Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills

of running, jumping, and throwing.[1] The name is derived from the sport's typical venue:
a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and some of the
jumping events take place. Track and field is categorized under the umbrella sport of athletics, which
also includes road running, cross country running, and race walking.
The foot racing events, which include sprints, middle- and long-distance events, race
walking and hurdling, are won by the athlete with the fastest time. The jumping and throwing events
are won by the athlete who achieves the greatest distance or height. Regular jumping events
include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events
are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also "combined events" or "multi events", such
as the pentathlon consisting of five events, heptathlonconsisting of seven events,
and decathlon consisting of ten events. In these, athletes participate in a combination of track and
field events. Most track and field events are individual sports with a single victor; the most prominent
team events are relay races, which typically feature teams of four. Events are almost exclusively
divided by gender, although both the men's and women's competitions are usually held at the same
venue. If a race has too many people to run all at once, preliminary heats will be run to narrow down
the field of participants.
Track and field is one of the oldest sports. In ancient times, it was an event held in conjunction with
festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece. In modern times, the two
most prestigious international track and field competitions are athletics competition at the Olympic
Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The International Association of Athletics
Federations is the international governing body.
Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, right
down to a personal level. However, if athletes are deemed to have violated the event's rules or
regulations, they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased.
In North America, the term track and field may be used to refer to other athletics events, such as
the marathon, rather than strictly track-based events.[2]

Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players each, opposing one
another on a rectangular court, compete with the primary objective
of shooting a basketball (approximately 9.4 inches (24 cm) in diameter) through the defender's hoop
(a basket 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter mounted 10 feet (3.048 m) high to a backboard at each end
of the court) while preventing the opposing team from shooting through their own hoop. A field
goal is worth two points, unless made from behind the three-point line, when it is worth three. After a
foul, timed play stops and the player fouled or designated to shoot a technical foul is given one or
more one-point free throws. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins, but if
regulation play expires with the score tied, an additional period of play (overtime) is mandated.
Players advance the ball by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling) or by passing it to a
teammate, both of which require considerable skill. On offense, players may use a variety of shots—
the lay-up, the jump shot, or a dunk; on defense, they may steal the ball from a dribbler, intercept
passes, or block shots; either offense or defense may collect a rebound, that is, a missed shot that
bounces from rim or backboard. It is a violation to lift or drag one's pivot foot without dribbling the
ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then resume dribbling.
The five players on each side at a time fall into five playing positions: the tallest player is usually
the center, the tallest and strongest is the power forward, a slightly shorter but more agile big man is
the small forward, and the shortest players or the best ball handlers are the shooting guard and
the point guard, who implements the coach's game plan by managing the execution of offensive and
defensive plays (player positioning). Informally, players may play three-on-three, two-on-two, and
one-on-one.
Invented in 1891 by Canadian-American gym teacher James Naismith in Springfield,
Massachusetts, United States, basketball has evolved to become one of the world's most popular
and widely viewed sports.[1] The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the most
significant professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent, and
level of competition.[2][3] Outside North America, the top clubs from national leagues qualify to
continental championships such as the Euroleague and FIBA Americas League. The FIBA
Basketball World Cup and Men's Olympic Basketball Tournament are the major international events
of the sport and attract top national teams from around the world. Each continent hosts regional
competitions for national teams, like EuroBasket and FIBA AmeriCup.
The FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup and Women's Olympic Basketball Tournament feature top
national teams from continental championships. The main North American league is
the WNBA (NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship is also popular), whereas strongest
European clubs participate in the EuroLeague Women.

Softball is a variant of baseball played with a larger ball (11 to 12 in. circumference) on a field that
has base lengths of 60 feet, a pitcher's mound that ranges from 35-43 feet away from home plate,
and a homerun fence that is 220 feet away from home plate. [2][3]. It was invented in 1887
in Chicago, Illinois, United States as an indoor game. The game moves at a faster pace than
traditional baseball. There is less time for the base runner to get to first while the opponent fields the
ball; yet, the fielder has less time to field the ball while the opponent is running down to first base.
The name softball was given to the game in 1926, because the ball used to be soft, however in
modern day usage, the balls are hard.
A tournament held in 1933 at the Chicago World's Fair spurred interest in the game. The Amateur
Softball Association (ASA) of America (founded 1933) governs the game in the United States and
sponsors annual sectional and World Series championships. The World Baseball Softball
Confederation (WBSC) regulates rules of play in more than 110 countries, including the United
States and Canada; before the WBSC was formed in 2013, the International Softball
Federation filled this role. Women's fast pitch softball became a Summer Olympic sport in 1996, but
it and baseball were dropped from the 2012 Games; they will be reinstated for the 2020 Games.
There are three types of softball. In the most common type, slow-pitch softball, the ball, which can
measure either 11 or 12 inches in circumference depending on gender and league, must arch on its
path to the batter, and there are 10 players on the field at once. In fastpitch softball, the pitch is
fast, there are nine players on the field at one time, and bunting and stealing bases are
permitted. Modified softball restricts the "windmill" wind-up usually used by fastpitch pitchers,
although the pitcher is allowed to throw as hard as possible with the restricted back swing. Softball
rules vary somewhat from those of baseball. Two major differences are that the ball must be pitched
underhand—from 46 ft (14 m) for men or 43 ft (13.1 m)[1] for women as compared with 60.5 ft
(18.4 m) in baseball—and that seven innings instead of nine constitute a regulation game.[2]
Despite the name, the ball used in softball is not soft. It is about 12 in (about 30 cm) in circumference
(11 or 12 in for slow-pitch), which is 3 in (8 cm) larger than a baseball. Softball recreational leagues
for children use 11-inch balls until they participate in travel ball around age 12 and adjust to a 12-
inch sized ball. The infield in softball is smaller than on an adult or high school baseball diamond but
identical to that used by Little League Baseball; each base is 60 ft (18 m) from the next, as opposed
to baseball's 90 ft (27 m). In fast pitch softball the entire infield is dirt, whereas the infield in baseball
is grass except at the bases and on the pitcher's mound which are dirt. Softball mounds are also flat,
while baseball mounds are a small hill. Softballs are pitched underhand, but baseballs are pitched
overhand. This changes the arc of the ball when approaching the plate. For example, depending if
the pitcher pitches a fastball, in softball the ball would most likely rise while in baseball because the
pitcher is on a hill, the ball would drop.

A baseball is a ball used in the sport of the same name. The ball features a rubber or cork center,
wrapped in yarn, and covered, in the words of the Official Baseball Rules "with two strips of white
horsehide or cowhide, tightly stitched together." It is 9–91⁄4inches (229–235 mm) in circumference (
2 55⁄64–2 15⁄16 in. or 73–75 mm in diameter), and masses from 5 to 51⁄4 oz. (142 to 149 g).[1] The yarn or
string used to wrap the baseball can be up to one mile (1.6 km) in length. Some are wrapped in a
plastic-like covering.
A significant quality of the baseball is the stitching that holds together the covering of the ball. After a
ball has been pitched, these raised stitches catch the air and cause the ball to swerve slightly on its
way to the catcher. Whether the ball swerves to the right, to the left, downward, or a combination
thereof, and whether it swerves sharply or gradually, depends on which direction, and how fast, the
stitches have been made to spin by the pitcher. See, for example, curveball, slider, two-seam
fastball, four-seam fastbal

Volleyball Arm Swing

Posted on December 19, 2013
Over the years athletics among young adults have become more and more common. Every
day there are many high school students who are looking for different ways to build their
performance and compete at the highest level possible. In doing so, many athletes try to
rush the process of learning. When there becomes an element of urgency, technique in
performing a skill the right way is often lost. Specifically looking at the sport of volleyball
there have been many shoulder injuries and replacements for athletes at a very young age
because of their improper arm swing mechanics. Over the past few months I have broken
down the specific arm swing mechanics for volleyball to discover the safest way to perform
this skill.

It is easiest to break all of these techniques down when practicing throwing a ball against
a wall.This process begins with engaging your hips and torso into the arm swing. Most do
not realize how involving their torso into their swing can alleviate the pressure felt on
shoulders. When throwing the ball against the wall the first thing your beginning stance
should be to have your left shoulder pointed to the wall being throw at, assuming you are
right handed. From here the very first motion to make when stepping to throw the ball is to
turn your hips towards the wall as fast as possible. The most important part in doing this is
to make sure as your torso and hips start to turn to face the wall your shoulders stay square
to the wall you were originally facing. It is easy to think about it as making your hips and
shoulders make an “X.” The “X” represents the hips being perpendicular to where your
shoulders are facing, making an “X” with the mid section of your body. This is called forming
separation. In practicing how to have a technically sound and safe arm swing being able to
fire your hips and creating that separation is where the most power is generated. The
ultimate goal is to have your arm as loose as possible and being able to generate as much
power as possible from the legs will significantly help to do that.
The starting position for your arm should be in what is called a 90, 90. Your arm placement
before you throw should be to have your left arm pointed out in front of you at about a 45
degree angle pointed upward and to have your throwing arm behind your head and the
bottom of your elbow level with your shoulders. When putting your arm in this position your
elbow should than form a 90 degree angle. This is to ensure that when you begin your
swing you are starting with a high elbow to reach the maximum height potential of your
swing. The next step after the separation of hips is to throw your elbow up past your ear and
create a snap at the top of your swing. The actual throw should be not directly above your
head but slightly out in front of your body. Starting in the 90, 90 position will create a smaller
distance for your arm to travel to reach its maximum height. As you are coming through with
your swing your left arm should do what is called left hand to heart. This means to take
even more pressure away from your hitting shoulder you can generate power from your left
arm by pulling it into your body as you swing.

The finish of your swing is very important because you need to allow your muscles as much
time as possible to slow down from such an intense motion. When finishing your motion
after your swing you need to finish into your body. The difference between finishing outside
of your body and inside your body creates a lot more strain on your shoulder muscles. Your
hand should finish into the center of your body. If you were to let your arm finish the swing
on the side of your body it creates less distance for your arm to slow down creating a
quicker stop for your arm. By finishing within the body it creates more distance for those
muscles to slow down. The last portion to performing a safe arm swing is to finish with your
opposite shoulder that you started facing away from the wall now facing the wall. When you
perform this properly there should be enough forward motion for you to naturally step
through and finish bent over with your shoulders replaced.

Performing these steps will create the safest and most effective volleyball swing. The main
goal of athletes today should be to perform their skills as safely as possible. All of these
different elements prevent the main strains that volleyball players are facing on their
shoulders today.

Archery Rules
Photo credit: ProAdventure (Source)

Archery – that is, the use of a stringed bow to propel arrows towards a target – is
thought to go back thousands of years – possibly even as far as the stone age of
20,000 BC – with bows and arrows used by numerous peoples over the millennia as a
means of hunting and warfare. From the ancient Egyptians to the Shang dynasty of
China (1766-1027 BC), Attila the Hun’s hordes to the great civilisations of the Assyrians,
Persians and Pathians, archery was widely utilised.

The need to master archery – for huntsmen and soldiers alike – inevitably led to
practising the art, which in turn led to organised tournaments, the first recorded event of
which took place in Finsbury in England in 1583 and included 3000 participants. The
development of guns caused archery to lose its appeal on the battlefield, but it remained
popular as a pastime and regular competitions were held in various countries. Archery
was first included as an Olympic sport in 1900 for men and 1904 for women – one of the
earliest sports for female competitors – and then in 1908 and 1920, then dropping out
for a few decades before being reintroduced in 1972, since when it has been a mainstay
of the Games.

Baseball Rules
Baseball is a sport that dates back as far as 1744 and formats of the game have been in
place until the modern era today. The game is predominantly big in North America,
Canada and Japan. The game is played worldwide with the pinnacle of sport coming
from the World Series of Baseball. Ironically, this event is only competed by North
American teams.

Object of the Game

The object of baseball is to score more runs than your opponent. The idea is to hit the
ball thrown at you as far as you can before running around 4 bases to complete a run.
Once a player manages to get around the four bases before being tagged out, then
another batter steps in.

Players & Equipment

A game is played out between two teams, each made up of 9 players. The game lasts
for 9 innings with each team alternating between batting and fielding in each inning. The
scores at the end of the innings are added to a cumulative score and the team with
most points wins. Each team has three outs per inning before they then swap roles.
Each inning can be broken down into the top (where the away team bats), and the
bottom (where the home team bats).

The field is split into two sections: infield and outfield. Separating the infield and outfield
is a diamond shape with four bases, spaced at 90 feet apart each. In the center of the
infield is the pitching mound where the pitcher stands and throws the ball toward the
batter. The batter stands at the home plate. The other three bases are known as first
base, second base and third base. The batter must touch all bases before successfully
scoring a run.

The bats are made out of either wood, aluminium or metal materials. The ball is white
with red stitching and is roughly 3 inches in diameter. The fielding team wear ‘mits’,
which are basically an oversized glove to help them catch and pick up the ball. The
catcher (standing behind the batter to catch any balls missed) wears extra padding in
their glove, along with leg guards, a body pad, and a helmet.

Table Tennis (Ping Pong) Rules

Photo credit: Vinqui (source)

Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988 and is hugely popular in Asia,
although it is played all over the world from the dusty streets of Ethiopia to the public
schools of rural England. The game did indeed begin in England at the end of the 19th
century, first as a postprandial parlour game for upper classes. The sound of the ball on
early bats gave it the name “ping pong” but as this became a trademarked term in some
countries table tennis soon became the more common name.

Object of the Game

As of 2001 the aim of the game is to score 11 points (it was previously 21) by
outmanoeuvring your opponent into either hitting the ball into the net, hitting it off the
table or missing it completely. Matches are normally contested as best of five, seven or
nine games: that is to say, the first person to reach 11 points in three, four or five games
respectively.

Players & Equipment

In singles play it is a game of one against one, whilst doubles pits two against two,
although it is also possible to play two against one in informal situations (family holidays
for instance!). Here we shall focus on singles rules.
Little equipment is needed to play ping pong, which is unsurprising given it was
originally an improvised game played on a table using books for both the net and the
bats! Officially the game is played using a 40mm diameter, white (or sometimes orange)
table tennis ball weighing 2.7g; rackets (official term) that are normally called bats (UK)
or paddles (USA) and are red on one side and black on the other; and a table
measuring 2.74m (9ft) long, 76cm (30 inches) high and 1.52m (5ft) wide. The table is
usually blue or green and has a 15.25cm (6 inch) net across its width, bisecting its
length.

Tennis Serve Mechanics

The tennis serve is the most important single shot in the game of
tennis. The serve permits the player to assert control over how the
game unfolds, as the serve dictates how a particular return shot
must be made. The successful service of the tennis ball is the
product of a kinetic linkage that begins with the player's feet,
extending through the legs, hips, shoulders, and wrist to the racquet
on impact with the ball.

The first step in the proper mechanics of a tennis serve is the

establishment of proper footwork. The player must begin the serve
sequence from a stable position, where at the conclusion of the
serve the player will be in a stance that permits an effective
response to the next shot from the opponent. For a right handed
player, the left foot will be placed immediately behind the boundary
line, and the right foot behind. The player will ideally assume a
balanced stance with the knees bent as the player prepares to
execute the serve.

The most effective serve is one where the ball is struck by the
player with elbow slightly bent, but the arm otherwise fully extended,
making contact with the ball directly above the server's body. As the
ball is tossed in the air to begin the serve sequence, the body is
positioned to uncoil itself, with the full extension of this imaginary
coil being achieved at contact with the ball. To achieve maximum
power through this uncoiling mechanism, the twist of the player's
torso, the swing of the racquet, and the drive upwards of the legs
towards the ball all combine to generate greater speed in the
racquet. As a general proposition of physics, the faster the racquet
is moving upon impact with the ball, the faster the tennis ball will
travel, as the greater racquet velocity translates into greater force
directed into the ball and consequent velocity achieved by the ball
on impact.

The racquet must be held securely but not tightly in the wrist and
hand of the player. If the player grips the racquet too tightly, seeking
to apply significant muscle power from the arm to the serve, the
effective flow of energy generated by the movements of the rest of
the body to the racquet will be defeated.

The precise point at which the ball is struck is also an important

aspect of the mechanics of a tennis serve. If the ball is tossed too
low, the player will not be able to fully extend the arm at impact. An
incomplete extension of the arm and racquet decreases the amount
of force directed into the ball on impact. A further consideration of a
low service toss is that the lower the point of contact between ball
and racquet, the greater chance that the ball will be delivered into
the net. If the ball is tossed too high, studies have shown that the
player will also hit the ball at a lower than optimal point; in visually
tracking the ball thrown to a point above them, players tend to allow
the ball to fall too far before striking it with the racquet. To preserve
serve mechanics, the ball should be tossed to the desired height
and struck on its ascent, at the moment the ball has reached the
peak of its flight.

The concluding position of the player is also an important

mechanical issue. As the player strikes the ball, the right foot of a
right handed player will power through the stance, taking the player
inside the court surface. The player must complete the serve in a
bent knee (crouched) stance, in order to best react to the next shot
of the opponent.

Rules and Regulations

The regulations listed here are generally based around regulations set by the United States Bowling Congress and
the British Tenpin Bowling Association. These rules are followed by all sanctioned leagues and events, such as
tournaments. This is a Recreational Bowling league. The object to have fun, bowl well, and network with new friends.

Rules of play
A game of bowling consists of ten frames. In each frame, the bowler will have two chances to knock down as many
pins as possible with their bowling ball. In games with more than one bowler, as is common, every bowler will take
their frame in a predetermined order before the next frame begins. If a bowler is able to knock down all ten pins with
their first ball, he is awarded a strike. If the bowler is able to knock down all 10 pins with the two balls of a frame, it is
known as a spare. Bonus points are awarded for both of these, depending on what is scored in the next 2 balls (for a
strike) or 1 ball (for a spare). If the bowler knocks down all 10 pins in the tenth frame, the bowler is allowed to throw 3
balls for that frame. This allows for a potential of 12 strikes in a single game, and a maximum score of 300 points,
a perfect game.

Handicap
A handicap system will be used to determine team wins and losses for standings and playoff seeding. Each individual
player's handicap will be used to calculate a team total for the week. Handicaps adjust from week to week as more
games are added to a player's average. The handicap is calculated by subtracting the player's average from 200 and
then taking 80% of that total. This handicap is added to each player's "scratch" (actual) score to establish the totals.
The handicap total is calculated after all games for the week are played and then the scores are adjusted to reflect
the new total and then wins/losses are determined for the standings.

Scoring
In general, one point is scored for each pin that is knocked over. So if a player bowls over three pins with the first
shot, then six with the second, the player would receive a total of nine points for that frame. If a player knocks down 9
pins with the first shot, but misses with the second, the player would also score nine. When a player fails to knock
down all ten pins after their second ball it is known as an open frame.
In the event that all ten pins are knocked over by a player in a single frame, bonuses are awarded.

A ten-pin bowling score sheet showing how a strike is scored:

Strike: When all ten pins are knocked down with the first ball (called a strike and typically rendered as an “X” on a
score sheet), a player is awarded ten points, plus a bonus of whatever is scored with the next two balls. In this way,
the points scored for the two balls after the strike are counted twice.