Assignment 2

BIOL 323

Ecology and Evolution

Syed Aziz Ullah Safdar Rizvi

18-11121
Evolution
What is Evolution?

Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the
process of natural selection. The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species are related and
gradually change over time. Evolution relies on there being genetic variation in a population which affects
the physical characteristics (phenotype) of an organism. Some of these characteristics may give the
individual an advantage over other individuals which they can then pass on to their offspring. Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution states that evolution happens by natural selection. Individuals in a species
show variation in physical characteristics. This variation is because of differences in their genes.
Individuals with characteristics best suited to their environment are more likely to survive, finding food,
avoiding predators and resisting disease. These individuals are more likely to reproduce and pass their
genes on to their children. Individuals that are poorly adapted to their environment are less likely to
survive and reproduce. Therefore their genes are less likely to be passed on to the next generation. As a
consequence those individuals most suited to their environment survive and, given enough time, the
species will gradually evolve.

Types of Evolution

 Convergent Evolution
 Co- Evolution
 Adaptive radiation

Convergent Evolution

When the same adaptations evolve independently, under similar selection pressures this type of evolution
takes place. For example, flying insects, birds and bats have all evolved the ability to fly, but
independently of each other. It is the opposite of divergent evolution, where related species evolve
different traits.

Co- Evolution

When two species or groups of species have evolved alongside each other where one adapts to changes in
the other. For example, flowering plants and pollinating insects such as bees.

Adaptive Radiation
When a species splits into a number of new forms when a change in the environment makes new
resources available or creates new environmental challenges For example, finches on the Galapagos
Islands have developed different shaped beaks to take advantage of the different kinds of food available
on different islands.

Evidence of evolution

Lamarckism

It was a theory proposed by a great French naturalist named Jean Baptiste De Lamarck in 1809 AD. It
says that favorable characteristics are inherited by the organisms based on the alteration of the type of
environment they live in and the functioning of their organs.

Evidence of Lamarckism

The present-day long-necked giraffe has developed from deer-like ancestor by the gradual elongation of
neck and forelimbs in response to deficiency of food on the barren ground in dry deserts of Africa. These
body parts were elongated so as to eat the leaves on the tree branches. This is an example of effect of
extra use and elongation of certain organs.

Four postulates of Lamarckism

1. Living organisms or their component parts tend to increase in size.

2. Production of new organ due to a new requirement.

3. Constant use of an organ makes it more developed, while disuse of an organ results in degeneration.

4. Acquired characters (or modifications) developed by individuals during their own lifetime are
inheritable and accumulate over a period of time resulting a new species.

Darwinism

Evidence for geometric increase

Cod (one million eggs per year); Oyster (114 million eggs in one spawning); Ascaris (70, 00,000 eggs in 24
hours); housefly (120 eggs in one laying and laying eggs six times in a summer season); a rabbit
(produces 6 young ones in a litter and four litters in a year and young ones start breeding at the age of
six months).

Main postulates of Darwinism are:

Geometric Increase

Variation

Struggle of existence
Limited food and space

Natural Selection

Speciation

Inheritance of useful variation

Evidence for struggle for existence

Intraspecific

Interspecific

Mutation theory of evolution

Postulates

1. The evolution is a discontinuous process and occurs by mutations (L. mutate = to change; sudden and
inheritable large differences from the normal and are not connected to normal by intermediate forms).
Individuals with mutations are called mutants.

2. Elementary species are produced in large number to increase chances of selection by nature.

3. Mutations are recurring so that the same mutants appear again and again. This increases the chances
of their selection by nature.

4. Mutations occur in all directions so may cause gain or loss of any character.

5. Mutability is fundamentally different from fluctuations (small and directional changes).

Environmental

Surviving in conditions like extreme heat, extreme cold, drought, flood or earthquake condition etc.

Evidence for variation

Increased speed of the prey due to difficult terrain

Increased water conservation in plants to tackle hot dry weather

Natural selection

White leopards are more protected from predators in snowy areas as compared to rainforests. This is
because they will be able to camouflage in snowy areas due to same white color. As a result white
leopards will naturally survive in snowy areas.