head. Cluster head has several duties.
First one is gathering data from member cluster and
1. Introduction
accumulates them. Second one is directly sending
Recent progress in integrated circuits created a new tiny accumulation data to sink. Used model in LEACH shows in
generation as a sensor that is cheap and economical. It has Figure 1. Third one is scheduling based of Time-Division
application in management of events, battlefield Multiple Access (TDMA). In that, each node in cluster
surveillance, recognition security, drug identification and related to it's time slot could send collection data [1].
automatic security and space skill [3-5].
Because these sensors have a low battery lifetime, they
announced one-using, to this case, their lifetime was expired
when their energy finished. So energy is scarce source for
wireless sensor networks. We must manage accurate in right
use of energy for increasing sensor lifetime [2]. In wireless
sensor networks all of sensed data must send to base station
that called sink. Sending data to sink can accomplish both
event-driven or periodically.
In hierarchy network like Low-energy Adaptive Clustering
Hierarchy (LEACH) that network divided to separate
clusters that create from member nodes were selected for
clusters and high energy nodes as a Cluster Head (CH).
Sending data to sink is by this node. Random choosing of Figure 1: The LEACH Network model
cluster heads in LEACH algorithm basis is probability in Cluster head announce time slot by uses of distribution
some part of network haven't cluster head and other parts property to all members of cluster. Main operations of
have cluster head with amount of density is high. Choosing LEACH are classify in two separate phase that shows in
of cluster heads in this algorithm done randomly and it is figure 2 [1]. First phase or initialization phase has two
probability low energy nodes was selected as cluster head. process; clustering and cluster head determining. Second
Thus fault has a high probability. This problem was solved phase mean steady-state, that this phase concentrate to
gathering, accumulation and transmit data to sink.
by Stable Election Protocol (SEP) [6].
Proposed protocol that produced in this paper has two
advantages in comparison with LEACH and SEP algorithm.
In proposed method Clustering done balance and the best
node with respect to remained energy and distance of other
nodes in comparing with each that selected as a cluster
head.
Figure 2: The LEACH protocol Phase
22 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

First phase as a compared with second one less overhead NodeB and sink with regard of straight received signal,
impose to protocol. In initialization phase, at first in distance of each node with these three points are
choose of cluster head step, randomly allocate number determined. NodeA, NodeB and sink has table that consist
between zero and one for each node and then compared of information about all nodes. Fields table has number of
with cluster head threshold. A node is chosen for cluster nodes and distance of each node to others and etc. After
head if its number is less than threshold. Threshold of that NodeA and NodeB full of distance to other nodes in
cluster head shows in relation 1. these fields that send their tables to sink for updating sink
 n ∉ G table that shows in table 1.
G n ∈ G Table 1: Network information

Τ (n ) =  P

Probability of cluster heading



1 − P  r mod  1 

Distance with NodeA


Distance with NodeB

Node COORDINATE

Distance with node i


p  

Distance with Sink


  

Initial energy
Node No.
Relation 1: The way of cluster head selection
relation
T (n): Threshold
P: node selection probability in every period
G: the set of unselected nodes
r: number of current period (started from one)
n j a j bj c j (xj , yj ) di, j 0.5J 0.5
A node as a cluster head, announces new roles to the other
j: Number of nodes.
nodes. With this signal other nodes based on straight of
received signal decide to be membership of which cluster. In a j : Distance between NodeA and node n j .
every cluster, created time slot by cluster head based on b j : Distance between NodeB and node n j .
TDMA, distributed between cluster that contain visual time
slot for each member of cluster. Cluster head use Code- c j : Distance between Sink and node n j .
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technique too. With ( x j , y j ) : Node coordinator in network environment.
completion of initialization phase, steady-state phase start.
In this phase, nodes in determining time slot, gather data di, j : Distance between nodes nj and node ni .
and sending to the cluster head node. Meanwhile gathering
of data is periodically. Now we could determine characteristic of each explained
approach nodes. For example we calculate characteristic of
3. SEP Protocol node D in figure 3. Assume that characteristic of
sink=(x1,y1), NodeA=(x2, y2) & NodeB = (x3, y3).
SEP protocol was improved of LEACH protocol. Main aim We want to acquire node D that has distance from sink,
of it was used heterogeneous sensor in wireless sensor NodeA, NodeB are certain quantity a, b, c.
networks. This protocol have operation like LEACH but Assume characteristic of node D is D = (x4, y4). We know
with this difference that, in SEP protocol sensors have two that distance between D and sink is formula 1.
different level of energy. Therefore sensors are not
homogeneous. In this protocol with suppose of some D − Sink = ( x4 − x1)2 + ( y4 − y1)2 = a K(1)
sensors have high energy therefore probability of these Obtain square and writing of formula 1 for 3 point of three
sensors as cluster head will increased. But in SEP and equation system.
( x4 − x1 )2 + ( y4 − y1 )2 = a 2 K (2)
LEACH, cluster heads aren’t choose base of energy level
and their position. This is main problem of these methods, 
( x4 − x2 ) + ( y4 − y2 ) = b K (3 )
2 2 2
so their operations are static.

( x4 − x3 ) + ( y4 − y3 ) = c K (4 )
2 2 2
4. The Proposed Protocol
With explanation of above formula we obtain new formula
In LEACH and SEP Protocol, because of accidentally
that with subtracted formula 3 from formula 4; we have x4
choosing cluster head, in some part of network don’t have
equal to formula 5.
cluster head and the other parts have cluster head with
a 2 − b2 − x12 + x22 − y12 + y22 − 2 y4 ( y2 − y1 )
high density is probability. In new algorithm clustering is x4 = K (5)
done as symmetrical. Also with regard of remaining 2(x2 − x1 )
energy and distance of nodes, the best node is selected as a With putting quantity of x4 in formula 2 and after setting
cluster head. We show details of algorithm in below. coefficients of y4 equal powers, we have second degree
Suppose that nodes with determined characteristics are equation, that solving it cause create two points are
distribute in environment and simultaneously of marked & with putting those in formula 1, two correct
distribution nodes accidentally, we set two NodeA, NodeB points as an answer were selected. These calculations are
in network with specific characteristic determining only done for all of nodes in sink and characteristics of every
for other nodes position, also sink characteristic is node save in the table. Now, with these characteristic we
specific. After formation of network, nodes sending signal could calculate distance of every node from each other and
to NodeA, NodeB and sink simultaneously. NodeA, saved to the same table.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 23
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Then, circumference in comparing with area network and Eni : The ni remained energy.
number of sensors divided to equal parts as shows in
(xj , yj )
figure 3. Each part forms a cluster. Because of that
division a sensor in specific condition to happen on pni
: the probability of node ni for cluster head.
horizontal line, vertical line or both of them probably; so
we assume three conditions: 1-if sensor is coming in Note that distance of each node with itself is zero. With
horizontal line, assumed it member of bottom square. 2-If above criterions, some nodes were select as cluster head,
it coming in vertical line, we assumed it member of left and then cluster head give a time period to member nodes
square. 3-if it coming in both vertical and horizontal lines, so every node could send sensed data in its time slot.
we suppose it member of left bottom square. Cluster heads after received gathering data from members
send to sink. After ending of period we choose cluster
head for cluster.

5. Simulations Result
We simulate wireless sensor network in area dimension
100*100 with monotonous distribution of one hundred
sensors in MATLAB software randomly. This distribution
shows in figure 5. In this simulation sink placed at the end
of area and NodeA and NodeB proposed with specific
characteristics. We considered every sensors has Initial
energy equal 0/5 Jul. we assume a period of simulation for
1000 cycle and used energy that calculated on the basis of
table 2.

Figure 3: Clustering of nodes


Thus all of the sensors that will be are member of one
square and each square assume is a cluster & choose for
them cluster head.
First we obtain probability of cluster head.

Figure 5: Clustering of nodes


Table 2: used Radio characteristics in our simulations
Operation Energy Dissipated
Transmitter/Receiver Electronics Eelec=50nJ/bit
Figure 4: Cluster Head selection from distance and Data Aggregation EDA=5nJ/bit/signal
remain energy of nodes Transmit Amplifier
Є ƒs=10pJ/bit/m2
For this, we acquire average of each node distance from if dma xtoBS ≤ d0
each other in same cluster from formula 6 and then we put Transmit Amplifier
єmp=0.0013pJ/bit/m4
obtained number from each node in formula 7, so acquire if dma xtoBS ≥ d0
cluster head probability. For example, we could find In new protocol clustering is done symmetrically. In this
cluster head in figure 4. protocol probability of one sensor be cluster head depends
n

∑d
(6 ) P =
n
E ni → (7) m
ni =
j =1
j on energy level, distance and density of sensors. But in
LEACH and SEP protocol this probability is static and was
i
mni n
not on the basis of position and energy level of nodes in
n : Number of cluster node network. Simulation result shows that proposed protocol
n has better performance in comparison with LEACH and
∑d
j =1
j
: Sum of node distance with other nodes in same
SEP protocols also can increase network lifetime
significantly. Figure 6 shows the simulation results.
cluster.
ni : i th Node.
6. Conclusion and Future Work
mni
: The ni node average distance with other cluster. Finally after simulating we conclude that proposed
nodes. protocol can increase network lifetime and observation of
24 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

the first dead sensor in network can be delayed in


comparison with SEP protocols 30 percent, in comparison
with LEACH 37 percent. Figure 6 shows that from
observing the first dead sensor until the death of 90
percent of sensors last 200 period of time, so we have over
20 percent improvement.
500

400

300
life tim e

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

-100
period

LEACH SEP NEW PROTOCOL

Figure 6: Comparison of clustering protocols


Although in this protocol we didn’t use GPS in sensors –
energy consuming of these sensors are so much, so their
lifetime is less – but we could find geographical position
nodes so easily. It’s clear that if geographical position
specified, sensor routing has done easily, confidently and
quickly.
In future paper we will increase network lifetime and
fault-tolerance with putting high power sensors as a
gateway between cluster head and sink.

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[2] Gaurav Gupta, Mohamed Younis "Fault-Tolerant
Clustering of Wireless Sensor Networks"2003 IEEE
[3] Yongxuan Lai, Hong Chen "Energy-Efficient Fault-
Tolerant Mechanism for Clustered Wireless Sensor
Networks" 2007 IEEE.This work is supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China under
Grant.
[4] Ameer Ahmed Abbasi, Mohamed Younis, Saudi
Arabia "A survey on clustering algorithms for wireless
sensor networks" Computer Communications
30(2007)2826-2841 WWW.ScienceDirect.com
[5] Piyakul Tillapart, Sanguan Thammarojsakul,
Thanachai Thumthawatworn, Pratit Santiprabhob”An
Approach to Hybrid Clustering and Routing in
Wireless Sensor Networks” 2005 IEEE.
[6] Georgios Smaragdakis Ibrahim Matta Azer Bestavros”
SEP: A Stable Election Protocol for clustered
heterogeneous wireless sensor networks” Technical
Report BUCS-TR-2004
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 25
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Multilevel Steganography: An Enhancement in


Steganography and Comparative Study with Current
Tools
Navneet Singh Sikarwar

Assistant Professor in Department of Computer Science and Engineering,


Arya College of Engineering & I.T., Jaipur, India
i_m_navneet@yahoo.co.in

Anonymity is work of art or literature that has an


Abstract: Today, there are a number of ways for securing data.
Steganography is one of them, where the secret message is anonymous, undisclosed or unknown creator or author.
embedded in another message, thus the existent of message is Copyright marking opposed to steganography, has
unknown. There are a lot of steganography applications additional requirement of robustness against possible
available on Internet, but they have some limitations. This paper attacks. It is not always need to be hidden. Copyright
introduces new concept multilevel steganography: an marking is categorized in two type first is fragile
enhancement in steganogaphy, it increases the complexity of watermarking is destroyed as soon as the object is modified
steganography for breaking it and also gives comparative study
with current tools.
too much and second is robust copyright marking have the
property, that it is infeasible to remove them or make them
Keywords: Steganography, Information hiding, Cryptography, useless without destroying the object at same time. Robust
digital image.
copyright marking is again categorized in two type first is
finger printing is like hidden serial numbers which enable
1. Introduction the intellectual property owner to identify which customer
There are a number of ways for information hiding, so of broken his license agreement by supplying the property to
these are covert channel, steganography, anonymity and third parties and second is watermarking tell us who is the
copywriting. owner of the object. Watermarking is two types
imperceptible watermarking (not visible watermarking (very
small)) and visible watermarking.
A lot of places where we can imbed or hide our data these
are follows.
1. In HTML file if we embed any thing other then
HTML code then web browser only read HTML
code so there is lot of place for hide secret data.
2. Some operating system also provides some space
to hide your secret information. For example,
Figure 1. A Classification of Information hiding tech. [1] under Windows 95 operating system, drives
formatted as FAT16 (MS-DOS compatible)
Covert Channel is a parasitic communication channel without compression use cluster sizes of around
that draws bandwidth from another channel in order to 32 kilobytes (K). What this means is that the
transmit information without the authorization or minimum space allocated to a file is 32K. If a
knowledge of letter channel’s designer, owner or operator. file is 1K in size, then an additional 31K is
Steganography is the art of hiding information in a way “wasted” due to the way storage space is
that prevents the detection of hidden messages. It comes allocated. This “extra” space can be used to hide
from the Greek words stegos (covered) and graphia information without showing up in the
(writing), literally covered writing, in the sense of a directory.
hidden thing. In linguistic Steganography, in particular, 3. Another method of hiding information in file
machine readable data is to be encoded to innocuous natural systems is to create a hidden partition. These
language text, thereby providing security against any partitions are not seen if the system is started
arbitrator tolerating natural language as a communication normally. However, in many cases, running a
medium. Technical Steganography is used in images, audio disk configuration utility (such as DOS's
and video file. FDISK) exposes the hidden partition. These
26 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

concepts have been expanded and a novel on the first stage using statistical techniques to identify a
proposal of a steganographic file system. particular steganographic technique [9].
4. Protocols in the OSI network model have The Art of steganography is defined in three ways.
vulnerabilities that can be used to hide 1. Simple System- in this technique we just
information. TCP/IP packets used to transport embedded data in to LSB of image and also use
information across the Internet have unused another technique in which both sender and
space in the packet headers. The TCP packet receiver share a key value.
header has six unused (reserved) bits and the IP 2. Operating in a transform space- in this
packet header has two reserved bits. Thousands technique they embedded data into image as
of packets are transmitted with each well as use high compression technique in
communication channel, which provides an steganography.
excellent covert communication channel if 3. A general model- in this technique they first
unchecked.[2] embedded data into image then change some set
of bit of image using some random no.[10]
1.1 Steganography
Three types of steganographic technique used for image is
The term steganography literally means “covered writing” 1. LSB techniques
and involves transmission of secret messages through 2. Masking and filtering techniques
apparently innocent files without detection of the fact that a 3. Algorithms and transformation techniques [11]
message was sent [3]. The innocuous file is known as the Techniques for data hiding in audio and video file is
cover (or innocent or clean) medium, while the file 1. Low bit coding
containing the hidden-message is referred to as the stego (or 2. Phase coding
infected) medium. There are many tools available [4] that 3. Echo data hiding [12]
can hide messages in images, audio and video files, and
steganography is now in common use [3]. Recent terrorist 1.2 Cryptography
activity has been tentatively linked to the use of It is the practical art of converting messages or data into a
steganography [5] and is seen by various agencies as a different form, such that no-one can read them without
growing method of sending covert information [6]. having access to the 'key'. The message may be converted
Figure 2. Steganographic Model using a 'code' (in which case each character or group of
characters is substituted by an alternative one), or a 'cypher'
Whereas cryptography was the preferred secret message
or 'cipher' (in which case the message as a whole is
converted, rather than individual underlying cryptography.
Cryptanalysis is the science of 'breaking' or 'cracking'
encryption schemes, i.e. discovering the decryption key.
Cryptographic systems are generically classified along three
independent dimensions [13].

2. Proposed System
Information hiding techniques have been widely used to
sending tool of the past, relying on complex ciphers to transmission of hiding secret message for long time.
prevent identification of the message, the huge bandwidth of Ensuring data security is a big challenge for computer users.
the Internet now offers an alternate and complementary Businessmen, professionals, and home users all have some
approach. Steganography allows hiding messages important data that they want to secure from others. The
innocuously amongst the vast content of Internet sites: for idea behind to develop that proposed system we have some
instance, an image containing a hidden message maybe requirement.
posted to a website (eBay is often cited [7]) where others can 1. The first important requirement for message as
download the image and recover the message with the well as file (either in the form of data file or
appropriate password. The process of detecting image file that hide some information) is also
steganographic messages is known as steganalysis and a transmitted.
particular steganalysis technique is called an attack. The 2. The provision for encryption and stenography
current state of the art involves identifying a particular technique will be used.
signature associated with a particular steganographic 3. The provision for multiple times (multilevel)
technique and devising a statistical test to identify this steganography.
signature. Such handcrafted approaches are very useful but 4. The provision for multi types of steganography.
suffer from a high false positive rate and are vulnerable to 5. The provision for authentication as well as
steganographic approaches that hide messages in such a way confidentiality also requires.
as to reinstate an expected property [8]. Steganalysis can be
viewed as a two-stage process: 1) Classification of an image In multilevel steganography we can apply stenography
as being stego-bearing or not, and 2) Finding the location of multiple times with using different type’s stego files. This
stego-bearing pixels (i.e. the pixels containing the hidden work use following algorithm multiple times for accruing
message bits) with an aim to extracting, manipulating or multilevel steganography.
sterilizing the message. There has been considerable work
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 27
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

2.1 Algorithm HideFile (CF, SF, STF, K) process increases the deciphering complexity of the secret
Input: CF is innocent cover file, SF is secret text message.
message/ secret message file / setgo file, STF is a file Let Alice and Bob use steganography and Oscar try to
name or location to save stego file and K is secret identify it as well as extracting secret information from it.
shared key. There are many ways for Oscar to identify it as well as
Output: STF stego file and a validation number. extracting secret information. All these ways are mentioned
in following cases.
Procedure: 3.1 Oscar tries to detect the transmitted file as a stego
Step1: Open STF in write mode and CF in read mode. file
Step2: Write all contents of CF into STF.
Oscar tries to identify the file that has been transmitted as
Step3: Close CF and add some random space into STF,
a stego file. He tries to access the original cover file and
generate and return a validation number.
compare cover file with stego file. With the use of multilevel
Step4: Open SF in read mode and encrypt all content of
steganography then this detection is quite complex.
SF, using shared key K and write into STF.
Step5: Close SF and STF. 3.2 Oscar tries to find out validation number and
secret key
Stego file detection is not sufficient for extracting secret
data from it. Oscar requires validation number, secret key
and needs to know the specific steganographic approach.
This is quite a complex task in itself since technique of
steganography varies with stego file.
3.3 Oscar tries to find out the number of times and
types of steganography Alice or Bob has used
Figure 3. Information hidding The number of levels of steganography and the specific
approach to be used at each level is agreed upon by the Alice
2.2 Algorithm UnHideFile( STF,TF,VD,K) and Bob prior to actual transfer. Henceforth detecting the
Input: STF is a file name or location for stego file, TF levels of steganography and specific approach of
is a file name or location to save secret message file, steganography used is difficult to determine.
VD is validation number and K is secret shared key.
Output: TF secret message file. 4. Analysis of Proposed Steganography against
Procedure: media oriented detection techniques
Step1: Open STF in read mode and TF in write mode.
Step2: Start reading STF from the value of validation A good steganographic algorithm is one that avoids the
number until end of file is reached. detection of stego file. Proposed work provides adequate
Step3: Decrypt the contents of STF using shared key K resistance against various medium specific detection
and write it into TF file. techniques in comparison to existing tools. Cover files
Step4: Close STF and TF. supported by the framework are image, audio, and video
files.
4.1 When stego file is image file
Detection of stego file could not succeed against the
following tests:
• Examination of color palette.
• Examination of size of image file.
• Comparison of Stego file format with that of
cover file.
• Application of filter to steganogram resulted
Figure 4. Extracting Information from stego file from stego file.
• Visible representation of statistical data of stego
3. Analysis of Proposed Steganography file
technique against detection strategies
4.2 When stego file is audio file
The encrypted secret message is steganographed in a
• Analysis of patterns in background noise
comparatively innocent file. This stego file has almost the
couldn’t detect the existence of stego file in the
same properties as original cover file. Moreover encrypted
contents are steganographed multiple times using either transferred audio file.
same or different steganographic approaches. Result of first A. 4.3 When stego file is video file
round of the steganography is given as input to the next
• Examination of distinguishing movements in
round of steganography process with a different cover file.
video could not point out video file as stego
The introduction of multiple phases of steganographic
28 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

video file.

5. Resistant Against StirMark Benchmark


A StirMark attack is the best and most successful attack
on reputed Stegangraphic images. StirMark is a tool
developed for testing the robustness of an image-marking
algorithm. At its lowest level StirMark introduces errors
into the image (as if the image had been high quality printed Figure 8. Result after Rotation
and scanned in again). A slight distortion (consisting of a
stretch, shear and possible a subtle rotation) is applied. [14]
StirMark benchmark apply following attacks
6. Comparison with current tools
• PSNR The limitation of current tools is following
• EmbedTime • Limit of size
• AddNoice • Authentication
• Test JPEG • Type of steganography
• MedianCut Multilevel Steganography tried to resolve these factors.
• ConvFilter Table 1 shows limitation of current tools, table 2 shows
• Selfsimilarities techniques used by current tools and proposed work, and
• Removelime table 3 shows feature of current tools and proposed work.
• Rescale
• Rotation Table 1: Limitation of current tools
• Rotationcrop
• RotationScale S.No. Name of Tool Limits
1 EzStego [9] Only for GIF file.
• Affine
2 S-Tool [11],[9] Only for GIF and BMP image.
• SmallRandomDistortion Not sport JPEG file.
• LatestSmallRandomDistortions 3 Steganos [9] Only for GIF and BMP image.
Not sport JPEG file.
Result of some stirMark Benchmark is show by following 4 JSteg [9] Loss of information.
fig. 5 Stego DOS [11] Only for BMP image, size
restriction 320×200 and 256
color.
6 White Noise Loss of many bit and sport only
Stom [11] IBM Paint brush (PCX) file.
7 Hide and seek [9] Only for GIF file. Not sport
JPGE file.

Table 2: Technique used by current tools and proposed


work
Figure 5. Stego Image
S.No. Name of Tool Technique used
1 EzStego [9] LSB
2 S-Tool [11],[9] LSB
3 Steganos [9] LSB
4 JSteg [9] Compression based
5 Stego DOS [11] LSB
6 White Noise Stom [11] LSB
7 Hide and seek [9] LSB
Figure 6. Result after applying filter 8 Proposed work Algorithms and
transformations

Table 3: Feature of current tools and proposed work

S.No. Name of Image Text Audio Video


Tool steg. steg. steg. steg.
1 EzStego [9] Yes Yes No No
2 S-Tool Yes Yes Yes No
[11],[9]
Figure 7. Result after applying Convfilter 3 Steganos Yes Yes No No
[9]
4 JSteg [9] Yes Yes No No
5 Stego DOS Yes Yes No No
[11]
6 White Yes Yes No No
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 29
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
Noise Stom special issue on protection of multimedia content,
[11] 87(7), pp. 1062-1078, July 1999.
7 Hide and Yes Yes No No [2] N. F. Johnson & S. Jajodia, “Steganalysis: The
seek [9] Investigation of Hidden Information”, IEEE
8 Proposed Yes Yes Yes Yes
work
Information technology conference, pp. 113-116, Sep.
1st -3rd 1998.
[3] Johnson, N., Duric, Z., and Jajodia S., “Information
7. Application Hiding: Steganography and Watermarking”, 2001.
There are a number of applications driving interest in the [4] http://www.jjtc.com/stegoarchive/stego/software.html
subject of information hiding: [5] Starr, B., and Utley, G. CNN, July 23, 2002:
• Military and intelligence agencies require http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/07/23/binladen.interne
unobtrusive communications. Even if the content is t
encrypted, the detection of a signal on a modern [6] http://www.cise.nsf.gov/accomp/index.cfm?div=iis
battlefield may lead rapidly to an attack on the [7] Kelley, J. USA Today, July 10, 2002:
signaler. For this reason, military communications http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/07/10/we
use techniques such as spread spectrum modulation bterror-cover.htm
or meteor scatter transmission to make signals hard [8] Provos N., “Defending against Statistical
for the enemy to detect or jam. Steganalysis”, Proc. 10th USENIX Security
• Criminals also place great value on unobtrusive Symposium, 2001.
communications. Their preferred technologies [9] A.Westfeld & A. Pfitzmann, “Attacks on
include prepaid mobile phones, mobile phones that Steganographic System”,
have been modified to change their identity http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~adrian/487-s06/westfeld-
frequently, and hacked corporate switchboards pfitzmann-ihw99.pdf
through which calls can be rerouted. [10] R. J. Anderson & F. A. P. Petitcolas, “On the limits
• Law enforcement and counter intelligence agencies of Steganography”, IEEE Journal of Selected Areas
are interested in understanding these technologies in communications, 16(4), pp. 474-481, May 1998.
and their weaknesses, so as to detect and trace [11] N. F. Johnson & S. Jajodia, “Exploring
hidden messages. Steganography: Seeing the Unseen”, IEEE computer,
• Recent attempts by some governments to limit vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 26-34, Feb 1998.
online free speech and the civilian use of [12] W. Bender, D. Gruhl, N. Morimoto & A. Lu
cryptography have spurred people concerned about ,“Techniques for Data hiding”,IBM Systems Journal,
liberties to develop techniques for anonymous vol. 35, pp. 313-336,1996
communications on the net, including anonymous [13] Z. Hrytskiv, S. Voloshynovskiy & Y. Rytsar,
remailers and Web proxies. “Cryptography and Steganography of Video
• Schemes for digital elections and digital cash make InformationIn Modem communication”, Electronics
use of anonymous communication techniques. And Energetics, vol. 11, pp. 115-125, 1998.
• Marketeers use email forgery techniques to send [14] J. Watkins, “Steganography – Message Hidden in
out huge numbers of unsolicited messages while Bits”,
avoiding responses from angry users. [1] http://mms.ecs.soton.ac.uk/mms2002/papers/6.pdf

8. Conclusion
Data hiding techniques have been widely used for
transmission of hiding secret message for long time. The
goal is to modify the carrier in an imperceptible way only,
so that it reveals nothing neither the embedding of a
message nor the embedded message itself. The text here
proposes a good technique for information hiding, but
sometimes the selection of cover is difficult. The
deciphering complexity of algorithm is reasonably high.
This work given an idea about how we can enhance in the
steganography, that’s by we can resolve the limitation of
current steganography tools. This paper gives an idea about
various types of information hiding techniques and also
discus about resistance against detection strategies, media
oriented detection technique and strimark benchmark attack.

References
[1] F. A. P. Petitcolas, R. J. Anderson & M. G. Kuhn,
“Information Hiding – A Survey”, IEEE Journal of
30 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Digital Simulation of Electronic Transformer


based Single-phase Induction Motor Drive
K.Samidurai1, Dr. K.Thanushkodi 2
1
Dept.of EEE, Karpagam College of Engineering,
Coimbatore – 641 032, India
swami_la@yahoo.co.in
2
Director, Akshaya College of Engg. and Technology,
Coimbatore – 641 119, India
thanush12@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper presents the modeling and digital energy saving. The performance of a capacitor -run motor
simulation of an electric drive comprising of electronic supplied from an ac voltage regulator was shown to be
transformer based voltage regulator and capacitor-run single- superior when its operation is compared with a single PWM
phase induction motor. The drive proposed is modeled and ac chopper [7]. The dc chopper-fed single-phase induction
simulated using MATLAB/ SIMULINK. It is found that the motor drive has an inherent problem of high torque
proposed scheme has superior operating and performance pulsations [8], [9]. In the literatures [10], [11], only cost
characteristics, particularly on the aspects of power quality,
reduction technique and a method to improve efficiency
energy saving and efficiency unlike the conventional triac based
schemes. Simulation results show that the improvement in
have been suggested. The important aspects of energy
performance with respect to input power factor and reduction of saving and power quality have not been addressed.
total harmonic distortion, resulting in improved power quality. Thus it is important to consider both the energy saving
The discontinuity caused by the conventional regulators in the and power quality when performance characteristics of the
applied voltage to obtain variable AC voltage for variable speed drive is analyzed. This thesis suggests a new scheme for
is reduced to a great extent with the use of the proposed speed control of a capacitor-run single-phase induction
electronic transformer based voltage regulator. motor using an electronic transformer. The electronic
transformer is making use of an amplitude modulation and
Keywords: Energy saving, Power quality, speed control, phase shifting technique for achieving a variable voltage
capacitor-run induction motor. and hence the speed of the fan motor can be controlled.
An isolated high frequency link converter is termed as an
1. Introduction electronic transformer. The electronic transformer has size
and cost advantages over a conventional transformer
The motor used for domestic fans is a capacitor-run single -
because of high frequency operation of the magnetic core.
phase induction motor with squirrel cage rotor. The rotor
Low cost and easy availability of ferrite core material has
resistance in these motors is higher and it is therefore, quite
helped the implementation of high frequency link power
suitable for wide range of speed control using stator voltage
transformation [12-14].
control. The commonly employed method of speed control
The use of electronic transformer for speed control of
in domestic fan motors is the use of a variable resistance in
single-phase induction motor results in improved power
series with the stator of the motor. As this scheme is
factor, energy saving, reduction in total harmonic distortion
cheaper, it is popular even today. However, this is an
(THD), improved efficiency as compared to triac and all
inefficient method of speed control due to the power loss in
other schemes [15]. Simulation results are presented to
the series resistance. In the alternative schemes, the triac is
validate the proposed scheme.
inserted either between the a.c mains and the fan motor or
in series with the main winding. The triac based schemes 2. Mathematical modeling of the capacitor-
are simple, reliable, cost effective and superior in power run motor
savings[1-3].The focus of study in literature [2], [3] was to 2.1 Equivalent circuit
improve energy saving rather than the aspects of power The equivalent circuit of the capacitor - run motor based on
quality. double field revolving theory is shown in Fig.1. Where ‘a’ is
A pulse width modulated (PWM) ac chopper has been the turns ratio of the auxiliary to main winding, Rlm, Xlm are
suggested [4], [5] as an alternative to the ac voltage the resistance and leakage reactance of the main winding
controller. The ac chopper employs forced commutated (Ω), Rla, Xla are the resistance and leakage reactance of the
devices or self-commutated devices. The performance auxiliary winding, Rc, Xc are the equivalent series
characteristics of a symmetrical PWM ac chopper controller
resistance and reactance of the capacitor (Ω), Rf, Xf are the
-fed single - phase induction motor is available in literature
forward equivalent series resistance and leakage reactance
[6]. However, in this work the presence of line current
of the rotor referred to the main winding (Ω), Rb, Xb are the
harmonics is substantial and no attention has been given to
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 31
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

backward equivalent series resistance and leakage reactance Where ωs is the synchronous speed (rad/s). The mechanical power
of the rotor referred to the main winding (Ω), Im, Ia, I are the developed (Pmd ) is given by:
Pmd = ( 1 – S ) Pg (12)
Ia Rc Xc Rla Xla Where S is the per unit slip. The output power ( Po ) is:
I
Po = Pmd – Prot
(13)
Im Rlm Xlm a2Rf Where Prot is the rotational losses.
Ef a The two voltage equations (7) and (8) constitute the
Rf
a2Xf steady state mathematical model of the capacitor - run motor. The
Ef solution of these equations under any operating point gives the
Xf
m main and auxiliary winding currents. Hence, all the performance
-jEfa/a characteristics of the motor at the particular load point can be
V
a2Rb calculated. It should be noted that particular load point means a
Rb given value for the applied voltage and motor speed [5].
Ebm Eb a
a2Xb 3. Principle of operation the proposed scheme
Xb

+jE ba/a The principle of operation of the proposed electronic


transformer based regulator is based on amplitude
modulation and phase shifting technique. In this method, a
Figure 1. Equivalent circuit of the motor low frequency sine wave of supply frequency is modulated
by a high-frequency square wave. The high-frequency
square wave is the gating signal to the IGBTs. The resultant
voltage can be obtained after modulation multiplying these
main, auxiliary and motor currents, respectively (A), Efm,
two waveforms. Hence this voltage can be transformed with
E bm are the self-induced voltages in the main winding by its a high-frequency transformer [13].
forward and backward fluxes, respectively (V), aEfm, aEbm The circuit diagram for the proposed scheme is
are the mutually induced voltages in the auxiliary winding shown in Figure.2. In this circuit, a centre tapped
by the forward and backward fluxes of the main winding, transformer suitable for high frequency is used for isolation
respectively (V), Efa , Eba are the self-induced voltages in the and two pairs of bidirectional switches one each, on primary
auxiliary winding by its forward and backward fluxes, and secondary side of the transformer are used. Each
respectively (V), E fa / a, Eba / a, are the mutually induced bidirectional switch consists of four diodes in a bridge
voltages in the main winding by the forward and backward configuration and an IGBT to facilitate bidirectional flow of
fluxes of the auxiliary winding, respectively (V). current.
To control the AC output voltage, the phase
2.2 Mathematical model shifting technique is employed. As depicted in Figure.3, in
this technique the high frequency square waves (10 kHz) are
The steady state mathematical model of the motor consists applied as gating signals to the IGBTs. The gating signals to
of the set of equations which govern its steady state the secondary side IGBTs S3 and S4 are delayed by ‘α’
operation under all operating conditions. From Figure.1, the seconds with respect to the gating signals of primary side
following equations can be written. IGBTs S1 and S2.In the proposed scheme; to achieve desired
V = Zlm Im + Efm + Ebm – jEfa /a + jEba /a (1) speed the voltage applied to the capacitor-run motor is
V = ( Zla + Zc ) Ia + Efa + Eba + ja Efm - ja Ebm (2)
controlled. The voltage control is accomplished by applying
Where:
Efm = Zf Im = Im ( Rf + jXf ) (3) the gating signals as shown in Fig.3. S1 and S2 are
Ebm = Zb Im = Im ( Rb + jXb) (4) alternatively driven with 50% duty ratio signals. S3 and S4
Efa = a2 Zf Ia = a2 Ia( Rf + jXf ) (5) are driven with the other 50% duty ratio signals with time
Eba = a2 Zb Ia = a2 Ia ( Rb + jXb) delay (α). S1 S3
(6) L
Substituting from Equations (3) – (6) into Equations (1) and (2) a
yields: C1 C I/
V = ( Zlm + Zf + Zb ) Im - ja ( Zf - Zb ) Ia (7)
Vi Vo
V = ja ( Zf - Zb ) Im + ( Zla + Zc + a2 ( Zf + Zb ) ) Ia (8)
The solution of Equations (7) and (8) gives the main and auxiliary
winding currents under any operating conditions. Hence, the total
motor current is obtained as:
I = Im + Ia (9)
The net amount of power transferred across the air gap (Pg) is b
obtained as: S2 S4
Pg = ( Im2 + a2 Ia 2 ) ( Rf - Rb ) + 2a Im Ia ( Rf + Rb ) sin ( θa – θm )
(10)
Where θm and θa are the phase angles of the main and auxiliary Figure 2. Circuit diagram of the proposed scheme
winding currents, respectively.
Where
The electromechanical torque developed ( Tmd ) is:
Tmd = Pg / ω s (11) α = θ.T / 180
θ: phase difference (θ = 0˚ ~ 180˚)
32 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

T: switching ON time (T = 1/ (2. fsw))


fsw: switching frequency

S1

S2

S3

S4 Figure 6. Fourier spectrum of gating signal

Figure 3. Pulse pattern

4. Simulation results and discussion


The proposed scheme is simulated using matlab/simulink as
shown in Figure.4. It consists of four bi-directional switches
each of which consists of four diodes in a bridge
configuration with an IGBT across the DC terminals. Fig.5
shows the simulation results of the proposed scheme. It is
fed with an input supply of 50 Hz sinusoid. A 230 V, 1350
r/min,60W rated capacitor- run induction motor is
Figure 7. Voltage across primary
connected as load for simulation.

Figure. 4. Simulink model of the proposed scheme

Figure 8. Fourier spectrum of primary voltage


(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 33
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

conventional triac based scheme, the scheme of the latter is


simulated and its result is shown in Figure. 11.

Figure11. Motor terminal voltage of the triac based scheme

Figure 9.Unfiltered output In the case of triac based scheme, an appreciable amount
of discontinuity in the motor terminal voltage is observed as
shown in Fig.6. The presence of such discontinuity causes
adverse impact on power quality apart from significant
power loss [15]. Moreover, the drive in the discontinuous
mode of operation produces torque ripples which affect its
over all performance.

5. Conclusion
In this paper a new scheme of electronic transformer based
Figure 9. Fourier spectrum of Unfiltered output voltage regulator for the speed control of single-phase
voltage induction motor is analyzed. Simulation results depicts that
there is an appreciable reduction of THD in output voltage
and improvement in input power factor close to unity.
Unlike the triac based schemes, the proposed regulator does
not pollute the input power and output power to the load to a
great extent while manipulating the given input supply.
Owing to this reason, it can be used wherever variable ac
voltage for the control of single phase loads is required. The
quality of power is improved with the use of this scheme as
it reduces the THD of the system.
Figure 10. Motor terminal
References
[1]. Donald W. Novotny, and A. Frederick Fath, “The
Analysis of Induction Machines Controlled by Series
Connected Semiconductor Switches”, Journal of IEEE
order harmonics can be easily filtered out using L-C filter Transactions on power Application System, 87(2), pp.
shown in Figure 2. The motor terminal voltage showm in 597-605, 1968.
Figure. 10 is the filtered output of the proposed scheme. In [2]. Hamid.M.B Metwally, “New method for speed control
order to verify the superior performance of the proposed of single phase induction motor with improved motor
scheme over conventional triac based scheme, the scheme of performance”, Journal of Energy conversion &
the latter is simulated and its result is shown in Figure. 6. Management, 42, pp. 941-50, 2001.
[3]. K.Sundareswaran, “An Improved Energy Saving
Scheme for Capacitor-Run Induction Motor”, Journal of
Simulation results depicts that the sinusoidal voltage across IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 48(1),
primary shown in Figure.7 ensures appreciable reduction in pp.238-240, 2001.
THD and input power factor close to unity. The harmonics [4]. G.Choe, A.K.Wallace and M.Park, “An improved
in the output voltage does not have any signifigance as the PWM technique for ac Choppers”, Journal of IEEE
lowest harmonics starts at 2 kHz as shown in Figure.9. It is Transactions on Power Electronics, 4 (4), pp.496-505,
known that these types of higher order harmonics can be 1989.
easily filtered out using L-C filter shown in Figure 2. The [5]. Nabil A.Ahmed, Kenji Amei and Masaaki Sakui, “ A
motor terminal voltage showm in Figure. 10 is the filtered new configuration of single-phase symmetrical PWM
output of the proposed scheme. In order to verify the AC chopper voltage controller”, Journal of IEEE
superior performance of the proposed scheme over
34 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Transactions on Industrial Electronics 46(5), pp.942- working towards his PhD degree at Anna University, Chennai,
952, 1999. India.
[6]. Nabil A.Ahmed, Kenji Amei and Masaaki Sakui,
“ AC chopper voltage controller- fed single-phase
induction motor employing symmetrical PWM control
technique”, Journal of Electric power systems research, Dr. K. Thanushkodi received his B.E
55, pp.15-25, 2000. degree in Electrical & Engineering and the
[7]. K.Sundareswaran, N.Rajasekar, and V.T. Sreedevi, M.Sc (Engg) degree from Madras
“Performance comparison of capacitor-run induction University, Chennai, India in 1972 and
motor supplied from AC voltage regulator and SPWM 1976 respectively, and the PhD degree in
ac chopper”, Journal of IEEE Transactions on Electrical & Electronics Engineering from
Industrial Electronics, 53(3), pp.990-93, 2006. Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
[8]. A-R.A.M.Makky, Nabil Abd El-Latif, “Integral-cycle in 1991.He is currently the Director of
Akshaya College of Engineering&
control with a dc chopper controller for single-phase
Technology, Coimbatore, India. His research interests include
induction motor”, Journal of Electric power systems computer modeling and simulation, computer networking, power
research, 40, pp.91-98, 1997. systems and power electronics.
[9]. A-R.A.M.Makky, Gamal M.Abdel-Rahim and Nabil
Abd El-Latif, “A novel dc chopper drive for a single-
phase induction motor”, Journal of IEEE Transactions
on Industrial Electronics, 42(1), pp.33-39, 1995.
[10]. Jawad Faiz, F.Kasebi, P.Pillay, “Design and testing of
an integrated electronically controlled capacitor for
integral and fractional horse power single-phase
induction motor”, Journal of Energy conversion &
Management, 45, pp. 2989-3001, 2004.
[11]. Tian- Hua, Ming-Tsan Lin, and Hann-Chung Wu,
“A single-phase induction Motor drive with improved
performance”, Journal of Electric power systems
research, 47 , pp.29-38, 1998. .
[12]. Koosuke Harada, Fumimasa Anan, Kiyomi Yamasaki,
Masahito Jinno,Yasuhiro Kawata and Tetsuya
Nakashima et al, “ Intelligent Transformer ”, In
Proceedings of IEEE Power Electronics Specialists
Conference (PESC) , 2, pp.1337-41, 1996.
[13]. H. Krishnaswami and V. Ramanarayanan, “Control
of high frequency AC link electronic transformer”, In
Proceedings of IEEE Electrical Power Application
systems conference (PASC), pp.509-16, 2005.
[14]. W.G.Hurley, “ Optimizing Core and Winding
Design in High Frequency Transformers”, In
Proceedings of IEEE Industrial Electronics and
power Conference (CIEP), pp. 2-13, 1996.
[15]. G. Saravana Ilango, K.Samidurai, M.Roykumar and
K.Thanushkodi, “Energy Efficient Power electronic
controller for a capacitor-run single phase induction
motor”, Journal of Energy conversion & Management,
50, pp. 2152-2157, 2009.

Authors Profile
K. Samidurai received his B.E degree in
Electrical & Electronics Engineering from
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India
in 1992 and M. Tech degree in Power
Systems from National Institue of
Technology, Tiruchirapalli, India in 2005.
Since 2005, he has been an Assistant
Professor in Department of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering, Karpagam
College of Engineering, Coimbatore,
India. His research interests are in the areas of power quality
(PQ), energy conservation and power electronics. He is currently
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 35
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Analyzing Roberts Edge Detector for Digital


Images Corrupted with Noise
Raman Maini1, Himanshu Aggarwal2
1
Punjabi University, University College of Engineering,
Patiala-147002, Punjab, India
research_raman@yahoo.com
2
Punjabi University, University College of Engineering,
Patiala-147002, Punjab, India
himagrawal@rediffmail.com

larger in scope, so they can average enough data to discount


Abstract: Edge detection is difficult in noisy images, since both localized noisy pixels. This results in less accurate
the noise and the edges contain high-frequency content. localization of the detected edges.
Attempts to reduce the noise result in blurred and distorted
edges. Operators used on noisy images are typically larger in Not all edges involve a step change in intensity. Effects
scope, so they can average enough data to discount localized such as refraction or poor focus can result in objects with
noisy pixels. This results in less accurate localization of the boundaries defined by a gradual change in intensity. The
detected edges. So, it is crucial to have a good understanding of operator[3]-[4] needs to be chosen to be responsive to such a
edge detection algorithms. This paper evaluates the gradual change in those cases.
performance of Roberts Edge Detector for detection of edges in
digital images corrupted with different kinds of noise. Different This paper evaluates the performance of Roberts Edge
kinds of noise are studied in order to evaluate the performance
Detector for detection of edges in digital images corrupted
of the Roberts Edge Detector. Further, the various standard test
Images are examined to validate our results. The software is
with different kinds of noise. Different kinds of noise are
developed using MATLAB 7.5.0. It has been observed that the studied in order to evaluate the performance of the Roberts
Roberts Edge Detector works effectively for the digital images Edge Detector. Further, the various standard test Images are
corrupted with Poisson Noise where as its performances reduces examined to validate our results. The software is developed
sharply for other kinds of noise in digital images. using MATLAB 7.5.0. It has been observed that the Roberts
Keywords: - Digital Images, Noise, Mask, Edge Detection Edge Detector works effectively for the digital images
corrupted with Poisson Noise where as its performances
reduces sharply for other kinds of noise in digital images [5]
1. Introduction - [6].
Edge detection refers to the process of identifying and
locating sharp discontinuities in an image. The 2. Noise
discontinuities are abrupt changes in pixel intensity which Noise is considered to be any measurement that is not part
characterize boundaries of objects in a scene. Classical of the phenomena of interest. Images are prone to different
methods of edge detection involve convolving the image types of noises. Departure of ideal signal is generally
with an operator (a 2-D filter), which is constructed to be referred to as noise. Noise arises as a result of unmodelled or
sensitive to large gradients in the image while returning unmodellable processes going on in the production and
values of zero in uniform regions. There are an extremely capture of real signal. It is not part of the ideal signal and
large number of edge detection operators available, each may be caused by a wide range of sources, e. g., and
designed to be sensitive to certain types of edges. Variables variation in the detector sensitivity, environmental
involved in the selection of an edge detection operator variations, the discrete nature of radiation, transmission or
include: Edge orientation, Noise environment, Edge quantization errors, etc. It is also possible to treat irrelevant
structure. The geometry of the operator determines a scene details as if they are image noises, e.g., surface
characteristic direction in which it is most sensitive to reflectance textures. The characteristics of noise [7] depend
edges. Operators can be optimized to look for horizontal, on its source, as does the operator which reduces its effects.
vertical, or diagonal edges [1]. Many image processing packages contains operators to
artificially add noise to an image. Deliberately corrupting an
Edge detection is difficult in noisy images, since both the image with noise allows us to test the resistance of an image
noise and the edges contain high-frequency content. processing operator to noise and assess the performance of
Attempts to reduce the noise result in blurred and distorted various noise filters. Noise is generally grouped into two
edges [2]. Operators used on noisy images are typically
36 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

categories-independent noise and image data dependent corrupted pixels are either set to the maximum value, which
noise. is something like a snow in image or have single bits flipped
over.
2.1 Image Data Independent Noise
This type of noise can be described by an additive noise 2.2.3 Salt & Pepper Noise
model, where the recorded image, i(m, n) is the sum of the This type of noise is also caused by errors in data
true image t(m, n) and the noise n(m, n): transmission and is a special case of data drop-out noise
i(m, n ) = t (m, n ) + n(m, n) (1) when in some cases single, single pixels are set alternatively
to zero or to the maximum value, giving the image a salt
The noise n(m,n) is often zero-mean and described by its
and pepper like appearance[10]. Unaffected pixels always
variance, σ n2 . In fact, the impact of the noise on the image remain unchanged. The noise is usually quantified by the
is often described by the signal to noise ratio (SNR), which percentage of pixels which are corrupted.
may be given by
σt σ i2
SNR = = −1 (2)
σn σ n2
σ t2 andσ i2 are the variances of the true image and the
recorded image, respectively. In many cases, additive noise
is evenly

distributed over the frequency domain (white noise),


whereas an image contains mostly low frequency
information. Therefore, such a noise is dominant for high Figure 2. Salt and Pepper noise Distribution Function
frequencies and is generally referred as Gaussian noise.
2.2.4 Poisson Noise

2.2 Image Data Dependent Noise The Poisson Noise generates a Poisson-distributed
pseudorandom sequence whose values are the number of
discrete events that occur in a given interval. The following
2.2.1 Detector Noise equation defines the probability density function of the
Another kind of Gaussian noise, which occurs in all poisson noise:
recorded images to a certain extent, is detector noise. This
kind of noise is due to the discrete nature of radiation, i.e.,
the fact hat each imaging system is recording an image by (3)
counting photons. Allowing some assumptions (which are
valid for many applications) this noise can be modeled with where is the mean.
an independent, additive model, where the noise has a zero-
mean Gaussian distribution described by its standard The following equations define the mean value, µ, and the
deviation (σ), or variance[8]. This means that each pixel in standard deviation value, , of the pseudorandom sequence:
the noisy image is the sum of the true pixel value and a
random, Gaussian distributed noise value. µ = E{x} = (4)

= [E{(x – µ)2}]1/2 = (5)

Poisson noise is the result of the Poisson process. You


can use the Poisson process to describe the probability of a
certain number of events happening in a given period of
time. For example, you can use the Poisson process to
describe the nuclear decay of atoms and the number of
messages a transmitting station receives.
This type of noise is caused by the nonlinear response of
the image detectors and recorders. Here the image data
Figure 1. Gaussian Noise Distribution Function dependent (signal dependent) term arises because detection
and recording processes involve random electron emission
having a Poisson distribution with a mean response value
2.2.2 Speckle Noise
[11]. Since the mean and variance of a Poisson distribution
Another common form of noise is data drop-out noise are equal, the signal dependent term has a standard
commonly referred to as Speckle noise. This noise is, in deviation if it is assumed that the noise has a unity variance.
fact, caused by errors in data transmission [9]. The
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 37
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

3. Roberts Edge Detector comparison in subsequent studies. Then the test image was
got corrupted with four different kinds of noise, generated
A variety of Edge Detectors are available for detecting the
using in MATLAB [16] environment with default values.
edges in digital images. However, each detector has its own
Then for each of the four noisy images, the performance of
advantages and disadvantages. The basic idea behind edge
the Roberts Edge Detector was examined practically.
detection is to find places in an image where the intensity
Predefined default threshold values used by Roberts Edge
changes rapidly. Based on this idea, an edge detector may
Detector for different test images corrupted with different
either be based on the technique of locating the places where
kind of noise are shown in Table-1. The results of edge
the first derivative of the intensity is greater in magnitude
detection are shown in Fig. 4.
than a specified threshold or it may be based on the criterion
It has been observed that the Roberts Edge Detector works
to find places where the second derivative of the intensity
well both with the Gaussian as well as Poisson noise
has a zero crossing[12]-[14].
corrupted images. Further, it has been observed that out of
The Roberts Cross operator performs a simple, quick to
these two results, the performance of the said detector is
compute, 2-D spatial gradient measurement on an image.
much superior in Poisson noise corrupted image as
Pixel values at each point in the output represent the
compared to Gaussian noise [15] corrupted image. However,
estimated absolute magnitude of the spatial gradient of the
its performance decrease drastically for Salt & Pepper as
input image at that point.
well as Speckle noise corrupted images. Roberts edge
The operator consists of a pair of 2×2 convolution kernels as
detector by inherent does the averaging of neighboring pixels.
shown in Figure. One kernel is simply the other rotated by
Since the Salt & Pepper noise and speckle pixel values are
90°. This is very similar to the Sobel operator.
often very different from the surrounding values, they tend
to distort the pixel average calculated by the averaging of
+1 0 0 +1 neighboring pixels significantly. Therefore the average
value calculated will be significantly different from the true
0 -1 -1 0 value. So, performance of Roberts’s edge detector decreases
sharply for salt & pepper and speckle type [16]-[17] of
noise.
Gx Gy For Poisson noise, distribution for the values of an each
pixel is determined by the nature of light itself. Light isn’t a
Figure 3. Roberts edge detecting templates continuous quantity, but occurs in discrete photons. These
photons don’t arrive in a steady stream, but sometime vary
These kernels are designed to respond maximally to edges over time. Think of it like a flow of cars on a road-
running at 45° to the pixel grid, one kernel for each of the sometimes they bunch together, sometimes they spread out,
two perpendicular orientations. The kernels can be applied but in general there is an overall average flow. Therefore,
separately to the input image, to produce separate corrupted pixel come together and can be better smoothed by
measurements of the gradient component in each orientation averaging. So Roberts’s edge detector which by its inherent
(call these Gx and Gy). These can then be combined property does the averaging of neighboring pixels values
together to find the absolute magnitude of the gradient at reduces this kind of noise accurately.
each point and the orientation of that gradient. In Gaussian Noise, each pixel in the noisy image is the
sum of the true pixel value and a random, Gaussian
The gradient magnitude is given by: distributed noise value. So image corrupted by this type of
noise is smoothed as a whole by Roberts edge detector but
loses sharp image characteristics to large extent as noise in
G = Gx 2 + Gy 2 (6) present in each pixel value but not so well as Poisson noise
corrupted image because Poisson noise distribution is for
although typically, an approximate magnitude is computed discrete values, not continuous ones which suits the Roberts
using: edge characteristic of averaging of neighborhood pixels
well. Therefore, Roberts edge detector performance is better
G = Gx + Gy (7) for images corrupted with Poisson type of noise as compared
to Gaussian noise.
which is much faster to compute. The angle of orientation of
In order to validate our results about the performance of
the edge giving rise to the spatial gradient (relative to the
Roberts Edge Detector, six different standard test images,
pixel grid orientation) is given by:
each corrupted with Poisson noise are considered.
The performance of Roberts Edge Detector is again
θ = arctan(Gy / Gx) − 3Π / 4 (8)
examined both for the original as well as noise corrupted
images. Predefined default threshold values used by Roberts
4. Results and Discussion Edge Detector for different test images are given in Table-2.
First, in order to evaluate the performance of the Roberts The results are shown in Fig.5 and fig. 6. From the results,
Edged Detector, a standard test image of a coin was taken it has again been observed that the performance of the
and its edge was detected using Roberts Edge Detector. The Roberts Edge Detector is found to be satisfactory for all the
Edge image is used as a reference for the purpose of six test images corrupted with Poisson noise.
38 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Table 2: Predefined default threshold values used by


Roberts Edge Detector for Different Images

Table1: Predefined default threshold values used by Roberts


Edge Detector for different test images corrupted with different
S.No Image Threshold
Kind of noise
value
S. No. Image Original Poisson 1 Original 0.0805
image noise
corrupted
image 2 Gaussian noise 0.1380
1 Coin 0.0805 0.1036 corrupted image

3 Pepper & Salt noise 0.1854


2 Cameraman 0.1441 0.1533
corrupted image
3 Circuit 0.0825 0.0926 4 Speckle noise 0.1880
corruted image
4 Cell 0.0539 0.0750
5 Poisson noise 0.1036
corrupted image
5 MRI 0.0842 0.0876

6 Tire 0.1243 0.1282

7 Tree 0.0909 0.0973

Original Image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Gaussian noise corrupted image Pepper & Salt noise corrupted image

Speckle noise corrupted image Poisson noise corrupted image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Gaussian noise corrupted image from Pepper & Salt noise corrupted image

Edge Image using Roberts Mask Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Speckle noise corrupted image from Poisson noise corrupted image

Figure 4. Performance of Roberts Edge Detector for an image corrupted with different types of noise
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 39
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Original Image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Poisson noise corrupted image Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Poiss on noise corrupted image

Original Image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Poisson noise corrupted image Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Poisson noise corrupted image

Original Image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Poisson noise corrupted image Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Poiss on noise corrupted image

Figure 5. Performance of Roberts Edge Detector for different images corrupted with Poisson Noise

Original Image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Poisson noise corrupted image Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Poisson noise corrupted image

Original Image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Poisson noise corrupted image Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Poisson noise corrupted image

Original Image Edge Image using Roberts Mask Poisson noise corrupted image Edge Image using Roberts Mask
from Poisson noise corrupted image

Figure 6. Performance of Roberts Edge Detector for different images corrupted with Poisson Noise
40 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

[12] H. Chidiac and D. Ziou:, ’Classification of


ImageEdges’, Vision Interface’99, Troise-Rivieres,.
Canada,pp. 17-24, 1999.
5. Conclusion [14] B.M. Sadler and A. Swami, “Analysis of Multiscale
In this paper, an attempt is made to evaluate the Products for Step Detection and Estimation,” IEEE
performance of the Roberts Edged Detector for noisy Trans. Information Theory, vol. 45, pp. 1043-1051, Apr.
images. Experimental results have demonstrated that the 1999.
Roberts Edged Detector works quite well for digital images [15] P. Bao and L. Zhang, “Noise Reduction for
corrupted with Poisson Noise whereas its performance Magnetic Resonance Image via Adaptive Multiscale
decreases sharply for other kinds of noise. Hence, this type Products. Thresholding,” IEEE Trans. Medical Imaging,
of detector can not be used in practical images which are vol. 22, pp. 1089-1099, Sept. 2003.
generally corrupted with many kinds of noise. However, [16] Canny, J., “A Computational Approach to Edge
these can be used successfully in conjunction with suitable Detection”, IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine
digital filter to reduce the effect of noise substantially before Intelligence, 8:679-714, November 1986
applying the Roberts Edged Detector. The work is under [17] Maar, D., Hildreth E., “Theory of edge detection”,
further progress to develop two dimensional digital FIR Proceedings Royal Soc. London, vol. 207, 187-217,
filter based on two dimensional weighted least squares 1980R.C. Gonzalez, R.E. Woods and S.L. Eddins:
method to reduce the effect of different kind of noise in ‘Digital Image Processing using MATLAB’, Pearson
digital images and study its performance in conjunction with Education Inc., 2004.
Roberts Edge Detector to find edges in noisy images.
Authors Profile
References
Raman Maini received B.Tech(Computer Science &
Engineering) from Beant College of Engineering,
[1] R. Gonzalez and R. Woods Digital Image Processing, Gurdaspur, Punjab, India in 1999
Addison Wesley, 1992, pp 414 - 428. and M.Tech( Computer Science &
[2] R. Boyle and R. Thomas Computer Vision: A First Engineering) from PAU, Ludhiana,
Course, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1988, pp 48 - India , in 2002. He got Merit
50. certificate in his M.Tech thesis at
[3] E. Davies Machine Vision: Theory, Algorithms and PAU He is currently working as an
Practicalities, Academic Press, 1990, Chap. 5. Assistant Professor in Computer
[4] D. Vernon Machine Vision, Prentice-Hall, 1991, Engineering at University
Chap. 5. College of Engineering, Punjabi
[5] B. Chanda and D.D. Majumdar: ‘Digital Image University, Patiala, India. He is a life member of ISTE
Processing and Anylysis’, PHI, New Delhi, December, (Indian Society of Technical Education), India, IETE
2002. (Institution of Electronics & Telecommunication
[6] S. Ando: ‘Consistent Gradient Operators’, IEEE Engineers), India. His current area of research is Computer
Transaction on Pattern Analysis and Machine Vision (Specialty Noise Reduction in Medical Images, Edge
Intelligence, vol. 22, no. 3, pp.252-265, Mar. 2000. Detection and Image Enhancement)
[7] J. Koplowitz and V. Greco: ‘On the Edge Location Error
for Local Maximum and Zero-Crossing Edge Detectors’,
IEEE Trans. Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal, is
vol.16, no. 12, pp. 1207-1212, Dec. 1994. Reader in Computer Engineering at
[8] M. Sharifi, M. Fathy and, M.T. Mahmoudi: ‘A University College of Engineering,
Classified and Comparative Study of Edge Detection Punjabi University, Patiala. He had
Algorithms’, in proc. IEEE Computer Society completed his Bachelor’s degree in
International Conference on Information Technology: Computer Science from Punjabi
Coding and Computing, 2002. University Patiala in 1993. He did
[9] L. Gagnon and F.D. Smaili: ‘Speckle Noise Reduction his M.E. in Computer Science in
of Airborne SAR Images with Symmetric Daubechies 1999 from Thapar Institute of
Wavelets’, SPIE Proc. #2759, pp. 1424, 1996 Engineering & Technology, Patiala. He had completed his
[10] Z. Wang and D. Hang, “ Progressive Switching Ph.D. in Computer Engineering from Punjabi University
Median Filter for the Removal of Impulse Noise from Patiala in 2007.He has more than 16 years of teaching. He is
Highly Corrupted Images,” IEEE Trans. on Circuits and an active researcher who has supervised 15 M.Tech.
Systems-II: Analog and Digital Signal processing, vol. Dissertations and guiding Ph.D. to 6 scholars and has
46, no. 1, pp. 78-80 Jan. 1999. contributed more than 40 articles in International and
[11] K. Timmermann and R. Novak: ‘Multiscale modeling National Conferences and 17 papers in research Journals.
and estimation of Poisson processes with applications to His areas of interest are Information Systems, ERP and
photon-limited imaging’, IEEE Trans. Information Parallel Computing.
Theory., vol. 45 , no. 3, pp. 846-852., 1999
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 41
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

70MHz CMOS Gm-C 2nd Order Band Pass Filter


for Wireless Systems
Sampath.P1 and Dr.Gunavathi.K2
1
Lecturer, ECE Department, PSG College of Technology,
Coimbatore-641004, Tamilnadu, India(corresponding author)
sampath_palaniswami@yahoo.co.in
2
Professor, ECE Department, PSG College of Technology,
Coimbatore-641004, Tamilnadu, India
kgunavathi2000@yahoo.com

results are discussed. Finally the conclusion is drawn in


Abstract: In this paper the design of CMOS Gm-C 2nd order
band pass filter (BPF) operating at center frequency 70MHz
section 6.
and bandwidth 3MHz is presented. The band pass filter is
constructed with Folded Cascode Operational 2. Literature Survey
Transconductance Amplifier (OTA) as the basic building
block and is implemented in Cadence Analog Design
The Gm-C filter offers many advantages in terms of low-
Environment using CMOS 0.18µm technology. The simulated power and high frequency capability. Gm-C filters can
performance shows that the filter provides a Q of 21 and operate in a wide range of frequencies from several hundred
voltage gain of 3.59dB. The filter can be operated at center of KHz to more than 100MHz. Unlike the spiral inductors
frequency of 70MHz under 1.8V power supply. The filter is used in SAW filters, the Q of Gm-C filters can be adjusted
suitable for intermediate frequency (IF) range in most of the by controlling the output impedance even at lower
wireless systems operating at 900MHz. frequencies. Various topologies are available for
Keywords: OTA, current mirror, BPF and gain. constructing 2nd order filters [5] from which a filter structure
that gives linear adjustment of center frequency and
simultaneously Q-adjustment is possible is selected.
1. Introduction
High performance cellular phones with low cost and small 3. Folded Cascode OTA
size have increasing demand in today’s market. The primary
criterion in various cellular phone design approaches The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is used
include lowering the complexity, cost, power, and number of as basic building block in many switched capacitor filters.
external components. The super-heterodyne receiver OTA is basically an op-amp without an output buffer and
achieves good selectivity and avoids the problem of DC can only drive capacitive loads [2], [3]. An OTA is an
offset in homodyne (direct-down) receivers and this is amplifier where all nodes are low impedance except the
mainly utilized in the wireless receivers for mobile phones. input and output nodes. A useful feature of OTA is that its
The rapidly increasing use of wireless devices has transconductance can be adjusted by the bias current. Filters
accelerated the need for implementation of high speed, low made using the OTA can be tuned by changing the bias
cost on-chip IF filters. Realization of on-chip band pass current Ibias. Two practical concerns when designing an
filters for narrow band selection is challenging task in OTA for filter applications are the input signal amplitude
wireless receivers. IF band pass filters are needed for the and the parasitic input/output capacitances. Large signals
channel selection and filtering. In super-heterodyne cause the OTA gain to become non-linear. The external
receivers proper filtering is mandatory and is done by
capacitance should be large compared to the input or output
external surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters. Filtering can
parasitic of the OTA. This limits the maximum frequency of
be done by making use of active filters. The Gm-C circuits
a filter built with an OTA and causes amplitude or phase
represent a popular technique of integrated realization of
high frequency continuous time filters [1]. In this paper a errors. These errors can usually be reduced with proper
2nd order Gm-C BPF is designed to operate at center selection of Ibias. The performance of simple OTA is limited
frequency of 70MHz and bandwidth 3MHz using Folded by its input and output voltage swing. To overcome these
Cascode OTA structure. limits of simple OTA and have an improved performance a
The literature survey of various filters is discussed in section Folded Cascode OTA is used.
2. The working of Folded Cascode OTA and its performance The folded Cascode OTA based on Wilson Current mirror is
is discussed in section 3. The construction of 2nd order BPF used [4]. The folded Cascode structure is obtained from
with Folded Cascode OTA and its significance is presented simple OTA by folding down n-channel Cascode active loads
in section 4. The simulation results of the 2nd order BPF loads of a differential pair and changing the n-channel
with Folded Cascode OTA is given in section 5 and the MOSFET to p-channel MOSFET. In the folded Cascode
OTA, the differential stage consisting of PMOS transistors
42 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
M9 and M10 are used to charge Wilson mirror. The transistors
M11 and M12 provide the DC bias voltages to M5-M6-M7-M8
transistors. The structure of Folded Cascode OTA is shown
in the Figure 1.

Figure 3. Transient Response of the Folded Cascode OTA

The transconductance of the Folded Cascode OTA is


calculated using (1) and is 388 µS.
i
g m = + out − (1)
v −v

Figure 1. Circuit of the Folded Cascode OTA 4. 2nd Order Band Pass Filter (BPF)
The sizing of the transistors used is given in table1. Second order band pass filters are used in many wireless
systems directly and also higher order filter structures are
Table 1: Sizing of transistors designed with second order filters as basic blocks. The
CMOS Folded Cascode BPF designed is a voltage controlled
Device Parameters Values filter structure with only five components [5]. The 2nd order
CMOS Folded Cascode BPF circuit is shown in the Figure
Width of transistors 25µm 4.
M1, M2, M3 and M4

Width of transistors
M5, M6, M7, M8, 2.78µm
M11and M12

Width of transistors 45 µm
M9 and M10

The length is taken as 0.18 µm for all the transistors. The


Ibias for tuning of the filter is Ibias= I1=45µA and I’bias = I0=40
µA. The value of I1 and I0 are different in order to have a
good impedance matching. The schematic of the Folded
Cascode OTA is shown in the Figure 2.

Figure 4. 2nd order CMOS Folded Cascode BPF circuit


The Folded Cascode OTA-BPF is a tunable structure with
three OTA’s and two capacitorsC1 and C2. The first two
OTA’s are used for tuning the desired center frequency of
the filter operation and the third OTA is used for bandwidth
adjustment. The two capacitors are selected to provide a
desired cutoff frequency and Q. The Folded Cascode OTA-
BPF is characterized by figure of merits like Power
consumption, Gain, Noise, insertion loss, Input and output
matching. The filter is designed to work at a center
frequency of 70MHz, bandwidth of 3MHz and a Q of 23.
The implemented schematic of the Folded Cascode OTA-
BPF is shown in the Figure 5.
Figure 2. Schematic of the Folded Cascode OTA
The transconductance is calculated from the transient
response of the Folded Cascode OTA shown in Figure 3.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 43
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

(b) S11
nd
Figure 5. Schematic of the 2 order BPF with Folded
Cascode OTA

5. Simulation Results of Folded Cascode OTA-


BPF
The filter provides a gain of 3.594dB and Q of 21.17 at the
center frequency of 69.89MHz and bandwidth of 3.3MHz.
The ac response of the Folded Cascode OTA-BPF is shown
in the Figure 6.

(c) S12

Figure 6. AC response of the Folded Cascode OTA-BPF


The S-parameter analysis is performed to find the S-
parameters and Insertion loss. The S-parameters are shown
in the figure 7. (d) S22
Figure 7. S-Parameters of the Folded Cascode OTA-BPF
The S-parameter simulation of the filter shows that the input
and output impedance matching is good for the designed
filter. From the S- parameters it shows that the designed
Folded Cascode OTA-BPF provides an Insertion loss of
1.975dB.
Also the S-parameter analysis is performed to find the
Power gain and available gain of the circuit and to find the
stability of the circuit. The power gain and transducer gain
of the Folded Cascode OTA-BPF circuit are shown in the
Figure 8.

(a) S21
44 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

tones. The Voltage gain is found as a ratio of the IF Output


to the IF input in dB. The Harmonic distortion is
characterized as the ratio of the power of fundamental signal
to the sum of power at the harmonics. The simulation
results of Periodic Steady State (PSS) analysis are shown in
the Figure 10.

Figure 8. GP and GT of the Folded Cascode BPF

(a) 1-dB Compression point for Folded Cascode BPF

Figure 9. Bif (Δ) of the Folded Cascode BPF (b) IIP3 for Folded Cascode BPF
Figure 9 shows that the stability factor Bif (Δ) is less than 1
and hence the circuit is stable. The values of the S-
parameters obtained for the Folded Cascode BPF are given
in Table 2.

Table 2: S-Parameters obtained for the Folded Cascode BPF

Parameters Values
S21@69.18MHz -1.975dB
S11@69.17MHz -13.17dB
S12@69.18MHz -1.976dB
(c) Voltage Gain of Folded Cascode OTA-BPF
S22@69.18MHz -5.567dB
Power Gain GP 6.676dB

Transducer Gain GT -1.975dB

Stability factor Bif (Δ) 0.2179

The periodic steady state response simulation is performed


for the Folded Cascode OTA-BPF to find its 1 dB
compression point, 3rd order Input Intercept Point (IIP3),
Voltage gain and harmonic distortion. IIP3 is measured
using a two-tone test, where the two input tones are the first
order tones. The IIP3 is defined as the cross point of the (d) Harmonic Distortion of Folded Cascode BPF
power for the 1st order tones and the power for the 3rd order
Figure 10. PSS analysis of the Folded Cascode BPF
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 45
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

The parameters obtained from PSS analysis of the Folded power of 657.27µW when operated with 1.8V power supply.
Cascode BPF are given in table 3. The filter also provides good impedance matching and very
low noise and hence is more suitable for IF channel
selection in wireless systems.
Table 3: Parameters obtained from PSS analysis for the
Folded Cascode BPF
References
Parameters Values
[1] Muhammad S.Qureshi and Phillip E.Allen, “70 MHz
1-dB Compression Point -35.76dBm CMOS Gm-C IF Filter”, IEEE J.Solid State Circuits,
IIP3 -18dBm vol. 6, pp. 46-49, May2005.
[2] David A. Johns and Ken Martin, “Analog integrated
Voltage Gain -49.24dB Circuit Design”, John Wiley &Sons, Inc, New York,
Harmonic Distortion -73.21dB 1997.
[3] R.Jacob Baker, Harry.W.Li and David.E.Royce,
“CMOS-Circuit Design, Layout and Simulation”,
The Pnoise analysis is performed for the Folded Cascode IEEE Press, London, 1998.
OTA-BPF to visualize the contribution of different noise [4] Houda Daoud, Samir Ben Salem, Sonia Zouari,
sources in the total noise. This noise analysis gives the noise Mourad Loulou, “Folded Cascode OTA Design for
performance of the device which contributes the maximum Wide Band Applications”, Design and Test of
noise. The input and output noise response for the Folded Integrated Systems in Nanoscale Technology, 2006.
Cascode OTA-BPF is shown in the Figure 11. The noise [5] R. L. Geiger and E. Sánchez-Sinencio, "Active Filter
response shows that the input noise of -136.9dB at 67.61 Design Using Operational Transconductance
MHz and the output noise of -163.9dB at 69.24 MHz are Amplifiers: A Tutorial", IEEE Circuits and Devices
very low near the center frequency of the filter. Magazine, Vol. 1, pp.20-32, March 1985.

Authors Profile

P.Sampath received the B.E. degree in


Electronics and communication Engineering
form Madras University, Chennai in 1998
and M.E. degree in Communication
Systems from Anna University, Chennai in
2005. He has around 10 years of teaching
experience and is a life member of ISTE,
India. He is now with ECE Department,
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore.

(a) Input Noise

Dr. K.Gunavathi received the BE degree


in electronics and communication
engineering, the ME degree in computer
science and engineering, and the PhD in
1985, 1989, and 1998, respectively, from
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India. Her research interests
include low-power VLSI design, design and
testing of digital, analog, and mixed signal
VLSI circuits. She is currently working as a professor in the ECE
(b) Output Noise department of PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, India. She has around 20 years of teaching and research
Figure 11. Pnoise analysis of the Folded Cascode OTA-
experience and is a life member of ISTE. She has published in 20
BPF national and international journals and 60 national and international
international conference publications.
6. Conclusion
This paper presents an efficient method for designing a 2nd
order CMOS Gm-C BPF using folded cascode OTA. The
OTA provides a transconductance of 388 µS. The filter
provides a gain of 3.594dB and Q of 21.17 for the designed
center frequency and bandwidth. The filter consumes a
46 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

New Frame Work of Hidden Data with in Non


Multimedia File
Hamdan.O.Alanazi 1, Hamid A.Jalab 2 , A.A Zaidan 3 and B.B Zaidan 4
1
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology / King Saud University
Riyadh /Saudi Arabia
hamdan.alanazi@yahoo.com

2
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology/University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur/Malaysia
dr_hamidjalab@yahoo.com, aws.alaa@gmail.com, bilal_bahaa@hotmail.com

Abstract: Nowadays, the rapid development of multimedia and of a message being detected. If the message is also encrypted
internet allows for wide distribution of digital media data. It then it provides another layer of protection [2]. Therefore,
becomes much easier to edit, modify and duplicate digital some Steganography methods combine traditional
information besides that, digital documents are also easy to copy
Cryptography with Steganography; the sender encrypts the
and distribute, therefore it will be faced by many threatens. It’s a
big security and privacy issue with the large flood of information
secret message prior to the overall communication process,
and the development of the digital format, it become necessary to as it is more difficult for an attacker to detect embedded
find appropriate protection because of the significance, accuracy cipher text in a cover [3]. In the field of Steganography,
and sensitivity of the information. Nowadays protection system some terminology has developed. The adjectives 'cover',
classified with more specific as hiding information, encryption 'embedded’ and 'stego' were defined at the information
information, and combination between hiding and encryption to hiding workshop held in Cambridge, England. The term
increase information security, the strength of the information
"cover" refers to description of the original, innocent
hiding science is due to the non-existence of standard algorithms
to be used in hiding secret messages. Also there is randomness in massage, data, audio, video, and so on. Steganography is not
hiding methods such as combining several media (covers) with a new science; it dates back to ancient times [4]. It has been
different methods to pass a secret message. In addition, there are used through the ages by ordinary people, spies, rulers,
no formal methods to be followed to discover the hidden data. For government, and armies [4]. There are many stories about
this reason, the task of this research becomes difficult. In this Steganography [5]. For example ancient Greece used
paper, a new system of information hiding is presented. The methods for hiding messages such as hiding it in the belly of
proposed system aim to hidden information (data file) in any
execution file (EXE) after PE-header and to detect the hidden file
a share (a kind of rabbits), using invisible ink and pigeons.
and we will see implementation of steganography system which Another ingenious method was to shave the head of a
embeds information in an execution file. (EXE) files have been messenger and tattoo a message or image on the messenger
investigated. The system tries to find a solution to the size of the head. After allowing his hair to grow, the message would be
cover file and making it undetectable by anti-virus software. The undetected until the head was shaved again. While the
system includes two main functions; first is the hiding of the Egyptian used illustrations to conceal message. Hidden
information in a Portable Executable File (EXE after PE-header),
information in the cover data is known as the "embedded"
through the execution of four process (specify the cover file,
specify the information file, encryption of the information, and data and information hiding is a general term encompassing
hiding the information) and the second function is the extraction many sub disciplines, is a term around a wide range of
of the hiding information through three process (specify the steno problems beyond that of embedding message in content. The
file, extract the information, and decryption of the information). term hiding here can refer to either making the information
The system has achieved the main goals, such as make the relation undetectable or keeping the existence of the information
of the size of the cover file and the size of information independent secret. Information hiding is a technique of hiding secret
and the result file does not make any conflict with anti-virus
software.
using redundant cover data such as images, audios, movies,
documents, etc. This technique has recently become
Keywords: Cryptography,Steganography,PortableExecutableFile important in a number of application areas [5]. For example,
digital video, audio, and images are increasingly embedded
1. Introduction with imperceptible marks, which may contain hidden
signatures or watermarks that help to prevent unauthorized
Steganography is the art of hiding and transmitting
copy [6]. It is a performance that inserts secret messages
data through apparently innocuous carriers in an effort to
into a cover file, so that the existence of the messages is not
apparent [7]. Research in information hiding has
conceal the existence of the data, the word Steganography
tremendous increased during the past decade with
literally means covered or hiding writing as derived from
commercial interests driving the field [7].
Greek. Steganography has its place in security[1]. It is not
intended to replace cryptography but supplement it. Hiding
a message with Steganography methods reduces the chance
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 47
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

2. Portable Executable File That is, when a PE section is mapped into memory, the first
byte of each section corresponds to a memory page. On x86
The proposed system uses a portable executable file as
CPUs, pages are 4KB aligned, while on the Intel
a cover to embed an executable program as an example for
Architecture IA-64, they're 8KB aligned [12].
the proposed system [8].
2.2.2 Relative Virtual Addresses
2.1 Concept Related with PE- File
In an executable file, there are many places where
The addition of the Microsoft® windows NT™
an in-memory address needs to be specified. For instance,
operating system to the family of windows™ operating
the address of a global variable is needed when referencing
systems brought many changes to the development
it. PE files can load just about anywhere in the process
environment and more than a few changes to applications
address space. While they do have a preferred load address,
themselves. One of the more significant changes is the
you can't rely on the executable file actually loading there.
introduction of the Portable Executable (PE) file format. The
For this reason, it's important to have some way of
name "Portable Executable" refers to the fact that the format
specifying addresses that are independent of where the
is not architecture specific [9].In other words, the term
executable file loads [12].To avoid having hard coded
"Portable Executable" was chosen because the intent was to
memory addresses in PE files, RVAs are used. An RVA is
have a common file format for all versions of Windows, on
simply an offset in memory, relative to where the PE file
all supported CPUs [11].The PE files formats drawn
was loaded. For instance, consider an .EXE file loaded at
primarily from the Common Object File Format (COFF)
address 0x400000, with its code section at address
specification that is common to UNIX® operating systems.
0x401000. The RVA of the code section would be:
Yet, to remain compatible with previous versions of the MS-
DOS® and windows operating systems, the PE file format
(Target address) 0x401000 – (load address) 0x400000 =
also retains the old familiar MZ header from MS-DOS (RAV) (1)
[11].The PE file format for Windows NT introduced a
completely new structure to developers familiar with the To convert an RVA to an actual address, simply reverse
windows and MS-DOS environments. Yet developers the process: add the RVA to the actual load address to find
familiar with the UNIX environment will find that the PE the actual memory address. Incidentally, the actual memory
file format is similar to, if not based on, the COFF address is called a Virtual Address (VA) in PE parlance.
specification [10].The entire format consists of an MS-DOS Another way to think of a VA is that it's an RVA with the
MZ header, followed by a real-mode stub program, the PE preferred load address added in [11],[12].
file signature, the PE file header, the PE optional header, all
of the section headers, and finally, all of the section bodies 2.2.3 Importing Functions
[12]. When we use code or data from another DLL, we're
importing it. When any PE files loads, one of the jobs of the
2.2 Techniques Related with PE
windows loader is to locate all the imported functions and
Before looking inside the PE file, we should know data and make those addressees available to the file being
special techniques some of which are [12]: loaded [13],[14].

3. Methodology
2.2.1General view of PE files sections 3.1 System Concept
A PE file section represents code or data of some
sort. While code is just code, there are multiple types of Concept of this system can be summarized as hiding
data. Besides read/write program data (such as global the data or any information data in the Section header
within executable file so there is no function or routine
variables), other types of data in sections include application
(open-file, read, write, and close-file) in the operating
program interface (API) import and export tables, resources,
system to extract it. This operation can be performed in two
and relocations. Each section has its own set of in-memory
alternative methods: Building the file handling procedure
attributes, including whether the section contains code, independently of the operating system file handling
whether it's read-only or read/write, and whether the data in routines. In this case we need canceling the existing file
the section is shared between all processes using the handling routines and developing a new function which can
executable file[8].Sections have two alignment values, one perform our need, with the same names. The advantage of
within the desk file and the other in memory. The PE file these methods is it doesn't need any additional functions,
header specifies both of these values, which can differ. Each which can be identified by the analysts. And it can be
section starts at an offset that's some multiple of the executed remotely and suitable for networks and the internet
alignment value. For instance, in the PE file, a typical applications. The disadvantage of these methods is it needs
alignment would be 0x200. Thus, every section begins at a to be installed (can not be operated remotely). So we choose
file offset that's a multiple of 0x200.Once mapped into this concept to implementation in this paper.
memory, sections always start on at least a page boundary.
48 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Steganography techniques increases the degree of


security for the information hiding which is used in the
proposed system because the data which is embedded
inside the EXE file is not embed directly of EXE file, it
will be hiding of triplex space within EXE file. So the
attacker cannot be guessing the information hidden.

• It's very difficult to extract the hidden information it's


difficult to find out the information hiding , that is because
of three reasons:
o The information hiding will be encrypted before hiding of the
information by AES method; this method very strong, 128-bit key
would be in theory being in range of a military budget within 30-
40 years. An illustration of the current status for AES is given by
the following example, where we assume an attacker with the
capability to build or purchase a framework that tries keys at the
rate of one billion keys per second. This is at least 1 000 times
faster than the fastest personal computer in 2004. Under this
assumption, the attacker will need about 10 000 000 000 000 000
000 000 years to try all possible keys for the weakest version.

o The attacker impossible guessing the information hiding inside


the EXE file because of couldn't guessing the real size of (EXE
file and information hiding).

o The information hiding should be decrypted after retract the


information.

• The cover file can be executed normally after hiding


Figure 1. First Method of the System Concept operation. Because the hidden information already hide
Section header and thus cannot be manipulated as the
exe.file, therefore, the cover file still natural, working
normally and not effected, such as if the cover is EXE
file (WINDOWES XP SETUP) after hiding operation
it'll continued working, In other words, the EXE file had
been installed of windows.

• Virus detection programmers’ can't detect such as files,


the study transverse from the beginning according to the
style in the use of detectable by viruses, programs that
tell us to avoid the additional disclosures. As there are
many forms of detection methods by ant-viruses there are
those who depend on the style of string matching and
forms. Many of these do not reveal evidence added to
the signature and it depends disclosed only viruses
known. Other method heuristic depends on the type of
expectations and the detection of unknown viruses
depends. This technique to distinguish the added code to
use a series of directives row or a change in entry point
code for the program as non - matching refers to the
evidence found in the structure of the program with the
fact that the form of or install the program and this last
point is important to us precisely because , the addition
data to the Section header may require a change in some,
So that structure taken in the process of concealment
Figure 2. Second Method of the System Concept
does not result in any change in the composition and
structure of file, That is why the EXE file undetectable
3.2 System Features by Unit-Virus.
• The hiding operation data in the Section header within
EXE file using computation between encryption and
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 49
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

3.3 The Proposed System Structure the test cases are still useful and test case development can
occur in parallel with the implementation, thereby reducing
To protect the hidden information from retraction the
overall research development interval, on other side,
system encrypts the information by the built-in encryption
functional test cases frequently suffer from two problems:
algorithm provided by the java. The hiding operation can be
there can be significant redundancies among test cases, and
performed as shown in Figure 3. The retraction operation
this is compounded by the possibility of gaps of untested
can be performed as shown in Figure 4.
software. As shown in Figure 5.

Figure 3. Hiding Operation

Figure 5. Approaches to Identifying Test Cases

When systems are considered to be "black boxes" test


cases are generated and executed from the specification of
the required functionality at defined interfaces, this leads to
the function of the black box is understood completely in
terms of its inputs and outputs, as shown in Figure 6. Black-
box testing has some important advantages:
• It doesn't require that we see the code we are testing.
Sometimes code will not be available in source code
form, yet it can still construct useful test cases without it.
The person writing the test cases does not need to
understand the implementation.
• The test cases do not depend on the implementation.
Figure 4. Retraction Operation They can be written in parallel with or before the
implementation. Further, good black-box test cases do
4. Testing of the System not need to be changed. Even if the implementation is
There are two fundamental approaches to identifying completely rewritten.
test cases, these are know as functional and structure testing, • Constructing black-box test cases causes the programmer
each of these approaches has several distinct test case to think carefully about the specification and its
identification methods, more commonly called testing implications. Many specification errors are caught this
methods, functional testing is based on the view that any way.
program can be considered to be a function that maps values The disadvantage of black box testing is that its
from its input domain to values in its output range. coverage may not be as high as we'd like, because it has to
(Function, domain and range) this notion is commonly used work without the implementation. But it's a good place to
in engineering. There are two distinct advantages to start when writing test cases, with the functional approach
functional test cases: they are independent of how the to test case identification; the only information that is used
software is implemented, so if the implementation changes, is the specification of the software.
50 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
• Installation (Microsoft Excel Worksheet 2003
Or 2007)
• Installation (Microsoft Office Word
Document 2003 or 2007).
• Installation (Software Antivirus 2010).
• Installation (Real Player Programme).
• Installation (Jet Audio Programme).
• Installation (ACDSEE Programme).
• System application for this research.

4.2.2 Inputs
Figure 6. Black box The system has two types of inputs:
• Inputs for cover (EXE Files), there are five types of cover (EXE
Files) for different size.
4.1 Process of the Test • Inputs for information hidden, four text for different size, four
image for different size, four video for different size. four audio
4.1.1 Test Case One for different size.
Make compare between cover files size after and
before hiding operation. Four tables to compare between size Table 1: Inputs for Test Cases.
after and before hiding operation, table 2: different size for
cover with different type of the EXE files and same size for
information of each type for multimedia files (text, video,
audio and image), table 3: same size for cover with same
type of the EXE files and different size for information of
each type for multimedia files (text, video, audio and
image), table 4: different size for cover with same type of
the EXE files and Same Size for information of each type
for multimedia files (text, video, audio and image), table 5:
different size for cover with same type of the EXE files and
different size for information of each type for multimedia
files (text, video, audio and image).

4.1.2 Test Case Two


Testing for the usage of EXE files after the hiding
operation done, four pictures approve the cover (EXE Files)
usage after the hiding operation and these pictures divides
to, first picture for text, second picture for image, third
picture for video, fourth picture for audio.
4.2.3 Expected Results
4.1.3 Test Case Three • Secure cover (EXE Files).
Testing for Scanning Result (undetectable by • The hidden information can be of any type for multimedia files.
antivirus software) , four pictures approve the cover (EXE • The size of cover file didn’t change after hidden process.
• These cover (EXE Files) usage after the hiding operation.
Files) undetectable for antivirus software after the hiding
• These cover (EXE Files) undetectable for antivirus software after
operation and these pictures divides to , first picture for the hiding operation.
text., second picture for image, third picture for video,
fourth picture for audio.
4.3 A Proposed Test Cases
4.2 Test Cases Details
Test cases are known preconditions, inputs and 4.3.1 Proposed Test Case One
expected results, which is worked out before the test is In this test case can be shown tables for cover files and
executed. The definition of software installation needed for information hidden after and before hiding operation for all
test an (Preconditions) and the definition inputs should types of multimedia files (text ,image, audio and
needed for test an (Inputs) and the definition predictable video),which related with this system , approve these cover
results, for outputs an (Except Results). (EXE Files) are secure and the size of cover file didn’t
change after hidden process.
4.2.1 Preconditions
• Installation (Microsoft Windows XP for Any
Version or Vista).
• Installation (JDK).
• Installation (Java Editor)
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 51
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Table 2: Table 5:
Different Size for Cover with Different Type of the EXE Different Size for Cover with Same Type of the EXE Files
Files and Same Size for Information of Each Type for and Different Size for Information of Each Type for
Multimedia Files (Text, image, audio and video). Multimedia Files (Text, image, audio and video).

Table 3:
Same Size for Cover with Same Type of the EXE Files and For all tables above in test case one can be concluding:
Different Size for Information of Each Type for Multimedia There are no change on the hidden files size inside the cover
Files (Text, image, audio and video) files , so can be hide different size inside the EXE files as
shown in the Table 2 and Table 3 and the attacker can't be
attack the information hiding that's because can't guess the
EXE files size because the EXE files size don't have
constant size as shown in the Table 4 and Table 5, where it
can be different size for the same type of EXE files like
cover file number 5 they have three sizes in same type of
cover file.

4.3.2 Proposed Test Case Two


In this test case can be shown Picture for cover files after
hiding operation of all types of multimedia files (text,
image, audio and video), which related with this system,
approve these cover (EXE Files) usage after the hiding
operation.
Table 6:
Inputs and Outputs for Test Case Two.
Table 4:
Different Size for Cover with Same Type of the EXE Files
and Same Size For Information of Each Type for
Multimedia Files (Text, image, audio and video).

• Text
52 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
Figure 7. After Hiding Operation inside the (Hiding Folder) that In this test case can be shown picture for cover files
Executable File (Cover 1) Still Working after hiding operation for all types of multimedia files (text
,image, audio and video),which related with this system ,
• Image
approve these cover (EXE Files) undetectable for antivirus
software after the hiding operation.

Table 7:
Inputs and Outputs for Test Case Three.

• Text

Figure 8. After Hiding Operation inside the (Hiding Folder) that


Executable File (Cover 2) Still Working

• Video

Figure 11. Shows that the Executable File (Cover 1) Inside


(Hiding Folder) Immune to Anti-virus Program

• Image
Figure 9. After Hiding Operation inside the (Hiding Folder) that
Executable File (Cover 3) Still Working

• Audio

Figure 12. Shows that the Executable File (Cover 2) Inside


(Hiding Folder) Immune to Anti-virus Program
• Video

Figure 10. After Hiding Operation inside the (Hiding Folder) that
Executable File (Cover 5) Still Working

4.3.3 Proposed Test Case Three


(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 53
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

message independent. The encryption of the message


increases the degree of security of hiding technique which is
used in the proposed system. The proposed hiding technique
is flexible and very useful in hiding any type of data for files
(message) because there are no limitations or restrictions on
the type of the message (image, sound, text).

Acknowledgement
This research was partially supported by “King Saud
University”, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The author would like to
acknowledge all workers involved in this project that had
given their support in many ways, also he would like to
thank in advance Dr. Ali Abdullah Al-Afnan, Dr. Musaed
AL-Jrrah, Dr. Abdullah Alsbail, Dr. Abdullah Alsbait,
Dr.Khalid Alhazmi, Dr.Ali, Dr.Ibrahim Al-Dubaian and all
the staff in king Saud University especially in Applied
Figure 13. Shows that the Executable (Cover 3) File Inside Medical Science In “Al-Majmah” for thier unlimited
(Hiding Folder) Immune by Anti-virus program support, without thier notes and suggestion this research
would not be appear.
• Audio
References
[1] A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, Fazidah Othman, “New
Technique of Hidden Data in PE-File with in Unused
Area One”, International Journal of Computer and
Electrical Engineering (IJCEE), Vol.1, No.5, ISSN:
1793-8198, pp 669-678.
[2] A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, Fazidah Othman, “New
Technique of Hidden Data in PE-File with in Unused
Area One”, International Journal of Computer and
Electrical Engineering (IJCEE), Vol.1, No.5, ISSN:
1793-8198, p.p 669-678.
[3] A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, Anas Majeed, "High
Securing Cover-File of Hidden Data Using Statistical
Technique and AES Encryption Algorithm",
World Academy of Science Engineering and
Technology (WASET), Vol.54, ISSN: 2070-3724, P.P
Figure 14. Shows that the Executable (Cover 5) File Inside 468-479.
(Hiding Folder) Immune to Anti-virus Program [4] A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, “Novel Approach for High
Secure Data Hidden in MPEG Video Using Public Key
Infrastructure”, International Journal of Computer and
5. Conclusion Network Security, 2009, Vol.1, No.1, ISSN: 1985-
1553, P.P 71-76.
The .EXE files are one of the most important files in [5] A.W.Naji, A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, Shihab A,
operating systems and in most systems designed by Othman O. Khalifa, “ Novel Approach of Hidden Data
developers (programmers/software engineers), and then in the (Unused Area 2 within EXE File) Using
hiding information in these file is the basic goal for this Computation Between Cryptography and
research, because most users of any system cannot alter or Steganography ”, International Journal of Computer
modify the content of these files. So the PE files structure is Science and Network Security (IJCSNS) , Vol.9, No.5 ,
very complex because they depend on multi headers and ISSN : 1738-7906, pp. 294-300.
addressing, and then insertion of data to PE files without [6] Anas Majed Hamid, Miss Laiha Mat Kiah, Hayan .T.
full understanding of their structure may damage them, so Madhloom, B.B Zaidan, A.A Zaidan,” Novel
the choice is to hide the information beyond the structure of Approach for High Secure and High Rate Data Hidden
these files. Most anti virus systems do not allow direct write in the Image Using Image Texture Analysis”,
in executable file, so the approach of the proposed system is International Journal of Engineering and Technology
to prevent the hidden information to observation of these (IJET) , Published by: Engg Journals Publications,
ISSN:0975-4042, Vol.1,NO.2,P.P 63-69.
systems. One of the important conclusions in
[7] A.A.Zaidan, Fazidah. Othman, B.B.Zaidan, R.Z.Raji,
implementation of the proposed system is the solving of the
Ahmed.K.Hasan, and A.W.Naji," Securing Cover-File
problems that are related to the size of cover file, so the
without Limitation of Hidden Data Size Using
hiding method makes the relation between the cover and the
54 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Computation between Cryptography and Authors Profile


Steganography ", World Congress on Engineering
2009 (WCE), The 2009 International Conference of Hamdan Al-Anazi: has obtained his
Computer Science and Engineering, Proceedings of the bachelor dgree from “King Suad
International Multi Conference of Engineers and University”, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. He
Computer Scientists 2009, ISBN: 978-988-17012-5-1, worked as a lecturer at Health College in
Vol.I, p.p259-265. the Ministry of Health in Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia, then he worked as a
[8] A.A.Zaidan, A.W. Naji, Shihab A. Hameed, Fazidah
lecturer at King Saud University in the
Othman and B.B. Zaidan, " Approved Undetectable-
computer department. Currently he is
Antivirus Steganography for Multimedia Information Master candidate at faculty of Computer Science & Information
in PE-File ",International Conference on IACSIT Technology at University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Spring Conference (IACSIT-SC09) , Advanced His research interest on Information Security, cryptography,
Management Science (AMS), Listed in IEEE Xplore steganography and digital watermarking, He has contributed to
and be indexed by both EI (Compendex) and ISI many papers some of them still under reviewer.
Thomson (ISTP), Session 9, P.P 425-429.
[9] A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, M.M.Abdulrazzaq, R.Z.Raji,
and S.M.Mohammed," Implementation Stage for High Dr Hamid A.Jalab: Received his B.Sc
degree from University of Technology,
Securing Cover-File of Hidden Data Using Baghdad, Iraq. MSc & Ph.D degrees
Computation Between Cryptography and from Odessa Polytechnic National State
Steganography", International Conference on University 1987 and 1991, respectively.
Presently, Visiting Senior Lecturer of
Computer Engineering and Applications (ICCEA09), Computer System and Technology,
Telecom Technology and Applications (TTA), Faculty of Computer Science and
indexing by Nielsen, Thomson ISI (ISTP), IACSIT Information Technology, University of
Malaya, Malaysia. His areas of interest
Database, British Library and EI Compendex, Vol.19, include neural networks and
Session 6, p.p 482-489. cryptography.
[10] A.W. Naji, A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, Ibrahim
A.S.Muhamadi, “New Approach of Hidden Data in the
portable Executable File without Change the Size of Aos Alaa Zaidan: He obtained his 1st
Carrier File Using Distortion Techniques”, Proceeding Class Bachelor degree in Computer
Engineering from university of
of World Academy of Science Engineering and Technology / Baghdad followed by
Technology (WASET),Vol.56, ISSN:2070-3724, P.P master in data communication and
493-497. computer network from University of
Malaya. He led or member for many
[11] A.W. Naji, A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, Ibrahim funded research projects and He has
A.S.Muhamadi, “Novel Approach for Cover File of published more than 50 papers at various
Hidden Data in the Unused Area Two within EXE File international and national conferences and
journals, His interest area are Information
Using Distortion Techniques and Advance Encryption security (Steganography and Digital watermarking), Network
Standard.”, Proceeding of World Academy of Science Security (Encryption Methods) , Image Processing (Skin Detector),
Engineering and Technology (WASET),Vol.56, Pattern Recognition , Machine Learning (Neural Network, Fuzzy
ISSN:2070-3724, P.P 498-502. Logic and Bayesian) Methods and Text Mining and Video Mining.
.Currently, he is PhD Candidate on the Department of Electrical &
[12] M. Abomhara, Omar Zakaria, Othman O. Khalifa , Computer Engineering / Faculty of Engineering / Multimedia
A.A.Zaidan, B.B.Zaidan, “Enhancing Selective University / Cyberjaya, Malaysia. He is members IAENG, CSTA,
Encryption for H.264/AVC Using Advance Encryption WASET, and IACSIT. He is reviewer in the (IJSIS, IJCSNS,
IJCSN, IJCSE and IJCIIS).
Standard “, International Journal of Computer and
Electrical Engineering (IJCEE), ISSN: 1793-
8198,Vol.2 , NO.2, April 2010, Singapore..
[13] Md. Rafiqul Islam, A.W. Naji, A.A.Zaidan, Bilal Bahaa Zaidan: He obtained his
B.B.Zaidan “ New System for Secure Cover File of bachelor degree in Mathematics and
Hidden Data in the Image Page within Executable File Computer Application from Saddam
University/Baghdad followed by master
Using Statistical Steganography Techniques”, in data communication and computer
International Journal of Computer Science and network from University of Malaya. He
Information Security (IJCSIS), ISSN: 1947-5500, led or member for many funded research
projects and He has published more than
Vol.7 , NO.1, January 2010, USA. 50 papers at various international and
[14] Hamid.A.Jalab, A.A Zaidan, B.B Zaidan, “New Design national conferences and journals, His
for Information Hiding with in teganography Using interest area are Information security
Distortion Techniques”, International Journal of (Steganography and Digital
watermarking), Network Security (Encryption Methods) , Image
Engineering and Technology (IJET)), Vol 2, No. 1, Processing (Skin Detector), Pattern Recognition , Machine
ISSN: 1793-8236, Feb (2010), Singapore. Learning (Neural Network, Fuzzy Logic and Bayesian) Methods
and Text Mining and Video Mining. .Currently, he is PhD
Candidate on the Department of Electrical & Computer
Engineering / Faculty of Engineering / Multimedia University /
Cyberjaya, Malaysia. He is members IAENG, CSTA, WASET, and
IACSIT. He is reviewer in the (IJSIS, IJCSNS, IJCSN, IJCSE and
IJCIIS).
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 55
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Robust Power Optimized Secured Routing Protocol


for Wireless ADHOC Network
1
E.V.Reddy, 2J.A. Kumar
1
.Principal & Prof.of ECE, AIT, RR.Dist, Hyderabad, AP-India, vre.professor@gmail.com
2
. Project Manager, centre for Integrated Solution, Begumpet, Hyderabad, AP-India, kumar4_1@rediffmail.com

Abstract: Adhoc networks emerging networking architectures. a self-organizing manner [11]. For this reason, securing
These networks are required to be developed for higher quality mobile adhoc networks is challenging and in some
of services in both routing and communication. Despite their applications this requires modifications with respect to the
efficiency of non-pre infra requirement these network does not traditional security solutions [9],[10] for wire line networks.
provide any robustness to the security approach for monitoring There are two extreme ways to introduce security
of these authentication in a distributed architecture. For the [1],[9],[10] in mobile adhoc networks: 1) through a single
efficient monitoring of the authentication issue in adhoc
authority domain, where certificates and/or keys are issued
network, in this paper we present a self-monitored and
trustworthy security approach with a power optimization scheme
by a single authority [4] , typically in the system setup phase
for mobile adhoc networks is proposed. The processing overhead or 2) through full self-organization [11], where security does
for the suggested approach is evaluated for a distributed adhoc not rely on any trusted authority or fixed server, not even in
network. the system initialization phase. In contrast with
Index Terms: power optimized routing, self secure, adhoc conventional networks, mobile adhoc networks usually do
network, Trustworthiness, robust routing. not provide on-line access to trusted authorities or to
centralize servers and they exhibit frequent partitioning due
1. Introduction to link and node failures and to node mobility. For these
Wireless networking grows rapidly because of the human reasons, traditional security solutions [1],[9],[10] that
desires for mobility and for freedom from limitation, i.e., require on-line trusted authorities or certificate repositories
from physical connections to communication networks. A are not well suited for securing adhoc networks [2] . In this
mobile adhoc network is a wireless, self-organizing [11] and paper, we propose a self-monitored key management with
rapidly deployable network in which neither a wired trustworthiness that allows users to generate their key pairs,
backbone nor a centralized control exists. The network issue certificates, and perform authentication regardless of
nodes communicate with one another over scarce wireless the network partitions and without any centralized services.
channels in a multi-hop fashion. The adhoc network is A self organizing key management system that allows users
adaptable to the highly dynamic topology resulted from the to create, store, distribute and revoke their keys without the
mobility of network nodes and the changing propagation help of any trusted authority or fixed server is developed.
conditions. These networks are used in emergency disaster 2. Security in ADHOC Network
rescue operation, tactical military communication and law
enforcement. The commonly used 802.11b MAC protocol Security is a fundamental issue that needs resolution before
includes support for an ad-hoc mode of operation. Such adhoc networks will experience large-scale deployment. For
networks are often used in cases of rapid deployment, in example, some existing routing protocols for mobile adhoc
places lacking adequate infrastructure, or to facilitate direct networks [3],[5],[8] may be able to manage the dynamic
communication between nodes when the base station network topology of mobile adhoc networks, but none of
becomes the bottleneck. In some application environments, these protocols incorporate mechanisms to prevent, tolerate
such as battlefield communications, disaster recovery etc., or defend against attacks from malicious adversaries.
the wired network is not available and multi-hop wireless Researchers in the adhoc network security field initially
networks provide the only feasible means for focused on secure routing protocols [3],[5],[8]. The focuses
communication and information access. This kind of of these protocols are:
network is called Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET). A 1. To provide a robust routing mechanism against the
MANET can be seen as an autonomous system or a multi- dynamic topology of MANETs.
hop wireless extension to the Internet. As an autonomous 2. To provide a robust routing mechanism against malicious
system, it has its own routing protocols [3],[5],[8] and nodes.
network management mechanisms [7]. As a multi-hop The above stated approach is designed for robust routing by
wireless extension, it should provide a flexible and seamless incorporation of a power optimized routing scheme.
access to the Internet. Recently, because of the rising 3. Power Optimized Routing
popularity of multimedia applications and potential
In our topology management scheme, POWER (Mobile
commercial usage of MANETs, QoS support in MANETs
Agent with Routing Intelligence) nodes are selected in such
has become an unavoidable task. By definition, a mobile
a way that power nodes have the maximum power level
adhoc network does not rely on any fixed infrastructure;
among their on hop neighbors and all non- power nodes are
instead, all networking functions (e.g. routing, mobility
within the transmission range of power nodes. These power
management, etc) are performed by the nodes themselves in
nodes have the routing intelligence i.e. they make all
56 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

decisions related to routing. The gateway nodes having Power nodes along with gateways form the virtual backbone,
sufficient power level are selected so that they can forward which is used for routing this demands for additional power
packets between power nodes. A gateway node does not for transmission, reception and processing of routing
have routing intelligence. These power and gateway nodes packets. Thus these power nodes should be selected in such
stay continuously awake to route the packets of other a way that they have enough power level. The nodes in a the
member nodes. The member nodes wake up a number of network periodically check among its one hop neighbors for
times in a beacon period T, and if they do not have to maximum power and declare themselves a node as power if
transmit or receive data, they goes to sleep mode again. The it has maximum power. power nodes select the neighboring
wake up time for each node is calculated from a pseudo- nodes as its members and maintain the list about its
random number, such that power node and neighbor nodes members. If more than one neighbors of an undecided node
know the wake up of that node time. become power then undecided node selects its power node
from which it has received the HAI packet earlier. If an
Thus the member node can remain in power saving sleep
undecided node has more power than power node then it
mode most of the time, if it is not actively sending or
declares it self as power in the next HAI packet.
receiving packets. The packets are routed over the virtual
4.1 Power node withdrawal
backbone consisting of POWER nodes and gateways. The
Power node will drain its energy more rapidly, as compared
routes are found with the help of mobile agents.
to member nodes. Before the power nodes loses its major
The topology management scheme runs above the MAC layer
part of its power, responsibility of power node should be
and interacts with the routing protocol. If a node has been
transferred to other node with sufficient power level. Also
asleep for a while, packets destined for it are not lost but are
power nodes should not be changed frequently which will
buffered at a neighboring power node. When the node
increase the overhead.
awakens, it can retrieve these packets from the buffering
power node. This topology management schemes makes the
routing simple, as only those entries in a node’s routing table
that correspond to currently active power nodes can be used
as valid next-hops (unless the next hop is the destination
itself).
Definition 1 power nodes are the nodes such that all non-
power nodes are connected to (i.e., in transmission range of)
power nodes and route packet for all other nodes with the
help of mobile agents.
Definition 2 Sleep Cycle period is the time period during
which member nodes remain in the power efficient sleep
mode and wake up once for fixed time duration T.
We assume that each node periodically broadcasts a HAI Figure 1: Nodes distributed in a network
message that contains:
• Node’s id, 4.2 Gate way selection
• Its status (i.e., whether the node is a As the maximum number of hops between any two close
POWER node, gateway, member, undecided), power nodes is two, gateways are required forward packets
• Its current power level, between power nodes. Also as gateways need to receive and
• Its current POWER node, transmit routing packets to and from power nodes, they
• A wakeup counter wi, should have sufficient amount of power
• Information about each neighbor i.e. power nodes periodically send broadcast request packet
§ Neighbors id, STAY-AWAKE to its members for synchronization among
§ Its status members. Then it selects a node as gateway, which has
§ Its power node. maximum power and maximum power nodes as its
Based on the HAI messages received from neighbors, each neighbors. If any power nodes with in two hops have already
node constructs a list of the its neighbors, their power nodes, declared their gateways, then there is no need to select gate
power level, wakeup counter and information about their way again. Power level of the gateway is periodically
neighbors. checked by power and if it has less power than threshold,
A node switches state from time to time between being a then power starts new gateway selection.
power node and being a member. A node becomes a 4.3 Sleep cycle scheduling
gateway, if its power node chooses it as a gateway to route We propose some additional power saving features to 802.11
the packets between power nodes. It switches its state to CSMA/CA to make the MAC layer power efficient by using
undecided, if it looses contact with its power node due to randomized wake up time for member nodes in ad hoc
mobility. A node includes its current state in its HAI network. POWER nodes and gateways continuously stay
messages. The following sections describe that it should awake to forward packets of other nodes. Member nodes
withdraw from being a power node, and how a power node wake up a number of times in a beacon period T (see figure)
selects its gateways. and if they do not have to transmit or receive data, they go
to sleep again. There are number of sleep cycle periods (T1,
T2), (T2, T3)…(Tn, T) in a beacon period. Member nodes
4. Algorithm wake up once in a sleep cycle. All nodes stays awake during
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 57
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

period (0,T1) called as broadcast window to exchange HAI believes in the sender’s identity. That is each node
packets. Each node synchronizes their clock by using time acknowledge back to the sender node with the certificate for
stamp of HAI message from POWER node. Each member the received node key. All the nodes in the network do this
node determines its wake up time from its node id and a simultaneously.
wakeup counter wi.
Authentication:
Each node collects the certificates from all its one-hop
neighbors. The Exchanged certificates are saved in the form
of a repository table at each node. Consider node n issued a
certificate to node m. The certificate includes node m’s id
and key Pm along with node n’s id and key Pn. The
exchanged certificate gives the authentication of the key
received (Pm) by presenting the key of node-m which it
received, with it’ s own key (Pn). The authentication of the
key is done by the node m by checking the second field of
the certificate i.e. it’s own key(Pm)as received by node-n.
That means that node m believes that node n has its valid
Figure 2: beacon period key and communication can be carried out. The following
This power-optimized approach is integrated with a self- figure shows the formation of repository tables by the nodes
monitoring approach for providing a dynamic security to in the network
adhoc network. This approach is further outlined with a
route management scheme for providing robustness to the
routing scheme.

5. Self Monitoring Approach


The main problem of any key based security system [4] is to
make each user’s key available to others in such a way that
its authenticity is verifiable. In mobile adhoc networks, this
problem becomes even more difficult to solve because of the
absence of centralized services and possible network
partitions. More precisely, two users willing to authenticate
each other are likely to have access only to a subset of nodes
of the network (possibly those in their geographic Figure 3: Formation of repository tables
neighborhood). The best-known approach to the key
Construction of Updated Certificate Repositories: These
management problem is based on key certificates.
neighbors may be same as those, which the node
The self-organizing concept includes two stages encountered, in the previous beacon period or the node may
1) Key Distribution /Initialization encounter some new nodes When a node starts receiving the
2) Authentication new certificates, it checks whether its back up repository
In an adhoc network, in order for the nodes to communicate, table contains the similar certificate or not. If it already has
it is essential that each node have the information about the similar certificate in its back up non-updated repository
rest of the nodes in the network. In particular, the keys of table, the newly received certificate is ignored. Like this
the nodes that are in its communication range are the most every new certificate is verified. Scenario when one new
important parameter. node is added to the network after a beacon period is shown
In self-organization method, key distribution is the initial in the following figure.
phase, executed in three steps as follows:
Step-1: Creation of Key Pairs: Users locally create their own
private key and corresponding key.
Step-2: Key distribution: Depending up on the
communication range of the nodes, they find out their
nearest neighbors or the nodes that can be reached in one-
hop. Once the nodes generate their keys, key distribution
takes place. During broadcast period, each user broadcasts
its key to all its nearest neighbors or one-hop neighbors.
This is a synchronous process i.e. every node does this
simultaneously. Now all the users in the network are aware
of the keys of their neighbors.
Step-3: Every node receives a set of keys from all its
neighbors. A node up on receiving a key from a particular
neighbor, issues a certificate comprising the sending node Figure 4: certificate exchange with newly added node
id, key along with its own key. This indicates that the node
58 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Users can revoke any issued certificate to other users in the


instance of distrust in the key binding. Similarly users can 7. The Monitor (Neighborhood Watch)
also revoke their own certificate if they believe that their In a networking environment, the nodes most likely to detect
private key has been compromised. This key mechanism non-compliant behavior are the nodes in the vicinity of the
depends on the reliability of the network parameter and its non trusty node and in some case the source and the
trustworthiness. destination, if they detect unusual behavior or do not get
proper responses. One approach to protocol enforcement and
detection of damaging behavior (intrusion, misuse of
6. Robustness cooperation incentives, denial of service, etc.) suggested
Trustiness [6] in Mobile adhoc networks is a important here is the equivalent of a ‘neighborhood watch’, where
consideation as the nodes rely on the cooperation of all the nodes locally look for deviating nodes. The neighbors of the
participating nodes. The more nodes cooperate to transfer neighborhood watch can detect deviances by the next node
traffic, the more powerful a MANET gets. But supporting a on the source route by either listening to the transmission of
MANET is a cost-intensive activity for a mobile node. the next node or by observing route protocol behavior. By
Detecting routes and forwarding packets consumes local keeping a copy of a packet while listening to the
CPU time, memory, network-bandwidth, and most transmission of the next node, any content change can also
important the energy. Therefore there is a strong motivation be detected. In this paper we focused on the detection of
for a node to deny packet forwarding to others, while at the observable routing and forwarding misbehavior in DSR. In
same time using their services to deliver own data. To general, the following types of misbehavior can be
provide trustworthiness to the key mechanism in the paper indicated:
we present a management scheme with key distribution as no forwarding (of control messages nor data), unusual
presented above. The tasks management scheme carries out traffic attraction (advertises many very good routes or
are, to gather information to classify first-hand experience, advertises routes very fast, so they are deemed good routes),
to exchange this information and to consider the second- route salvaging (i.e. rerouting to avoid a broken link),
hand information thus received, to update the belief about although no error has been observed, lack of error messages,
the behavior of others, which is called the reputation rating, although an error has been observed, unusually frequent
taking into account both first and second-hand information, route updates, silent route change (tampering with the
to classify other nodes based on the reputation rating, and to message header of either control or data packets).
adapt one’s own behavior according to that classification. As a component within each node, the monitor registers
The management scheme consists of several components these deviations of normal behavior. As soon as a given bad
that fulfill these tasks. The architecture of the protocol is as behavior occurs, the reputation system is called.
shown in following figure.
8. The Trust Manager
The components of the protocols are: In an ad hoc environment, trust management has to be
• Monitor, Reputation System distributed and adaptive. This component deals with
• Path Manager, Trust Manager incoming and outgoing alarm messages. Alarm messages
are sent by the trust manager of a node to warn others of
malicious nodes. Incoming alarms originate from outside
friends, whereas the node itself generates outgoing alarms
after having experienced, observed or been reported
malicious behavior.

9. The Reputation System (Node Rating)


In order to avoid centralized rating, local rating lists and/or
black lists are maintained at each node and potentially
exchanged with friends. The nodes can include black sheep
in the route request to be avoided for routing, which also
alarms nodes on the way. Nodes can look up senders in the
black list containing the nodes with bad rating before
forwarding anything for them. The problem of how to
distinguish alleged from proven malicious nodes and thus
how to avoid false accusations can be lessened by timeout
Figure 5: Management Scheme Architecture within each and subsequent recovery or revocation lists of nodes that
Node have behaved well for a specified period of time.
As shown in Figure 5, the Monitor, the Reputation System,
the Path Manager, and the Trust Manager are the 10. The Path Manager
components that are present in every node and they are Once a node i classifies another node j as misbehaving, i
described in detail subsequently. isolates j from communications by not using j for routing
and forwarding and by not allowing j to use i. This isolation
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 59
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

has three purposes. The first is to reduce the effect of when other nodes don’t route and forward correctly. The
misbehavior by depriving the misbehaving node of the protocol is integrated with modified Bayesian approach to
opportunity to participate in the network. The second decide whether node is misbehaving or not.
purpose is to serve as an incentive to behave well in order
not to be denied service. Finally, the third purpose is to
obtain better service by not using misbehaving nodes on the
path.

11. Simulation Results


The proposed self-monitored key management scheme is
implemented on an ad hoc network. The network is created
with randomly distributed nodes. Network is considered
with the following properties:

Table 1: Network parameters considered for simulation


Figure 7: DSR with trust route performance for the
randomly distributed network. Shown in figure 2.

Several adhoc networks are tested for various cases of


network load. Even variable number of nodes is taken into Figure 8: Average path rejections wrt. Misbehaving nodes
account. Performance of both threshold based cryptography
and self monitored approach are tested. The three analysis The average rejected paths increases if percentage of
factors mentioned in the previous section are evaluated in malicious nodes increases but with the use of RMP average
both the cases. paths rejected remains constant even if the percentage ;of
malicious nodes increases to 40%.

Figure 9. Total Hops under communication w.r.t.


Figure 6: Simulated network with the stated specifications Percentage of misbehavior plot

Case 1: With No Add-on nodes, Source node: 18


Destination node:12, Route taken for communication from
source to destination: 18 à 4à 6 à 17à 12
1) Fig 5 shows a dynamic ad hoc network with 20 nodes and
8 misbehaving nodes distributed randomly.
2) The fig 6 shows the performance of DSR with trust route
protocol for the above randomly distributed network we
have chosen 7 as source node and 15 as destination node.
Misbehaving nodes are indicated by round circles .The black
dotted line shows the optimum path that has been selected to
reach the destination. The fig clearly shows that trust route
protocol is able to cope with misbehavior in mobile ad hoc Figure 10. Transmission Delay versus % Misbehavior plot
networks thus making network function for normal nodes
60 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

The number of rejected path from the source to destination References


increases as percentage of misbehaving nodes increases
[1] Andreas Pfitzmann, Birgit Pfitzmann ,Matthias
hence the number of hop counts required for communication
Schunter, Michael Waidner, “Trusting Mobile User
also increases. The total hop counts for communication
Devices and Security Modules”, Information
remains constant with the use of RMP (Route Management
infrastructure for virtual envirnment, IEEE 1997.
protocol) even if percentage of malicious nodes increases to
[2] Lidong Zhou and Zygmunt J. Haas, “Securing Ad Hoc
60%.
Networks”, IEEE network , Nov/Dec –1999.
The packet transmission delay increases with the increase in
[3] Panagiotis Papadimitratos and Zygmunt J. Haas, “Secure
percentage of malicious nodes but with use of RMP (Route
Routing for Mobile Ad hoc Networks”, SCS
Management Protocol) the transmission delay remains
Communication Networks and Distributed Systems
constant even if the percentage of malicious nodes increases
Modeling and Simulation Conference (CNDS 2002), San
to 60%.
Antonio, TX, January 27-31, 2002.
[4] N. Asokan and P. Ginzboorg, Chuk Yang Seng , “Key
Agreement in Ad-hoc Networks” presentation.
[5] David B. Johnson, “Routing in Ad Hoc Networks of
Mobile Hosts”, Computer Science Department Carnegie
Mellon University Pittsburgh, IEEE-1995.
[6] Emre Sayın & Albert Levi, “Open Trust Scheme for Ad
Hoc Networks”- 2006.
[7] Nancy C. Roberts, Raymond Trevor Bradley, “Research
Methodology for New Public Management”, the
International Public Management Network workshop in
Siena, Italy, July 28-30, 1999.
[8] Seung Yi, Prasad Naldurg, Robin Kravets, “A Security-
Figure 11. Good put plot for the network Aware Routing Protocol for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks”,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, IL
Table 2: observations for the simulation made 61801
[9] Anne Vanhala, “Security in Ad-hoc Networks”
,Research seminar on Security in Distributed Systems
University of Helsinki
[10] Frank Stajano and Ross Anderson, “The Resurrecting
Duckling: Security Issues for Ad-hoc Wireless
Networks” ,Security Protocols, 7th International
Workshop Proceedings, Lecture Notes in Computer
Science, 1999.
[11] Ljubica BlaZevit, Levente Buttyan, Srdjan tapkun,
12. Conclusion Silvia Giordano, Jean-Pierre Hubaux, and Jean-Yves Le
Boudec, “Self-Organization in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks:
In this work, the problem of key management in mobile
The Approach of Terminodes”, IEEE communication
adhoc networks is addressed. A fully self-monitored key
Magazine, June 2001.
management system for mobile adhoc networks is developed
and it is observed that two users in a mobile ad hoc network
can perform key authentication based only on their local Authors Profile
information, even if security is performed in a self-
monitored way, it is shown that with a simple local E.Venkat Reddy, received his M.E
repository construction algorithm and a small degree in Electronics
communication overhead, the system achieves high &Communication Engineering from
performance on a wide range of certificate graphs; (iv) it is faculty of engineering of Osmania
also shown that nodes can have mobility to facilitate University, Hyderabad, India; and PhD
authentication and to detect inconsistent and false degree in Electronics and
certificates. An important feature of this scheme is that key communication from faculty of
authentication is still possible even when the network is science of University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India. He is Fellow
Life Member of Institution of Engineers (INDIA) (FIE), Fellow
partitioned and nodes can communicate with only a subset
Life Member of, The Institution of Electronics and
of other nodes. In this method the involvement of all the Telecommunication Engineers (FIETE) and Member of Indian
nodes are required only when their key pairs are created and Society of Technical Education (MISTE). He has published
for issuing and revoking certificates; all other operations several publications in various journals, conferences and
including certificate exchange and construction of certificate proceedings at national and International level. He is presently
repositories are self monitored. it is concluded that node working as Professor of ECE & Principal of AIT, Hyderabad,
with RMP can sustain the network with efficient data India. His research interest includes Mobile adhoc networks,
transmission for 50% of misbehaving node. routing optimization, simulation and modeling, network
simulation, wireless communication and cryptography.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 61
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

J.A. Kumar, received his M.E degree


in Electrical & Electronics Engineering
from Bangalore University, Karnataka,
India; He is member of IEEE from 2005,
He has published several publications in
various journals, conferences and
proceedings at national and International
level. He is presently working with
Center for integrated solution,
Begumpet, Hyderabad, India, as a
project manager. His research interest includes mobile computing,
wireless networking, routing protocols, wireless communication,
and network security.
62 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Load Balancing For Unstructured Peer to Peer


Systems in Heterogeneous Network
Havinash.P.H1, M.Azath 2,K.Prasadh3
1
Research Student, VMKV Engineering College,Salem
2
Research Scholar, Anna University, Coimbatore.
3
Research Scholar,VMKV Engineering College,Salem
1
havinashh@gmail.com
2`
mailmeazath@gmail.com
3
ksprasadh@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper presents a detailed examination of how In [30], the load balancing is handled for Internet which is
the dynamic and heterogeneous nature of real-world peer-to- based on a separate architecture based on flow classification
peer systems can introduce bias into the selection of and bursty traffic splitting. Likewise many load balancing
representative samples of peer properties (e.g., degree, link schemes are available but with different policies and
bandwidth, number of files shared).The efficient distribution of parameters.
stored information has become a major concern in the web Currently, there are three representative solutions for media
which has increasingly become a vehicle for transport of stored
streaming on the Internet. First, special content delivery
video. In this paper we improved the efficiency of the streamed
video using caches. Caches have been created for every client,
networks (CDNs) have been built to replicate media servers
optimistic to join this proxy based peer to peer system. The proxy across the Internet [9] to move the contents close to the
server also contains a separate cache memory that is used to clients, such as Akamai.1 This approach is performance-
store the media files available in the main server. The cache size effective but not cost-effective. The third approach is to
depends upon the media file’s size. Streaming video applications build client-based P2P overlay networks for media content
are commonly used by most clients to watch video. The currently delivery, which is highly cost effective but does not
implemented streaming functionality, however, presents many guarantee the quality of service because the capacities (CPU,
technical challenges at the client side, server side and the storage, and bandwidth) [17] of peers can be heterogeneous
network that have not yet been efficiently resolved which is and their availabilities can be transient and this method is
focused in this paper. adapted in this paper.
Keywords: Load Balancing, Splitting, Proxy Server,
Content delivery Network, Main Server, Intermediate 2. Proposed Method
Server.
P2P assisted proxy system significantly improves the quality
1. Introduction of streaming service mainly because the caching storage in
P2P [18] assisted proxy has been effectively and highly
Today’s Internet is increasingly used for transfer of enhanced. Thus, media segments can be timely and
continuous-media data, such as video from news, sports, and smoothly delivered to any end user in the system either by
entertainment Web sites, and audio from Internet broadcast other end users or/and by the proxy collaboratively. The
radio and telephony [1]. Delivering multimedia contents collaboration and coordination between the proxy and its
with high quality and low cost over the Internet is P2P [7] clients in our system address the scalability problem
challenging, due to the typical large sizes of media objects of the proxy-based technique, and also eliminate the concern
and the continuous streaming demand of clients. of unstable quality of services by only relying on self-
In the internet the time taken to receive the media file is organized clients. To improve the reliability [11] and
very high [2]. To provide efficient streaming, to the client is maximize the utilization of cached data in each peer, a
the goal. The client in a distributed environment is model is proposed to analyze the cache redundancy in our
connected to the server through a network. In the proposed peer to peer caching system where peers are free to come
system the client machines in an intranet are self-organized and go [8]. Our modeling results give the optimal replica
into a structured P2P [3] system to provide a large media distribution in such a system, and provide the guidance to
storage and to actively participate in the streaming media cache replacement policy design. To improve the cache
delivery, where the proxy is also embedded as an important utilization, we have proposed a model and designed the
member to ensure the quality of streaming [4] service. The replacement policies for the collaboration and coordination
coordination and collaboration in the system are efficiently between the proxy and clients accordingly, making the
done by our P2P management structure and replacement entire streaming media system both performance-effective
policies. This project encompasses the design of a streaming and cost-efficient.
[5] media which is both performance effective and cost
effective. In our system, the proxy is a member of the P2P 3. Methodology Adopted
network managed by the distributed hash table [7]. In
The proxy is the bootstrap site of the P2P system and the
addition, the proxy also plays an important and unique role
interface between the P2P system and media servers [18].
to ensure the quality of media delivery due to its dedicated
When an object is requested for the first time or when no
and stable nature [8].
peer in the system is able to serve a streaming request, the
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 63
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

proxy [19] is responsible to fetch the requested media data segment replica that is cached or evicted from cache, a
from the remote server, divide the object into small publish or unpublished message is generated. Although a
segments, and cache them locally. Client peers -receiving notify operation may generate multiple messages, it can be
the media streaming service, which are self-organized into a postponed if the popularity or utility value changes little.
P2P overlay network.
There are three functionalities of the peer 1) A peer is a
client that requests media data 2) A peer is a streaming 4. Media Server
server that provides media streaming service to clients. Each Special media server has been built to distribute multimedia
peer caches the media data in segments while its content objects across the Internet. It is the origin of media
accessing is in progress and shares the cached data with streaming and maintains media files that are divided into
other peers in the system. 3) A peer is also acting an index clips. Media server stores media objects in a file system. It is
server that maintains a subset of indices of media segments always listening for incoming request from the proxy server
in the system for content location [15]. Peers in our system and capable of transferring large video files. Media server is
are self-organized into a structured P2P overlay supporting a developed using socket, which supports TCP/IP protocol.
distributed hash table, which maps the identifier of each Server has been designed using graphical user interface to
media segment to the index of the segment [14]. The start and view the media files available with the server.
distributed hash tables are designed in our system for Server is capable of storing large volume of media files
content locating and data management: publish, depends on the capacity of file system available with the
unpublished, request, update, and notify. A peer server. Server supports MPEG video format, which are
requests media data segment by segment, and searches in its stored as a video segments. Server needs high-end machine
local cache first. If the local search fails, it calls the request for deployment. The media files which are to be distributed
(segid, URL) operation, which requests a segment of the must be inserted by using the Insert File application. The
object designated by the URL. When a peer requests a media proxy will store the media files in its cache depending upon
object that it does not cache, it routes the URL to the target its cache. The main server is always receives the request
peer that maintains the key space zone that the identifier of through the Intermediate Server and also send the response
the object’s first segment (its segid) is mapped to. This to the Intermediate server.
operation corresponds to the get function in the DHT The socket programming [33] is used to establish
interface. If the corresponding index does not exist, meaning the intranet connection using the ports identified by the port
the object is requested for the first time, the target peer numbers. Any system in the intranet can act as the media
sends a request to the proxy, which fetches the requested server by installing the media server application, but it has
object from the media server [17], and creates the index and to be a high performance system.
publishes the object. For each segment a client requests, a
request and an update message are generated [20]. For each

Figure 1. P2P System Architecture

Figure 2. Basic Block Diagram of work:


64 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

traffic rate and packet size. The results are described in the
5. Intermediate Server next section.
Media objects are cached as segment units in the proxy for
the purposes of self-viewing and global sharing with clients.
6.3 Results
The proxy is the bootstrap site of the P2P system and the
interface between the P2P system and media servers. When
an object is requested for the first time or when no peer in
the system is able to serve a streaming request, the proxy is
responsible to fetch the requested media data from the
remote server, divide the object into small segments, and
cache them locally. Proxy maintains a hash table that maps
location of each media segments stored in proxy cache and
client caches [21]. When the client sends a request for
media files first time, proxy download it from the Media
server and populate it in the proxy and client cache. It uses
the popularity and utility values of segments to manage
cached data. These values depend on the access information
and number of copies of corresponding media segments in
the system. When the proxy or a client finishes serving a Figure 4. Relative Throughput of a TCP over Peer to peer
segment streaming task, it calls insert (seg id, location) system.
operation. When the segment popularity or utility values
change, the proxy server notifies all clients that cache the
segments in the permanent cache. To provide the reliable
service the proxy can maintain the most popular objects as a
backup service. The prime objective of the proxy is to
minimize the total number of failed requests of all media
segments. The proxy server can send the media file to the
client from its cache if it has that requested file. So the
communication with the main server was not needed
because of that the time required to receive the media file
was considerably reduced [22]. The main server’s
performance also increased. When the proxy server responds
to the clients the load in the network also reduced and the Figure 5. Relative Throughput of Multiple Clients
main server can be assigned to some other task. varying according throughput based on previous
algorithm.
6. Simulation Results
7. Conclusion
6.1 Simulation Setup In the internet the media delivering techniques are either
based on the client-server model or content distribution
We simulated the design of our markers with the ns-2 [30] server model. This will take more time to deliver the media
network simulator 1. The topology used in our experiments and also cost is very high. In our proxy based peer to peer
is depicted in Figure 3. network the media file is stored in many caches. So the
media file can be distributed quickly. In this system, we
implemented a P2P assisted proxy system to address these
two limitations. Here, the proxy is a member of the P2P
network managed by the distributed hash table. In addition,
the proxy also plays an important and unique role to ensure
the quality of media delivery due to its dedicated and stable
nature. To improve the cache utilization, we proposed a
model and designed the replacement policies for the
collaboration and coordination between the proxy and
Figure 3. Simulation Topology clients accordingly, making the entire streaming media
system both performance-effective and cost-efficient. By
6.2 Simulation Parameters analyzing the distributed media file results, we found that
our system is both performance and cost effective. The time
taken for receiving the media file is also very less when
We have taken the metrics received bandwidth and packet compared to the other systems.
loss for evaluation. We compared our results with the
standard queuing techniques CSFQ [32] and RED, FIFO,
FQ, FRED [33]. In our experiments, we vary the buffer size, Reference
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 65
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

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66 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

DNS cache-record coordination


Using Adaptive Cache TTL Adjustment
Isihara Tomohiro1, Yuji Sekiya2
1
Keio University
sho@sfc.wide.ad.jp
2
University of Tokyo
sekiya@wide.ad.jp

Abstract: Domain Name System (DNS) cache mechanism 2. Background


improves performance and scalability to DNS. The current DNS In current architecture of the Internet, each node has an IP
implementation only support fixed cache Time-to-Live(TTL),
address for its identifier. For user’s convenience, hostname
therefore when data update occurs, there is a coherence problem
between cached data and updated data.In this paper, we propose
could be used instead of IP address. DNS provides mapping
an adaptive cache TTL adjustment mechanism to provide of these hostnames and IP addresses. Namespace is
consistency between cached record and original record in hierarchically distributed by zone, and each zone can be
authoritative server. we have implemented this mechanism administrated separately. Data which used in DNS is called
prototype with minor modifications to one of DNS resource record. Whenever clients receive an answer to
implementation, BIND [1]. This prototype demonstrates the query, the resource record is cached by client.
effectiveness of the mechanism which proposed in this paper.
Keywords: Domain Name System, DNS, Internet 2.1 Inconsistency Problem
In current DNS cache mechanism, authoritative server
1. Introduction answer a record in same TTL. Therefore, cached record will
Domain Name System(DNS) is a Name and Address be different from original record if original data is updated
translation system that widely used in the Internet. DNS has after the record was cached [Fig. 1]
high scalability because of its hierarchical distributed design
and caching. DNS cache reduces transaction between DNS
server and client, therefore query performance increases too.
DNS cache sets Time-to-Live (TTL) parameter. When the
TTL time runs out, clients drop the cache. These caches
could not by dropped before TTL expired even if the
original record is changed in Authoritative server. Hence,
when record is changed, possibly there is a difference
between cached record and original record. Therefore, it is
difficult to estimate appropriate cache TTL.
Several studies have been made on DNS cache and TTL. Figure 1. Inconsistency scenario
Danzig [2] analyzed traffic to one of root nameserver to
2.2 Zero TTL (no cache)
investigate how DNS cache saves traffic to upper node in
DNS tree. Jung [3] shows the most of DNS traffic is consist Zero TTL is a one of solution to solve this inconsistency. In
of wrong DNS packets, but DNS cache is still effective to DNS protocol, Zero TTL means ”no cache”. Clients doesn’t
cache a resource record if its TTL is 0. Although it is easy
reduce DNS traffic. Both researches focus on cache
and simple solution, Zero TTL causes serious performance
effectiveness on upper nodes in DNS tree, and there is few
and scalability problem. Moreover, US-CERT advised
studies which focuses on lower nodes.
extremely short TTL causes security threat such as DNS
Nowadays, dynamic DNS services that users can register spoofing [4].
their own IP address to DNS dynamically is increasing.
Thus record updating occurs frequently in such zones, and 2.3 Extension of current DNS Protocol
it is difficult to guarantee coherence between cached record Several DNS Protocol Extension which aims to solve this
and updated record. inconsistency problem was developed. DNScup [5] propose
This paper describes design and implementation of a new cache update message to expire obsolete caches. And
adaptive cache TTL adjustment mechanism which provides in Cohen [6] developed proactive caching mechanism for
consistency between cached record and original record in same purpose.
authoritative server. Each solutions need to upgrade current name server
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 67
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

implementations to support proposed protocols. In a long later from update. We used port mirror technique on switch
period, there solution will achieve a good consistency with which connects these servers. The Switch make mirror port
cache, however, deployment is very hard on the grounds that for each web server and nameserver port. Then trace PC was
replacing current running server software is not easy. connected to mirror port.[Fig. 4]

3. Adaptive Cache TTL Adjustment


Mechanism
We propose Adaptive Cache TTL Adjustment Mechanism to
solve inconsistency problem of DNS cache. This mechanism
uses count down method. When update is scheduled,
authoritative server keeps its expiration date locally, and its
TTL parameter decrease to expire just at update time.[Fig.
2]

Figure 4. Packet Trace Point

4.1 Packet Trace on Web Server


Fig. 5 and 6 shows a number of TCP SYN packet to web
server. One of this used current fixed cache mechanisms,
and another one used adaptive cache TTL mechanism that
proposed in this paper. Black field is HTTP access to old IP
Figure 2. Adaptive cache TTL Adjustment address, and white is access to new IP address. The updated
time is assumed to be 0 on X-AXIS.
Hence cached TTL is reducing every second, and server
In both result, there was a few access to new IP address
which have cache sends cached record with reduced TTL
before change record. Result of examining these accesses,
when asked by another clients. Therefore, the cache TTL is
these were web bot from some search engine and port-
shared by clients, and these cached record in each servers
scanner. And there was a bursty http traffic in normal
disappear in same time. [Fig 3]
scenario. It was made by only one host in University in
United Kingdom. It threw over 100 TCP SYN packet per
second while five or six seconds. According to our survey of
this host, it is some kind of web crawler. However, it has no
connection with this experiment.
Comparing each results, It was linearly reducing access to
old address in case of fixed TTL. On the other hands, In
case of adaptive TTL, access to old address is reduced
rapidly than fixed TTL. Hence it is clear that cache
inconsistency is reduced too.

Figure 3. Cached record’s TTL is shared by each nodes.

4. Evaluation
We implemented prototype that equipped with proposed
function so that evaluate effectiveness of this mechanism.
This prototype only has simple interface which could specify
record to change and time for modification. This method
aims to achieves cache consistency, but in the other hands, it
increases the number of queries because of less cache TTL.
In order to evaluate this trade-off, we focused on DNS
query packets which ask our web server’s address, and
correspondent HTTP access likewise. Then, we updated a
record which is the most asked record in the zone,
www.sfc.wide.ad.jp. Since its default cache TTL is 1
hour(3600sec), we tapped from one hours ago to two hours
Figure 5. Number of TCP SYN to web server, in fixed
68 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

cache TTL

Figure 6. Number of TCP SYN to web server, in adaptive Figure 7. Number of DNS query to name server
cache TTL
4.2 Packet Trace on Name Server 6. Acknowledgement
Fig. 7 presents a number of DNS query packet to name We appreciate Jun Murai, Osamu Nakamura, Hiroyuki
server. Black bar shows number of query in case that used Kusumoto for great advises and suggestions. This work is
fixed cache TTL, and white is adaptive cache TTL. supported by grants from WIDE project and Keio University
An increase in query can be observed at 2000 – 3000 second Murai Lab.
after from update. It is roughly two times from fixed cache,
and increasing was disappeared after elapsed time of TTL. References
According to this result, it is entirely fair to say that there is
no critical traffic burst to DNS server. [1] Berkeley Internet Name Domain(BIND), Internet
Systems Consortium, http://www.isc.org
5. Conclusion [2] P. B. Danzig and K. Obraczka and A. Kumar, An
We proposed an adaptive cache TTL adjustment mechanism analysis of wide-area name server traffic, ACM Comp.
to provide consistency between cached record and original Commun. Review (SIGCOMM’92), Conference Proc.
record in authoritative server. To investigate effectiveness of [3] Jaeyeon Jung, Emil Sit, Hari Balakrishnan and Robert
this propose, we have demonstrated prototype and gathered Morris, DNS Performance and the Effectiveness of
related traffic:(1) queries to DNS server (2)HTTP traffic led Caching, Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM
by changed record. And we explained observed effect for Internet MeasurementWorkshop 2001
this mechanism, and proved effectiveness of this propose. [4] Various DNS service implementations generate
Adaptive cache TTL Adjustment achieves the superior DNS multiple simultaneous queries for the same resource
cache consistency without critical scalability crisis. record, US-CERT Vulnerability Note VU#457875,
Actually, clients don’t always obey TTL. Sometimes http://www.kb.cert.org/vuls/id/457875
operating system (and resolver library) keeps DNS records [5] Xin Chen, Haining Wang, Shansi Ren, DNScup:
even if their TTL expired. For example, old windows Strong Cache Consistency Protocol for DNS,
clients(windows98 and earlier) keep name cache for almost Distributed Computing Systems, 2006. ICDCS 2006.
30 minute regardless their TTL. Linux clients which uses 26th IEEE International Conference
Name Server Cache Daemon(nscd) keep it for 15 minute. In [6] Edith Cohen and Haim Kaplan, Proactive Caching of
addition to this, several applications also hold records. Old DNS Records: Addressing a Performance Bottleneck,
Internet explorer carries them for 30 minute. SAINT2001.
Since there are several name server implementations,
behavior of each cache servers is different. Nevertheless, we
don’t have anymethods to estimate implementation for each
queries.
There is room for further investigation to get detailed
behavior. Authors Profile
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 69
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Tomohiro Isihara received the B.E.


degrees in Physics from Nihon University
in 2001. received M.E. degrees in Media
and Governance from Keio University in
2003. Currently, he has been in Doctor
course of Keio University.

Yuji Sekiya was received B.E. from Kyoto


University in 1997 and received M.E. from
Keio University in 1999. He worked at
USC/ISI (University of Southern California /
Information Sciences Institute) from Oct.
1999 for 6 months as a visiting researcher.
Currently He belongs to Information
Technology Centre in the University of
Tokyo since Oct. 2002. His major research
topics are IPv6 and DNS. He works for
USAGI Project as core member since its establishment. University.
70 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Video Quality Enhancements with Implementation


of NEWPRED method for MPEG-4 over simulated
UMTS Channel Propagation Environments
Dr. Bhumin Pathak1, Dr. Geoff Childs2 and Dr. Maaruf Ali3
1
Airvana Inc., Chelmsford, USA, bhumin.pathak@gmail.com
2
School of Technology at Oxford Brooks University, Oxford, UK, gnchilds@brookes.ac.uk
3
School of Technology at Oxford Brooks University, Oxford, UK, mali@brookes.ac.uk

Abstract: The received video quality over the mobile radio erroneous frame received, the frame number is sent back to
channel has always been the subject of further investigations the encoder using the uplink channel. The encoder uses this
due to the error-prone nature of the wireless channel. A highly frame number to realise the errors on the decoder side and
compressed video streams like an MPEG-4 bitstream, can suffer changes the references of the frames to be encoded such that
from high information loss by the introduction of just a few they refer to the frames, which are received without any
errors while transmission. In this context, it is important to have errors. This prevents the propagation of errors further into
a video codec with a repertoire of efficient error-resilience tools.
the stream.
One such tool of the MPEG-4 standard is “NEWPRED”, which
dynamically changes the reference frame for predictive coding
The rest of the paper is organised in the following sections.
and is described in ISO/IEC 14496 briefly. In this paper, the Section-2 provides information on existing inter-frame
performance enhancement gained with the introduction of the coding mechanism and then describes NEWPRED
NEWPRED in video transmission over a circuit-switched 3G mechanism. Section-3 describes the error detection
mobile downlink channel is discussed. Several MPEG-4 video mechanism used in this paper. Section-4 describes in brief
test bit-streams are transmitted over simulated UMTS upper layer protocol overheads and header compression
environment. Performance enhancement over various channel mechanism used in UMTS architecture. Section-5 and
propagation conditions as standardized by 3GPP in TS 25.101 section-6 describe various error propagation conditions
V6.3.0 is quantified. Video quality improvements are calculated under which simulation is carried out. Section-7 discusses
using standard PSNR metric. video quality measurement technique used for presented
analysis. Section-8 describes simulation results and section-
Keywords: MPEG-4, NEWPRED, Video over UMTS 9 concludes the paper.

1. Introduction 2. Inter-frame coding and NEWPRED


The MPEG-4 standard 0 provides a number of error The MPEG-4 ISO/IEC 14496 (Part-2) standard 0 provides
resilience tools that can significantly improve the decoded error robustness and resilience capabilities to allow
video quality over the error prone transmission channels. accessing of image or video information over a wide range
However, the use of these tools introduces extra redundancy of storage and transmission media. The error resilience tools
in the bitstreams. The NEWPRED error-resilience tool of developed for this part of ISO/IEC 14496 can be divided
the MPEG-4 standard does not introduce any extra bits of into three major categories of synchronisation, data recovery
redundancy in the transmitted compressed video. However, and error concealment. The NEWPRED feature falls into
extra 16-bits of CRC overhead are attached at the end of the category of error concealment procedures. Recovery
each frame for the purpose of the error-detection in a from temporal error propagation is an indispensable
particular frame. This overhead can be used by any other component of any error robust video communication system.
mechanism to identify errors at the frame level and it is not Errors introduced during transmission can lead to frame
specific to “NEWPRED” implementation. mismatch between the encoder and the decoder, which can
This implementation relies on the feedback provided by the persist until the next intra refresh occurs. Where an
decoder about the received video quality at the destination upstream data channel exists from the decoder to the
end and subsequently acts to prevent error propagation encoder, NEWPRED or demand intra refresh can be used.
further in to the stream. Using feedback from the decoder
Original Sequence of encoding
about the erroneous frame sequence number, the encoder I1 P1 B1 B2 P2 B3 B4 P3 B5 B6 P4 B7 B8
can then make the changes dynamically in the references of E
the frames yet to be encoded which reduces further
propagation of errors. modified Sequence of encoding
A simulated UMTS environment that satisfies the 3GPP I1 P1 B1 B2 P2 B3 B4 P3 B5 B6 P4 B7 B8

conformance testing standards [2] is created in both the E


uplink and downlink directions. The MPEG-4 video is
transmitted on the downlink channel with data rate of 64
kbps. The received video quality is assessed on a frame-by- E - Error Occurence
frame basis at the decoder on the destination side. For each
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 71
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Figure 1. Implementation of NEWPRED identified by lower layer to the application layer with the
precision of a single video frame or video packet often
results into complicated process consuming considerable
NEWPRED is a technique in which the reference frame for
amount of processing capabilities and introduces processing
inter-frame coding is replaced adaptively according to the
delays. Insertion of CRC bits in the standard MPEG-4 bit-
upstream messaging from the decoder. NEWPRED uses
stream at frame level provides simpler solution to this
upstream messages to indicate which segments are
problem [4]. With the insertion of extra bits which are not
erroneously decoded. On receipt of this upstream message
defined as part of the standard video encoded sequence,
the encoder subsequently will use only the correctly decoded
would normally result into the incompatible bit-stream with
part of the prediction in an inter-frame coding scheme. This
standard decoders. But as mentioned into [4] this would not
prevents temporal error propagation without the insertion of
be the case if these bits are inserted at particular place of the
intra coded MBs (Macro Blocks) and improves the video
standard MPEG-4 bit-stream. 16 bits of CRC is generated
quality in the noisy multipath environments. When a raw
using polynomial (G16) defined for MAC layer of the
video sequence is encoded utilising MPEG-4, each of the
UMTS architecture. While decoding, decoder is aware of the
raw video frames is categorized according to the way in
total number of the macroblocks (MB) into each frame. It
which predictive encoding references are used. An Intra-
starts searching for a new video frame header after decoding
coded (I) frame is coded using information only from itself.
to these macroblocks. It ignores everything between the last
A Predictive-coded (P) frame is coded using motion
marcoblock of the frame and the next frame header as
compensated prediction from a past reference frame(s).
padding. If generated CRC bits are inserted at this place,
While a Bi-directionally predictive-coded (B) frame is a
after the last marcoblock and the next header, this should
frame which is coded using motion and texture compensated
preserve the compatibility of the bit-stream with standard
prediction from a past and future reference frames. A
MPEG-4. Such insertion of CRC does not affect the normal
disadvantage of this coding scheme is that transmission
operation of any standard MPEG-4 decoder [5]. Also
errors occurred in a frame which is used as a reference
because inserted CRC is only 16 bits it is not possible for it
frame for other P or B frames, causes errors to propagate
to emulate any start code sequences.
into the video sequence. This propagation continues until an
intra-refresh is applied. In the example shown in the figure-
Frame-1 Frame-2
1, error occurred in frame P3 which acts as a reference
frame for P4, subsequent P-frames and B-frames (B5, B6 1 2 3 1 2 3
etc), until the next intra-refresh frame (I2) occurs.
1 - Frame Header 3 - CRC bits
Where the transmission error has damaged crucial parts of 2 - Frame Data
the bit-streams such as a frame header, the decoder may be Figure 2. CRC insertion
unable to decode the frame which it then drops [3]. If this
dropped frame is a P-frame, none of the frames that are
This method adds extra 16 bits of overhead to each frame
subsequently coded with reference to this dropped P-frame
but performance improvements in video quality with
can be decoded. So in effect all subsequent of frames until
NEWPRED implementation aided with CRC error detection
the next intra-refresh is dropped. This situation can
operation justifies this overhead.
seriously degrade the received video quality.

If through the use of an upstream message the encoder is


made aware of errors in the particular P-frame (P3), the 4. Upper layer protocol overheads and PDCP
encoder can change the reference frame for the next P-frame header compression
(P4) to the previous one which was received correctly (P2). UMTS is indeed a complex system where various radio
P-frames and B-frames after P4 then refer to the correctly interface protocols are needed to set up, reconfigure and
decoded P4, rather than the faulty P3 frame. The technique release Radio Bearer Services [6]. Each lower layer defined
therefore reduces error propagation and frame loss occurring into the protocol stack provides services to the upper layer at
from dropped P-frames. defined Service Access Points (SAPs). These protocols add
header part with the video frame payload to exchange
This method can significantly improve the performance of information with peer entity. Depending upon protocol
the received video quality. To implement the NEWPRED configurations and size of the video frames, these headers
feature, both the encoder and decoder need buffer memories can be attached to each video frame or multiple video
for the reference frames. The required buffer memory frames can be used as payload as defined by RFC-3016 [7].
depends on the strategy of the reference frame selection by As many of the successive headers contain a huge amount of
the encoder, and transmission delay between the encoder redundant data, header compression is applied in form of
and decoder. Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) [8]. With PDCP
compression, higher layer protocol headers like RTP, UDP
and IP headers are compressed into one single PDCP
3. Error detection header. In the presented simulation, header attachments,
To implement NEWPRED it is important to identify errors compression and header removal was achieved using C
at the frame level at the decoding end. Mapping of errors programming language. Following figure shows a typical
72 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

structure of the video frame payload and header before it is BER (Bit Error Rate) 0.001
Data Rate (Downlink) bps
submitted to the RLC layer for further processing.
6.1 Static propagation condition
Uncompressed Headers As defined in 3GPP TS 25.101 V6.3.0, the propagation for
RTP Header UDP Header IP Header
(96 Bits) (96 Bits) (96 Bits)
Payload the static performance measurement is Additive White
Gaussian Noise (AWGN) environment. No fading and
multi-paths exist for this propagation model. Following
PDCP Header Payload
table lists received values of BLER and FER for this
Compressed PDCP Header propagation condition.
Figure 3. PDCP compression
Table 5: Parameters for static propagation condition
Once the PDCP compression is achieved this packet is then
BLER (Block Error Rate) 0.031
submitted to the RLC layer for further processing. RLC FER (Frame Error Rate) 0.0923
layer can be configured in any one of the transparent,
unacknowledged or acknowledged modes of transmission 6.2. Multi-path fading propagation conditions
[9]. RLC then submits the PDU to lower layers, where MAC Multi-path fading normally follows rayleigh fading pattern.
layer and physical layer procedures are applied as In this simulation Case-2 as mentioned by Ts 25.101 is used
appropriate. with the frequency band-1 (2112.5 MHz) and number of
In the presented simulation, UMTS MAC layer [10] and paths equals to 3 with relative delay between each path
physical layer [11] were simulated with SPW 4.2 utility by equals to 0, 976 and 20000 ns respectively and relative
CoWare to generate error patterns for different channel mean power of 0 dB for all three paths. The delay model
propagation conditions as described below. used in this case is fixed. The vehicle speed is configured to
be 3 km/h. Received values of BLER and FER are listed
5. Generation of error patterns below.

As mentioned, SPW tool by CoWare was used to model an Table 6: Parameters for multi-path propagation conditions
environment to generate error patterns for various types of
channel propagation conditions defined by the 3GPP BLER (Block Error Rate) 0.065
standards [12]. A 64 kbps downlink data channel and 2.5 FER (Frame Error Rate) 0.0225
kbps control channel were used for this UMTS simulation. 6.3. Moving propagation conditions
These two channels were multiplexed and transmitted over
The dynamic propagation conditions for this environment
the WCDMA air-interface.
for the test of the baseband performance are non fading
The transmission time interval, transmission block size,
channel model with two taps as described by 3GPP TS
transmission block set size, CRC attachment, channel
25.101. One of the taps is static, Path-0, and other is
coding, rate matching and inter-leaving parameters were
moving, Path-1. Both taps have equal strengths and phases
configured for both channels compliant with the 3GPP TS
but unequal time difference between them. Received values
34.108 specification. The typical parameter set for reference
of BLER and FER are listed below.
RABs (Radio Access Barriers) and SABs (Signalling Access
Barriers) and relevant combinations of them are presented
Table 7: Parameters for moving propagation conditions
in this standard.
The different channel propagation conditions used in the BLER (Block Error Rate) 0.036
simulation were static, multi-path fading, moving and birth- FER (Frame Error Rate) 0.088
death propagation. In the following section these channel
6.4. Birth-Death propagation conditions
conditions are described in some details.
It works similar to the Moving propagation except, in this
case both taps are moving. The positions of paths appear
6. Propagation conditions
randomly and are selected with an equal probability rate.
As mentioned before four different standardized Following table lists received values of BLER and FER for
propagation conditions – static, multi-path fading, moving this propagation condition.
and birth-death were used to generate different error
patterns. The typical parameter set for the conformance Table 8: Parameters for birth-death propagation conditions
testing as mentioned in 3GPP TS 25.101 [11] is used for the
radio interface configuration. Common set of parameters for BLER (Block Error Rate) 0.0329
FER (Frame Error Rate) 0.0851
all kinds of environment is listed below, while any specific
parameters to the environment are mentioned in the
respective sections. Generated error patterns are then applied to the data
transmitted from the RLC layer. Different RLC modes are
Table 4: Common set of parameters simulated using C programming language.
Interference -60 dB
Received signal / Noise (SNR) -3.0 dB
AWGN noise 4 × 10-9 watts
Eb/No (Overall) 6.01 dB
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 73
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

7. Video clips and Video quality measurement Frames loss improvement with NEWPRED
techniques used implementation is listed below.

For the evaluation purpose three standard video test Table 10: Frames loss improvements – static propagation
sequences were used, these being: Mother-Daughter,
Highway and Foreman. Each of these clips is of 650 frames
in length of QCIF (176 × 144) resolution and is encoded Name Results D Results E Results F
with the standard MPEG-4 codec at 10 fps. MD 0 (0 sec) 0 (0 sec) 0 (0 sec)
The objective video quality is measured by the PSNR (Peak
HW 54 (5.4 sec) 6 (0.6 sec) 48 (4.8 sec)
Signal to Noise Ratio) as defined by ANSI T1.801.03-1996
FM 21 (2.1 sec) 6 (0.6 sec) 15 (1.5 sec)
[13] and [14].

8. Simulation results
Three video clips are transmitted over these four different Frame loss Improvments with NEWPRED Implementation
propagation environments with and without NEWPRED
implementation and results are compared. Significant 160
improvement in the quality of the received video is achieved 140

No. of lost frames


with NEWPRED implementation. Results are listed below 120
100
in graphical as well as tabular forms.
80
60
Following conventions are used in tables below.
40
Video clips names: Without NEWPRED
20
Mother and Daughter – MD 0
With NEWPRED

Highway – HW Mother and Highway Foreman


Foreman – FM Daughter
PSNR without NEWPRED – Results A
PSNR with NEWPRED – Results B
Improvements in PSNR (dB) – Results C
Figure 5. Frames loss improvements – static propagation
Number of frames lost without NEWPRED - Results D
Number of frames lost with NEWPRED - Results E
Number of frames saved by NEWPRED - Results F 8.2. Multipath fading propagation conditions
Improvements in the video quality as measured on PSNR
8.1 Static propagation environment metric is listed below.
Improvements in the video quality as measured on PSNR
metric is listed below.
Table 11: PSNR improvements - multipath propagation
Table 9: PSNR improvements - static propagation
Name Results A Results B Results C
MD 35.2857 37.3848 2.0991
Name Results A Results B Results C HW 34.0484 35.154 1.1056
MD 35.2857 37.3848 2.0991 FM 28.0506 29.9551 1.9045
HW 34.0484 35.1540 1.1056
FM 28.0506 29.9551 1.9045
PSNR Improvements with NEWPRED Implementation

40
35
PSNR Improvements with NEWPRED Implementation 30
PSNR (dB)

25
30
20
25
15
20
PSNR (dB)

10
Without NEWPRED
15 5
With NEWPRED
10 0
Mother and Highway Foreman
5 Without NEWPRED
Daughter
0 With NEWPRED
Mother and Highway Foreman
Daughter
Figure 6. PSNR improvements - multipath propagation

Figure 4. PSNR improvements – static propagation


74 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Frames loss improvement with NEWPRED implementation No. frames loss improvement with NEWPRED
is listed below. implementation is listed below.

Table 12: Frames loss improvements – multipath Table 14: Frames loss improvements – moving propagation
propagation

Name Results D Results E Results F Name Results D Results E Results F


MD 0 (0 sec) 0 (0 sec) 0 (0 sec) MD 51(5.1 sec) 6 (0.6 sec) 45 (4.5 sec)
HW HW 90 (9sec) 12 (1.2 sec) 78 (7.8 sec)
54 (5.4 sec) 6 (0.6 sec) 48 (4.8 sec) FM 147(14.7 sec) 18 (1.8 sec) 129(12.9 sec)
FM 21 (2.1 sec) 6 (0.6 sec) 15 (1.5 sec)

Frame loss Improvments with NEWPRED Implementation


Frame loss Improvments with NEWPRED Implementation
160
60 140

No. of lost frames


50 120
No. of lost frames

100
40
80
30
60
20 40
Without NEWPRED
10 Without NEWPRED 20
With NEWPRED
With NEWPRED 0
0
Mother and Highway Foreman
Mother and Highway Foreman Daughter
Daughter

Figure 9. Frames loss improvements – moving propagation


Figure 7. Frames loss improvements – multipath
propagation

8.3. Moving propagation conditions


8.4. Birth-Death propagation conditions
Improvements in the video quality as measured on PSNR
Improvements in the video quality as measured on PSNR
metric is listed below.
metric is listed below.
Table 13: PSNR improvements - moving propagation
Table 15: PSNR improvements - birth-death propagation

Results
Name Results A Results C Name Results A Results B Results C
B
MD 19.95 23.2885 3.0085
MD 23.8001 26.5746 2.7745
HW 25.3108 26.9458 1.635
HW 26.8993 28.9075 2.0082
FM 18.1589 22.8428 4.6839
FM 17.5511 19.8001 2.249

PSNR Improvements with NEWPRED Im plem entation


PSNR Improvements with NEWPRED Implementation

30
35

30 25

20
PSNR (dB)

25
PSNR (dB)

20 15
15 10
10
5 Without NEWPRED
Without NEWPRED
5 With NEWPRED
With NEWPRED 0
0 Mother and Highway Forem an
Mother and Highway Foreman Daughter
Daughter

Figure 10. PSNR improvements - birth-death propagation


Figure 8. PSNR improvements -moving propagation
conditions
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 75
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

No. frames loss improvement with NEWPRED Mobile Communication Technologies (3G 2003), IEE
implementation is listed below. Conference Publication N0. 494, London, UK, 25-27
June 2003, pp-73-77.
Table 16. Frames loss improvements – birth-death
[4] S.T. Worrall, A.H. Sadka, P. Sweeney and A.M.
propagation
Kondoz.: ‘Backward compatible user defined data
insertion into MPEG-4 bitstreams’, IEE Electronic
Letters, 8th June 2000, Vol. 36, No.12, pp. 1036.
Name Results D Results E Results F
MD 99 (9.9 sec) 6 (0.6 sec) 93 (9.3 sec) [5] Pereira, F., Ebrahimi, T., The MPEG-4 Book; Prentice
HW 52 (5.2 sec) 12 (1.2 sec) 40 (4.0 sec) Hall PTR (July 20, 2002), ISBN-10: 0130616214.
FM 172 (17.2 sec) 63 (6.3 sec) 109 (10.9 sec)
[6] 3GPP, Technical Specification Group Radio Access
Network;Radio interface protocol architecture; 3GPP
TS 25.301 (2002-09), Ver 5.2.0.
Frame loss Improvments with NEWPRED Implementation
[7] RFC-3016, RTP Payload Format for MPEG-4
200 Audio/Visual Streams, November 2000.
180
160 [8] 3GPP, Technical Specification Group Radio Access
No. of lost frames

140 Network; PDCP protocol specification; 3GPP TS


120
100 25.331 (2003-12), Ver 6.0.0.
80
60 [9] 3GPP, Technical Specification Group Radio Access
40 Without NEWPRED Network; Radio Link Control (RLC) protocol
20
0
With NEWPRED specification; 3GPP TS 25.322, V4.12.0.
Mother and Highway Foreman
[10] 3GPP, Technical Specification Group Radio Access
Daughter
Network; MAC protocol Specification; 3GPP TS
25.321, V4.0.0.
Figure 11. Frames loss improvements – birth-death [11] 3GPP, Technical Specification Group Radio Access
propagation Network; UE radio transmission and reception
(FDD); 3GPP TS 25.101 (2003-12), Ver 6.3.0.
[12] 3GPP, Technical Specification Group Terminals;
9. Conclusions
Common test environment for UE conformance
As can be seen from the simulation results, implementation testing; 3GPP TS 34.108 (2003-12), Ver 4.9.0.
of NEWPRED results in significant improvements on the
[13] ATIS Technical Report T1.TR.74-2201: Objective
received video quality. This implementation obviously
Video Quality Measurement using a Peak-Signal-to-
requires some processing overhead on both the encoder and
Noise Ratio (PSNR) Full Reference Technique.
decoder sides, but considering increasing processing power
October 2001, Alliance for Telecommunications
of mobile stations, this method should provide considerable
Industry Solutions.
enhancements. As mentioned identified transmission delay
between the encoder and decoder influence the amount of [14] www.its.bldrdoc.gov/n3/video/vqmsoftware.htm
buffer required. Further studies can be carried out from here
to analyse this requirements. Author Profile

Dr. Bhumin Pathak received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degree from
Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK. Dr. Geoff Childs is
References Principal Lecturer at School of Technology at Oxford Brookes
[1] Information Technology – Coding of Audio-visual University, Oxford, UK. Dr. Maaruf Ali is Senior Lecturer at
Objects – Part 2: Visual, Reference Number ISO/IEC School of Technology at Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK.
14496-2:2001(E).
[2] 3GPP, TSG Terminals, Common test environments for
UE conformance testing, 3GPP TS 34.108, V4.9.0
(2003-12).
[3] C.Kodikara, S.Worrall, S. N. Fabri, A.M. Kondoz.
‘Performance Evaluation of MPEG-4 video telephony
over UMTS’, IEE 4th International Conference on 3G
76 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

A Comprehensive and Relatively Fast Web


Archiving Application for Offline Browsing
Mr. B.Vijaya Babu1 and Prof M.S.Prasad Babu2
1
Professor, Dept. of Computer
Science,
Usha Rama College of Engineering &
Technology , TELAPROLU, Near Gannavaram,
Krishna(D.t) vijaymtech28@gmail.com

2
Dept of
CS&SE,
A.U.College Of Engineering, Andhra
University Visakhapatnam
msprasadbabu@yahoo.co.in

Abstract: The task of archiving or mirroring the websites has have some cultural value, because they belongs to the
become more difficult in the recent years, because of the rapid digital heritage and they are the material witness of our
devolopments in designing technologies of websites. The users society and with out proper archiving policy, they will be lost
and organizations are facing many challenges in term of for the future[12].
restoration of all types of links originally present on the Since a website is a unit of linked files including text
websites. More over preservation, accessing and interpretation files, sound files, data bases and scripts etc., the author or
of the data present on the websites for future references poses the organization that has created the site is protected in
new problems. This paper focuses on the design exactly the same way as the author of a classical literary
,implementation and analysis of an optimized, multi threaded,
work. An organization or the author of the site has to
website specific, application that saves the websites at a
consider the legal copy right implications, when drawing up
relatively faster time on to a user defined location of a local
disk in the form of a file ,which is useful for offline browsing.
an archiving strategy for their websites. Libraries of different
The problems and limitations of existing state of art archiving countries and various organizations that deal with the
tools in terms of comprehensive retrieval of the links, and speed reproduction of the information see copy right as an
of archiving have been addressed. This application is compared obstruction. The current copy right laws do not allow
with the existing open sourced utilities like web eater 0.2.1 and enough possibilities to make reproductions of publications,
winHTTrack Website copier 3. 43-6 versions. with out the authors permission. A lot information on the
sites is being shielded by copy right, making its
Key words: Web archiving, open source tool, running time, reproduction subject to a number of clearly defined
active threads. conditions [12][7].

1. Introduction
2. Study of literature on related work
Web archiving or mirroring is the process of collecting
An extensive study has been done on the literature of
portions of the World Wide Web(WWW) and ensuring the
various web archiving, mirroring utilities, applications and
collection is digitally preserved for the future references
tools, both licenced as well as open sourced . The study of
and interpretation of research scholars, scientists, business
the state of art technologies on the related work has
people, various government and private organizations of
provided enough base and platform for the development of
different countries.The web is a pervasive and ephemeral
our application.
media where modern culture in a large sense finds a
J. Cho et al..have described the design and performance
natural form of expression. Publication, debate, creation,
of WebBase, a tool for Web research. The system includes
work and social interaction in a large sense: many aspects
a highly customizable crawler, a repository for collected
of the society are happening or reflected on the Internet in
Web pages, an indexer for both text and link-related page
general and the web in particular [7].
features, and a high-speed content distribution facility. The
Archiving websites is important for three main reasons.
distributed model enables the researchers world-wide to
Firstly, archiving web sites is justified by the documentary
retrieve pages from WebBase, and stream them across the
value the website possesses themselves. Archived websites
Internet at high speed [9]. Masanes.J has presented various
are a necessary evidence material for research into the and
crawling algorithms and approaches undertaken today by
the evolution of this medium itself history. Secondly, the
different institu- tions; it will discuss their focuses,
websites them selves are having large informational value ,
strengths, and limits, as well as a model for appraisal and
it is impor- tant to realize that the websites can be frozen as
identifying potential comple- mentary aspects amongst
on-line sources one way or the other. Thirdly, websites also
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 77
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

them. following diagram.


He stated that the completeness of a Web archive can be
measured in horizontally by the number of relevant entry
points found within the designated perimeter and vertically
by the number of relevant linked nodes found from this
entry point.[7,10]. It was shown that, not all the pages are
stored, but some of the hidden pages are missing and he also
presented models for extensive and intensive archiving
mechanisms. B.Vijaya Babu et al. in their comparative study
have concluded that the comprehensive archiving or
retrieval of the links of the website also depends on the
technologies that were used to design the individual pages of
the websites[1].
We have also gone through the literature of existing open
source archiving tools which are useful in web site mirroring
and other re-creation activities. Out of all those mirroring
tools, cURL[3], HTTrack [9]and Stanford WebBase[9,18] are the
most optimized tools, but are having their own advantages
and disadvantages. curl is fast, extensible, and fully featured
as a web-downloading tool. It can use telnet, ftp and http
protocols. It has build-in encryption for SSL connections. It
fills in forms, providing passwords to websites if requested. It Figure 1. Screen shots of web eater
follows all redirects and collects cookies automatically. 0.2.1
cURL has a command line interface .Curl supports resumed
transfers both ways on both FTP and HTTP. The main The winHTTrack Website copier 3. 43-6 on the
drawback of cURL is it lacks spidering ability. By itself, it other hand is a GUI tool and is easier for implementation.
cannot mirror whole websites. A wrapper must extend cURL The screen shot of the home page is as shown below.
to spider sites and rotate through links[9].
Tarmo Robal has designed a web crawler software
component which is able to map Estonian Internet domain
structure, and index its web page source[15]. Vladislav
Shkapenyuk ans Torsten Suel in their work have described the
design and implementation of a distributed web crawler
architecture that runs on a network of work stations. The
scalar scales to several hundred pages per second, and is
resilient against sytem crashes and other events, which can be
adapted to other applications [16]. Allen Heydon and Mark Figure 2. Screen shots of winHTTrack Website copier 3.
najork have described about the Mercator[17], a scalable and 43-6
extensible Web Crawler and discussed about the alternative
trade-offs in the design of web crawlers. Paulo Boldi et al.
In our study we have found that HTTrack web site
have reported the implementation of Ubi Crawler, another
copier[9] is better than cURL, as far as the issues of
scalable and distributed web crawler with the features like
recreating the links, as it employs the most professional
platform independence, fault tolerance[18].
interface of the evaluated crawlers. It actually has two
interfaces, one GUI, one command line. It has many options
2.1 Study of Existing Open sourced Tools on the and accurately downloads im- ages and rewrites links. It has
Related Work SSL capability [9]. It spiders a prescribed depth into the
Number of tools and utilities are available in the form of site. It can spider several sites in series. But it lacks the
licensed with copy rights and as open source applications on extensibility of cURL. Difficulties in the core code can lead to
the related work, but most of them are lacking the ease of awkward workarounds. CDL, for instance, might not be able
to build form guessing into HTTrack, which is required to
implementation and comprehensivness.More over, they are
reach much of the deep web [9].
not meeting basic requirements of archiving.
Stanford’s WebBase[ 11] mirrors sites with almost
The open sourced tools like cURL, winHTTrack Website
copier 3 . 43-6, and web eater 0.2.1 have been studied. Both perfect recall of mirrored html. Simple sites with little
cURL and web eater are command line tools and web eater dynamic content can be mirrored with ease. But Stanford
0.2.1 is not comprehensive in terms of retrieval of links WebBase does not rewrite links within pages. It does not
and pages. The archiving efficiency of Web eater 0.2.1[13] is download files required in an EMBED tag as used by Flash
not up to the mark. The screen shots for running and and other programs. It does not parse or even scan
implementation of Web eater 0.2.1 are as shown in the JavaScript for links or images. WebBase may be extended
78 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

only with great difficulty. The C++ code is not ANSI }


compliant, and cannot be compiled with a modern
compiler[9][11]. Rui Cai et al. have studied about an 4. Architecture Diagram
intelligent crawler with the main idea of learning about the
site map of a forum site with a few pre-sampled pages, and
then decide how to select an optimal traversal path to
avoid duplicates and invalids[2].

3. Pseudo Code
According to Shalin Shah [19], part of the pseudo code
summary of the algorithm that can be used to implement
the application is given below :

Add the URL to the empty list of URLs to


search

While not empty(the list of URLs to


search)
{

Take the first URL in from the list of


URLs
Mark this URL as already searches
URL Figure 3. Architecture Diagram of standard Web
Crawler
If the URL protocol is not HTTP
then break;
go back to 5. Flow Diagram of the Web Archiving
while Application

If robot.txt file exist on the site


then
If file includes “ Disallow” statement
then break;
go back to while

Open the URL

If the opened URL is HTML file


then break;
go back to while
Iterate the HTML
file

While the HTML text contains another link

{ If robot.txt file exist on URL/site then


If file includes” Disallow” statement
then break;
Go back to
while
Figure 4. Flow Diagram of the Web Archiving Application
If the opened URL is HTML file
then
If the URL is not marked as searched then
Mark this URL as already searched
URL

}
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 79
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

6. Implementation of the Application and Case


Study
This application is implemented on a Dell T100 power edge
Model server system with 4GB RAM, 250 GB SATA Hard
Disk and 1 Gbps Network card(Ethernet) . The system has a
2 Mbps dedicated leased line internet connectivity .The
website www.usharama.com is taken as the reference site
with prior permission, for the implementation of the
application.
Figure 6. Screen Shots for Threads=1 and Depth=5 with
BFS Algorithm

Figure 5. Screen Shots of Home Page of Web Archiving


Application

The implementation results in observations for different


active threads and the running time, for BFS and DFS
algorithms are shown.

Figure 7. Screen Shots for Threads=1 and Depth=5 With


DFS algorithm

The page size of 3000kb and a depth of 5 are set for the
implementation. Some interesting results have been observed
for different active threads selected. As the number of threads
increases the running time for saving the website is observed
decreasing. This running time also depends on the factors
like the bandwidth of the Internet connectivity, speed of
packet transfer rate, congestion at that particular moment and
also on the configuration of the system.
80 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
The content of the website is archived in the folder seconds.
UR on the desk top and it consists the following folders.
a) Images
b) Includes(Jscript and CSS Files)
c) Jsfiles
d) Photos
e) Pages and to browse the website in offline, the
index.html also has been created. The observations are
tabulated inTable1 and Table2 as shown below.
Table1: Observations for BFS algorithm

Figure 9. Output screenshot of winHTTrack website copier


3. 43-6

But the web eater 0.2.1 tool has given poor results in terms of
restoration of the links as well as the running time. It has
retrieved only the home page or the index page.

Table2: Observations for DFS algorithm

From the results, the BFS crawling efficiency is better than


DFS, at the cost of running time and vice versa.The values of Figure 10. Output screenshot of web eater 0.2.1
running time for various active threads are depicted as
shown in fig 8. 8. Conclusions
This archiving application saves all the links, except
external links of the website originally present in the site
and al so retrieves the pages written in either aspx,html, or
PHP etc., in to the archived folder. The application is
compared with the existing state of art open sourced
archiving tools like web eater 0.2.1 and winHTTrack
Website copier 3. 43-6 versions . It has shown a much
improved performance in terms of running time and number
Figure 8. Comparison of running time for BFS and DFS of links visited. As the ultimate objective of our work is to
develop a comprehensive, open sourced web archiving tool,
7. Comparison of Open sourced tools web eater this work provides a platform and scope for future
0.2.1 and winHTTrack Website copier 3. 43- enhancements like the retrieval of external links and
6 versions consequently to the problems related to memory
The open source tools winHTTrack website copier 3. 43- requirements.
6 and web eater 0.2.1 are implemented and compared with
our application. The winHTTrack website copier 3.43-6 is 9. Acknowledgements
compre- hensive in terms of restoration of the links but I extend my sincere thanks to the management of Usha
takes much longer running time of 22 minutes and 21
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 81
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Rama College of Engineering and Technology, [14] Fitch, K. Web site archiving: an approach to recording
Telaprolu, Krishna(D.t), Andhra Pradesh, INDIA for every materially different response produced by a
giving me the permission to use the website Website.” AusWeb 2003: the Ninth Australian
http://www.usharama.com to conduct the case study World Wide Web Conference, Hyatt Sanctuary Cove,
and I also thank the staff and Gold Coast, Australia, 5-9 July 2003.
colleagues for their cooperation in completing the http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw03/papers/fitch/
work.
[15] Tarmo Robal “ Agile Web-Crawler : Design
and Implementation, 2007
References http://www.scribd.com/doc/100903/Agile-webcrawler-
[1] B.Vijaya Babu, Prof M.S Prasad Babu “ Performance design- and-implementation
Evaluation and Comparative study of Web Archiving
Tools “ International Journal of Computer Engineering [16] Vladislav Shkapenyuk and Torsten Suel “ Design
and Information Technology( ISSN 0974-2034), Volume and Implementation of a high performance Distributed
01,Number 01,page 100-106, Nov 2008-Jan 2009. Web crawler”

[2] Rui Cai, Jiang-Ming Yang, Wei Lai, Yida Wang, And Lei [17] Allen Heydon and Mark najork “ Mercator : A
Zhang 2008. iRobot: An Intelligent Crawler for Web Scalable, Extensible Web Crawler
Forums, In the proceedings of WWW 2008 / Refereed http://www.mias.uiuc.edu/files/
Track: Search – Crawlers, April 21-25, 2008 · Beijing, tutorials/mercator.pdf
China.
[18] Paulo Boldi, Bruno Codenotti, Massimo santini and
[3]. Ricardo baeza-yates, Aristides Gionis, Flavio p. Junquira, Sebastino Vigna “ Ubi Crawler : A scalable fully
Vanessa Murdock, Vassils Plachouras and Fabrizio distributed web Crawler, 2003
Silvestri 2008 Design Trade-Offs for Search Engine http://eprints.kfupm.edu.sa
Caching, In the ACM Transactions on the Web, Vol. 2,
[19] Shalin Shah “Implementing an Effective Web Crawler
No. 4, Article 20, Publication date: October 2008
“eInfochips, Dash Board September 2006.
[4]. Seung Hwan Ryu, Fabio Casati, Halvard Skogsrud,
Boualem Benatallah And Re´Gis Saint-Paul 2008
Authors Profile
Supporting the Dynamic Evolution of Web Service
Protocols in Service- Oriented Architectures, In the Prof. B.Vijaya Babu received B.Tech
ACM Transactions on the Web, Vol. 2, No. 2, Article 13, (ECE).,and M.Tech(Computer Science).,
Publication date: April 2008. degrees from JNTU, Hyderabad in 1993 and
[5] http://www.curl.haxx.se. 2004 respectively. Presently he is working
as Professor and Head of CSE/IT
[6] Robert C. Miller and Krishna Bharat SPHINX: A Framework Departments in UshaRama College of
for Cr eating Per son al , Site-Specifi c Web Engineering & Technology, Telaprolu, Near
Cr awler s . Proceedings of the Seventh International Gannavaram, Krishna(D.t), Andhra
World Wide Web Conference (WWW7), Brisbane, Pradesh, INDIA. During his 16 years of
Australia, April 1998 and Printed in Computer Network experience in teaching and research, he attended many
National and International Conferences/ Seminars in India and also
and ISDN Systems v.30, pp. 119-130, 1998. Brisbane,
contributed no. of research papers to various International journals.
Australia, April 1998.
[7] Web Archiving-Julien Masanès, Springer- ISBN-10 3-
540-23338-5,Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006, ,European Prof. Maddali Surendra Prasad Babu
obtained his BSc., M.Sc., M. Phil., and Ph.D.
Web Archive.
degrees from Andhra University in 1976,
[8] http://www.httrack.com
1978, 1981and 1986 respectively. He was the
[9] Junghoo Cho, Hector Garcia-Molina, Taher Haveliwala, Head of the Department of the Department
Wang Lam, Andreas Paepcke, Sriram Raghavan, And of Computer Science & Systems
Gary Wesley 2006 “ Stan for d WebBase Engineering, Andhra University from
Componen ts an d Applications “ ,In the ACM 2006-09.During his 30 years of
Transactions on Internet Technology, Vol. 6, No. 2, experience in teaching and research, he
May 2006, Pages 153–186. attended about 30 National and
[10] Julien Masanès, “Towards Continuous Web Archiving“. International Conferences/ Seminars in India and contributed
D-Lib Magazine, Volume 8 Number 12, December 2002. about 60 Research papers either in journals or in National and
International conferences/ seminars. He received the ISCA Young
[11] www-iglib.stanford.edu Scientist Award at the73rd Indian Science Congress in 1986.
[12] DAVID—Archiving Websites , Version 1.0, Antwerp -
Leuven, July 2002,
[13] http://freshmeat.net/projects/webeater/
82 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Finding Shortest Path on Probabilistic Fuzzy


Networks Using Measure of Fuzziness Approach
Seyedmohsen Hosseini

Mississippi State University, Department of Industrial & Systems Engineering


Starkville, MS, U.S.A
Sh820@msstate.edu

Abstract: Fuzzy shortest path is one of the most significant the effects of defuzzification method on the fuzzy shortest
problem of graph theory which aims to help decision makers path algorithm. Lin and Chen [5] found the FSP by applying
under uncertainty and ambiguity condition. In this paper, a a fuzzy linear programming. Rakhshan [6] applied a
network with fuzzy arc length is considered. All arcs are dynamic programming approach to find shortest path on
triangular fuzzy set and a new algorithm is proposed based on fuzzy weighted graph. Chuang and Kung [7] used the crisp
using measure of fuzziness approach. It is based on the idea that number to identify the fuzzy shortest path. Sun K Tem and
the fuzzy path with less measure of fuzziness is selected as Wang Chung proposed a new ranking method which works
criteria among all possible fuzzy path and the similarity of
by determining the center of graph.
degree of all fuzzy paths are measured and then the path with
highest similarity degree is selected as the FSP. A numerical In this paper, we introduce a method based on using
example is given to illustrate the proposed algorithm and its measure of fuzziness, Shimon’s entropy. We integrated
efficiency. fuzzy set numbers with probabilistic events and proposed an
Keywords: Fuzzy shortest path, similarity degree, measure of algorithm to identify the fuzzy shortest path when there is a
fuzziness, probabilistic probabilistic fuzzy arc length on the network. The rest of
this paper is arranged as follows. In section II, some
elementary fuzzy sets operations are reviewed and then the
1. Introduction proposed algorithm is proposed. In the next section, a
numerical example is established to show the efficiency of
Shortest path problem can be widely applied to many proposed algorithm.
fields such as routing, economics, traffic control,
communication and manufacturing. Hence many researches
have been conducted in this area during a recent decade. In
2. Preliminaries
a real world systems are mostly uncertain and imprecise. For Here, some necessary background of fuzzy set theory and
instance in a phone network, the time of traversing a similarity degree are reviewed and discussed. These
message from a city as origin to another city as destination definitions and concepts are taken from [3].
~
is usually uncertain and depends on the switching delay, Definition 1. A fuzzy set A is defined as membership
size of data. This problem can be formulated as shortest path
function µA~ (x) in crisp set maps whole members in
on a fuzzy phone network with imprecise arc length.
Various methods have been proposed to deal with FSP universal set X to set [0,1].
which can be classified into two categories. First categories ~
Definition 2. A fuzzy number A is a fuzzy convex subset of
is based on defuzzification approach and converting fuzzy the real line satisfying the following conditions:
set numbers into crisp numbers and then measure the
ranking based on the obtained crisp numbers. This method (a) µA~ (x) is piecewise continuous;
is not efficient, because during defuzzification process the
uncertainty and ambiguity of arc length which usually
(b) µA~ (x) is normalized, that is, there exist m ∈ R with
present time or cost is disregard. So the property of
~
fuzziness can not be implemented on the network. The µA~ (m) =1, where m is called the mean value of A [8, 9].
second category is based on using a fuzz ranking approach
to identify the FSP. Using this method assure that
uncertainties of fuzzy numbers are kept during ranking Definition 3. A linear membership function of a triangular
process. So a decision made based on fuzzy numbers versus fuzzy number is presented as follows equation:
crisp numbers in first category.
~
The fuzzy shortest path problem initially analyzed by A = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) (1)
Dubois and Prade [1] They used Floyd’s algorithm and
Ford’s algorithm [2] to tear the fuzzy shortest path problem.
Although in their method the shortest path length can be
obtained, may be the corresponding path in the network
doesn’t exist [3]. Comelis and P D Kesel [4] investigated
suitable ranking methods for dominance checking and also
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 83
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

 0, x < a1 ∑x −∑x ij ij =1 if i = s
 x − a1 i≠ j i≠ j
 , a1 ≤ x ≤ a 2
 a 2 − a1
µ A ( x) = 
∑x −∑x ij ij =0 if i ≠ s, t
a −x i≠ j i≠ j
 3 , a 2 ≤ x ≤ a3
a3 − a 2 ∑x −∑x ij ij = −1 if i=t
 0, x > a3
i≠ j i≠ j

xij = 0,1 i≠ j
Figure 1. illustrates a triangular fuzzy number.
According to the formula above, constraints defined a
convex polyhedron with non- deterministic objective
µ A (x) function. This model can be considered when the arc weight
is probabilistic, in addition to its fuzziness property. In the
other words model can be extended to find probabilistic
fuzzy shortest path on the phone network. In this mode,
a1 a2
a3 x each arc weight deals with a probability set which indicates
the probability of occurrence corresponding to each arc. For
~ example p ij = ( p1ij , p 2 ij , p3ij ) is the probability of
Figure2. Triangular fuzzy number A = ( a1 , a 2 , a 3 )
~ ~ occurrence of arc (i, j ) . p1ij , p 2 ij , p 3ij indicate the
Definition4. Assuming A, B are two triangular fuzzy
probability of elements a 1 , a 2 , a 3 respectively. Sum of
numbers, then addition and multiplication operations of
these triangular fuzzy numbers are follows as: probability of occurrence of each set is equal to 1. This
~ ~ problem can be formulated as follows:
A ⊕ B = (a1 + b1 , a 2 + b2 , a 3 + b3 ) ~
~ ~ min Z= ∑ (L ij ⊗ Pij ) xij (3)
A ⊗ B = (a 1 × b1 , a 2 × b2 , a 3 × b3 ) ( i , j )∈E

3. Fuzzy Shortest Path Problem (FSPP) ∑x −∑x


i≠ j
ij
i≠ j
ij =1 if i=s
Consider a network G= (V, E) having V vertices and E
arcs as a phone network. Any node allows to be connected to
any other node by an arc and all arcs can travel in one-way
∑x −∑x
i≠ j
ij
i≠ j
ij =0 if i ≠ s, t
~
direction. Define lij to be the fuzzy time or cost from vertex
~
∑x −∑x
i≠ j
ij
i≠ j
ij = −1 if i=t
i to vertex j , j ≤ n. lii = 0 if 1 ≤ i ≤ n . If there is no arc
~ xij = 0,1 i≠ j
connecting vertex i to vertex j , then lij = ∞ . We wish to
find the fuzzy shortest path from the source vertex to the ∑p
( i , j )∈E
ij =1
sink vertex. Let’s define (1, i1 , i2 ,..., in ) as a length of path
0 ≤ pij ≤ 1 ∀(i, j ) ∈ E
from source vertex to sink vertex wherei1 , i 2 ,...., in may
4. Measure of Fuzziness and Proposed
be cost or time in the set { 2 ,…, n − 1 }. Let λ be all
algorithm
possible paths from source to sink in the network. If
~ Measure of fuzziness indicates the amount of uncertainty
ρ ∈ λ , then L( p ) = a~1,i1 + a~i1,i 2 + ...... + a~ik,n and ~
of fuzzy set number. Assuming A be a fuzzy set and
gives a triangular fuzzy number. According to the addition ~ ~
~ a 1 , a 2 , and a 3 be the elements of A . Fuzzy set A has the
operation of fuzzy numbers, L ( p ) would be fuzzy
highest uncertainty if the possibility of each element being
triangular number. near to 0.5 and possibility near to 0 and 1 gets the lowest
In this paper, a fuzzy phone network is considered. First uncertainty. Measure of fuzziness deals with the amount of
vertex is an origin city and sink vertex is considered as uncertainty. In this paper, Shannon’s entropy is presented
destination city. Arc weights represent the delay switching to measure of fuzziness of triangular fuzzy numbers.
time to traversing from a city to another city. This time is Shannon’s entropy is formulated as follows:
H ( P ( x)) = − ∑ p ( x) log 2 P ( x) , ∀x∈ X
often imprecise due to the switching delay in the phone
(4)
network. Here, we deal with finding fuzzy shortest path
x∈X
among all cities which are given in the network to traverse a
Where P(x) denotes the probability distribution in the
massage with minimum time delay from origin to
destination. This problem can be formulated as follows: universal set X for all x ∈ X [9]. In order to
~ ~
min Z= ∑L x
( i , j )∈E
ij ij (2) compute Lmin , first the amount of fuzziness in each possible
path should be calculated and then multiplied by its
~
Subject to corresponding path length , then each element of Lmin can
be obtained by ranking below:
84 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Assuming
2 4
H 1 ( p ( x), H 2 ( p ( x),........, H ith ( p ( x) indicates the size
of entropy in all paths 1, 2, …., k where k illustrates the
total number of possible paths is from source vertex to sink
~ 1 6
vertex. Now, we applied a new ranking to compute Lmin as
follows:
~  H ( p ( x) × L1 , H 2 ( p ( x) × L2 ,..........,  3 5
Lmin = min  1 
 H ith ( p ( x) × Lith 
(5) Figure 3. A weighted fuzzy network
~
After calculating the fuzzy shortest path Lmin , a Membership function and fuzzy arc length between each
similarity degree Si is need to be defined between the ith pair of vertex is shown in table 1:
~
fuzzy path length Li = ( a i , bi , ci ) and Lmin . Similarity
degree helps to make decision easier which path is the
shortest. Here we applied one of the similarity degree Table 1: The arc lengths of network and the occurrence
formulations which proposed by In C.H Hsieh [5]. The probability of them
formula is established based on the intersection of two fuzzy
set to measure the similarity degree between two fuzzy Membership Occurrence
Arc
numbers as follows: Function Probability
~ ~ (1,2) (2,4,6) (0.5,0.3,0.2)
A = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 ) , B = (b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ) (6)
(1,3) (1,3,5) (0.5,0.4,0.1)
1
S ( A, B ) = where (2,4) (3,5,7) (0.2,0.7,0.1)
1 + d ( A, B )
(2,5) (4,6,7) (0.4,0.4,0.2)
d ( A, B) = P ( A) − P ( B) , (3,5) (2,5,8) (0.6,0.3,0.1)
a + 2a 2 + 2a3 + a 4 (4,6) (3,6,8) (0.5,0.4,0.1)
P ( A) = 1 ,
6 (5,4) (2,6,9) (0.4,0.4,0.2)
b + 2b2 + 2b3 + b4 (5,6) (2,4,8) (0.3,0.6,0.1)
P( B) = 1
6
Here, the proposed algorithm is shown as follows: According to the obtained results in table 2, first the
Step 1. Employ the breath first search (BFS) or depth fuzziness of each path with fuzzy arc length is measured,
first search (DFS) to find all possible paths from source and then path with least degree of fuzziness is chosen
vertex to sink vertex. ~
~ to Lmin . Next, similarity degree formula (6) is employed to
Step 2. Compute the path length, Li , i = 1, 2,...., k , for ~
compute the similarity degree between paths and Lmin .
k possible paths. Employ adding operation of fuzzy set to Finally, path 2 is chosen as shortest path with highest
compute the length of each path ~
~ similarity degree to Lmin .
Step 3. Find the fuzzy shortest path Lmin using
formula (5) Table 2: The Result
Step 4. Employ formula (6) to measure the similarity Path ~ ~
~ ~ Paths Path Length S( Li , Lmin ) Ranking
degree S ( Li , Lmin ) between fuzzy path lengths No
1 1-3-5-6 (2.1, 2.3, 5.1) 0.103 4
for i = 1, 2,..., n .
2 1-2-4-6 (2.7, 3.1, 7.1) 1 1
Step 5. Obtain the shortest path among all paths in the 1-3-5-4-
network with highest similarity degree. 3 (3.9, 4, 7.5) 0.129 3
6
4 1-2-5-6 (3.2, 3.4, 6) 0.186 2
4.1 Numerical Example 1-2-5-4-
5 (4.9, 5.2, 8.4) 0.08 5
In this section, a probabilistic fuzzy phone network with 6
6 vertices and 8 arcs is given. The goal is finding the
shortest path or minimizing the message traversing from 5. Conclusion
origin city, the source vertex to the destination city, sink
In this work a fuzzy phone network is presented and the
node. There are 5 cities as intermediate nodes between
problem of finding shortest path from source vertex to sink
origin and destination cities. The proposed algorithm is
vertex is considered. First, we proposed a new ranking
executed to find the shortest path on this network.
method based on using of fuzziness logic in the networks.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 85
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

By proposing this ranking, the amount of fuzziness of each


path is interfered as an appropriate criterion to determine
shortest path. This can avoid generating the set of non-
dominated, especially on a dense network with a large
number of arcs. So it can help decision makers to choose
preferable path easily.

References

[1] Dubois D. and H.prade. 1983. Ranking fuzzy numbers in


the setting of probability theory, Information sciences 30,
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[2] R. Hessami 2007. Finding fuzzy shortest path by using
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fuzzy sets and its application, Tehran, 18-27.
[3] Iraj Mahdavi 2009. A dynamic programming approach
for finding shortest path chains in fuzzy network,
Applied soft computing, 9, 506-11.
[4] Chris Cornelis. De Kesel, Shortest paths in fuzzy
weighted graphs, Wiley InterScience19 (2004) 1051-
1068.
[5] C.H.Hsieh and S.H.Chen, 1992, Similarity of
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Author Profile

Seyedmohsen Hosseini received the BS


degree of industrial engineering from
Mazandaran University of science &
Tech in Iran and the MS degree in
automotive engineering from Kingston
University, London, UK. He is currently
working toward Master degree in
Industrial Engineering. His main research
interest lies in fuzzy logic and its
application to LP, NLP, assembly
balancing line problem and application of
Meta heuristic methods in combinatorial optimization.
86 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

An Image Classification Scheme for Increasing


Reliability Of Least Square Method And Sample
Pair Method
Shreelekshmi R1, M Wilscy2 and C E Veni Madhavan3
1
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, College of Engineering, Trivandrum
shreelekshmir@cet.ac.in

2
Department of Computer Science, University of Kerala, Trivandrum
w.ilsy@hotmail.com

3
Department of Computer Science & Automation, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
cevm@csa.iisc.ernet.in

Abstract : We propose a new classification scheme for increasing very accurate results on most of the images, but shows
the reliability of prediction by Least Square Method (LSM) and estimation errors on some images due to image specific
Sample Pair Method (SPM), two of the most accurate methods in properties.
the literature for quantitative steganalysis on digital images. We present a new method for identifying images which
Though SPM and LSM give very accurate results on most of give inaccurate results for Least Square method and
the images, they yield highly inaccurate results on some images. Sample pair method. The method we propose is based on
In this paper we propose a classification scheme to identify
the properties of images which remain invariant with
images for which LSM and SPM will definitely give inaccurate
embedding. We are able to identify the accuracy of
results. The novelty of our classification is that it is done
based on the properties of stego images alone. This prediction results from the properties of stego images alone.
identification method increases the reliability of LSM and The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2
SPM by identifying the images which definitely give inaccurate details the principle of SPA. Section 3 describes the
results. principle of LSM. Section 4 introduces the new method for
classification. Section 5 shows the experimental results we
Keywords: LSB replacement, steganography, steganalysis obtained. Section 6 is the conclusion and future work.

2. Notations
1. Introduction
Digital signal : Succession of samples s1, s2 ,. .sN
Steganography hides the secret message in cover objects to Sample pair : Two tuple (si , sj ), 1≤ i, j≤N
obtain stego objects. Digital images, videos, sound files and P : Multi set of sample pairs drawn from the cover
other computer files that contain perceptually irrelevant or signal
redundant information are used as cover objects to hide Cm : Sub multi set of P that consists of sample pairs
secret messages. The goal of steganalysis is to detect/ whose values differ by m in the first b − 1 bits
estimate /retrieve potentially hidden information from Dn : Sub multi set of P that consists of sample pairs
observed data with little or no knowledge about the whose values differ by n
steganographic algorithm or its parameters. The purpose Xn : Sub multi set of P that consists of sample pairs
of steganography is to hide the presence of communication, whose values differ by n and in which even value is larger
as opposed to cryptography, which aims to make Yn : Sub multi set of P that consists of sample pairs
communication unintelligible to those who do not possess whose values differ by n and in which odd value is larger
the right keys [3]. C m ′, Dn ′, Xn ′, Yn ′ : Corresponding sub multi sets that con-
We concentrate on LSB steganography on digital images sist of sample pairs drawn from stego signal
stored in uncompressed raw format. Many methods[1, 2, 4, 5, Am = (| Cm | − | Cm + 1 |) 4
6, 7, 8] have been proposed in the literature for Bm= (| D'2m | − | D'2 m + 2 | +2 | Y'2 m + 1 | −2 | X '2m + 1 |) 4
steganalysis of digital images. These methods give very
accurate results on most of the images. E m= | Y'2m + 1 | − | X '2 m + 1 |
Many attempts were made in analyzing the error in p : Length of hidden data expressed as percentage of number
various steganalysis methods. Ker derived error of samples in the image
distribution in Least Square steganalysis[9]. It shows that
LSM, one of the most reliable steganalysis methods, gives 3. Sample Pair Analysis
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 87
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

| Y'2 m + 1 | − | X '2 m + 1 |= 0 (2)


Sample Pair Analysis[1] is based on probabilities of
transitions between sample pairs due to LSB embedding and for m=0
operations. All horizontally or vertically adjacent sample
pairs in the digital image are considered for better
accuracy. The multi set Cm, 1 ≤ m ≤ 2b−1 − 1, is p2 ( 2 | C 0 | − | C1 |) 4−
partitioned into four trace sub multi sets X2m−1 , X2m , p (2 | D '0 | − | D '2 | +2 | Y'1 | −2 | X '1 |) 2 +
Y2m , Y2m+1 . Clearly Cm is closed, but its four trace sub
multi sets are not but convert reciprocally under the LSB
| Y'1 | − | X '1 |= 0 (3)
embedding operations. The smaller root of quadratic equation (2)[or (3)] is the
estimated value of p. Considering the estimating precision,
the literature [1] used the hypothesis

j j
E {| U X 2m + 1 |} = E {| UY 2m + 1 |} (4)
m=i m =i

instead (1) and derived the following more robust quadratic


equations to estimate the value of p.
Figure 1. Finite state machine associated with C0
p 2 (| Ci | − | Cj + 1 |) 4 −
j
p (| D '2 i | − | D '2 j + 2 | +2 ∑ (| Y'2 m + 1 | − | X '2 m + 1 |) ) 2 +
m=i
j

∑ (| Y'
m= i
2m + 1 | − | X '2 m + 1 |) =0, i>0 (5)

p 2 (2 | C 0 | − | Cj + 1 |) 4 −
j
p ( 2 | D '0 | − | D '2 j + 2 | +2 ∑ (| Y'2 m + 1 | − | X '2 m + 1 |) ) 2 +
m=0
j

∑ (| Y'
m= 0
2m + 1 | − | X '2 m + 1 |) =0, i=0 (6)

The results are optimum when i = 0, j = 30 [1].

Figure 2. Finite state machine associated with C m 4. Least Square Method

The precision of SPA is based on the hypotheses (1) or


The transitions within C0 are illustrated in Figure 1. (4). Actually, E{| X2m+1 |} is not absolutely equal to
The transitions between four trace sub multi sets is as E{| Y2m+1 |} , and neither is
shown in the finite-state machine in Figure 2. The j j
probability of transition from trace sub multi set A to B is
same as that from B to A. The transitions are labeled with
E{| U X 2 m + 1 |} equal to E{| U Y2 m + 1 |}
m= i m =i
probability of transition. For natural images, the literature
[1] presented the hypotheses
Once the hypotheses do not hold, the quadratic
E{| X2m+1 |} = E{| Y2m+1 |} (1) equations above will not hold. Hence, when the embedding
ratio is small, the errors of those hypotheses will lead the
According to the transitions within the finite-state ma- decision error. Thus when there are no messages embedded in
chines in the Figures 1 and 2, Sorina Dumitrscu et al. images, the false alarm rate is high[2]. In fact, the false
derived the following quadratic equations for estimating p if alarm rate presented by the literature [1] is 13.79%.
LSB steganography is done via random embedding. Least Square Method[2] makes the hypothesis that a
small parity difference occur in natural signals for each m.
For m ≥1 Let

p2 (| Cm | − | Cm + 1 |) 4− εm =| Y2m+1 | − | X2m+1 |, 0 ≤ m ≤ 2b−1 −2.

p (| D '2m | − | D '2 m + 2 | +2 | Y'2 m + 1 | −2 | X '2m + 1 |) 2 + Equations ( 2) and ( 3) become


88 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Apart from parity difference, there are other factors


p 2 (| Cm | − | Cm + 1 |) 4 − causing error. Both the methods partitions P into C m , 0 ≤
m ≤2b−1 − 1. Each Cm , 1 ≤ m ≤ 2b−1 − 1 is further
p (| D '2 m | − | D '2 m + 2 | +2 | Y'2m + 1 | −2 | X '2 m + 1 |) 2 +
partitioned into sub multi sets X2m−1 , X2m , Y2m and Y2m+1
| Y'2 m + 1 | − | X '2m + 1 | = εm(1-p2), m≥1 (7) and C0 is partitioned into D0 and Y1 . When data is embedded
into the image, sample pair in one sub multi set change to
and another sub multi set and thus the cardinalities of these sub
multi sets change with embedding.
p 2 (2 | C 0 | − | C1 |) 4 −
p (2 | D'0 | − | D'2 | +2 | Y'1 | −2 | X '1 |) 2 +
| Y'1 | − | X '1 | = εm(1-p2), m=0 (8)

Considering the perfect accuracy and robustness of least


square method for parameters estimate, Luo et.al used least
square method to estimate the embedding ratio for the differ-
ent 2b−1 − 1 equations. Substituting Am , Bm and Em , the
left of equation (8) is changed into Am p2 + Bm p + Em . Let

j
S (i, j, p ) = ∑ ( Am p 2 + Bm p + E m ) 2 , 0 < i
m= i
b −1
< j≤ 2 −2 (9)

Differentiating (9) yields, the following equation:

j j
2∑ A2 mp 3 + 3∑ AmBmp 2 + Figure 3. Change in cardinalities of sub multi sets of Cm
m=i m= i due to embedding in general

j j

∑ (2 A E
m =i
m m + B 2 m) p + ∑ BmEm = 0
m =i
(10)

By solving equation (10), a p value is estimated such


that the S(i, j, p) is minimal. In conclusion, LSM
algorithm estimates the length of embedding message by
solving a third order equation. The algorithm needs the
following hypothesis that for each m,
(| Y2m+1 | − | X2m+1 |)(1 − p)2 (11)
is small. The conditions of hypothesis in [2] are more
relaxed than that in [1]. Experimental results[2] show that,
it is precise and robust enough for LSM algorithm to take i
= 0 and j = 5.

5. Identification Of Images Which Give


Inaccurate Steganalysis Results Figure 4. Change in cardinalities of sub multi sets of Cm
due to embedding when their cardinalities are almost equal
Least Square Method and Sample Pair Analysis are based
on the finite state machines shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
The precision of SPA [2] depends on hypotheses (1) or (4). In fact cardinalities of sub multi sets in each Cm , 0 ≤
Least Square Method[2] makes the hypothesis that a small m ≤ 2b−1 − 1 increase /decrease monotonically with ratio
parity difference occurs in natural signals for each m. of embedding and at 100% embedding these cardinalities
Estimation errors occur when the hypotheses do not hold. become equal. Typical change in cardinalities of sub multi
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 89
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

sets in a Cm , 1 ≤ m ≤ 2b−1 − 1 and C0 are shown in Figure /SPM. Thus the steganalyst is able to attach a confidence level
3. to his results. The drawback of this classification is that the
images meeting the above criteria with 100% hidden data will
In most of the images, be misclassified as images giving inaccurate results.
| X2m−1 | > | X2m |
| X2m | ≈ | Y2m | 6. Experimental Results
| Y2m | > | Y2m+1 | and
| D0 | > | Y1 | We downloaded few hundred images which were originally
stored as high quality JPEG images. We identified one
Hence due to embedding | X2m−1 | decreases and hundred 24-bit color images which meet the condition (16)
| Y2m+1 | increases. | X2m | and | Y2m | increase or and (17). We embedded messages of length 3%, 5%, 10%,
decrease depending on their initial values. At 100% 20%, ... , 100% onto these images and estimated the
embedding, all these cardinalities become equal. From the message length. The estimated length for two sample
monotonic increase or decrease in cardinalities of sub multi images are given in table 1.
sets the p value is calculated.
In cover images, | Xn | ≈ | Yn |, 0 ≤ n ≤ 2b − 1 and Table 1: Estimated length of hidden message on two
with embedding the difference between | Xn | and | Yn | representative images satisfying our classification criteria
increases and the difference is maximum at 100%
embedding. The probability of transition from trace multi set X Length of Image I Image II
to multi set Y and that from Y to X are same. Therefore Embedding
(%) SPA LSM SPA LSM
when
0 nan 90.20 60.80 94.70
| X2m−1 |≈| Y2m+1 |≈| X2m |≈| Y2m |, m > 0 (12) 3 nan 90.90 62.70 95.20
| D0 |≈| Y1 | 5 nan 91.10 64.80 95.80
(13) 10 nan 91.70 68.20 96.90
20 nan 93.40 75.40 99.30
cardinalities of trace multi sets would not change due 30 nan 95.80 80.20 101.4
to embedding which is shown in Figure 4. In a cover 40 nan 96.00 86.60 105.4
image 50 nan 97.50 90.80 110.1
| X2m−1 |≈| Y2m−1 | and | X2m+1 |≈| Y2m+1 |. 60 nan 98.30 94.40 118.3
Therefore a cover image meeting the condition given in 70 nan 99.10 95.80 nan
(12) and (13) meet the following criteria 80 nan 99.20 97.70 nan
| Y2m−1 |≈| X2m−1 |≈| Y2m+1 |≈| X2m+1 |≈ 90 nan 99.20 100.5 nan
100 nan 99.30 100.0 nan
| X2m |≈| Y2m |, m > 0 (14)
| D0 |≈| Y1 |≈| X1 | (15)
In the case of image 1, SPM is not able to estimate length
If a Cm satisfies the criteria in (14) and (15), it does not help as the determinant turns out negative and LSM shows very
in estimating the length of embedding. If the image high embedding (above 90% even when no pay load is
contains only such Cm s, steganalysis is unreliable using hidden). Image 2 gives very high embedding for both
LSM and SPM. More precisely methods. The results are similar for all 100 images. From
the results it is clear that the images meeting criteria given in
LSM is unreliable if the conditions (14) and (15)
(16) and (17) show very high embedding even when no data is
are true for all Cm, 5≥ m ≥ 0 hidden. Hence by testing the above criteria which is an
(16)
invariant with embedding we can predict whether the results
given by these steganalysis methods are correct or not.
SP M is unr eliable if the condition (14) and (15) In short by testing the above criteria we can identify stego
are true for all Cm, 31 ≥ m ≥ 0 (17)
images which definitely give inaccurate results by these
Images which do not satisfy the criteria given in (12) and steganalysis methods. By filtering out stego images which
(13) when no data is hidden, satisfy these criteria at 100% show inaccurate results we increase the reliability of these
embedding. In such images at 100% embedding, the steganalysis methods.
difference between Xn and Yn is maximum and the criteria
given in (14) and (15) can not be true. 7. Conclusions And Future Works
Thus the criteria given in (12) and (13) alone is not a
sufficient condition leading to inaccuracy of prediction by In this paper we discussed a classification scheme for
LSM and SPM. Cover images meeting the criteria given in increasing the reliability of Least Square method and Sample
(12) and (13), satisfy the criteria given in (14) and (15) with Pair method, two robust methods in the literature, by
any amount of embedding and these images definitely give identifying stego images which definitely give inaccurate
inaccurate results for LSM and SPM. results. The novelty of our method is that we identify the
Therefore by testing the criteria given in (16) / (17), we images giving inaccurate results based on the properties of
can identify images which yield inaccurate results for LSM
90 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

images which are invariant with embedding. For the


classification of the stego images, knowledge about the
corresponding cover images is not required. This increases
the accuracy of prediction and decreases the false alarm rate.
It adds to the confidence level the steganalyst can have in his
results and in turn it increases the reliability of prediction.

References
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pairs method for detection of lsb embedding,” In
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[5] M. Goljan J. Fridrich and R. Du, “Detecting lsb


steganography in colour and grey-scale images,”
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[6] Z. Tao and P. Xijian, “Reliable detection of lsb


steganography based on the difference image
histogram,” In Proceedings of IEEE ICAAP, Part III,
pp. 545–548, 2003.

[7] A.D. Ker, “Improved detection of lsb steganography


in greyscale images,” In Proceeding of the . 6th
Information Hiding Workshop, Springer LNCS, vol.
3200, pp. 97–115, 2004.

[8] B. Liu X. Luo and F. Liu, “Improved rs method for


detection of lsb steganography,” In Proceeding of
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steganalysis,” IEEE Transactions on Information
Security and Forensics, vol. 2, pp. 140–148, 2007.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 91
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

An Improved Biometric Remote User


Authentication Scheme Based on Nonce
Keerti Srivastava, Amit K Awasthi, R.C.Mittal

keerti.psit@gmail.com awasthi@psit.in

Group of Cryptology Research, Department of Applied sciences Pranveer Singh Institute of


Technology, Kanpur, U.P INDIA
Department of Mathematics Indian Institute Of Technology, Roorkee, U.A, INDIA

Abstract: Today, In the online transactions (e-banking, mobile works on physical behaviors, fingerprints, voice recognition
banking etc.), a remote user authentication is a tool to etc.
authenticate remote users; various authentication schemes have In 2006, [12] Khan et al formulated biometric remote user
been proposed so far. Khan et al. in 2006 contributed a authentication scheme with chaos in its deterministic from
significant and novel idea to further strengthen and arrive at the with in the real word omnipresence for a more secure design
secure communication network, their idea carried a concept of of communication protocol [23] [11]. Chaotic cryptography
chaotic hash-based fingerprint biometric remote user with its random behavior constitutes a potential protection
authentication scheme, but even this was vulnerable to a few asset in modern cryptography. Khan et al schemes based on
deadly attacks. The current paper identifies some attacks and new family of one-way collision free chaotic hash function
proposes new improved scheme thereon.
[1] showed its supremacy over modular exponentiation-based
authentication schemes e.g. Diffie-Helman [1] El Gamal [18]
Keywords: Authentication, spoofing attack, smart card, security and RSA based encryption algorithms [7]. Khan's scheme
improvements. however is exposed to privileged insider attacks to the remote
system [22] and is also exposed to impersonation attack, as
1. Introduction the adversary can be authenticated even if attacker does not
have the valid password [6]. As a remedy to these pitfalls,
In 1981, Lamport [9] proposed authentication scheme using this paper presents an efficient improvement on them with
cryptographic hash function. However, high hash overhead more security. as a result proposed scheme can withstand the
and the necessity for password resetting decrease its previously proposed attacks.
suitability for practical use. Since then, many improved
password authentication schemes e.g. [16] [13] [2] [19] have
been proposed. One of the common features of these
schemes is that the server has to securely store a verification 2. Chaotic Hash Function
table. If the verification table is stolen by the adversary, the
system may be broken. To resist such a stolen-verifier This section briefly reviews chaotic hash function [12]
attack, in 1990 Hwang et al.[20] proposed a non-interactive [11].This is a one way function/transformation which makes
password authentication scheme and its enhanced version, them an ideal candidate to be used for the collision free one
which additionally uses smart cards. In Hwang et al.'s way hash function. After applying this function an arbitrary
schemes, the server does not require any verification table. input becomes a fixed-size string, called as hash value [10].
In 2000, Hwang and Li [14] proposed a verification-free In 2005, Wang et al.[15] created a chaotic hash algorithm
password authentication scheme using smart cards based on based on n-D nonlinear autoregressive filter. The chaotic
ElGamal's public-key technique [18]. However, Hwang-Li's hash function is an iterative hash function. It can be
scheme doesn't allow users freely choosing and changing represented by
their passwords. Furthermore, Hwang-Li's scheme was
found to be vulnerable to various impersonation attacks [4],
[3], [8]. To improve the efficiency, H.M.Sun proposed a , where is a round function,
light weight verification table free password authentication
scheme [7] using smart cards based on cryptographic hash is input value of , is the message sub block,
functions. The major drawback of Sun’s scheme is that the
is the inter hash value and is the final hash value.
password is not easily memorizable and the user can not
freely chooses or changes his/her password. Various
password protection mechanism in use, carry the risk of 3. Review of Khan et al. scheme
theft, willingly-unwillingly key disclosure to unauthorized
user. Biometric dovetailed with typical remote user This section briefly reviews the Khan et al.'s scheme which
authentication scheme has made it infallible, as biometric is composed of four phases: registration, login,
authentication, and password change. Information held by
remote system:
92 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

3. The remote system personalizes the secure


information and saves it into the mobile
device send it to the system of the .

3.2. Login Phase


Fig 2 shows the login phase of the Khan et al.'s scheme. If
USER REMOTE SYSTEM wants to login the remote system, he or she opens the
Choose identity login application software and enters identity and
password and imprints a fingerprint biometric at the
Choose password sensor. If is successfully verified by his/her fingerprint
biometric, a mobile device will perform the following
Input fingerprint operations:
Impression 1. Computes and verifies
Compute whether . If not equal, the device terminates the
⊕x) operation otherwise it performs further operations.
2. Computes where is the current
Store timestamps of the device .
in mobile device 3. At the end of the login phase, sends the login message
to the remote system over an insecure network.
Figure 1. REGISTRATION PHASE
3.3. Authentication Phase
When the remote system receives the message
USER REMOTE SYSTEM from the user, the remote system and the user perform the
Input following operations:
Imprint fingerprint 1. The remote system checks either the format of is
Verify fingerprint invalid or , where is the current time stamp of the
compute remote system. then rejects the login request.
2. If Where denotes the expected valid
Verify time interval for transmission delay, then the remote system
Pick up , Compute rejects the login request. Otherwise performs following
steps.
Check , Pick up 3.The remote system computes
Check . if is equal to the received
. it means the user is authentic, the remote system accepts
Verify the login request and performs next step otherwise rejected.
4. For mutual authentication, the remote system computes
and then sends a mutual
authentication message to the .
5. Upon receiving the message the user verifies that
either is invalid or then the user terminates
this session; otherwise performs next step.
Check
6. Computes and compares
if this is true, the user believes that the remote party is
Figure 2. LOGIN PHASE authentic and mutual authentication completes.

3.1. Registration Phase 3.4. Password change Phase


Fig.1shows the registration phase of Khan et al.'s scheme. In Whenever wants to change or update his/her old
the registration phase user chooses his/her identity password to the new one , he/she opens the login
and password and interactively submits these to the application on his/her mobile device and enters his/her
registration center. also imprints his/her fingerprint old password , new password and also imprints a
impression at the sensor, and then registration system fingerprint at the sensor. If is successfully verified by
performs the following operations. his/her fingerprint at the device performs the following
operations.
1. Computes where is the private key of 1. Compute
the remote system and is a bit-wise exclusive-OR- 2. Verifies whether or not, if the two are equal, the
operation and is a collision free one-way chaotic hash mobile device performs further operations.
function. 3. Computes .
2. Computes , where the
4. Store on the user's mobile device and replaces the old
extracted fingerprint template of the user is.
value of . Next the new password is successfully
updated and phase is terminated.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 93
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

proposed scheme is also composed of four phases:


4. Weaknesses and drawbacks of Khan et al. registration, login, authentication, password change.
scheme Information held by Remote System: .

USER REMOTE SYSTEM


In this section, we will demonstrate that Khan et al. scheme
Choose
is vulnerable to an impersonation attack and an insider
identity
attack.
Choose
password
4.1. Privileged Insider Attack
Input
Khan et al.'s scheme is vulnerable to privileged insider
fingerprint
attacks [22]. In the registration phase of Khan et al.'s
Impression
scheme, the user ’s password will be revealed to the Imprint
remote system because it is directly transmitted to the nonce
remote system. In practice, user offers the same password Compute
to access several remote servers for then convenience.
Thus a privileged insider of the remote system may try to
use ’s password to impersonate the legal to login
to the other remote systems so that has registered with
outside this system. If the targeted outside remote system
adopts the normal password authentication scheme, it is
possible that the privileged insider of the remote system
could successfully impersonate to login to it by
using . Although it is also possible that all the privileged
insiders of the remote system can be trusted and that does
not use the same password to access several systems, the
implementers and the users of the scheme should be aware Figure 3. REGISTRATION PHASE
of such a potential weakness.

USER REMOTE SYSTEM


4.2. Spoofing Attack by using Lost or Stolen Mobile Input ,
Device Input fingerprint
Impression
Khan et al.'s. Scheme is vulnerable to spoofing attack by
,Verify
using lost or stolen mobile devices (smart card) by
monitoring the power consumption [5], [17]. An adversary Pick up
can intercept the mutual authentication message ( ) Compute
and re-send the forge message i.e., to the user and it
could not be verified by step-(6) in authentication phase of Check
Khan et al.'s scheme, because is open on the mobile Check
device. Precisely, if an attacker gets a user's mobile device
Verify
and extracts secure value from it, then
attacker could simply be authenticated by using without
knowing valid password. Check
Figure 4. LOGIN PHASE
4.3. Impersonation attack
5.1. Registration Phase
Khan et al.'s scheme is vulnerable to impersonation attacks
using lost or stolen mobile devices. Namely, a user can be Fig 3 shows the registration phase of proposed scheme. In
authenticated to a remote system even if he or she does not the registration Phase user Ui chooses his/her identity
have the valid password . Precisely, if an attacker gets a and password , a random nonce and interactively
user's mobile device and extracts secure value from the submits; , encrypted with public key
mobile device, then he or she can simply be authenticated by to the registration centre. Ui also imprints his/her
using without the user's password. fingerprint impression with nonce i.e. at the
sensor, and then registration system performs the following
5. Proposed biometric authentication nonce operations:
based scheme 1. Decrypt the encrypted message by the server private key
and get .
This section proposes an improvement of Khan et al.'s 2. Compute from and .
scheme, that can remove the above security flaws. The
94 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

3. Computes and where the stolen verifier attack and this section analysis the
the private key of the remote system is, is a bit-wise enhanced security features of our improved scheme.
exclusive-OR operation, is a collision free one-way
chaotic hash function. 6.1. Resistance to guessing attack
4. Computes where Si is the
extracted fingerprint template of the user. A guessing attack involves an adversary tries to get long-
5. The remote system personalizes the secure information term private keys (user's password or server secret and
and saves it into the mobile device and private key), but using non invertible chaotic hash function
send to the user Ui. for any attacker it becomes difficult to extract by
knowing .although the adversary can obtain
5.2. Login Phase the secret information stored in the stolen smart card by
analyzing the leaked information [21] however adversary
Fig 4 shows the login phase of the proposed scheme. If Ui could not be able to extract .
wants to login the remote system, he or she opens the login
application software, enters identity and password 6.2. Resistance to parallel session, reflection attack
and imprints a fingerprint biometric at the sensor. If
Ui is successfully verified by his/her fingerprint biometric, a In parallel session attack, with knowing the correct
mobile device will perform the following operations: password of the user, an attacker can masquerade as the
1. Computes , and verifies legal user by creating a valid login message out of some
whether or not. If equal the user's device eavesdropped communication between the user and the
performs further operation; otherwise it terminates the server. But our proposed scheme is free from parallel session
operation. attack.
2. Computes , where the current
timestamps of the device is. 6.3. Resistance to insider attack
3. At the end of the login phase, Ui sends the login message
to the remote system over a secure network. If an insider attacker has obtained ’s password .he
can try to impersonate to access other server. In the
5.3. Authentication Phase registration phase of the improved scheme, sends
encrypted password with appropriate nonce,
In the authentication phase, when the remote system i.e. thus will not be revealed to the
receives the message from the user, the remote attacker without knowing remote system's private key. Since
system and user perform following operations. in the proposed scheme insider attacker can not obtain ,
1. The remote system checks if the format of is invalid So the improved scheme can with stand the insider attack.
or if where is the current time stamp of the
remote system, then rejects the login request. 6.4. Resistance to server spoofing attack
2. If Where denotes the expected valid
time interval for transmission delay, and then the remote The spoofing attack completely solved by providing mutual
system rejects the login request. authentication between user and server. Since remote system
3. The remote system S sends mutual authentication message to the user in
computes , if . It
login phase and If an attacker intercepts it and resend the
means the user is authentic and the remote system accepts
forged message i.e to user U, but it will not be verified
the login request and performs the next step, otherwise the
by authentication phase since .
login request is rejected.
4. For mutual authentication, the remote system Therefore proposed scheme can withstand the spoofing
computes and then sends a attack.
mutual authentication message ; to the Ui
5. Upon receiving the message , the user verifies that 7. Conclusion
either is invalid or , and then the user Ui
Here, this paper has demonstrated that khan et al.[12]
terminates this session; otherwise performs the next step.
remote user authentication scheme is vulnerable to an
6. Ui compute and compares .
impersonation attack, insider attack and pointed out the
If equal, the user believes that the remote party is an
drawbacks of khan et al.'scheme for practical uses.
authentic and it holds mutual authentication between the
Finally this paper proposes a more secure remote user
user and server.
authentication scheme with better resistance to the
impersonation attack, the stolen smart card attack, the
6. Security Analysis privileged insider attack.

Next, this section shows that the improved scheme is secure References
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(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 95
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

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96 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Uniform Crossover Genetic Algorithm to Determine


Base-Stock Levels in a Serial Supply Chain
S.Narmadha1, Dr.V.Selladurai2 and G.Sathish3

1
Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Park College of Engineering and Tekhnology
Coimbatore – 641659, Tamilnadu, India
narmadhasathish@gmail.com
2
Professor and Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Coimbatore Institute of Technology
Coimbatore – 641014, Tamilnadu, India
3
Research Scholar
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Anna University – Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

sourcing and from production planning and inventory


Abstract : Supply Chain Management is a rapidly evolving management to scheduling [1].
area of interest to academics and business management
practitioners alike with the main goal of inventory management The inventory management problem is one of
because the cost of inventories in a supply chain accounts for maintaining an adequate supply of some item to meet an
about 30% of the value of the product. The service provided to expected pattern of demand, while striking a reasonable
the customer eventually gets enhanced once the efficient and
balance between the cost of holding the items in inventory
effective management of inventory is carried out all through the
and the penalty (loss of
supply chain. The precise estimation of optimal inventory is
essential since shortage of inventory yields to lost sales, while sales and goodwill, say) of running out. The item may be a
excess of inventory may result in pointless storage costs. Thus commodity sold by a store; it may be spare machine parts in
the determination of the inventory to be held at various levels in a factory; it may be railway wagons; it may be cash in the
a supply chain becomes inevitable so as to ensure minimal cost bank to meet the customers’ demand. It is indeed surprising
for the supply chain. The minimization of the total supply chain to find that a very wide variety of seemingly different
cost can only be achieved when optimization of the base stock problems can be mathematically formulated as an inventory-
level is carried out at each member of the supply chain. This control problem. There are, of course, several different
paper deals with the problem of determination of base-stock models of inventory systems. There are three types of
levels in a four member serial supply chain by using Uniform expenses associated with inventory systems. The relative
Crossover Genetic Algorithms. importance of these will depend on the specific system. They
are: (i) administrative cost of placing an order, called
Keywords: Supply Chain Management, Inventory
reorder cost or set cost; (ii) cost of maintaining an inventory,
Optimization, Base Stock, Uniform Crossover, Genetic
called inventory holding cost a carrying cost, which includes
Algorithm (GA), Supply Chain Cost
storage charge, interest, insurance, etc., a (iii) shortage cost
is a loss of profit, goodwill, etc., when run out of stock. All
1. Introduction the above should be optimized for efficient supply chain
Supply Chain Management (SCM) is an efficient management.
management of the complete end to end process, starting 1.1 Inventory Control in Supply Chain Management
from the design of the product or service to the time when it
It has been stated by several people that the focus point of
has been sold, consumed and finally gotten rid of by the
supply chain management is inventories and inventory
consumer. This complete process includes product design,
control. To transfer their focus from scheming logistical
procurement, planning and forecasting, production,
costs to investigate supply chains [2] few food
distribution, fulfillment and after sales supports.
manufacturers and grocers formed Efficient Consumer
A company’s competitiveness in the global economy can be
Response in the year 1992. The major competitive factor for
increased only with the aid of effective SCM. This involves
companies focused on value creation for end consumers is
complex strategic, tactical and operational decisions that
the customer service. In general, firms hold inventory for
often require an in-depth understanding of industry-specific
two major reasons, to lessen costs and to improve customer
issues, which ranges from network design to production
service. The inspiration for each varies as firms stabilize the
problem of having too much inventory (which can direct to
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 97
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

high costs) versus having very small inventory (which can probability and the solution’s objective function value are
direct to lost sales) [3]. proportional to each other and eventually the aforesaid
operators are applied on the chosen solutions. Genetic
The inventory management is influenced by the nature of algorithms have aided in the successful implementation of
demand, depending on whether demand is derived or solutions for a wide variety of combinatorial problems.
independent. Independent demand comes up from demand
for an end product. End products are found all through the The robustness of the Genetic algorithms as search
supply chain. A self-governing demand is uncertain, techniques have been theoretically and empirically proved
meaning that extra units or safety stock must be accepted to [9]. The artificial individual is the basic element of a GA.
guard against stock outs. While managing uncertainty, the An artificial individual consists of a chromosome and a
objective should be to minimize the inventory levels and fitness value, similar to a natural individual. The
also meet customer expectation. Supply chain coordination individual's likelihood for survival and mating is determined
can reduce the ambiguity of intermediate product demand, by the fitness function [10]. In accordance with the
in that way reducing inventory costs [3, 4]. Darwin’s principle, individuals superior to their
competitors, are more likely to promote their genes to the
1.2 Inventory Optimization in Supply Chain
next generations. In accordance with this concept, in
Management
Genetic Algorithms, a set of encoded parameters are
The effective management of the supply chain has become mapped into a potential solution, named chromosome, to the
unavoidable these days due to high expectation in customer optimization problem [11]. The population of candidate
service levels [5]. The supply chain cost was immensely solutions is obtained through the process of selection,
influenced by the overload or shortage of inventories. Thus recombination, and mutation performed in an iterative
inventory optimization has transpired into one of the most manner. [12].
important topics as far as supply chain management is
considered [6-8]. Chromosomes refer to the random population of encoded
candidate solutions with which the Genetic algorithms
Inventory Optimization [IO] application organizes the initiate with. [9]. Then the set (called a population) of
latest techniques and technologies, thereby assisting the possible solutions (called chromosomes) are generated [13].
improved inventory visibility, the enhancement of inventory A function assigns a degree of fitness to each chromosome
control and its management across an extended supply in every generation in order to use the best individual during
network. Some of the design objectives of inventory the evolutionary process [14]. In accordance to the objective,
optimization are to optimize inventory strategies, thereby the fitness function evaluates the individuals [12]. Each
enhancing customer service, reducing lead times and costs chromosome is evaluated using a fitness function and a
and meeting market demand [6-8]. Efficient management of fitness value is assigned. Then, three different operators-
the supply chain, i.e. the reduction of the costs and lead selection, crossover and mutation- are applied to update the
times and vastly enhanced responsiveness to the changing population. A generation refers to an iteration of these three
customer demands lead to an optimized inventory. operators [15]. The promising areas of the search space are
focused in the selection step. The selection process typically
2. Objectives keeps solutions with high fitness values in the population
and rejects individuals of low quality [12]. Hence, this
The supply chain cost can be minimized by maintaining
provides a means for the chromosomes with better fitness to
optimal stock levels in each supply chain member. There is
form the mating pool (MP) [13]. After the process of
a necessity of determining the inventory to be held at
Selection, the Crossover is performed.
different stages in a supply chain that will minimize the
total supply chain cost i.e., minimizing holding and 2.2 Uniform Crossover
shortage cost. The approach aims to make use of the meta In the crossover operation, two new children are formed by
heuristic algorithms like Genetic algorithm for the exchanging the genetic information between two parent
prediction of the optimal stock levels to be maintained, so as chromosomes. Multipoint crossover defines crossover points
to minimize the total supply chain inventory cost, as places between loci where an individual can be split.
comprising holding and shortage costs at all members of the Uniform crossover generalizes this scheme to make every
supply chain. The genetic algorithm is proposed that locus a potential crossover point. A crossover mask, the
considers all these factors that are mentioned hitherto such same length as the individual structure is created at random
that the analysis paves the way for minimizing the supply and the parity of the bits in the mask indicate which parent
chain cost by maintaining optimal stock levels in each will supply the offspring with which bits. This method is
supply chain member. identical to discrete recombination.
2.1 Genetic Algorithm Consider the following two individuals with 11 binary
variables each:
Genetic algorithm is a randomized search methodology
individual 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
having its roots in the natural selection process. Initially the
individual 2 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
neighborhood search operators (crossover and mutation) are
applied to the preliminary set of solutions to acquire
For each variable the parent who contributes its variable
generation of new solutions. Solutions are chosen randomly
to the offspring is chosen randomly with equal probability.
from the existing set of solutions where the selection
Here, the offspring 1 is produced by taking the bit from
98 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

parent 1 if the corresponding mask bit is 1 or the bit from to be kept in the level of control is determined on the basis
parent 2 if the corresponding mask bit is 0. Offspring 2 is of the knowledge of the past records. This leads to an easy
created using the inverse of the mask, usually. estimation of the stock levels of the respective products to be
sample 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 maintained at different members of the chain in the
sample 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 upcoming periods.

After crossover the new individuals are created: The proposed methodology is aimed at determining the
offspring 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 amount of stock levels of the product to be maintained by
offspring 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 the different members of the supply chain. Also, the
methodology analyses whether the stock level of the
Uniform crossover has been claimed to reduce the bias particular product needs to be in abundance, in order to
associated with the length of the binary representation used avoid shortage of the product or needs to be held minimal in
and the particular coding for a given parameter set. This order to minimize the holding cost.
helps to overcome the bias in single-point crossover towards
short substrings without requiring precise understanding of The methodology as shown in Fig. 2 would analyze the
the significance of the individual bits in the individual’s past records very effectively and thus facilitate efficient
representation. How uniform crossover may be inventory management with the aid of Genetic Algorithm.
parameterized by applying a probability to the swapping of The analysis is initiated by the selection of valid records.
bits was demonstrated by William M. Spears [16]. The validation of records is done over the records of past
periods. The stock levels at the different supply chain
This extra parameter can be used to control the amount of members are held in the dataset for respective products. For
disruption during recombination without introducing a bias the valid record set selection, records having nil values are
towards the length of the representation used. neglected and the records having positive or negative values
The chromosome cloning takes place when a pair of are selected for the analysis. This can be done by means of
chromosomes does not cross over, thus creating off springs clustering algorithms, extraction algorithms or by any of the
that are exact copies of each parent [14]. data mining functions. Hence the extraction function results
in data sets having either positive or negative values.
The ultimate step in each generation is the mutation of The record set having positive values represents excess stock
individuals through the alteration of parts of their genes levels and the negative values represent shortage level of a
[12]. Mutation alters a minute portion of a chromosome and particular product at a particular member of the supply
thus institutes variability into the population of the chain. Then the data set is subjected to Genetic Algorithm
subsequent generation [13]. Mutation, a rarity in nature, and the various steps performed in the genetic algorithm are
denotes the alteration in the gene and assists us in avoiding discussed below.
loss of genetic diversity [12]. Its chief intent is to ensure that
the search algorithm is not bound on a local optimum [14].

3. Inventory Optimization Analysis using


Uniform Crossover Genetic Algorithm
The proposed method uses the Genetic Algorithm with
Uniform Crossover to study the stock level that needs
essential inventory control. This is the pre-requisite
information that will make any kind of inventory control
effective. In practice, the supply chain is of length n, means
having n number of members in supply chain such as
factory, distribution centers, suppliers, retailers and so on.
The exemplary supply chain taken for the implementation of
the proposed method consists of a Factory, Distribution
Center 1, Distribution Center 2 and Distribution Center 3 as
shown in Fig. 1.

Distribution Distribution Distribution


Factory
Center 1 Center 2 Center 3

Figure1. Four Member Supply Chain Figure 2. Genetic Algorithm steps for the proposed
inventory management analysis
To make the inventory control effective, the most primary
objective is to predict where, why and how much of the 3.1 Generation of Individuals
control is required which is made here through the GA The randomly generated initial chromosome is created by
methodology proposed. To accomplish the same, Genetic having the stock levels within the lower limit and the upper
algorithm is used and the optimal number of units of a limit for all the contributors of the supply chain, factory and
specific product at each member of supply chain that needs the distribution centers. As known, chromosome is
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 99
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

constituted by genes which defines the length of the 3.3 Selection


chromosomes. The stock level of each member of the The selection operation is the initial genetic operation which
chromosome is referred as gene of the chromosome. Hence is responsible for the selection of the fittest chromosome for
for n length supply chain, the chromosome length is also n . further genetic operations. The fitness function is carried out
Since a 4 member supply chain is used for illustration, the for each chromosome and the chromosomes are sorted on
length of the chromosome n is 4, i.e. 4 genes. And the the basis of the result of the fitness function and ranked. The
chromosome representation is pictured in Fig. 3. Each gene chromosome generating value as minimum as possible will
of the chromosome is representing the amount of stock that be selected by the fitness function and will be subjected
is in excess or in shortage at the respective members of the further to the genetic operations, crossover and mutation.
supply chain.
Chromosome 1 3.4 Uniform Crossover
-525 53 -792 -914 Among the numerous crossover operators in practice, a
0 uniform crossover is chosen in this proposed method for its
advantages. Uniform crossover is global and less biased
Chromosome 2 when compared to that of standard and one point crossover.
91 80 44 36 Uniform crossover does not select a set of crossover points.
8 0 1 2 It simply considers each bit position of the two parents, and
swaps the two bits with a probability of 50%. With large
Figure3. Random individual generated for the genetic search spaces, a GA using uniform crossover outperforms a
operation GA using one point crossover, which in turn outperforms a
GA using two point crossover [17-18]. From the matting
These kinds of chromosomes are generated for the genetic pool, two chromosomes are subjected for the uniform
operation. Initially, only two chromosomes will be generated crossover. The chromosomes initially selected as shown in
and from the next generation a single random chromosome Fig. 3 after undergoing uniform crossover operation
value will be generated. The chromosomes thus generated is performed in this analysis is pictured in Fig. 4. As soon as
then applied to find its number of occurrences in the the crossover operation is completed, the genes of the two
database content by using a Select count ( ) function. The chromosomes present get interchanged.
function will give the number of occurrences/ repetitions of Chromosome 1
the particular amount of stock level for the four members 53 77 23 36
Nrep that are going to be used further in the fitness function. 2 2 3 6
3.2 Evaluation of Fitness function Chromosome 2
A specific kind of objective function that enumerates the 92 51 -583 -662
optimality of a solution in a genetic algorithm in order to 6 8
rank certain chromosome against all the other chromosomes Figure 4. Chromosomes after uniform crossover operation
is known as Fitness function. Optimal chromosomes, or at
least chromosomes which are near optimal, are permitted to 3.5 Mutation
breed and merge their datasets through one of the several The crossover operation is succeeded by the final stage of
techniques available in order to produce a new generation genetic operation known as Mutation. In the mutation, a
that will be better than the ones considered so far. new chromosome is obtained. This chromosome is totally
The fitness function is given by: new from the parent chromosome. The concept behind this
is the child chromosome thus obtained will be fitter than the
 N 
f (k) = log1 − rep  , k = 1,2,3 LL , m (1) parent chromosome. The performance of mutation operation
 Nt  is shown in Fig. 5.
where,
Before Mutation
Nrep is the number of repetitions of records of similar 23 77 53 36
stock levels that occurs throughout the period; 3 2 2 6
Nt is the total number of records of inventory
values obtained after clustering; After Mutation
m is the total number of chromosomes for which 53 77 23 36
the fitness function is calculated. 2 2 3 6

In the fitness function, the ratio (Nrep / Nt) plays the role of Figure 5. Chromosome subjected to mutation operation
finding the probability of occurrence of a particular record
of inventory values; and log [1- (Nrep / Nt)] will ensure As in Fig. 5 two mutation points are chosen. The
minimum value corresponding to the maximum probability; mutation is done on the particular gene present at the
So, the fitness function is structured to retain the minimum Mutation points. This pointing of gene is done randomly.
value corresponding to the various chromosomes being Hence, the two mutation points may point any of the four
evaluated iteration after iteration and this in turn ensures genes.
that the fitness function evolution is towards optimization.
100 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

The process explained so far will be repeated along with The approach suggested for the optimization of inventory
the new chromosome obtained from the previous process. In level and thereby efficient supply chain management has
other words, at the end of each of the iteration, a best been implemented in the platform of LabVIEW 2009.
chromosome will be obtained. This will be included with the The stock levels for the four different members of the supply
newly generated random chromosome for the next iteration. chain, Factory 1, Distribution Center 1, Distribution Center
When the number of iterations is increased then the 2 and Distribution Center 3 from records of past period is
obtained solution moves very closer to the accurate solution. used for evaluating the performance of the genetic
More the number of iterations the more accurate the optimal algorithm.
solution will be. Eventually with the help of the Genetic A sample set of data from a large database used in the
algorithm, the best stock level to be maintained in the implementation is given in Table 1.
members of the supply chain could be predicted from the
past records, so that the loss due to the holding of excess As per the proposed analysis based on Uniform Crossover
stock level and shortage level can be reduced leading to an GA, two random initial chromosomes are generated as
optimal inventory solution. shown in Fig. 4. These initial chromosomes are subjected
for the genetic operators, Uniform Crossover and Mutation.
4. Experimental Results The resultant chromosome thus obtained after the
application of crossover and mutation is ‘532 772 233 366’.

Figure 6. Inventory Optimization tool Created in Labview 2009


(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 101
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Table 1 : A sample of data sets having stock levels of 5. Discussion of Results


different members of the supply chain
The final chromosome obtained from the GA based analysis
Distribution Distribution Distribution shown in the Fig. 7 is the inventory level that has the
Factor
potential to cause maximum increase of supply chain cost.
y
Center 1 Center 2 Center 3 It is inferred that controlling this resultant chromosome is
-525 530 -792 -914 sufficient to reduce the loss either due to the holding of
918 800 441 362 excess stocks or due to the shortage of stocks. By focusing
-591 -329 269 847 on the excess/shortage inventory levels and initiating
-479 -796 -548 -270 appropriate steps to eliminate the same at each member of
-591 -329 269 -507
the chain, it is possible to optimize the inventory levels in
494 392 285 761
the upcoming period and thus minimize the supply chain
-591 -329 269 269
372 573 -345 -367
cost. That is, the organization should take necessary steps to
999 -934 108 129 decrease the production in the factory by 926 units of the
146 118 532 -573 product to make up for the predicted excess; decrease the
-591 -329 269 367 inventory level by 714 units in distribution center 1 to make
-591 -329 269 403 up for the predicted excess, increase the inventory levels by
-746 721 -677 407 583 units in distribution center 2 and 662 in distribution
792 -456 837 269 center 3 respectively to make up for the predicted shortage.
-591 -329 269 686 Thus by following the predicted stock levels, we can avoid
-550 -634 158 -329 the excess/shortage inventory levels and thus the increase of
611 -295 -443 -768 supply chain cost can be avoided. The proposed approach of
497 -170 847 -278 genetic algorithm predicts the optimum stock levels of the
-992 268 -270 -758 future trend by considering the stock levels of the past data
162 969 -507 -208 for inventory optimization in supply chain management.
482 -471 761 -437
-591 -329 269 -591
The analysis extracts an inventory level that made a
remarkable contribution towards the increase of supply
Fig. 6 shows the window of the tool created for inventory
chain cost and in turn enabled to predict the future optimal
optimization using uniform crossover displaying the fitness
inventory levels to be maintained in all the supply chain
function, uniform crossover and its sample bit pattern,
members with the aid of these levels. Therefore it is possible
iteration count, no of supply chain members, population
to minimize the supply chain cost by maintaining the
size, best chromosome, fitness value and plot generated for
optimal stock levels that was predicted from the inventory
the iteration value. As for our iteration value of ‘200’, the
analysis, and thus making the inventory management more
resultant chromosome moved towards the best chromosome
effective and efficient.
after each iterative execution. Hence at the end of the
execution of 200th iteration, best chromosome ‘926 714 -583
-662’ is obtained as shown in Fig. 7. 6. Conclusion
Inventory management is an important component of supply
92 71 -583 -662 chain management. An innovative and efficient
6 4 methodology that uses Genetic Algorithms with Uniform
Crossover to precisely determine the most probable excess
Figure 7. The final best chromosome obtained after 200th
stock level and shortage level required for inventory
iteration
optimization in the supply chain such that the total supply
chain cost is minimal is proposed using LabVIEW 2009.
The organization can decide about the quantum of The optimized stock level at all members of the supply chain
iterations for running the simulation to arrive at the optimal is obtained by following the proposed genetic algorithm.
solution. As long as minimization of the fitness function is Thus the proposed work gives a better prediction of stock
still possible, then the iteration continues till such a time levels amid diverse stock levels at various members of the
that no improvement in the fitness function value is supply chain. Henceforth the stock level obtained is the
noticeable. After a certain number of iterations, if the fitness optimal value that is necessary in order to determine the
function value is not improving from the previous iterations, stock levels needed to be hoarded at the holding points in
then this is an indication that the fitness function value is order to ensure minimal supply chain cost.
stabilizing and the algorithm has converged towards optimal
solution. This inference is useful for deciding the number of
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(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 103
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

NUMERIC TO NUMERIC ENCRYPTION OF


DATABASES: Comparison of Standard Encryption
and the Proposed 3Kdec Algorithms
Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal1, Kamaljit Kaur2, Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa3 and Ghanaya Singh4
Department of Computer Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala
himanshu@pbi.ac.in
2
Department of Computer Science, Punjab Technical University, RBCEBTW
Kharar, Punjab, India
kamal.aalam@gmail.com
3
Department of Computer Science & Information Technology, Punjab Technical University,, BBSBEC
Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, India
kdhindsa@gmail.com
4
Project Manager (Research & Development), Miri InfoTech,
Chandigarh, India
ghanaya@gmail.com

Abstract: Information is a vital asset for any organization or a employed; Operating system security where database can be
business and is crucial to their profitability. Important records protected using system passwords and kernel protection.
detailing company user’s history, products and supplier DBMS (Database Management System) security [2]
information or any confidential information is stored in and provides protection to secured information by means of
retrieved from a database which makes it a foundation of
access rights and granting of privileges to required
business systems. Protecting database is increasingly important
and difficult. The sensitive data in the database is the target to authorized account. Data encryption is beneficial against all
attackers. To properly maintain the integrity and confidentiality the above approaches as in above techniques the data resides
of data, database security becomes one of the most urgent in the database in its original form and anyone who gets to
challenges in database research. One of the requirements for the data can read the contents; but incase we use the
database security is Database Encryption with which data is encryption approach the information is stored in disguised
encrypted as it moves across networks and as it sits at rest, in way.
storage on database systems.
The proposed research is to secure the numeric data in the
databases. It presents a practical solution to the problem in the 2. Numeric Data Encryption with Standard
existing standard algorithms where numeric data is converted to Encryption Algorithms
binary or alphanumeric type and hence encrypted data is not
possible to be stored in the existing numeric column. The 3Kdec Nowadays all the database systems supports the standard
algorithm allows record level encryption that encrypts numeric encryption algorithms like AES, DES, TRIPLE DES, RC2,
data and gives numeric encrypted value, hence eliminating the RC4 and others.
need to change the data type of column. Besides many benefits, these have some limitations when
used to encrypt numeric columns in database. These
Keywords: Block Cipher, Encryption, Decryption, Symmetric algorithms need to change the data type of the column in
Encryption, Substitution Box.
order to save the encrypted result.
So, we propose a simple yet secure and efficient algorithm
which preserves the schema of our database by not changing
1. Introduction
the data type of the encrypted data.
Database is an important part of any management and
information system. It allows the information to be sorted, 3. Numeric Data Encryption with 3Kdec
searched, viewed, and manipulated according to the Algorithm
business needs and goals [15]. Efficient database
management capabilities are crucial for the existence of 3Kdec is a Symmetric key Block encipherment algorithm.
many businesses. So the information in the databases needs 3Kdec [8] aims to provide a simple and efficient method for
to be secured. The sensitive data of database has to be database encryption, overcoming the shortcomings of the
secured from the vulnerabilities of the outside world along prior database encryption methods with an objective to
with the internal breaches. Database security methods can suggest how to encrypt the entire contents of the database
be divided into four layers [18]: Physical security where without changing its structure. It provides a method of
using security alarms, locks and human guarding can be decrypting only the data of interest, wherein queries are not
104 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

changed because of the encryption, ensuring that existing appears as if the encrypted data is itself the original
applications can use the encrypted database without the need content.
for any changes in the application software. 2) As the number of keys are more and hence the key
Key Components of 3Kdec Algorithm: combination increases to 10 27 which makes guessing of
§ Numeric data to be encrypted. keys harder.
§ Three keys 3) As S-Box has simple structure and variable entries so
§ Substitution Box (commonly referred as S-Box) and an the 3Kdec algorithm can be used as Personal
inverse S-box Encryption Algorithm where different encryption
processes can be carried out with varying degree of
Algorithm Operations complexity depending on the user requirements.
3KDec works in the following steps in sequence for set 4) Since 3Kdec Algorithm encrypts numeric to numeric
number of rounds as illustrated in Figure 1. data, encrypted data is possible to be stored in the
1) Key Expansion existing numeric field thereby algorithm does not
The single key of the three keys are expanded to as many as change the data field type and set fixed data length.
three keys summing up the total of nine keys to be used in
the maximum nine rounds. 4. Comparison of Existing Standard
2) Find and Substitute Encryption Algorithms with 3Kdec
In this step, the digit to be encrypted is found and Algorithm
substituted independently to provide the confusion effect.
There is no fixed mechanism or any mathematical
correlation in the formation of S-box. The entries of S-box SQL Server is used to compare the existing standard
can be different in different encryption processes. encryption algorithms with 3Kdec algorithm.
So the simple structure and variable entries of Substitution Existing Standard Encryption Algrithms
Box makes the algorithm eligible to be used as a Personal
When numeric data is encrypted using the standard
Encryption Algorithm where different S-Box variants can be
encryption algorithms, it gets converted to the binary or
used in encryption process depending on the party we are
alphanumeric data because of the various linear and non
dealing with and the varying complexity levels can be set
linear components of the algorithm. Hence, encrypted data
according to our needs.
is not possible to be stored in the existing numeric column.

EXAMPLE: Table TestTable:

Figure 2: TestTable Schema

Output after encryption The below query encrypts the numeric column IntCol and
stores the result in another numeric column EncryptIntCol.
Figure 1: Illustration of 3Kdec Algorithm Working UPDATE TestTable
SET EncryptIntCol =
3) Row Shift ENCRYPTBYKEY(KEY_GUID('TestTableAESKey'),
This transformation step shifts towards the left. The number CONVERT(nvarchar(100),IntCol))
of shifts depends on the row number of the matrix. This
means that the first row of matrix is shifted zero times, On selecting the values from the TestTable using the query
second row of matrix is shifted one time and the third row is below it is found that the encrypted value can not be
shifted two times towards the left. decrypted to its original value due to the fact that encrypted
During the decryption process, the Inverse Row Shift value was converted to numeric when it was saved to a
process is carried out and the shifting is done towards the numeric column which resulted in data loss.
right. The number of shifts is same as the row number.
4) Add Set Key SELECT IntCol, EncryptIntCol,
With each round the matrix is added using XOR operation CONVERT(int,CONVERT(nvarchar(max),
with the above expanded keys. This means during first DECRYPTBYKEY(CONVERT(varbinary(max),
round of encryption Key 10 is used. In the next round Key 11 EncryptIntCol)))) DecryptIntCol FROM TestTable
and then Key 12 and so on.
Strengths of 3Kdec Algorithm
1) As the encryption is from numeric to numeric; one
cannot know that the information is encrypted. It
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 105
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

3KDec is designed to solve such problems. As shown in


example below the encrypted value is numeric which can be
stored in numeric column and decrypted back to original
value.
UPDATE TestTable
SET EncryptIntCol =
Figure 3: Result of above Select query Encr3KeyDec.dbo.Encrypt3KDec(IntCol)

To solve this problem it is required to save the encrypted SELECT IntCol, EncryptIntCol,
Encr3KeyDec.dbo.Decrypt3KDec(EncryptIntCol)
data in a binary column. The query below updates the
DecryptCol
numeric column IntCol and saves data in the Binary column
FROM TestTable
EncryptBinaryCol.

UPDATE TestTable
SET EncryptBinaryCol =
ENCRYPTBYKEY(KEY_GUID('TestTableAESKey'),
CONVERT(nvarchar(100),IntCol))

On selecting values from the TestTable it is found that the


decrypted value matched the original values. Figure 5:Result of above Select query

SELECT IntCol, EncryptBinaryCol, So the numeric column can be directly encrypted and
CONVERT(nvarchar(max), updated. It can be again directly decrypted without any
DECRYPTBYKEY(EncryptBinaryCol)) DecryptCol FROM change in the schema of the table.
TestTable
Query below shows the operation of encryption and
decryption using 3KDec:

UPDATE TestTable
SET IntCol = Encr3KeyDec.dbo.Encrypt3KDec(IntCol)

SELECT IntCol FROM TestTable


Figure 4: Result of above Select query

This also shows that encrypted values of numeric column


can not directly stored in it, its data type must be changed so
that value can be decrypted back to its original value.
So a numeric column can be encrypted using following
steps:
1) Alter table, and add a binary column
2) Update the table and save the encrypted values in the
Figure 6:Result of above Select query
binary column
3) Drop the original column
UPDATE TestTable
4) Rename the binary column to original column name
SET IntCol = Encr3KeyDec.dbo.Decrypt3KDec(IntCol)

Problems with the Change of Datatype: SELECT IntCol FROM TestTable


1) Database can not be used with its original application
because many of the queries using the encrypted column
will fail.
2) Queries using numeric functions on the encrypted
column will fail
3) Queries using numeric aggregate functions on the
encrypted column will fail
4) Numeric validations applied by application on the data
will fail resulting failure of application Figure 7: Result of above Select query

Solution with 3kdec Algorithm As the encrypted data is numeric and the data type of the
column encrypted remains unchanged so it can be still used
106 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

with the original application for which the database was corporate secrets – is present in form of data. For computers
designed. and networks which store and transfer this data, it is just
3Kdec algorithm allows the numeric functions, aggregate numbers. It is for us to realize the damage this data can do if
functions, range queries to be directly applicable on the it falls into the hands of an unscrupulous person. Whether
encrypted data without decrypting the operands. the data is on your laptop, desktop, or on an organizations
storage network, it must be secured and should not come in
the hand of an unauthorized entity. Proper access control
5. Results and Discussions mechanism should be enforced for securing the data. While
in motion, data should be well protected. It is advisable to
Table 1: Comparison of Standard Encryption Algorithms
encrypt the data before putting it on a network even if it
with 3Kdec Algorithm
passes through a secure channel. The proposed algorithm
S. No Standard Encryption
can be implemented for securing any corporate related
Algorithms like 3Kdec Algorithm
accounting information to data of personal use. This
AES, DES, Triple
algorithm currently works on maximum of 9 digits and
DES, etc
Symmetric Block Symmetric Block Cipher output can also go up to 9 digits which limit its use which
I. Cipher needs to be extended. It does not take into consideration the
concept of various numeric data types available and decimal
Granularity: Record Granularity: Record point numeric data which opens up another area of research
6. Oriented Oriented
and improvements.
Each cell and column Each cell and column
7. can be encrypted can be encrypted under References
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Artificial Intelligence, Networking and Authors Profile


Parallel/Distributed Computing, 2008, pp.291-294
[11] Arshad H.N., Shah T.N.S., Mohamed A., Mamat M.A., Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal, is Associate
“The Design and Implementation of Database Professor in Computer Engineering at
Encryption.” International Journal Of Applied University College of Engineering,
Mathematics And Informatics, Issue 3, Volume 1, Punjabi University, Patiala. He had
completed his Bachelor’s degree in
2007,pp. 115-122
Computer Science from Punjabi
[12] Wang F..Z.., Wang W, Shi L.B., “Storage and Query University Patiala in 1993. He has more
over Encrypted Character and Numerical Data in than 16 years of teaching experience. He
Database.” The Fifth International Conference on is an active researcher who has
Computer and Information Technology, 2005, pp.210- supervised 15 M.Tech. Dissertations and
214 guiding Ph.D. to 6 scholars and has contributed more than 40
[13] Agrawal R., Kiernan J., Srikant R., Xu Y., “Order articles in International and National Conferences and 22 papers in
Preserving Encryption for Numeric Data” The ACM research Journals. His areas of interest are Information Systems,
SIGMOD Paris, France, 2004, pp.777-788 ERP and Parallel Computing. He is on the review board and
editorial board of several refereed Research Journals.
[14] Securing Data at Rest; Developing a Database
Encryption Strategy, RSA Security, Inc., White Paper,
2002 Kamaljit Kaur is currently working as
[15] Date C.J., An Introduction to Database Systems, 7th Senior Lecturer in RBCEBTW,
edition, Addison Wesley, USA, 2000 Sahauran. She has received her
[16] Schneier B., Applied Cryptography, 2nd edition, Wiley B.Tech(Hons) degree in CSE from
& Sons, USA, 1996 LLRIET, Moga in 2003. Her area of
[17] Database Encryption: File Level vs. Column Level interest includes Network security and
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2007.
[18] William Stallings, Cryptography and Network Security:
Principles and Practice, 2nd edition, Prentice-Hill Inc
1999
[19] Chen G., Chen K., Dong J., “ A Database Encryption Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa is currently
Scheme for Enhanced Security and Easy Sharing” an Assistant Professor at CSE & IT
CSCWD ’06, IEEE Proceedings, IEEE Computer department of B.B.S.B.Engg.College,
Society, Los Alamitos.C.A, pp.1-6 Fatehgarh Sahib (Punjab), India. He is
[20] He J., Wang M., “ Cryptography and Relational M.Tech. from Punjabi University,
Database Management Systems, Proceedings of IEEE Patiala (Punjab) in 2003 and currently
pursuing PhD degree in Computer
Symposium on the International Database Engineering
Engineering from the same university.
& Applications, Washington, DC, USA His research interests are Information
[21] Database Encryption in Oracle 9i TM , An Oracle Systems, Relational Database Systems and Modelling Languages.
Technical White Paper, 2001 Member of CSI,IEI, ISTE & ACEEE.
[22] Conway, R.W., Maxwell, W.L. and Morgan, H.L., “On
the implementation of security measures in information
systems.” Communications of the ACM 15(4), 1972, Ghanaya Singh is working as Project
pp. 211-220 Manager (R&D) in Miri Infotech,
[23] National Bureau of Standards. Data Encryption Chandigarh. Currently he is leading
Data Masking projects of Dataguise,
Standard. FIPS, NBS (1977)
U.S.A.
[24] Damiani, E., De Capitani diVimercati, S., Jajodia, S.,
Paraboschi, S. and Samarati, P.: “Balancing
Confidentiality and Efficiency in Untrusted Relational
DBMSs.”, CCS’03, Washington 2003, pp. 27–31
[25] Iyer, B., Mehrotra, S., Mykletun, E., Tsudik, G. and
Wu, Y. , “ A Framework for Efficient Storage Security
in RDBMS.”, E. Bertino et al. (Eds.): EDBT 2004,
LNCS 2992 (2004) pp.147–164
108 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

An Investigation of Information Security Issues in


the Indian Institutes of Higher Education: Current
Security State and Practices
D.S. Bhilare, Dr. A.K. Ramani, Dr. S. Tanwani
School of Computer Science & IT, Devi Ahilya University, Indore, India
E-mail: bhilare@hotmail.com, ramaniak@yahoo.com, sanjay_tanwani@hotmail.com

Abstract: In recent years, providing a reliable, secure, Survey, 2008 [4]; Global State of Information Security, CIO
adaptable, scalable and fault-tolerant IT Infrastructure has Magazine, CSO Magazine & PWC 2008 study, October
become fundamental as institutes of higher education are getting 2008 [5]; and Protecting what matters, The 6th Annual
more and more dependent on information assets for their Global Security Survey, by Deloitte, 2009 [6].
regular operations. Institutions are forced to enhance their The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In section
attention and budget to protect institutional infrastructure and 2, survey methodology is described. In section 3, survey
information assets. Despite this heightened attention and analysis and comparison with global bench-marks is done.
awareness, very little is known about the current state of
Section 4, describes about limitation of the survey. Finally,
information security and practices being followed in the Indian
universities and colleges. In order to build an effective in section 5, conclusion along with future work is presented.
information protection strategy, it is essential to evaluate and
understand where we stand in relation to global best practices, 2. Methodology
with special focus on Institutes of Higher Education. This study
investigates the state of information security practices and The following procedure was adopted to gather the required
present level of protection; and compares the findings with data for conducting the investigation to fulfill the above
global practices, which includes industry as well as universities. stated objectives:
Literature Review
Keywords: global practices, higher education, Information Telephone interviews with:
security, security gap analysis 35 Information technology managers
15 Faculty members
1. Introduction Expert views of a selected security experts
A quantitative survey of 25 institutes of higher
In institutes of higher education, excessive restrictions education
hinder the usability of the resources and the complete Efforts were made to take input from the most
freedom exposes the sensitive information. Here, a right experienced person in that institute. It was ensured that
balance between restriction and freedom is the key: allow a minimum experience of the respondent should not be less
more natural balance of risk and performance [1] [8]. Rising than five years.
demand for all IT services and the widespread distribution In order to be able to pinpoint the specific areas that
and governance of research computing resources, coupled require attention, the questionnaire was designed to gather
with an incredible rise in computer crimes, place increasing information on the following key aspects of Information
stress on higher education institution [9]. Security based on globally recognized information security
The objective of the investigation is to understand, standard ISO 27001:2005 and industry best practices:
where we stand with respect to global information security Governance, Investment, Risk, Use of security technologies,
practices. Efforts are made to compare the information Quality of Operations & Privacy.
security posture of Indian Universities with the global peers. This survey is intended to enable benchmarking against
There are research institutions and consulting groups like comparable organizations. Benchmarking with a peer group
CSI, Ernst & Young, Educause and Price Waterhouse and overall industry can assist institutions in identifying
Cooper etc., who are conducting annual surveys on the issue those practices that, when adopted and implemented, have
and known for the credibility and reliability. Our survey the potential to produce more secure campuses.
results and conclusions are studied in global context using Most of the survey responses were collected during
the survey results published by these reputed research and face-to-face interviews with individuals responsible for
consulting houses. information security at the participating organizations.
The following survey reports are used as a benchmark When this was not possible, the respondents were given to
to assess the state of Information Security in the Indian choice to fill it online [7].
institutes of higher education: 10th Global Information In the following section, an analysis of the feedback
Security Survey, 2008 by Ernst and Young [2]; IT Security received from the respondents is carried out individually as
in Higher Education, Survey by Educause Centre for well as with global statistics. The gap analysis is done in
Applied Research, 2006 [3]; CSI Computer and Crime
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 109
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
various categories and deviations are identified and other hand, we are speaking here of financial losses to the
analyzed. organization, and in many cases significant insider crimes,
such as leaking of credit card information, may not be
detected by the victimized organization and no direct costs
3. Survey Finding and Analysis may be associated with the theft.
The comparative study also reveals that the industry
respondents perceive more losses from insider compared to
3.1 Consequences of Information Security Incidences the higher education respondents. This is also evident from
Damage to reputation and image was cited as the most the budget allocations and attention paid to the issue of
significant consequence of an information security incident insider threat in higher education compared to industry.
by 83% of survey respondents. This finding, in combination Only 41 % Indian University respondents feel that, there is
with the concern for regulatory action (80%), loss of no threat from the insiders, whereas 61 % industry
revenue (63%), and the loss of customers (61%) are clear respondents feel so.
indicators for why information security remains a focus for
3.4 Percentage of key types of incidents
most organizations.
For many years, regulatory compliance has been the The survey asks about a number of different sorts of
leading driver for information security. Although cited by computer attacks and incidents. In the following figure, a
80% of respondents as a driver for information security, subset of these are graphed, this chart shows the four
compliance alone is not enough to ensure improvements. categories of highest incidence, namely viruses, insider
To protect reputation and image many Universities and abuse, laptop theft and unauthorized access to systems.
colleges have gone beyond the requirements of regulatory Incidences related to virus are much higher in the
compliance to have more secured campuses. Indian Universities (86 %) compared to the Industry (50 %).
The following graph indicates that on this issue Second important finding is that, laptop theft is much less in
respondents from both the world think alike and are equally the Indian Universities, perhaps usage is also less. The
concerned. number of financial frauds is also negligible compared to
the industry figures. Though, cases of unauthorized access
Damage to employee relationships and bots are higher compared to the global trends.
Litigation/legal action Key Type of Incidents
Regulatory action/sanction
Loss of customers DNS
Loss of revenues financial fraud
Loss of stakeholder confidence bots
Damage to reputation and brand unauth access

0 20 40 60 80 100 laptop theft/fraud


P e r c e n t a ge
insider abuse
Ernst & Young 2008 Indian Universities virus

Figure 1. Consequences of Information Security Incidences 0 20 40 60 80 100

3.2 Number of incidents per year CSI 2008 Indian Universities

Before looking at the nature and cost of incidents, the


survey asks respondents to estimate how many incidents Figure 2. Key types of Incidents
they have had to deal with over the course of the year, 35%
respondents say that they have had more than ten incidents 3.5 Security Technologies Used
per year. If we compare with the global peers 47 % The following graph compares our survey findings on
respondents say that they face 1 to 5 incidents per year. This “security technologies used”, with the published results of
may be due to number of laws applicable overseas and well recognized annual surveys on global state of
awareness. information security by the following research groups:
3.3 Percentage of losses due to insiders
• IT Security in Higher Education, Survey by
Forty two percent respondents believe that insiders are Educause Centre for Applied Research, 2006 [3]
responsible for 1–20 percent losses, and 47 percent • CSI Computer and Crime Survey, 2008 [4]
respondents believe that there is no loss on account of
insiders. It's certainly true that some insiders are particularly Technologies being used are listed in order of use. Anti-
well-placed to do enormous damage to an organization, but Virus software, firewall and Secure Socket Layer are the
this survey's respondents seem to indicate that talk of the most common practices being used, followed by Enterprise
prevalence of insider criminals may be overblown. On the
110 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
directories, Virtual Private Networks and Intrusion only 13 % used PKI system, 82 percent did not use Intrusion
Detection System. Prevention System, and nearly 96 percent did not have
Firewalls are one of the most relied on technology in centralized data backup capabilities. While almost 69
institutes of higher education. Of all the technologies percent indicated they also use login/passwords within their
deployed by survey respondents, firewall was used by 87 Organizations, only 6 percent were using multifactor
percent users. The most significant difference in technology authentication mechanism such as hardware tokens,
use among large versus small institutions was in adoption of biometrics etc. This is an area where higher education
IDS. More than 57 percent of PG institutes deployed IDS, continues to lag broader industry benchmarks.
while only 27 percent of other institutions used IDS. Use of the VPN is very low in the Indian Universities
Institutes of higher education appear to employ certain compared to other two surveys. However, use of anti-virus
security technologies less often than industry. Although our and anti-spy ware software is at par with the industry
statistics show that higher education has made significant standards.
progress in advancing its use of security technologies, some
areas still could be improved. Despite the high growth rates

Technologies Being Used


centralized data backup system
Other
Web / URL filtering
Vulnerability / patch management tools
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Virtualization-specific tools
Static account / login passwords
Specialized wireless security systems
Smart cards and other one-time tokens
Server-based access control lists
Public Key Infrastructure systems
Percentage

Log management software


Intrusion prevention systems
Intrusion detection systems
Firewalls
Endpoint security client software / NAC
Encryption of data at rest (in storage)
Encryption of data in transit
Forensics tools
Data loss prevention / content monitoring
Biometrics
Application-level firewalls
Anti-spyware software
Anti-virus software

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

ECAR 2006 Indian Universities CSI 2008

Figure 3. Security Technologies Used

monitoring are in place at significant number of


3.6 Assessment of Information Security Measures
organizations, as is the use of external audits.
Implementing security measures is one thing; verifying Indian Universities match the global benchmark in the
that they are properly in place and effective on an ongoing area of e-mail and web monitoring but almost do not have
basis is another. The following figure illustrates that any assessment systems. Only 11 percent respondents are
internal security audits are (not too surprisingly) the using external audits and internal audit is implemented by
predominant approach, but also that automated tools now seventeen percent. Almost half the respondents do not use
play a significant role, with 27 percent of respondents any technique or make any efforts in this direction, which is
reporting their use. As the chart shows, e-mail and Web a cause of concern.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 111
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
Techniques us ed to evaluate Security Technologies

70
64
60
55
50 49 49 49
45 46 47
40 41
CSI 2008
35
30 Indian Univers itites
27
20 21
17 17
13 11
10

0
No External Internal Pen E-mail Web External Automated Interal
Techniques Pen Tes ting Tes ting m onitoring Monitoring Audits Tools Audtits

Figure 4. Techniques Used to Evaluate Security Technologies

3.7 Actions Taken After an Incident Reasons for not Responding

The following graph shows the actions taken after an Incidents Too Small to Bother
Reporting
incident, one trend is clear that there is a hitch in reporting
Believed Law Enforcement Couldn't
or disclosing the incident, less than twenty percent incident Help
are being reported. However, globally the reporting rate is
Negative Publicity
better than Indian Universities but still it is less than thirty
percent. This issue of low reporting rate is analyzed in the Other
next paragraph. There is a significant rise in the investment
Competitors Would Use to Advantage
in hardware and security software by the Indian Universities
after the incident, compared to the global statistics. Civil Remedy Pursued

Actions Taken After an Incident Unaw are of law enforcement interest

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Other
CSI 2008 Indian Universities
Reported to legal counsel
Installed additional hardware Figure 6. Reasons for not Responding
Did not report outside
One of the most prominent responses is “believe law
Reported to legal Authorities enforcement couldn’t help” (Average 5.9), which indicates
Changed security policies the general perception of the Indian respondents about
Installed Addl security software capability of law enforcement agencies. Surprisingly,
majority of the Indian Respondent are worried about
Installed Software Patches
competitors, which is bit uncommon in the educational
Did best to patch security holes environment. Second, Indian respondents have less faith in
Attempted to identify perpetrator the law enforcement agencies compared to the CSI 2008
report. The prominent reasons for not responding by Indian
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Universities are: “believe law enforcement couldn’t help”
(Average 5.9), “negative publicity” (Average 5.2), and
CSI 2008 Indian Universities
“Competitors would use to advantage” (Average 6.2).
Figure 5. Actions Taken After Incident
3.9 Use of Information Security Standards
3.8 Reasons for not responding Respondents were asked about adaptation of internationally
recognized Information Security Standards: ISO
The following figure summarizes the reasons why
27001:2005, ISO 27002:2005, Information Security
organizations did not report intrusions to law enforcement
Forum’s (ISF) “The Standard of Good Practice for
agencies. The question asked respondents to rate each
Information Security”.
possible reason on a scale from 1 to 7, where 1 meant the
The survey results of CSI 2008 are not surprising, given
reason was “of no importance” and 7 held that it was “of
the potential benefits of using international information
great importance.”
security standards, including improved relationships with
customers and trading partners, credibility with internal
stakeholders and greater consistency across an organization.
The adoption of a recognized standard demonstrates and
communicates that the organisation takes information
112 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
security seriously. Stakeholder confidence is improved by formal policy. 31% of Indian respondents do not have any
knowing the organisation has taken an independently policy; neither they are planning to have one.
verifiable approach to information security risk
management.
Information Security Policy w ithin the Organization
Though, performance of the Indian Universities is very
poor in this regard, as these standards are not yet accepted
80
by the Indian Government. But it is certain that the use of 70
international information security standards will continue to 60
increase and that early adopters can potentially gain a 50
40
competitive advantage. Just as quality management
30
standards (e.g., ISO 9000) have become a requirement for 20
doing business in certain industries, internationally 10
recognized standards for information security will continue 0
to gain acceptance and eventually become a necessity. This No Policy Formal Policy Informal Policy being Other
Policy developed
is primarily due to the fact that standards and certifications
provide a level of confidence for stakeholder that is difficult CSI 2008 Indian Universities
to achieve by any other means.
Figure 8. Information Security Policy within the Organization
Ow n policy
Ernst & Young 2008 based on
recognized 3.11 Data Retention Policy within the Organization
inf ormation
security One aspect of policy that has received steadily
standard increasing attention in this era of notorious data breach
not used any incidents is the entire question of when and how long an
specif ic
organization should store sensitive data. The following
inf ormation
security graph shows that about half of organizations have a formal
standard data retention/destruction policy. Another quarter of those
responding are working on a formal policy
implemented an
inf ormation Data Retention Policies within the Organisation
security
standard 60
54
50
Indian Universities Ow n policy 40
based on 37
CSI 2008
recognized 30
24 Indian Universities
inf ormation 20 21 21
security 17 17
standard 10
not used any 5 4
0 1
specific
inf ormation No Policy Formal Policy Informal Policy Forml Policy Other
security Established being developed
standard
Figure 9. Data Retention Policy within the Organization
implemented
an information 3.12 Major Barriers in Ensuring Information Security
security Not surprisingly, budget constraints and the lack of
standard
qualified professionals occupy the first two spots, 74% and
56%, respectively. Current economic crisis has further
reduced the IT and security budgets. Respondents have
Figure 7. Use of Information Security Standards
given lowest priority to the privacy issue, which is bit
3.10 Information Security Policy within the surprising. If we compare the responses with the “global
organization information security survey”, conducted by the Deloitte, less
It has been proved that organizations having formal number of Indian Universities has considered technology as
policy are less prone to the security incidents. The following a barrier. Perhaps, this indicates that we are good at
graph is encouraging in the sense that 64% of the technology absorption.
respondents do have some formal or informal policy. Issues like, “increasing sophistication of threats” and
Though, only 17 % Indian Universities have the formal “inadequate functionality/interoperability of software” are
policy, whereas globally, 68% universities have established also at low priority and not considered as a very significant
barrier. Survey shows that management support is far better
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 113
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
in the other part of the world, 45% respondents have
reported lack of management support. This sample doesn’t represent all the categories of Indian
Major Barriers in Ens uring Inf ormation Security
Universities and Colleges, mainly institutes of the central
Budget cons traints and/or
part of India are covered. Due to the diverse focus of
lack of res ources institutions surveyed and the qualitative format of our
Increasing s ophistic ation of research, the results reported herein may not be
threats
representative of each identified category.
Emerging technologies

Inadequate av ailability of 5. Discussion and Conclusions


security prof es sionals
Priv ac y iss ues and In order to implement an effective Information Security
c oncerns
Management System for the Institutes of higher education, it
Inadequate
f unc tionality /interoperability is essential that we understand present state of affairs in
Lack of inf ormation security terms of problems faced, practices being followed and its
strategy effectiveness. Though, there are well recognized research
Lack of management houses and consultancy organizations performing “global
s upport
information security survey” on regular basis. Educause
0 20 40 60 80
Centre for Applied Research (ECAR) has conducted few
Deloitte 2009 Indian Univers ities
surveys in the past (2003 and 2006), focused on higher
Figure 10. Major Barriers in Ensuring Information Security education. However, unfortunately there is no such
information available for Indian Universities and Colleges.
3.13 Major Causes of failure of Information Security This survey not only gives present state of affairs in the
Projects institutes of higher education, it also compares the findings
Globally, “Lack of resources” is cited as the number one with global peers, which include industries as well as
cause of information security project failure, whereas Indian academic campuses. This gives fair idea of where do we
respondents believe that “shifting priorities” and stand in global perspective and helps us in making a gap
“unrealistic expectations” are the major causes. Normally it analysis with global peers. This gap analysis would form a
is expected that, in country like us budget should be the sound basis for planning and implementation of an
constraint. Shifting Priorities are the common and known appropriate Information Security Management System for
issues for any project development. “Shifting priorities” can the institutes of higher education.
be handled with better communication and modern project
management tools. Key Findings
One more notable difference is lack of support from
owners and executive, which is more prominent in Indian • Protecting reputation and image has become a
scenario. Perhaps reason for this could be found in the significant driver for information security.
concern expressed by the Indian respondents, 28% believe • International information security standards are gaining
that “lack of competency/capability” is a major reason for greater acceptance and adoption.
Information Security Project failures. • People remain the weakest link for information security,
Major Causes of Inf ormaion Security Project Failure insider threats are real.
• Business continuity planning is still not getting enough
Lack of resources attention
• Most organizations are unwilling to outsource key
Shif ting priorities
information security activities and there is no
Integration problems information sharing on incidents faced

Lack of ow ners’ support


The survey highlights the fact that, information security
Unrealistic expectations
can no longer be an after- thought, it must be fully
integrated into the overall system. It is no longer sufficient
Lack of executive support to just have the correct controls in place. We must be able to
Lack of ability to prove that the controls work consistently and that
ef fectively execute
information is available and secure regardless of when and
Lack of
competencies/capabilities
where it’s used. Moving from compliance-driven
information security requirements to a focus on the needs of
0 10 20 30 40
Deloitte 2009 Indian Universities
the stakeholders presents new and demanding challenges for
organizations and their information security professionals.
Figure 11. Major Causes of Information Security Project Failure
Because of this shift in focus, it is imperative that
organizations continue to make investments in information
security, even with the global economies experiencing a
4. Limitations downturn. These investments are not only necessary to
114 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
maintain the current levels of protection, but needed to help Authors Profile
ensure that additional safeguards and improvements are
achieved. D.S. Bhilare received his M.Tech.(Computer Sc.),
Now, more than ever, is the time to make information M.Phil.(Computer Sc.) and MBA from Devi Ahilya University,
security strategic to the organization. This, of course, does Indore. Worked as a senior project leader for ten years in the
not come without significant challenges. Creating an industry and developed various business applications for different
industries. Since last eighteen years, working in the University as a
effective framework, based on the adoption of
Senior Manager & Head IT Centre, involved in Computer Centre
internationally accepted information security standards, is a and Campus Network Management. His areas of interest are
critical step toward truly integrating information security Information Security, Network Management and Project
into the business. Management.
Finally, it’s no longer safe to assume that threats always
come from “outside” the organization. A comprehensive and Dr. Ashwani Kumar Ramani received his Master of Engineering
strategic view of information security must account for all (Digital Systems) and Ph.D, from Devi Ahilya University, Indore.
areas of risk, including insiders and external consultants. By He worked as a research engineer in ISRO Satellite Center, Dept.
leveraging the information in this survey and taking action of Space, Bangalore, India, during 1979-83. Since Jan. 1990, he is
on the opportunities for improvement presented, a professor with the School of Computer Science at Devi Ahilya
University. He was associate professor at University Putra
organizations can continue to move beyond compliance and
Malaysia, Dept. of Computer Science during May95 toMay99.
achieve more effective and integrated information security. During Sept 2005- July 2006, He was with the College of
Computer Science and Information Technology, at King Faisal
References University (KFU), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He has guided 13
PhDs in different areas of Computer Science and Information
[1] By Mohammad H. Qayoumi and Carol Woody, Technology and has authored about 70 research papers.
“addressing information security risk”, Educause
Dr. Sanjay Tanwani is working as a Professor in the School of
Quarterly volume 28(4), 2005
Computer Science, Devi Ahilya University and carries a vast
[2] 10th Global Information Security Survey, 2008 by Ernst teaching & industry experience of over twenty two years. He has
and Young, presented several papers in national and international conferences
http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY_TSRS_G and published in reputed journals and international conference
ISS2007/$FILE/EY_TSRS_GISS2007.pdf proceedings during his doctoral work in the area of Real-Time
[3] Robert B. Kvavik, IT Security in Higher Education, Database, Software Engineering and Algorithms. He has received
Survey by Educause Centre for Applied Research, 2006, Japanese Govt. Scholarship to visit Japan for two months training
http://www.mis- during 1994.
asia.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/128668/Global-
State-of-Information-Security---2008-survey.pdf
[4] Roberts Richardson, 13th CSI Computer and Crime
Survey, 2008, http://i.zdnet.com/blogs/csisurvey2008.pdf
[5] Peter Hind, Global State of Information Security, CIO
Magazine, CSO Magazine & PWC 2008 study, October
2008, http://www.mis-
asia.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/128668/Global-
State-of-Information-Security---2008-survey.pdf
[6] Protecting what matters, The 6th Annual Global Security
Survey, by Deloitte, 2008,
http://www2.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-
Shared%20Assets/Documents/dtt_fsi_GlobalSecuritySurv
ey_0901.pdf
[7]Link to questionnaire:
http://www.dauniv.ac.in/questionaire
[8] Diana Oblinger, “Computer and Network Security and
Higher Education’s Core Values,” (Research Bulletin,
Issue 6) (Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE Center for Applied
Research,2003),
http://connect.educause.edu/Library/ECAR/Computerand
NetworkSecurit/40063
[9] Walton, G., Longstaff, T., & Linger, R. “Computational
Security Attributes.” Proceedings of Hawaii International
Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-42). IEEE
Computer Society Press, 2009.

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