Screw thread

Screw thread, used to convert torque into the linear

force in the flood gate. The operator rotates the two
vertical bevel gears that have threaded holes, thereby
raising or lowering the two long vertical threaded
shafts which are not free to rotate (via bevel gear).

A screw thread, often shortened to thread,

is a helical structure used to convert
between rotational and linear movement
or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped
around a cylinder or cone in the form of a
helix, with the former being called a
straight thread and the latter called a
tapered thread. A screw thread is the
essential feature of the screw as a simple
machine and also as a fastener.

The mechanical advantage of a screw

thread depends on its lead, which is the
linear distance the screw travels in one
revolution.[1] In most applications, the lead
of a screw thread is chosen so that friction
is sufficient to prevent linear motion being
converted to rotary, that is so the screw
does not slip even when linear force is
applied, as long as no external rotational
force is present. This characteristic is
essential to the vast majority of its uses.
The tightening of a fastener's screw thread
is comparable to driving a wedge into a
gap until it sticks fast through friction and
slight elastic deformation.

Applications
Screw threads have several applications:

Fastening:
Fasteners such as wood screws,
machine screws, nuts, and bolts.
 Connecting threaded pipes and
hoses to each other and to caps
and fixtures.
Gear reduction via worm drives
Moving objects linearly by converting
rotary motion to linear motion, as in the
leadscrew of a jack.
Measuring by correlating linear motion
to rotary motion (and simultaneously
amplifying it), as in a micrometer.
Both moving objects linearly and
simultaneously measuring the
movement, combining the two
aforementioned functions, as in a
leadscrew of a lathe.
In all of these applications, the screw
thread has two main functions:

It converts rotary motion into linear

motion.
It prevents linear motion without the
corresponding rotation.

Design
Gender

Every matched pair of threads, external

and internal, can be described as male and
female. For example, a screw has male
threads, while its matching hole (whether
in nut or substrate) has female threads.
This property is called gender.

Handedness

Right- and left-handed screw threads

The right-hand rule of screw threads

The helix of a thread can twist in two
possible directions, which is known as
handedness. Most threads are oriented so
that the threaded item, when seen from a
point of view on the axis through the
center of the helix, moves away from the
viewer when it is turned in a clockwise
direction, and moves towards the viewer
when it is turned counterclockwise. This is
known as a right-handed (RH) thread,
because it follows the right hand grip rule.
Threads oriented in the opposite direction
are known as left-handed (LH).

By common convention, right-handedness

is the default handedness for screw
threads. Therefore, most threaded parts
and fasteners have right-handed threads.
Left-handed thread applications include:

Where the rotation of a shaft would

cause a conventional right-handed nut
to loosen rather than to tighten due to
applied torque or to fretting induced
precession. Examples include:
The left hand pedal on a bicycle.[2]
The left-hand grinding wheel on a
bench grinder.
The axle nuts, or less commonly,
lug nuts on the left side of some
automobiles.
 The securing nut on some circular
saw blades – the large torque at
startup should tend to tighten the
nut.
The spindle on brushcutter and line
trimmer heads, so that the torque
tends to tighten rather than loosen
the connection
In combination with right-hand threads
in turnbuckles and clamping studs.[3]
In some gas supply connections to
prevent dangerous misconnections, for
example:
In gas welding the flammable gas
supply uses left-handed threads,
 while the oxygen supply if there is
one has a conventional thread
The POL valve for LPG cylinders
In a situation where neither threaded
pipe end can be rotated to tighten or
loosen the joint (e.g. in traditional
heating pipes running through several
rooms in a building). In such a case, the
coupling will have one right-handed and
one left-handed thread.
In some instances, for example early
ballpoint pens, to provide a "secret"
method of disassembly.
In mechanisms to give a more intuitive
action as:
 The leadscrew of the cross slide of
a lathe to cause the cross slide to
move away from the operator when
the leadscrew is turned clockwise.
The depth of cut screw of a "Bailey"
(or "Stanley-Bailey") type metal
plane (tool) for the blade to move in
the direction of a regulating right
hand finger.
Some Edison base lamps and fittings
(such as those formerly used on the
New York City Subway) have a left-hand
thread to deter theft, since they cannot
be used in other light fixtures.

Form
Different threads including metric, USC, USF, BSW

The cross-sectional shape of a thread is

often called its form or threadform (also
spelled thread form). It may be square,
triangular, trapezoidal, or other shapes.
The terms form and threadform
sometimes refer to all design aspects
taken together (cross-sectional shape,
pitch, and diameters).
Most triangular threadforms are based on
an isosceles triangle. These are usually
called V-threads or vee-threads because of
the shape of the letter V. For 60° V-
threads, the isosceles triangle is, more
specifically, equilateral. For buttress
threads, the triangle is scalene.

The theoretical triangle is usually

truncated to varying degrees (that is, the
tip of the triangle is cut short). A V-thread
in which there is no truncation (or a
minuscule amount considered negligible)
is called a sharp V-thread. Truncation
occurs (and is codified in standards) for
practical reasons—the thread-cutting or
thread-forming tool cannot practically
have a perfectly sharp point, and
truncation is desirable anyway, because
otherwise:

The cutting or forming tool's edge will

break too easily;
The part or fastener's thread crests will
have burrs upon cutting, and will be too
susceptible to additional future burring
resulting from dents (nicks);
The roots and crests of mating male
and female threads need clearance to
ensure that the sloped sides of the V
meet properly despite (a) error in pitch
 diameter and (b) dirt and nick-induced
burrs.
The point of the threadform adds little
strength to the thread.

In ball screws, the male-female pairs have

bearing balls in between. Roller screws
use conventional thread forms and
threaded rollers instead of balls.

Angle

The included angle characteristic of the

cross-sectional shape is often called the
thread angle. For most V-threads, this is
standardized as 60 degrees, but any angle
can be used. The cross section to
measure this angle lies on a plane which
includes the axis of the cylinder or cone on
which the thread is produced.

Lead, pitch, and starts

Lead and pitch for two screw threads; one with one
start and one with two starts

Lead /ˈliːd/ and pitch are closely related

concepts. They can be confused because
they are the same for most screws. Lead is
the distance along the screw's axis that is
covered by one complete rotation of the
screw (360°). Pitch is the distance from
the crest of one thread to the next.
Because the vast majority of screw
threadforms are single-start threadforms,
their lead and pitch are the same. Single-
start means that there is only one "ridge"
wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's
body. Each time that the screw's body
rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced
axially by the width of one ridge. "Double-
start" means that there are two "ridges"
wrapped around the cylinder of the screw's
body.[4] Each time that the screw's body
rotates one turn (360°), it has advanced
axially by the width of two ridges. Another
way to express this is that lead and pitch
are parametrically related, and the
parameter that relates them, the number
of starts, very often has a value of 1, in
which case their relationship becomes
equality. In general, lead is equal to pitch
times the number of starts.

Whereas metric threads are usually

defined by their pitch, that is, how much
distance per thread, inch-based standards
usually use the reverse logic, that is, how
many threads occur per a given distance.
Thus, inch-based threads are defined in
terms of threads per inch (TPI). Pitch and
TPI describe the same underlying physical
property—merely in different terms. When
the inch is used as the unit of
measurement for pitch, TPI is the
reciprocal of pitch and vice versa. For
example, a 1⁄4-20 thread has 20 TPI, which
means that its pitch is 1⁄20 inch (0.050 in
or 1.27 mm).

As the distance from the crest of one

thread to the next, pitch can be compared
to the wavelength of a wave. Another wave
analogy is that pitch and TPI are inverses
of each other in a similar way that period
and frequency are inverses of each other.

Coarse versus fine

Coarse threads are those with larger pitch
(fewer threads per axial distance), and fine
threads are those with smaller pitch (more
threads per axial distance). Coarse
threads have a larger threadform relative
to screw diameter, where fine threads have
a smaller threadform relative to screw
diameter. This distinction is analogous to
that between coarse teeth and fine teeth
on a saw or file, or between coarse grit and
fine grit on sandpaper.

The common V-thread standards (ISO 261

and Unified Thread Standard) include a
coarse pitch and a fine pitch for each
major diameter. For example, 1⁄2-13
belongs to the UNC series (Unified
National Coarse) and 1⁄2-20 belongs to the
UNF series (Unified National Fine).
Similarly, ISO261 M10 (10mm (398 thou)
nominal outer diameter) has a coarse
thread version at 1.25mm pitch (49 thou)
and a fine thread version at 1 mm (39
thou) pitch.

The term coarse here does not mean lower

quality, nor does the term fine imply higher
quality. The terms when used in reference
to screw thread pitch have nothing to do
with the tolerances used (degree of
precision) or the amount of craftsmanship,
quality, or cost. They simply refer to the
size of the threads relative to the screw
diameter.

Coarse threads are more resistant to

stripping and cross threading because
they have greater flank engagement.
Coarse threads install much faster as they
require fewer turns per unit length. Finer
threads are stronger as they have a larger
stress area for the same diameter thread.
Fine threads are less likely to vibrate loose
as they have a smaller helix angle and
allow finer adjustment. Finer threads
develop greater preload with less
tightening torque.[5]
Diameters

The three diameters that characterize threads

There are three characteristic diameters of

threads: major diameter, minor diameter,
and pitch diameter: Industry standards
specify minimum (min.) and maximum
(max.) limits for each of these, for all
recognized thread sizes. The minimum
limits for external (or bolt, in ISO
terminology), and the maximum limits for
internal (nut), thread sizes are there to
ensure that threads do not strip at the
tensile strength limits for the parent
material. The minimum limits for internal,
and maximum limits for external, threads
are there to ensure that the threads fit
together.

Major diameter

The major diameter of threads is the larger

of two extreme diameters delimiting the
height of the thread profile, as a cross-
sectional view is taken in a plane
containing the axis of the threads. For a
screw, this is its outside diameter (OD).
The major diameter of a nut may not be
directly measured, but it may be tested
with go/no-go gauges.

The major diameter of external threads is

normally smaller than the major diameter
of the internal threads, if the threads are
designed to fit together. But this
requirement alone does not guarantee that
a bolt and a nut of the same pitch would fit
together: the same requirement must
separately be made for the minor and
pitch diameters of the threads. Besides
providing for a clearance between the
crest of the bolt threads and the root of the
nut threads, one must also ensure that the
clearances are not so excessive as to
cause the fasteners to fail.

Minor diameter

The basic profile of all UTS threads is the same as that

of all ISO metric screw threads. Only the commonly
used values for Dmaj and P differ between the two
standards.

The minor diameter is the lower extreme

diameter of the thread. Major diameter
minus minor diameter, divided by two,
equals the height of the thread. The minor
diameter of a nut is its inside diameter.
The minor diameter of a bolt can be
measured with go/no-go gauges or,
directly, with an optical comparator.

As shown in the figure at right, threads of

equal pitch and angle that have matching
minor diameters, with differing major and
pitch diameters, may appear to fit snugly,
but only do so radially; threads that have
only major diameters matching (not
shown) could also be visualized as not
allowing radial movement. The reduced
material condition, due to the unused
spaces between the threads, must be
minimized so as not to overly weaken the
fasteners.

Pitch diameter

Variants of snug fit. Only threads with matched PDs

are truly snug, axially as well as radially.

The pitch diameter (PD, or D2) of a

particular thread, internal or external, is the
diameter of a cylindrical surface, axially
concentric to the thread, which intersects
the thread flanks at equidistant points,
when viewed in a cross-sectional plane
containing the axis of the thread, the
distance between these points being
exactly one half the pitch distance.
Equivalently, a line running parallel to the
axis and a distance D2 away from it, the
"PD line," slices the sharp-V form of the
thread, having flanks coincident with the
flanks of the thread under test, at exactly
50% of its height. We have assumed that
the flanks have the proper shape, angle,
and pitch for the specified thread
standard. It is generally unrelated to the
major (D) and minor (D1) diameters,
especially if the crest and root truncations
of the sharp-V form at these diameters are
unknown. Everything else being ideal, D2,
D, & D1, together, would fully describe the
thread form. Knowledge of PD determines
the position of the sharp-V thread form,
the sides of which coincide with the
straight sides of the thread flanks: e.g., the
crest of the external thread would truncate
these sides a radial displacement D − D2
away from the position of the PD line.

Provided that there are moderate non-

negative clearances between the root and
crest of the opposing threads, and
everything else is ideal, if the pitch
diameters of a screw and nut are exactly
matched, there should be no play at all
between the two as assembled, even in
the presence of positive root-crest
clearances. This is the case when the
flanks of the threads come into intimate
contact with one another, before the roots
and crests do, if at all.

However, this ideal condition would in

practice only be approximated and would
generally require wrench-assisted
assembly, possibly causing the galling of
the threads. For this reason, some
allowance, or minimum difference,
between the PDs of the internal and
external threads has to generally be
provided for, to eliminate the possibility of
deviations from the ideal thread form
causing interference and to expedite hand
assembly up to the length of engagement.
Such allowances, or fundamental
deviations, as ISO standards call them, are
provided for in various degrees in
corresponding classes of fit for ranges of
thread sizes. At one extreme, no allowance
is provided by a class, but the maximum
PD of the external thread is specified to be
the same as the minimum PD of the
internal thread, within specified tolerances,
ensuring that the two can be assembled,
with some looseness of fit still possible
due to the margin of tolerance. A class
called interference fit may even provide for
negative allowances, where the PD of the
screw is greater than the PD of the nut by
at least the amount of the allowance.

The pitch diameter of external threads is

measured by various methods:

A dedicated type of micrometer, called a

thread mic or pitch mic, which has a V-
anvil and a conical spindle tip, contacts
the thread flanks for a direct reading.
A general-purpose micrometer (flat anvil
and spindle) is used over a set of three
wires that rest on the thread flanks, and
a known constant is subtracted from the
reading. (The wires are truly gauge pins,
 being ground to precise size, although
"wires" is their common name.) This
method is called the 3-wire method.
Sometimes grease is used to hold the
wires in place, helping the user to juggle
the part, mic, and wires into position.
An optical comparator may also be used
to determine PD graphically.

Classes of fit

The way in which male and female fit

together, including play and friction, is
classified (categorized) in thread
standards. Achieving a certain class of fit
requires the ability to work within tolerance
ranges for dimension (size) and surface
finish. Defining and achieving classes of fit
are important for interchangeability.
Classes include 1, 2, 3 (loose to tight); A
(external) and B (internal); and various
systems such as H and D limits.

Tolerance classes

Thread limit

Thread limit or pitch diameter limit is a

standard used for classifying the tolerance
of the thread pitch diameter for taps. For
imperial, H or L limits are used which
designate how many units of 5 ten
thousandths of an inch over or undersized
the pitch diameter is from its basic value,
respectively. Thus a tap designated with
an H limit of 3, denoted H3, would have a
pitch diameter 5 ten thousandths × 3 = 1.5
thousandths of an inch larger than base
pitch diameter and would thus result in
cutting an internal thread with a looser fit
than say an H2 tap. Metric uses D or DU
limits which is the same system as
imperial, but uses D or DU designators for
over and undersized respectively, and goes
by units of 0.013 mm (0.51 mils).[6]
Generally taps come in the range of H1 to
H5 and rarely L1.

The pitch diameter of a thread is

measured where the radial cross section
of a single thread equals 0.5 × pitch
example: 16 pitch thread = 1/16 in =
0.0625 in the pitch actual pitch diameter
of the thread is measured at the radial
cross section measures 0.03125 in.

Standardization and
interchangeability

To achieve a predictably successful

mating of male and female threads and
assured interchangeability between males
and between females, standards for form,
size, and finish must exist and be
followed. Standardization of threads is
discussed below.
Thread depth

Screw threads are almost never made

perfectly sharp (no truncation at the crest
or root), but instead are truncated, yielding
a final thread depth that can be expressed
as a fraction of the pitch value. The UTS
and ISO standards codify the amount of
truncation, including tolerance ranges.

A perfectly sharp 60° V-thread will have a

depth of thread ("height" from root to
crest) equal to 0.866 of the pitch. This fact
is intrinsic to the geometry of an
equilateral triangle — a direct result of the
basic trigonometric functions. It is
independent of measurement units (inch
vs mm). However, UTS and ISO threads are
not sharp threads. The major and minor
diameters delimit truncations on either
side of the sharp V.

The nominal diameter of Metric (e.g. M8)

and Unified (e.g. 5/16") threads is the
theoretical major diameter of the male
thread, which is truncated (diametrically)
by 0.866/4 of the pitch from the dimension
over the tips of the "fundamental" (sharp
cornered) triangles. The resulting flats on
the crests of the male thread are
theoretically one eighth of the pitch wide
(expressed with the notation 1⁄8p or
0.125p), although the actual geometry
definition has more variables than that. A
full (100%) UTS or ISO thread has a height
of around 0.65p.

Threads can be (and often are) truncated a

bit more, yielding thread depths of 60% to
75% of the 0.65p value. For example, a
75% thread sacrifices only a small amount
of strength in exchange for a significant
reduction in the force required to cut the
thread. The result is that tap and die wear
is reduced, the likelihood of breakage is
lessened and higher cutting speeds can
often be employed.
This additional truncation is achieved by
using a slightly larger tap drill in the case
of female threads, or by slightly reducing
the diameter of the threaded area of
workpiece in the case of male threads, the
latter effectively reducing the thread's
major diameter. In the case of female
threads, tap drill charts typically specify
sizes that will produce an approximate
75% thread. A 60% thread may be
appropriate in cases where high tensile
loading will not be expected. In both
cases, the pitch diameter is not affected.
The balancing of truncation versus thread
strength is similar to many engineering
decisions involving the strength, weight
and cost of material, as well as the cost to
machine it.

Taper

Tapered threads are used on fasteners

and pipe. A common example of a
fastener with a tapered thread is a wood
screw.

The threaded pipes used in some

plumbing installations for the delivery of
fluids under pressure have a threaded
section that is slightly conical. Examples
are the NPT and BSP series. The seal
provided by a threaded pipe joint is
created when a tapered externally
threaded end is tightened into an end with
internal threads. Normally a good seal
requires the application of a separate
sealant into the joint, such as thread seal
tape, or a liquid or paste pipe sealant such
as pipe dope, however some threaded pipe
joints do not require a separate sealant.

Standardization
An example of M16, ISO metric screw thread

Standardization of screw threads has

evolved since the early nineteenth century
to facilitate compatibility between
different manufacturers and users. The
standardization process is still ongoing; in
particular there are still (otherwise
identical) competing metric and inch-sized
thread standards widely used.[7] Standard
threads are commonly identified by short
letter codes (M, UNC, etc.) which also form
the prefix of the standardized designations
of individual threads.

Additional product standards identify

preferred thread sizes for screws and nuts,
as well as corresponding bolt head and
nut sizes, to facilitate compatibility
between spanners (wrenches) and other
tools.

ISO standard threads

The most common threads in use are the

ISO metric screw threads (M) for most
purposes and BSP threads (R, G) for pipes.

These were standardized by the

International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1947. Although
metric threads were mostly unified in 1898
by the International Congress for the
standardization of screw threads, separate
metric thread standards were used in
France, Germany, and Japan, and the
Swiss had a set of threads for watches.

Other current standards

In particular applications and certain

regions, threads other than the ISO metric
screw threads remain commonly used,
sometimes because of special application
requirements, but mostly for reasons of
backward compatibility:

Unified Thread Standard (UTS), is the

dominant thread standard used in the
United States and Canada. It is defined
in ANSI/ASME B1.1 Unified Inch Screw
Threads, (UN and UNR Thread Form) . In
some cases products are still made
according the old American National
Standard Series, which has slightly
different specifications, and has been
technically obsolete since 1949. The old
national standard is compatible with the
newer unified standard, but is long out
of date.[8] This unified standard
includes:
Unified Coarse (UNC), the
successor to the obsolete National
Coarse (NC) thread.
Unified Fine (UNF), the successor to
the obsolete National Fine (NF)
thread.
Unified Extra Fine (UNEF)
Unified Special (UNS)
National pipe thread (NPT), used (in the
U.S.) for plumbing of water and gas
pipes, and threaded electrical conduit.
NPTF (National Pipe Thread Fuel)
British Standard Whitworth (BSW), and
for other Whitworth threads including:
British Standard Fine (BSF)
Cycle Engineers' Institute (CEI) or
British Standard Cycle (BSC)
British standard pipe thread (BSP) which
exists in a taper and non taper variant;
used for other purposes as well
British Standard Pipe Taper (BSPT)
British Association screw threads (BA),
primarily electronic/electrical, moving
coil meters and to mount optical lenses
British Standard Buttress Threads (BS
1657:1950)
British Standard for Spark Plugs BS
45:1972
British Standard Brass a fixed pitch
26tpi thread
Glass Packaging Institute threads (GPI),
primarily for glass bottles and vials
Power screw threads
Acme thread form
Square thread form
Buttress thread
Royal Microscopical Society (RMS)
thread, also known as society thread, is a
special 0.8" diameter x 36 thread-per-
inch (tpi) Whitworth thread form used
for microscope objective lenses.
Microphone stands:
⅝″ 27 threads per inch (tpi) Unified
Special thread (UNS, USA and the
rest of the world)
¼″ BSW (not common in the US, but
used in the rest of the world)
⅜″ BSW (not common in the US, but
used in the rest of the world)
Stage lighting suspension bolts (in
some countries only; some have gone
entirely metric, others such as Australia
have reverted to the BSW threads, or
have never fully converted):
⅜″ BSW for lighter luminaires
½″ BSW for heavier luminaires
Tapping screw threads (ST) – ISO 1478
Aerospace inch threads (UNJ) – ISO
3161
Aerospace metric threads (MJ) – ISO
5855
Tyre valve threads (V) – ISO 4570
Metal bone screws (HA, HB) – ISO 5835
Panzergewinde (Pg) (German) is an old
German 80° thread (DIN 40430) that
remained in use until 2000 in some
electrical installation accessories in
Germany.
Fahrradgewinde (Fg) (English: bicycle
thread) is a German bicycle thread
standard (per DIN 79012 and DIN 13.1),
which encompasses a lot of CEI and
BSC threads as used on cycles and
mopeds everywhere
(http://www.fahrradmonteur.de/fahrradg
ewinde.php )
Edison base Incandescent light bulb
holder screw thread
Fire hose connection (NFPA standard
194)
Hose Coupling Screw Threads
(ANSI/ASME B1.20.7-1991 [R2003]) for
garden hoses and accessories
Löwenherz thread,[9] a German metric
thread used for measuring
instruments[10]
 Sewing machine thread[11]

History of standardization

Graphic representation of formulas for the pitches of

threads of screw bolts
A good summary of screw thread standards in current
use in 1914 was given in Colvin FH, Stanley FA (eds)
(1914): American Machinists' Handbook, 2nd ed , New
York and London, McGraw-Hill, pp. 16–22. USS, metric,
Whitworth, and BA standards are discussed. The SAE

series was not mentioned—at the time this edition of

the Handbook was being compiled, they were either
still in development or just newly introduced.
A table of standard sizes for machine screws as

provided by the American Screw Company of

Providence, Rhode Island, USA, and published in a
Mechanical Engineers' Handbook of 1916. Standards
seen here overlap with those found elsewhere marked
as ASME and SAE standards and with the later Unified
Thread Standard (UTS) of 1949 and afterward. One can
see the theme of how later standards reflect a degree
of continuation from earlier standards, sometimes with
hints of long-ago intracompany origins. For example,
compare the 6–32, 8–32, 10–24, and 10–32 options in
this table with the UTS versions of those sizes, which
are not identical but are so close that interchange
would work.
Survey results on the use of SAE standards (including
screw size standards), reported in the journal
Horseless Age, 1916

The first historically important intra-

company standardization of screw threads
began with Henry Maudslay around 1800,
when the modern screw-cutting lathe
made interchangeable V-thread machine
screws a practical commodity.[12] During
the next 40 years, standardization
continued to occur on the intra- and inter-
company levels.[13] No doubt many
mechanics of the era participated in this
zeitgeist; Joseph Clement was one of
those whom history has noted. In 1841,
Joseph Whitworth created a design that,
through its adoption by many British
railroad companies, became a national
standard for the United Kingdom called
British Standard Whitworth. During the
1840s through 1860s, this standard was
often used in the United States and
Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra-
and inter-company standards. In April
1864, William Sellers presented a paper to
the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia,
proposing a new standard to replace the
US' poorly standardized screw thread
practice. Sellers simplified the Whitworth
design by adopting a thread profile of 60°
and a flattened tip (in contrast to
Whitworth's 55° angle and rounded
tip).[14][15] The 60° angle was already in
common use in America,[16] but Sellers's
system promised to make it and all other
details of threadform consistent.

The Sellers thread, easier for ordinary

machinists to produce, became an
important standard in the U.S. during the
late 1860s and early 1870s, when it was
chosen as a standard for work done under
U.S. government contracts, and it was also
adopted as a standard by highly influential
railroad industry corporations such as the
Baldwin Locomotive Works and the
Pennsylvania Railroad. Other firms
adopted it, and it soon became a national
standard for the U.S.,[16] later becoming
generally known as the United States
Standard thread (USS thread). Over the
next 30 years the standard was further
defined and extended and evolved into a
set of standards including National Coarse
(NC), National Fine (NF), and National Pipe
Taper (NPT). Meanwhile, in Britain, the
British Association screw threads were
also developed and refined.
During this era, in continental Europe, the
British and American threadforms were
well known, but also various metric thread
standards were evolving, which usually
employed 60° profiles. Some of these
evolved into national or quasi-national
standards. They were mostly unified in
1898 by the International Congress for the
standardization of screw threads at Zurich,
which defined the new international metric
thread standards as having the same
profile as the Sellers thread, but with
metric sizes. Efforts were made in the
early 20th century to convince the
governments of the U.S., UK, and Canada
to adopt these international thread
standards and the metric system in
general, but they were defeated with
arguments that the capital cost of the
necessary retooling would drive some
firms from profit to loss and hamper the
economy. (The mixed use of dueling inch
and metric standards has since cost
much, much more, but the bearing of these
costs has been more distributed across
national and global economies rather than
being borne up front by particular
governments or corporations, which helps
explain the lobbying efforts.)

Sometime between 1912 and 1916, the

Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE)
created an "SAE series" of screw thread
sizes reflecting parentage from earlier USS
and ASME standards.

During the late 19th and early 20th

centuries, engineers found that ensuring
the reliable interchangeability of screw
threads was a multi-faceted and
challenging task that was not as simple as
just standardizing the major diameter and
pitch for a certain thread. It was during
this era that more complicated analyses
made clear the importance of variables
such as pitch diameter and surface finish.
A tremendous amount of engineering work
was done throughout World War I and the
following interwar period in pursuit of
reliable interchangeability. Classes of fit
were standardized, and new ways of
generating and inspecting screw threads
were developed (such as production
thread-grinding machines and optical
comparators). Therefore, in theory, one
might expect that by the start of World
War II, the problem of screw thread
interchangeability would have already
been completely solved. Unfortunately,
this proved to be false. Intranational
interchangeability was widespread, but
international interchangeability was less
so. Problems with lack of
interchangeability among American,
Canadian, and British parts during World
War II led to an effort to unify the inch-
based standards among these closely
allied nations, and the Unified Thread
Standard was adopted by the Screw
Thread Standardization Committees of
Canada, the United Kingdom, and the
United States on November 18, 1949 in
Washington, D.C., with the hope that they
would be adopted universally. (The original
UTS standard may be found in ASA (now
ANSI) publication, Vol. 1, 1949.) UTS
consists of Unified Coarse (UNC), Unified
Fine (UNF), Unified Extra Fine (UNEF) and
Unified Special (UNS). The standard was
widely taken up in the UK, although a small
number of companies continued to use
the UK's own British standards for
Whitworth (BSW), British Standard Fine
(BSF) and British Association (BA) micro-
screws.

However, internationally, the metric system

was eclipsing inch-based measurement
units. In 1947, the ISO was founded; and in
1960, the metric-based International
System of Units (abbreviated SI from the
French Système International) was created.
With continental Europe and much of the
rest of the world turning to SI and ISO
metric screw thread, the UK gradually
leaned in the same direction. The ISO
metric screw thread is now the standard
that has been adopted worldwide and is
slowly displacing all former standards,
including UTS. In the U.S., where UTS is
still prevalent, over 40% of products
contain at least some ISO metric screw
threads. The UK has completely
abandoned its commitment to UTS in
favour of ISO metric threads, and Canada
is in between. Globalization of industries
produces market pressure in favor of
phasing out minority standards. A good
example is the automotive industry; U.S.
auto parts factories long ago developed
the ability to conform to the ISO standards,
and today very few parts for new cars
retain inch-based sizes, regardless of
being made in the U.S.

Even today, over a half century since the

UTS superseded the USS and SAE series,
companies still sell hardware with
designations such as "USS" and "SAE" to
convey that it is of inch sizes as opposed
to metric. Most of this hardware is in fact
made to the UTS, but the labeling and
cataloging terminology is not always
precise.

Engineering drawing
In American engineering drawings,
ANSI Y14.6 defines standards for
indicating threaded parts. Parts are
indicated by their nominal diameter (the
nominal major diameter of the screw
threads), pitch (number of threads per
inch), and the class of fit for the thread.
For example, “.750-10UNC-2A” is male (A)
with a nominal major diameter of 0.750 in,
10 threads per inch, and a class-2 fit;
“.500-20UNF-1B” would be female (B) with
a 0.500 in nominal major diameter, 20
threads per inch, and a class-1 fit. An
arrow points from this designation to the
surface in question.[17]
Generation
There are many ways to generate a screw
thread, including the traditional subtractive
types (e.g., various kinds of cutting [single-
pointing, taps and dies, die heads, milling];
molding; casting [die casting, sand
casting]; forming and rolling; grinding; and
occasionally lapping to follow the other
processes); newer additive techniques;
and combinations thereof.

Inspection
Another common inspection point is the
straightness of a bolt or screw. This topic
comes up often when there are assembly
issues with predrilled holes as the first
troubleshooting point is to determine if the
fastener or the hole is at fault. ASME
B18.2.9 "Straightness Gage and Gaging for
Bolts and Screws" was developed to
address this issue. Per the scope of the
standard, it describes the gage and
procedure for checking bolt and screw
straightness at maximum material
condition (MMC) and provides default
limits when not stated in the applicable
product standard.

See also
Acme Thread Form
Bicycle thread
multi start thread
Buttress Thread Form
Dryseal Pipe Threads Form
Filter thread
Garden hose thread form
Metric: M Profile Thread Form
National Thread Form
National Pipe Thread Form
Nut (hardware)
Tapered thread
Tap and die
Thread angle
Thread pitch gauge
 Thread protector

Notes
1. Burnham, Reuben Wesley (4 April 2018).
"Mathematics for Machinists" . John Wiley
& sons, Incorporated. Retrieved 4 April 2018
– via Google Books.
2. Brown, Sheldon. "Bicycle Glossary:
Pedal" . Sheldon Brown. Retrieved
2010-10-19.
3. "Threaded stud / steel / clamping – S&W
Manufacturing Co., Inc" .
www.directindustry.com. Retrieved 4 April
2018.
4. Bhandari, p. 205.
5. "Coarse Threads vs. Fine Threads" .
katonet.com.
6. Green, Robert, ed. (1996). Machinery's
Handbook (25 ed.). p. 893. ISBN 0-8311-
2575-6.
7. ISO/TC/ 1 Business Plan , 2007-03-05,
Version 1.3. Table 3: The market share of
each screw thread, p. 7.
8. "American National Standard vs. Unified
Inch Standard" . Retrieved 14 Mar 2019.
9. www.mipraso.de, Michael Prandl,.
"Löwenherz Thread" . www.gewinde-
normen.de. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
10. Ryffel 1988, p. 1603.
11. www.mipraso.de, Michael Prandl,.
"Sewing Machine Thread (Nähnorm 100)" .
www.gewinde-normen.de. Retrieved 4 April
2018.
12. Quentin R. Skrabec, Jr. (2005). "The
Metallurgic Age: The Victorian Flowering of
Invention and Industrial Science". p. 169.
McFarland
13. Roe 1916, pp. 9–10.
14. "ASME 125th Anniversary: Special 2005
Designation of Landmarks: Profound
Influences in Our Lives: The United States
Standard Screw Threads" . asme.org.
Retrieved 4 April 2018.
15. Roe 1916, pp. 248–249.
16. Roe 1916, p. 249.
17. Wilson pp. 77–78 (page numbers may
be from an earlier edition).

References
Bhandari, V B (2007), Design of Machine
Elements , Tata McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-
0-07-061141-2.
Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser,
Ronald A. (2003), Materials and
Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.),
Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.
Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton,
Holbrook L.; Ryffel, Henry H. (1996),
Green, Robert E.; McCauley, Christopher
J., eds., Machinery's Handbook (25th
ed.), New York, NY, USA: Industrial Press,
ISBN 978-0-8311-2575-2,
OCLC 473691581 .
Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English
and American Tool Builders , New Haven,
Connecticut: Yale University Press,
LCCN 16011753 . Reprinted by McGraw-
Hill, New York and London, 1926
(LCCN 27-24075 ); and by Lindsay
Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois,
(ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7).
Wilson, Bruce A. (2004), Design
Dimensioning and Tolerancing (4th ed.),
Goodheart-Wilcox, ISBN 1-59070-328-6.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Screw threads.

International Thread Standards

ModelFixings – Thread Data
NASA RP-1228 Fastener Design Manual

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