P2 Report PDF

FLOATING STRUCTURES
Research into the possibilities for a Floating Theatre in the Harbour of Scheveningen
P2 - Final report
ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING: DESIGN RESEARCH
ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING GRADUATION STUDIO: GRADUATION PREPARATION
Student Theo Mestemaker
Teachers Jan Engels

Suzanne Groenewold
Wim Kamerling
Florian Heinzelmann
University TU Delft (Delft University of Technology)

Studio LAB07 - Architectural Engineering
Date 30 March 2012

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DATA
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Name T.W.J. Mestemaker (Theo)

Student number 4025113
Address Talmastraat 8
Postal code 8385 GG
Place of residence Vledderveen
Telephone number 06-30394840
E-mail address theo.mestemaker@hotmail.com
STUDIO
Theme Architectural Engineering LAB07 - TU Delft (Delft University of Technology)
Teachers Ir. J.F. Engels (Jan) | Architect
Ir. S. Groenewold (Suzanne) | Architect
Ir. M.W. Kamerling (Wim) | Floating Engineer
Ir. F. Heinzelmann (Florian) | Revolt House
Argumentation of choice of the The architectural engineering studio is for me the best choice, because there is a strong rela-
studio tion between architecture and engineering (technology). Coming from a technical background,
this specialisation is the most related to me and I thought this was the most interesting and fun
specialization to do.
TITLE
Title Floating Structures:
Research into the possibilities for a Floating Theatre in the Harbour of Scheveningen
PREFACE
This document contains the outline for the MSc3 architectural and engineering studies as part
of the Architectural Engineering Studio aE7 (lab 07) and is made for the teachers to give feed-
back on the progress of the graduation. The MSc3 project consists form two courses, with in
the first quarter; ‘Architectural Engineering: Design Research (AR3AE010)’ and in the second
quater; ‘Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio: Graduation Preparation (AR3AE015)’.
Passing this project (these two courses) will lead to the MSc4; Architectural Engineering
Graduation Studio (AR4AE010)’, here will be the focus on the real design and engineering of
the project.
The assignment for this project is to design and engineer a building, with the starting point of a
technical fascination, in the Scheveningen Harbour of the city The Hague in The Netherlands.
This location has fascinating possibilities and challenges that lie in the field of interest of ar-
chitectural engineering (building technology, climate, sustainability, product development), this
creates opportunities to realise inspiring architecture.
The graduation project has to combine Architecture and Engineering and create a strong bal-
ance and integration between these two aspects.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 17
2. RESEARCH 21
3. PROCESS 27
4. ENGINEERING 33
5. ARCHITECTURE 83
6. URBANISM (LOCATION) 131
7. CASE STUDY: REVOLT HOUSE 143
8. CONCLUSIONS 151
9. LITERATURE 159
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1 INTRODUCTION
17
FASCINATION
The first thing that came to mind, when I started with this project, was ‘water’. Every where
you look in Scheveningen is water or is a function that has something to do with water. So I
thought; why not floating on water? So my fascination for the graduation project is floating
structures.
Also an other reason to choose for this fascination is that the world is in a climate change and
one of the dangers of this climate change is flooding. Because Scheveningen/The Hague is
located next to the sea it is in the danger area and in high risk of flooding. A floating structure
can withstand this danger.
Architectural function
After the first survey (P1 first quarter) I have been asking myself what kind of function could
be interesting when floating and could provide a challenge for architecture. The function that I
have chosen is a ‘theatre’. Theatres are very interesting, because the building is not a building
that is ‘standing still’, because of the dynamics and flexibility of the stages and the performanc-
es. There is also a atmosphere in theatres like a certain drama, even before the show starts.
The main advantage of a floating building or in my case a floating theatre is that the building is
floating, which creates the dynamic aspects like movement and rotation. This gives a large flex-
ibility which one of the most important features of a theatre. An advantage of floating or moving
in water is that it is without much energy. During the show the stages can float in front of the
tribune and sail away, or the other way around. Also there is the possibility of having incredible
large floating structures, like a boat or a floating air plane, because nothing on earth is larger
than the oceans.
ReVolt House
As a side study I am participating in the ReVolt House project, this is the entry from the TU
Delft for the Solar Decathlon Europe 2012. With this project I am designing, advising and cal-
culating the properties for the floating system. In this way I am already familiarising myself with
the design and engineering aspects of floating. My work on the ReVolt House can have further
influences on my design. There are a lot of aspects of sustainability integrated into the project,
which might be interesting for my own graduation project. Also rotation towards or from the
sun, which is a aspect of floating could be integrated into my design.
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20
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2 RESEARCH
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21
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PROBLEM STATEMENT
Sea level rise and land subsidence
The rise of the sea level is a natural phenomenon. Several measurements in New York and
Rotterdam show a sea level rise of between 170 and 220 millimetre. These measurements
are made during the last 100 years. The sea level rise in New York and Rotterdam could be
attributed to the regional subsidence of the earth’s crust, due to the subtraction of water and
because it is still slowly readjusting to the melting of ice sheets since the end of the last ice
age. For these two cities, the land subsidence is between the 3 to 4 mm per year. In Jakarta
the land subsidence is probably the main factor for the sea level rise, because some part of the
cities are sinking at rates of 38 mm per year, mainly due to groundwater extraction.
This is an important issue, because two third of the cities in the world is built near water, and
50 per cent of the people live there. And still we are still spending money and building material
on buildings that are in danger of being destroyed by nature, due to flooding. It should be bet-
ter to invest in a more adaptive system like floating structures, which are not dependable on the
current water protection systems.[1]
Map of the world showing high risk areas Forecast 2100 Netherlands,
Partly due to this problem, I have decided to research the possibilities of floating structures.
Because the location is at the entry of the harbour, there is an effect of the waves on the build-
ing. This water is more interesting to research then the calm water inland, like on lakes.
Problem statement and research questions

The problem statement is:
How is it possible to realise a floating theatre that has a great flexibility and can withstand the
waves?
[1]
Aerts, J.; Major, D.C.; Bowman, M.J.; Dircke, P.; Aris Marfai, M., (2009), Connecting delta cities: coastal
cities, flood risk management and adaptation to climate change, VU University Press 23
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Related to the problem statement I formulated some research questions. These research ques-
tions are a substantiation to the problem statement and therefore can provide a better answer
to the problem statement.
Research questions that are related to this problem statement are:

- How can a structure float?
- What is the difference between the behaviour of floating structures in still inland water and
on sea?
- Which different kind of theatres do exist and which is suitable for on the water?
- How flexible does the theatre and the stage needs to be?
- What is the relation between the building and the harbour/mainland?
- Which size does the theatre needs to be and how many stages?
- Which facilities are necessary for a floating theatre?
- Which part of the theatre is floating and which part is fixed?
Specific questions will be added during the design process, when they are within the problem
statement.
DESIGN ASSIGNMENT
The general design assignment is: “Design a floating theatre”. This theatre needs a certain
amount of flexibility/mobility. To determine the parameters of the building and get a more speci-
fied design assignment, I did several studies.
Different studies
- Floating bodies;
- Theatre typologies;
- Timeline of tribunes;
- Timeline of stages;
- Technical data for theatres (angles/slope);
- Aspects of flotation;
- Floating related to theatre functions;
- Location related to the harbour (relation with harbour/land);
- Location research.
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RESEARCH TOPICS
The research topics are stated in the previous paragraphs. The main research topics are:
Engineering, Architecture, Urbanism (Location) and the Case study: ReVolt House. The four
research topics all have different kind of studies.
Because the research contains a large amount of data, most of the research is located in the
appendixes and the ‘normal’ chapters give a summary of those appendixes and the results or
the design input for the MSc4 project.
Summary of the different studies and research:
Engineering
- Theory of floating (Hydrostatics/Archimedes);
- Floating structures and technical background.
Architecture
- Floating reference projects;
- Theatre reference projects;
- Typologies of theatres;
- Typologies of floating theatres;
- Architectural Data of theatres;
- Building program;
- Relation fixed versus floating.
Urbanism (Location)
- Routing/infrastructure of location;
- Climate conditions;
- Orientation (Sun);
- Water Data (depths of the sea/wave information);
- Relation between land and floating building;
- Inspirational objects/materials of environment.
Case study: ReVolt House

- Testing different floating shapes;
- Calculating different floating structures;
- Getting information about potential sustainable solutions;
- Advising role in the ReVolt team about floating structures.
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3 PROCESS
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27
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METHOD DESCRIPTION
The research is mainly divided into three levels
1. Theoretical level:
This is the basis for the design and mainly consists of research that is aimed at
generating knowledge (theory) about floating and theatres.
2. Empirical level:
This level focuses on the evaluation of the gathered knowledge and thinking about
what could be applied on the design.
3. Application Level:
This level focuses on the application of the knowledge on the design. And this is the
real design phase.
At the P2, the second survey (NL: tweede peiling), I should be at the stage of the empirical
level. Until the P1, the first survey, I did a technical research on the theory of floating and float-
ing structures. From the P1 until the P2, I am doing a more architectural related study.
From the P2 until the P5 I will be designing and calculating my own building.
Tasks to do before P1 (first survey)

- Literature study on the theory of floating; hydrostatics;
- Literature study on floating structures; buildings and civil engineering;
- Explaining and calculation of floating structures;
- Researching and calculating the possibilities for the floating body of the ReVolt House
(Solar Decathlon Europe 2012).
Tasks to do before P2 (second survey)

- Architectural study on different floating objects;
- Architectural and technical study on theatres;
- Explaining and calculation of floating structures;
- Location research;
- Design / Sketch ideas for my own building;
- Researching and calculating the possibilities for the floating body of the ReVolt House
(Solar Decathlon Europe 2012).
Tasks to do before P3 (third survey)

- Continue with the architectural study on different floating objects;
- Continue with the architectural and technical study on theatres;
- Specify a location;
- Design and evaluate my building;
- Build models of designs.
Tasks to do before P4 (fourth survey)

- Build models of designs;
- Floating calculations of the designed building;
- Structural calculations;
- Building Physics.
Tasks to do before P5 (fifth survey)

- Prepare final presentation (models, drawings)
- Calculate the designed building;
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LITERATURE AND REFERENCE
All the literature that is necessary for the research that I am going to use needs to be relevant
to my research subject. It is hard to say which literature I am going to use this depends on the
insights that I am getting during the design process.
Literature / information that is used (or going to be used):

- Literature about the theory of floating;
- Architectural books about theatres and public buildings;
- Architectural data for technical input for the design of theatres, like the Neufert book;
- Plans for the location, made by third parties, like the government.
- Data of the KNMI (dutch weather institute), about the wave heights;
- Sea maps, information about the depths of the sea;
- Data of NASA, about the sea level rise.
- Theatre precedents, with different scales/sizes;
- Floating precedents, like floating houses and public buildings.
TIME PLANNING
Because I already finished all my other courses of the Master 1 and 2, so I have all the time for
the courses of the master 3 and 4. I also spend a lot of time on the floating calculations of the
Revolt House project. Mainly my time frame is according to the schedule of the TU Delft.
Survey Time schedule/deadline

P1 AR3AE010 Architectural Engineering: Design Research Week 44/45 - 2011
- Technical fascination; 4 November 2011
- Lectures;
- Research essays.
P2 AR3AE015 Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio: Graduation Preparation Week 8/9/10 - 2012
- Site; 26 January 2012
- Program;
- Building;
- Research essays;
- Learning plan;
Phase: Preliminary design
P3 AR4AE010 Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio Week 15/16 - 2012

- Architectural design
- Construction
- Details
Phase: Definitive design
P4 AR4AE010 Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio Week 19/20/21 - 2012

- Research essays;
- Reflections.
Phase: Final design
P5 AR4AE010 Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio Week 25/26/27 - 2012

- Final presentation.
Phase: Exam
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4 ENGINEERING
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33
34
THEORY OF FLOATING
To get an object or a building to float, it is necessary to understand the theory of hydrostatics.
Floating buildings are simply buildings that are founded on a liquid, mostly water.
Liquids can only be loaded with a pressure force; shear and tensile forces cannot be taken by
the liquid. This can become difficult when the load isn’t evenly distributed.
To understand the basics of hydrostatics it is necessary to know the law of Archimedes of

Syracuse.
ARCHIMEDES
Archimedes of Syracuse, 250 before Christ, better known as Archimedes did a study on float-
ing bodies, in this study he did several propositions and then came up with the proof for those
propositions. The propositions on floating bodies are based on the behaviour of a floating body
in a liquid and to determine the size of it. These propositions are called the law of Archimedes.
Archimedes proposition 3, states that
Of solids those which, size for size, are of equal weight with a fluid
will, if let down into the fluid, be immersed so that they do not project
above the surface but do not sink lower.
A solid lighter than a fluid will, if immersed in it, not be completely

submerged, but part of it will project above the surface
Any solid lighter than a fluid will, if placed in the fluid, be so far
immersed that the weight of the solid will be equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced.
If a solid lighter than a -fluid be forcibly immersed in it, the solid will
be driven upwards by a force equal to the difference between its
weight and the weight of the fluid displaced.
This means the action force is the same as the reaction force. This is also called the principle of
buoyancy.
A solid heavier than a fluid will, if placed in it, descend to the bottom
of the fluid, and the solid will, when weighed in the fluid, be lighter
than its true weight by the weight of the fluid displaced.
This means that a solid object which is heavier than a fluid will sink.
35
HYDROSTATICS
Immersion
Archimedes proposition 6, states that:
If a solid lighter than a fluid be forcibly immersed in it, the solid will be driven
upwards by a force equal to the difference between its weight and the weight of the
fluid displaced.
This means the action force is the same as the reaction force. This is also called the principle of
buoyancy. The gravitational force on a floating object equals the weight of the moved liquid and
the weight of the moved liquid equals the upward force applied to this object.
With this law the immersion of floating bodies can be calculated, for each shape there is a dif-
ferent calculation. The shapes that are studied are rectangular, triangular and cylindrical. Equilibrium between forces
Rectangular floating body
Fupw = γ w .∇
Fupw = vertical upward force (reaction) [kN]
 w = density of water [kN/m3]; for water inland 10 [kN/m3]
for sea water 10,3 [kN/m3]
  3
= displaced fluid[m ]
Rectangular symbol
∇ = d .w.l
d = depth of immersion [m]
w = width of floating body [m]
l = length of floating object [m]
Fupw = Fz
Fz = vertical downward force (action) [kN]
Fz = 10.w.d .l
Fz
d=
10.w.l
d = depth of immersion (m)
Fz = vertical force (kN)
w = width of floating body (m)
l = length of floating object (m)
Triangular floating body
Fupw = γ w .l.d 2 .tan β

w = density of water (kN/m3), for water inland 10 kN/m3
 = the half angle of the triangle top
∇ = l.d 2 .tanβ
Triangular symbol
 = displaced fluid[m3]
 = the half angle of the triangle top
36
Fz = 10.l.d 2 .tanβ
Fz
d=
10.l.tanβ
Fz = vertical force (reaction) (kN)
 = half the angle of the triangle top
Cylindrical floating body

To determine the water displacement and the depth of immersion of a cylindrical floating body,
there are two common methods to do this. One method is the Newton-Raphson method and
the other is the Simpson method. The Newton-Raphson and the Simpson method are numeric
methods and therefore less precise than the calculation methods for the other bodies.
1 2
∇= r .l ( 2ϕ − sin 2ϕ ) Cylindrical symbol
2
r = radius (m)
 = central angle
When the water displacement is calculated, the immersion can be calculated. The immersion
of the cylindrical floating body can be determined approximately, with the Newton-Raphson
method.
1 2
F= r .l.10 ( 2ϕ − sin 2ϕ )
2
Determine the central angle []:

g (ϕ n )
ϕn +1 = ϕn −
g ’(ϕ n )
F
g (ϕ ) = ( 2ϕ − sin 2ϕ ) −
5r 2l
g’(ϕ ) = 2 − 2cos 2ϕ
Determine the immersion [d]:
d = r − r.cosϕ
These calculation methods for a cylindrical floating body are very numeric and therefore are not
as accurate as the other calculations methods for the other two bodies.
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Water pressure
The water is creating a force (pressure) on the floating body. The vertical component of
the water pressure is equals to the gravitational force. The horizontal component of the
water pressure equals itself.
p = γ w .d
p = water pressure [kN/m3]
 w = density of water [kN/m3], for water inland 10 kN/m3.
Modules of subgrade reaction

The modulus of subgrade reaction describes the link between the deformation en the
centric vertical load. This modulus is used for the calculation of foundations on a weak
soil. First the modulus for a foundation of steel will be determined and then the foundation
of a floating structure.
Foundation on steel
The modulus for a foundation on steel can be calculated by loading the foundation with a
force F, which determines the tension on the underground and measure the settlement.
σ
k=
u
k = modulus of subgrade reaction [kN/m3]
 = stress [kN/m3]
u = settlement (m)
F
σ=
l.w
This results in the formula:
F
k=
l.w.u
k = modulus of subgrade reaction [kN/m3]
F = force (kN)
u = settlement (m)
The modulus of subgrade reaction for a foundation on steel is varying between

k = 10.000 and 50.000 kN/m3.
Floating foundation
The modulus of subgrade reaction for a floating body is similar to the modulus for a foun-
dation on steel. The settlement [u] needs to be replaced by the immersion [d].
F
k=
l.w.d
k = modulus of subgrade reaction (kN/m3)
F = force (kN)
d = immersion (m)
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Rectangular body
The immersion for a rectangular body is:
Fz
d=
10.w.l
Substituting this formula in the formula of the floating foundation.
F
k=
l.w.d
Results in:
k = 10 kN/m3
This foundation is a lot weaker than the foundation on steel, about a thousand times.
Triangular body
The immersion for a triangular body is:
Fz
d=
10.l.tanβ
Substituting this formula in the formula of the floating foundation.
F
k=
l.w.d
Results in:
10 F
k=
2d l.tanβ
If we look at the basic shape of a triangular, the triangular is mostly the half of a rectangular (or
square). So approximately we could say that, the modulus of subgrade reaction would be half
of the square one, so k = 5 kN/m3.
Cylindrical body
For the immersion of a cylindrical floating body, the approach is numeric, therefore it is not pos-
sible to give a analytic description for the modulus of subgrade reaction for this shape.
Centre of buoyancy
A floating object creates a water displacement, the centre of gravity of the displaced volume of
water is called the centre of buoyancy. The centre of buoyancy is important, because the result-
ing upward force engages here. The position of this centre of buoyancy can be calculated for
the different shapes, assuming a centred or evenly distributed load on the floating body.
Rectangular body
The centre of buoyancy for a rectangular body is:
1
Brec = d
2
Brec = centre of buoyancy measured from water surface [m]
39
Triangular body
The centre of gravity for a triangular body is:
sy
z=
A
z = position centre of gravity [m]
Sy = static moment in the x-y area [m3]
A = area [m2]
1
Atri = w.h
2
Atri = area triangle [m2]
h = height of floating body (m)
1
S y = w.h 2
3
Sy = static moment in the x-y area [m3]
h = height of floating body (m)
Substituting these formulas into the formula of the centre of gravity, results in:
2
z= h
3
The centre of gravity of an equilateral triangular object is seen from the base, on one third of the
height.
The centre of buoyancy for a triangular body is then:
1
Btri = d
3
Btri = centre of buoyancy measured from water surface [m]
Cylindrical body
The centre of gravity for a half cylindrical body is:
4.r
z=
3.π
z = position centre of gravity [m]
r = radius (m)
This is approximately 0,42 times the radius (0,42r).
The centre of buoyancy for a half cylindrical body is then:
4r
Bcyl = ≈ 0, 42r
3π
Bcyl = centre of buoyancy measured from water surface [m]
This formula only applies to a cylindrical body that is half fully under water. Otherwise the Simp-
son method should be used to determine the centre of gravity and buoyancy.
Centre of buoyancy for the different floating bodies
40
BENDING MOMENT AND ECCENTRIC LOADS
Rotation
If an eccentric load or a bending moment is applied to a floating body, the pontoon will rotate.
When rotation by an angle () we can calculate the minimal and maximal immersion of the float-
ing body:
d min = ( d − δ ) cosα
d max = ( d + δ ) cosα
1
δ = b.tanα
2
The maximal a minimal water pressure at the bottom will become:
Pmin = 10 ( d − δ ) cosα
Pmax = 10 ( d + δ ) cosα
Maximal immersion
Righting moment (torque)

If a floating body is rotating, the water pressure on the bottom plate becomes an unevenly
distributed load. This load is resolves into a righting moment, that makes equilibrium with the
water pressure.
To determine the force of the righting moment, we assume that the floating body is rotating
around its keel-point, located at the bottom centre of the body. And that the gravity point of
the object is also in this place. In reality the gravity point will be located higher and the rotation Unevenly distributed waterpressure
point won’t be the keel, but around the metacentre of the floating body.
Step 1
An unevenly distributed water pressure at the bottom plate and the sides of the floating body
are created, due to the skew of the body.
Step 2 Horizontal influences
The water pressure at the bottom of the floating body, which is generating the vertical part of
the righting moment, is split in two triangles; triangle 1 and triangle 2.
Contribution of triangle 1:
w2 .l.10(d − δ ) cos α
M1 =
12
Vertical components of the Mright
w2 .l.10(d + δ ) cos α
M2 =
12
Step 3
With moment 1 and 2 (M1 and M2) we can calculate the total vertical component of the right-
ing moment, Mvert. All components; equilibrium
w2 .l.10.δ .cos α
M vert =
6
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Step 4
The water pressure at the sides of the floating body result in an extra moment, this we also split
up into two triangles.
l.10(d − δ )3 cos α
M3 = −
6
l.10( d + δ )3 cos α
M4 = −
6
Step 5
With moment 3 and 4 (M3 and M4) we can calculate the total horizontal component of the
righting moment, Mhor.
l.10(6d 2 .δ + 2.δ 3 ) cos α

M hor =
6
Step 6
With the horizontal (Mhor) and vertical (Mvert) moments calculated, it is now possible to calcu-
late the total righting moment, Mright. The summations of the vertical and horizontal moments
make equilibrium with the external moment (Mext), this results in:
M ver + M hor = M right = M ext
M right = M ver + M hor

⎛ w2 1 w2 .(tan α ) 2 ⎞
M right = F sin α . ⎜ + d+ ⎟
⎝ 12d 2 24d ⎠
When the centre of gravity of a floating body is higher compared to the keel point, a different
formula should be used to calculate the righting moment.
Spring rate
The spring rate of a floating body describes the relation between the size of the righting mo-
ment and the angle of rotation of the foundation.
M
C=
α
C = spring rate (kNm/rad)
M = Moment (kNm)
 = angle of rotation (rad)
If we substitute the formula if the righting moment into the formula of the spring rate we are
able to determine the spring rate.
⎛ w2 1 w2 .(tan α ) 2 ⎞
M = C.α = F sin α . ⎜ + d+ ⎟
⎝ 12d 2 24d ⎠
42
A floating body can only rotate a maximum of 5 degree in UGT, according to the building regu-
lation, therefore the contribution of the angle () will be so small that it can be neglected. Also
the term (tan)2 gives an outcome for the small angles of almost zero, so this is also negligi-
ble. So we can remove the angle of rotation () from the formula, this results in a more simple
formula:
⎛ w2 1 ⎞
C =F⎜ + d⎟
⎝ 12d 2 ⎠
SECOND ORDER EFFECT

In the previous paragraph we assumed that the load is applied at the keel of the floating body.
However in practice this will not work. In reality the gravitational force will be applied at the
centre of gravity of the total structure. The influence of the height of the centre of gravity will be
researched in this paragraph.
THE SECOND ORDER EFFECT AT A CONVENTIONAL FOUNDATION

The position of the centre of gravity is determined by the mass of the object and the mass of
the floating body. The higher the object (or building) the higher the centre of gravity is located.
If we assume that we have a floating building with the centre of gravity in the keel and we put a
horizontal force (Fhor) against the building, then the total moment will be M = Fhor .l , with l =
the arm of the force or better the height of the building.
But if the centre of gravity is located at a higher point, the consequences will be greater in case
of horizontal movement, because the gravitational force (Fz) will have a horizontal displacement
and will generate an extra moment. This moment will increase if the height of the centre of grav-
ity will increase, because the length of the arm will increase.
To understand this effect on a floating building; we first take a look at an infinitely stiff rod, with
the length l, which is clamped into a resilient foundation, with a spring rate C. The rod is verti-
cally loaded with a force Fz and horizontally with a force Fh.
Step 1
The foundation is loaded with a moment M = Fhor .l . Because of this moment, the foundation
is rotating over an angle .
M
α=
C
A conventional foundation
Step 2
Because of this rotation, a displacement (v) will occur at the top of the bar:
v = l.sin α ≈ l.α
(this is for the small angles < 5 degree)
This displacement results in an extra moment:
δ M 1 = F .v
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Step 3
This extra moment increases the total moment, which is generating an increase in the angle of
rotation with:
δ M1
δ a1 =
C
Therefore the displacement will increase with:
δ v1 = l.δ a1
Step 4
This process will continue until the structure will collapse, so fall over, or until the increment
(δ .vn ) is infinitely small.
δ .M 2 = F .v1
δ .v2 = l.δ .α 2
δ .M 3 = F .v2
δ .v3 = l.δ .α 3
The increment of the moment due to the displacement is called the second order effect. The
determine if the structure will collapse as a consequence of the second order effect, the ratio
between vn and δ .vn is defined as n:
v
δ .vn =
n
There are three situations possible:

n < 1, this means that the moment will increase with a lower amount every step;
n = 1, this means that the moment will increase with the same amount every step;
n > 1, this means that the moment will increase with the higher amount every step.
The critical point is n = 1, this means that the moment will increase with a constant rate and
eventually the structure will collapse. Also n > 1, will result in a collapse of the structure. If n <
1, then the moment will increase to a certain value which can be approached. If the structure
can coop with this moment force, the structure could be assumed as stable.
To approached this total moment, the summation of the displacement needs to be calculated.
n
∑v = v
n −1
n
M tot = M0
n −1
n
The term is called the enlargement ratio and when n = 1, the structure will collapse,
n −1
so the critical length and critical force can be calculated:
C
lcrit =
F
44
C
Fcrit =
l
C F l
n= = cri = cri
F .l F l
THE SECOND ORDER EFFECT AT FLOATING STRUCTURES

The theory in the previous paragraph can also be applied to floating structures. The spring ratio
of a floating object is much smaller compared to the ratio of a conventional founded structure.
A floating foundation can be compared to an extremely weak foundation on soil.
This means that the second order effect will be determined by the rotation of the floating body.
The contributions of the displacement of the building is compared to rotation of the floating
body very small and van usually be neglected.
The distance l in the previous paragraph can be seen as the distance between the centre of
gravity of the total building and the centre of rotation of the floating body.
C ⎛ w2 1 ⎞
lcri = =⎜ + d⎟
F ⎝ 12d 2 ⎠
This means that the critical length (lcri) depends on the depth or better immersion (d) and width
(w) of the floating body. The width of the floating body is influencing the critical length quad-
ratic, so increasing the width will have more effect than increasing the immersion of the body.
When the critical length is calculated we can calculate the value of n and then subsequently
calculate the value of Mtot. The change in height of the centre of gravity
STATIC STABILITY
About stability we can defied it into two different kinds of stability, the static and the dynamic
stability. Static stability is related to the (long-term) horizontal or eccentric vertical loads. If a
building is statically stable, it means that the building will not fall over (capsize) or fail under the
influence of loads. Dynamic stability is about the motion generated by the motion of the water,
where the building is floating in. When a building is dynamically stable it will say that it will not
be resonated by the influence of the waves of the water.
STABILITY AND SKEW

A floating object or building is in balance when the summation of the horizontal, the vertical and
the moment forces are equal to zero, so Fhor = 0, Fver = 0 and M = 0. This means that the
building is in an equilibrium state.
There are three kinds of reactions and states of equilibrium possible:

- The building will return to it equilibrium state (stable equilibrium);
- The building will not return to its equilibrium state (labile equilibrium);
- The building will return to an equilibrium state in a displaced state
- (indifferent equilibrium).
A floating building needs to be in equilibrium. Stability for a floating building can be described
as the return to its original equilibrium state. It needs to be able to absorb the disturbance in
the balance (or equilibrium).
45
So if a floating building will skew, not capsize (or fall over) and then return to its original state,
then the building will be seen as stable. If it stays in its skewed position, then the building is
also stable, but it has found a new equilibrium. This is a situation is not desired and therefore
the building should be designed in a way that the permanent loads create an equilibrium, with a
zero rotation, so the building is horizontal levelled and the building needs to be able get back to
its original equilibrium if the variable loads create a disturbance.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY, CENTRE OF BUOYANCY AND METACENTRE

If a structure is loaded with an centric of evenly distributed vertical load, the centre of buoyancy
is exactly under the centre of gravity of the construction.
If a structure is loaded with an external moment, the structure will rotate. Due to this rotation,
the centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy will have a displacement into a horizontal direc-
tion. The centre of buoyancy will have a larger displacement then the centre of gravity.
This means that Fz and Fupw together will create a righting moment. This righting moment (Mright)
will be the opposite of the external moment (Mext) and create an equilibrium.
Equilibrium
As shown in the previous paragraphs, when the centre of gravity is placed at the position of the
keel, the righting moment can be calculated with the following formula:
⎛ w2 1 w2 .(tan α ) 2 ⎞
M right = Fz sin α . ⎜ + d+ ⎟
⎝ 12d 2 24d ⎠
When the centre of gravity is placed on its real position, so no longer at the keel position, the
righting moment can be calculated with:
M right = Fz .a
The distance (a), is the horizontal distance between the centre of gravity (Z) and the centre of
buoyancy(B). The intersection between the working line of the righting force and the symmetry-
The reactions
axis is called the metacentre (M). The distance between the centre of gravity and the metacen-
tre is called hm (height metacentre).
We need to determine the distance (a) between the centre of gravity and the centre of buoy-
ancy, to determine the righting moment.
a = sin α .hm
This results in:
M right = Fz .sin α .hm
If a floating building will increase in height, the centre of gravity will be located higher. If the
height of the building will increase until the centre of gravity and the metacentre are in the same
position, the moment, gravity and righting force will create equilibrium. This results in an indiffer-
ent balance. When a little bit more force is applied to this state, like a fly that flies against it, the
building will fall over.
If the height of a building will increase even more, then eventually the centre of gravity will be
located above the metacentre, this means that the righting moment is now a negative value and
therefore helping the external moment. This means the structure will fall over and sink. If the
centre of gravity is positioned above the metacentre the value of hm is negative.
Now we can say that for a stable structure, the metacentre should be positioned above the
centre of gravity. The distance hm should be high and certainly not negative, to get a high value
of hm, which is positive for the stability, we need a high metacentre and a low centre of gravity.
46
THE HEIGHT OF THE METACENTRE
The metacentre is an important factor for the stability and can be described as the critical
height of the centre of gravity. If the centre of gravity is above the metacentre the structure will
become unstable and capsize.
The formula for the critical height of the centre of gravity is:
w2 1
lcri = + d
12d 2
The length is in this formula measured from the keel. Now we need to proof that the critical
height of the centre of gravity is equal to the position of the metacentre.
The height of the metacentre to the centre of buoyancy can be calculated with the formula of
Scribanti:
Iu ⎛ 1 2⎞
BM = ⎜1 + ( tan α ) ⎟
∇⎝ 2 ⎠
BM = distance between centre of buoyancy (B) and
= metacentre (M)
Iu = second moment of area of the water plane section over
= the long axis (m4)
Second moment of area:
1
Iu = l.w3
12 (same as a regular beam)
Substituting the previous formulas and the formula of the water displacement results in:
w2 ⎛ 1 2⎞
BM = ⎜1 + ( tan α ) ⎟
12d ⎝ 2 ⎠
Because the position of the metacentre depends on the rotation angle and the rotation angle of
floating buildings can’t be larger than 5 degree, the last part of the formula can be neglected.
w2
BM =
12d
If we want to know the height between the metacentre and the keel, we need to add the dis-
tance between the centre of buoyancy and the keel. This distance is the half of the immersion,
(0,5.d), the formula for the distance between the metacentre and the keel (KM) is:
w2 1
KM = + d
12d 2
The distance between the keel and the centre of buoyancy, is half the immersion. When there is
a rotation on the floating body, the centre of buoyancy moves vertically, therefore the distance
will be slightly different. Because the maximum angle of rotation is 5 degree, this is so small
that it can be neglected.
47
The formula for the distance between the metacentre and the keel (KM) and the formula for the
critical height of the centre of gravity is equal:
w2 1 w2 1
lcri = + d KM = + d
12d 2 and 12d 2
The distance between the centre of gravity and the metacentre is called hm, so we call the
distance between the keel (k) and the metacentre hk.
So the formula will be:
w2 1
KM = hk = + d
12d 2
w2 1
hm;rect = + d − hz
12d 2
hz = distance between centre of gravity and keel
Position of the components (hk and hm)
The above formulas are direction dependant. When the length and width of a floating body are
different, the height of the metacentre will be different for the x and y-direction.
w2 1
For the width direction: hm;rect ;w = + d − hz
12d 2
l2 1
For the length direction: hm;rect ;l = + d − hz
12d 2
Different positions of the metacentre, creating a balanced, a indifferent balanced and a unbalanced situation
48
THE HEIGHT OF THE METACENTRE FOR DIFFERENT SHAPES
We know how to calculate the position of the metacentre for a rectangular floating body, so
now we can calculate the metacentre for other floating bodies:
Triangle
2d (tan β ) 2 2
hm;tri ; x = + d − hz (x-direction)
3 3
l2 2
hm;tri ; y = + d − hz (y-direction)
6d 3
Cylinder
4r (sin ϕ )3
hm;cyl ; x = + 0, 58r − hz (x-direction)
3r (2ϕ − sin 2ϕ )
sin ϕ .l 2
hm;cyl ; y = + 0, 58r − hz (y-direction)
3r (2ϕ − sin 2ϕ )
Multiply bodies
If a floating body consist of multiple parts, linked together, so a combined body, we have to use
the second moment of area of the floating body:
Iu
BM =
∇
∇ = wtot .l.d
wtot = total width of the floating body
Multiply bodies; example catamaran

If we have two bodies, with each a width of w, then the total width
wtot = 2.w1,2.
I u ;tot = I u ;body1 + a12 . Abody1 + I u ;body 2 + a2 2 . Abody 2

a1 = distance between the centre of gravity of the total body
= and the centre of gravity of body 1
Abody1 = surface area of the water cross-section of body 1
In this case body 1 and body 2 are the same so:
I u ;tot = 2 I u ;body1 + 2(a12 . Abody1 )
1 b 2 + 12a12 1
hm;comb = KM − hz = BM + d − hz = 1 + d − hz
2 12d 2
It depends on the direction of there are combined bodies, if there are combined bodies, the
above formula should be used, otherwise the normal formula should be used.
49
DIFFERENT TYPES OF STATIC STABILITY
Stability is an important design aspect for floating building, the degree of stability becomes
visible in the height of the metacentre. The height of the metacentre is influenced by: the width
of the floating body, the immersion and the position of the centre of gravity. We can make a
difference between shape-stability and weight-stability.
Shape-stability
If a floating body is rotating, the centre of buoyancy is displaced. The amount in which this is
occurring, is depending on the width of the floating body. If the floating body gets wider, the
centre of buoyancy will displace by a larger amount. This displaced is important for the shape-
stability because the arm of the reaction force is increasing and thereby its moment. A building
with a wide floating body has a large starting stability, but when the moment is increasing the
rotation will increase as well and thereby the arm of the reaction force will increase less.
Weight-stability
The arm of the reaction force will increase when the floating body is wider, but also when the
centre of gravity is lower. In case of a lower centre of gravity, the arm will increase at a slower
rate but also increase less at a slower rate. The ultimate shape stability on land
Weight-stability is not so important at the start of the, but the region covered by weight-stability
is large. When the rotations get larger the structure is acting like a tumbler (tilting doll), be-
cause the centre of gravity is low compared to the metacentre.
1 2 3
Weight-stability in a tumbler
50
51
HYDRODYNAMICS
A floating structure is loaded ‘dynamically’ with a live load due to the effect of the waves. This
is what is called hydrodynamics. The movement of the structure due to the influence of the
waves needs to be minimal to let a floating structure be usable or practical for its function. The
structure may not get to its own frequency otherwise it can capsize.
In this chapter I focus on waves and the effect of the waves on a structure.
Sinusoidal shape of a wave
Airy (Linear) wave theory

When a water surface is exposed to wind, waves are created. A single wave that propagates
itself along a line in the ‘x-direction’, which is the average water line. The water surface can be
seen as a sinusoidal shape, see figure on the right. The deflection to the average water line is
called , and is a function of x and t (time).
The position of a particular point on the water surface can be described with the following
formula:
1 ⎛ 2π 2π ⎞
η ( x, t ) = H sin ⎜ t+ x⎟
2 ⎝ T L ⎠
 = deflection of the water from the middle of the waterline [m]
H = wave height, the height difference between peak and trough [m]
x = distance wave in propagation direction [m]
L = wavelength, the distance between two consecutive peaks or valleys [m]
t = time [s]
T = wave period, the time a water particle required to move a wavelength in
the x-direction [s]
This formula can be rewritten as:
η ( x, t ) = a sin (ω ⋅ t + k ⋅ x )
With:
1 2π 2π
a= H ω= k=
2 and T and L
 = amplitude [m]
 = angular frequency [s-1]
 = wavenumber [m-1]
52
Deep and shallow water
With a sinusoidal wave the water particles have a circular movement, the orbital motion. The
diameter of the orbital circle is dependable on the depth of the water. In deep water, there
is sufficient depth to the circular motion to reduce to zero. Water is regarded as deep water,
when the water depth is greater than half of the wavelength. In shallow water, the shape of the
orbital motion changes from a circle to an ellipse. Water is considered shallow water, when the
water depth is less than 1/20th of the wavelength. The elliptical motion is not reduced to zero
by the limited water depth. This creates horizontal velocities along the bottom of the sea, which
cause shear stresses. These horizontal velocities change continuously magnitude and direc-
tion. At a wave crest the direction is equal to the direction of the wave propagation. At a wave
trough the direction is opposite to the wave propagation.
Orbital motion shallow and deep water
Wave speed
The propagation velocity of the wave can be determined with period T and wavelength L:
L ω
c= =
T k
The wave propagation speed, can also calculated using a other formula:
gT ⎛ 2π d ⎞
c= ⋅ tanh ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ L ⎠
c = propagation velocity [m/s]
d = water depth [m]
53
Wave energy
A wave has a certain amount of energy, a part of this is a part of kinetic energy, and a part is
potential energy. The kinetic energy is created due to the orbital movement of the water parti-
cles and the potential energy is created due to the deflection of the water particles to the water
surface.
For a wave (with length = L), the energy (E) that is generated per linear meter of crest can be
determined with the following formula:
E Ek E p
1
Ek = E p = ρ⋅g⋅H2 ⋅L
16
Which results in the following formula:
E 1
E UgH2
L 8
Irregular wave fields

In practice, the regular sinusoidal wave does not occur, only in a laboratory.
The wave field of a water surface consists of a summation of single waves with different fre-
quencies and amplitudes, directions and phases. Therefore, a irregular wave field occurs, as is
shown in the figure, from the deflection of a water particle.
Irregular wave fields
The behaviour of a irregular wave field is less predictable then a sinusoidal wave. Interesting
for a floating building is the wave height which can be expected at a certain surface. The wave
height is not a constant factor. In order to determine the expected wave height, a exceedance
probability is being used. The exceedance probability indicates the possibility that a particular
value of the wave height will be exceeded.
A designation which is being used to determine the wave height with a certain exceedance
probability, is the significant wave height. This is the wave height with a exceedance probability
of 13,5 %. This corresponds to the average wave height of one-third of the highest waves.
The exceedance probability can be a higher value or a lower value, but the significant wave
height is the most usable and most general approach.
54
The wave height (H) in a given wind field, dependents on the following factors:
- The string length (F) of the wind on the water (fetch) [m or km]
- The water depth (d) [m]
- The wind speed (U) [m/s]
- The duration of the wind (t) [s]
In order to determine the behaviour of the wave field for a certain surface of the water, two
different methods can be used, the Nomograms of Groen and Dorrestein and the method of
Bretschneider.
There are three different kind of classifications for waves, in shallow water, in the transition zone
from shallow to deep water, and in deep water.
Classification d/L wavelength [m] Propagation speed [m/s]

deep water  1/2 gT 2 gL
L= c=
2π 2π
transition zone 1/20 - 1/2
gT 2 ⎛ 2π d ⎞ gL ⎛ 2π d ⎞
L= tanh ⎜ ⎟ c= tanh ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ L ⎠ 2π ⎝ L ⎠
shallow water  1/20
L = T gd c = gd
With:
H = wave height [m]
T = wave period [s]
L = wavelength [m]
d = depth [m]
g = gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
Nomograms Groen and Dorrestein

The Dutch weather institute (KNMI) developed nomograms to determine the wave height. The
nomogram for shallow water is shown in the left figure below and for deep water in the right
figure below. With these nomograms the wave height can be approximated.
Nomogram for shallow water Nomogram for deep water
55
Method of Bretschneider
This method is a different approach to determine the wave height. In this method the height is
calculated depending on the string wave length, the depth of water and the wind speed. With
these parameters, the significant wave height (Hs) and the wave period (Tp) can be calculated.
⎛ ⎞
(
H = 0, 283 ⋅ tanh 0, 53⋅d 0 ,75
) ⋅ tanh ⎜
0, 0125 ⋅ F 0,42 ⎟
⎜
⎝ (
⎜ tanh 0, 53⋅d 0,75
) ⎟
⎟
⎠
⎛ ⎞
(
T = 7, 54 ⋅ tanh 0, 833⋅d 0 ,375
) ⋅ tanh ⎜
0, 077 ⋅ F 0, 25 ⎟
⎜
⎝ (
⎜ tanh 0, 833⋅d 0,375
) ⎟
⎟
⎠
With:
g ⋅ Hs g ⋅ Ts g⋅F g ⋅d
H= T= F= d=
U2 U U2 U2
Because the method of Bretschneider is not limited to the nomograms, this method is easier in
its use and more accurate.
Dynamic stability of floating structures

A building is dynamically unstable if the building gets in its own frequency due to the motion of
the waves. The natural frequency is the point frequency that gets a structure in resonance.
This means that the building will move faster and harder then the waves and will capsize easily.
This needs to be prevented.
A floating building has six degrees of freedom, translations and rotations in three directions to
three axes. In the shipping world these movements are named as follows:
- translation in the x-direction: surge
- translation in the y-direction: sway
- translation in the z-direction: heave
- rotation around x-axis: roll
- rotation around y-axis: pitch
- rotation around z-axis: yaw
Depending on the amount of degree of freedom, a floating structure has more or less flexibil-
ity (in movement). For example if a structure is fixed to a pole (moored), the translation in the
horizontal plane (x and y-directions) is brought to a minimum and also rotation is less, but the
translation in the vertical plane (z-direction) is still possible.
Square pontoon
If a square pontoon, with a perpendicular flow of waves (in the y-direction) is considered, the
own frequencies of the heave and roll movements are important. This situation is also the most
related to my project.
56
Natural frequency: roll-motion
To determine the own frequency of a structure for the roll motion (rotation around the x-axis),
the following formulas can be used:
g ⋅ hm
w0 =
jp2
0 = natural frequency [Hz]

jp = polar mass radius of gyration [m]
g = gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
With:
w0 ⋅ T0 = 2π
The the natural period of roll motion can be determined:

2 ⋅π ⋅ jp
T0 =
g ⋅ hm
T0 = natural period [s]
Note:
This is a simplified method, because the part of the water around the structure that is vibration,
is also vibration with the structure. Due to this the mass of the total vibration part is larger, this
is called the hydrodynamic mass. In the above formulas, this is neglected, because the impact
is very small.
A building is in its resonance frequency as the natural period of the waves is equal to the natu-
ral period of the building. For this reason, the natural period of the building needs to be larger
than the natural period of the waves.
The previous formulas show that a large natural period is obtained by a large radius of gyration.
Also a large metacentre height creates a small natural period, which is bad for dynamic stability.
A large metacentre height is good for the static stability but bad for the dynamic stability.
The size of the polar radius of gyration can be calculated for each floating object. To get an
indication of the size of the polar radius of gyration, some examples are shown:
- Freight and passenger ships: j has a value between 0,35 . B and 0,45 . B;
- Pontoons: j has a value between 0,45 . B and 0,55 . B;
- Sailing: j has a value between 0,55 . B and 0,65 . B.
With:
B = centre of buoyancy
The polar radius of gyration jp is the sum of the radii of gyration jy and jz. The polar moment of
inertia is the sum of the moments of inertia Iy and Iz (also know as second moment of area).
jp = jy + jz
Iy Iz
jp = +
A A
With:
Iy moments of inertia around the z-axis [m4]
Iz moments of inertia around the y-axis [m4]
57
Natural frequency: heave-movement
A building can not only swing about the y-axis, but also in the z-direction it can be ‘thrown up’,
this is called the heave-movement. The natural frequency for the heave-movement can be deter-
mined with the following formulas:
g
w0 =
1
d + ⋅π ⋅ B
8
The natural period can be determined by:
2 ⋅π
T0 =
g
1
d + ⋅π ⋅ B
8
A larger immersion and a low centre of buoyancy are increasing the natural period, what has a
positive effect on the dynamic stability.
Waves close to shore

When a waves comes closer to shore, there will be some changes in the waves behaviour,
due to the change in the depth of the water. In the shallow water, the propagation speed is
decreasing. This difference in propagation speed along a wave crest leads to refraction. When
the propagation speed and the wavelength are decreasing, the wave height will increases
(shoaling). At some point, the wave will be so steep that it will break.
There are mainly four things that happen to a wave when approaching shore:
- Refraction;
- Diffraction;
- Shoaling;
- Branding zone created.
Refraction
Refraction is the heave of the waves, when the waves are approaching the shore at an angle,
the waves will start rotating towards the coast. The part of the wave that is still in shallow water,
has less speed than the part that is in the deeper water. This difference leads to refraction.
Because the energy between two waves is constant, this leads to a change of the wave height.
Refraction of waves
58
Diffraction
As a wave is approaching an obstacle, a part of the wave is being reflected. The remained part
of the wave will bend behind the obstacle. This process is called diffraction. The wave heights
behind the obstacle are thereby reduced. Diffraction can occur above the water due to floating
objects, and below the water, due to sandbanks.
Diffraction of waves Diffraction of waves through a opening
Shoaling
Shoaling is the increase of the wave height due to the entrance of the wave into shallower
water. If a wave enters shallow water, the speed, and wavelength are decreasing, but since the
flow of the wave is constant, the wave height will increase. This is mainly due to the change in
the orbital motion of the water particles.
Shoaling process
59
Branding Zone
When a wave is shoaling, the steepness of the wave will increases, and eventually break. Due
to this the wave energy is almost disappearing. The place where the waves are breaking is
called the ‘branding zone’, or the ‘surf zone’. In order to determine the branding zone, a breaker
index () is being used. The breaker index is the ratio between the wave height where the wave
breaks and the water depth.
The breaker index can be calculated with the following formula; in this formula, the bottom is
considered to be horizontal:
Hb
γ=
h
At a individual wave, γ = 0, 78 and gives:

Hb
= 0, 78
h
With:
Hb = wave height when wave breaks [-]
h = water depth when wave breaks [-]
 = breaking index [-]
When the significant wave height (Hs) is being used, instead of Hb, the ratio of  = 0,5 - 0,6.
Because in reality, the bottom of the coast is not horizontal, but at an angle. Therefore for
waves that break under an angle there is a dimensionless parameter () Iribarren number ap-
plied. The parameter is the ratio of the coastal slope and wave steepness.
tan α gT 2
ξ= L0 =
H / L0 and 2π
With:
 = slope of the coast [°]
H = wave height [m]
L0 = wavelength in deep water [m]
T = wave period [s]
The way in which a wave breaks, depends on the steepness of the coast. There are four differ-
ent types of breaking, they are depending on the Iribarren parameter.
Four different break types for different Iribarren parameters

60
Wave height and period on North Sea
61
62
FLOATING STRUCTURES
SIMPLE STRUCTURES
North pole
Greenland
The most simple floating structure is ice. Ice is the solid shape of water, and floats because the
density of ice is lower than that of water.
Ice can be found all around the world and therefore probably the most common floating struc-
ture. In the northern regions in the world, close to the north pole there are a lot of icebergs
floating in the ocean.
Iceberg near Greenland - North Pole
South America
Bolivia - Peru
The Titicaca Lake is the largest lake of South-America, with an area of 8340 square km. The
Titicaca Lake is situated in the Andes mountain range on the border of Peru and Bolivia. It is
situated at 3.812 meter above sea-level and is the highest commercial navigable lake in the
world. The depth of the lake is in most places between 140 and 180 meter and the deepest
point is about 280 meters.
The floating islands in Lake Titicaca Macro, Meso, and Micro - The islands on three differ-
ent scale levels

63
This lake is inhabited by the Uros-Indians. The islands are made from totora reeds stacked
together. The islands are created many centuries ago and need a lot of maintenance. The reeds
at the bottom of the island structures rot away quickly, so new reeds are added at the top con-
stantly, about every three months. After thirty years the islands are replaced by new ones. The
islands are anchored with ropes attached to sticks driven into the bottom of the lake.
About forty islands are inhabited, and almost everything on the islands is made from reed,
like the houses and the boats. Because the islands are mostly placed in un-deep waters, the
islands sometimes are on the ground and when the water level is high the islands are floating.
A disadvantage is that the rotting process is generating gasses, these are unhealty and are
creating all kind of health issues for the people.
Asia
Cambodia
Not only in South-America, but also in Asia, there are floating island structures. One of them is
in the province Siem Reap of Cambodia. The people that live there, which are mostly fishermen,
have been living on water for centuries. The lake that they live on is the largest lake of South-
Asia, and called the Tonlé Sap Lake.
The floating city of Chong Khneas Living in a floating house (Chong Khneas)
This lake has an area of about 2.600 square kilometers in the dry period, but increases during
the rain-period to about 24.600 square kilometers, which is almost ten times larger.
There are different kind of villages in and around the lake, the ones in the lake is the Chong
Khneas village, which is practically always floating, except when there are really dry periods.
Mostly they change their location so that they always stay floating and there are close to the
fish.
Unlike the Chong Khneas another community of three villages, called the Kampong Phluk, is not
floating but placed on six meter high stilts, which lift the buildings above the water. During the
dry period, the water in the lake is low. Then the villagers move out of their houses en build tem-
porary houses on the ground. When the water level rises again, they demolish there temporary
houses and move back into their original houses.
The houses of Kampong Phluk
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Vietnam
In South-east Asia a lot of floating villages can be found, not only in Cambodia, but also in Viet-
nam, Thailand, Indonesia and China. Where the Cambodian floating dwellings look like normal
houses, the Chinese floating villages exist mostly out of small boats or rafts.
The floating villages in Vietnam exist out of small houses build on top of rafts. The rafts exist
out of wooden planks, which are connected to empty barrels and jerry cans as floaters. Like
western people only would build for fun or in a survival situation.
Village on water, Halong-Bay Vietnam
Mexico
Spiral Island
The British artist Richart Sowa has built two floating artificial islands in Mexico, called the Spiral
Island. The first was destroyed by a hurricane in 2005; the second has been open for tours
since 2008.
Spiral Island I
The first island consisted from filled nets with empty discarded plastic bottles which supports
a structure of plywood and bamboo. On this structure there was poured sand and planted
numerous plants, including mangroves.
The island had a two-story house, a solar oven, a self-composting toilet, and three beaches. In Spiral Island I
total around 250.000 bottles were used for the 20 by 16 meter structure. The mangroves keep
the island cool, and became 5 m high.
Spiral Island II
This island was initially 20 meters in diameter, which is nowadays expanded to 25 meters. Also
this island is covered with plants and mangroves. This smaller island contains about 100.000
bottles. The island has three beaches, a house, two ponds, a solar-powered waterfall and river,
a wave-powered washing machine and solar panels.
Spiral Island II Floating structure of Spiral Island II
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Floating schemes of the different structures
For these different systems I made some schemes showing the principals of the structures.
All these different systems have the same principal; a building or object, on a simple floating
body, which are working according to the law of Archimedes.
Iceberg, the most natural and simple floating object Lake Titicaca Halong-Bay Vietnam
Spiral island Different kind of materials, used when there is a lack of

Chong Khneas
the regular resources
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
For three of these floating bodies I have calculated the floating capacity. The dimensions are as
accurate as possible.
ICEBERG
An iceberg is the most simple floating structure, and very easy to calculate. If I assume that
there is 1 m3 of ice. The density of ice is 900 kg/m3, this means that this object has a mass of Iceberg about 8/9 is always under water
900 kg = 9 kN.
Resulting upward force of ice:

Rectangular floating body
Fupw = γ w .∇
 w = density of water [kN/m3]; for water inland 10 [kN/m3]
for sea water 10,3 [kN/m3]
  3
= displaced fluid[m ]
∇ = d .w.l
d = depth of immersion [m]
w = width of floating body [m]
l = length of floating object [m]
We have a volume of 1 m3 of 1 by 1 by 1 meter, if we assume that the whole body will be im-
merged under water, then the depth of immersion is 1 m. This results in a fluid displacement of
1 m3 .
This means the total vertical upward force that can be generated is:
10,3 . 1 = 10,3 kN.
The weigth of the ice is 9 kN; the remaining upward force will then be
1,3 kN.
This means that the load that can be applied on the body is 1,3 kN/m2 this is 130 kg/m2. This is
for a floating body of 1 meter high.
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REED STRUCTURE
Area of red square = 17 x 18 mm = 0,000306 m2
Total amount of reed rods = 9 rods
Average dimensions of reed

outer diameter = 6 mm
inner diameter (hollow) = 5 mm
hollow percentage of lenght = 90%
(this means that 90% of the length is hollow)
Optimized amount of reed
Total reed rods per m2 = 9 / 0,000306 = 29411 rods per m2
The volume of 1 rod of 1 meter = r2 .  . l = 32 .  . 1000 = 28274 mm3

Volume of a rod = 0,000028274 m3
The total volume of reed (including cavity) per m3 =

0,000028274 . 29411 = 0,83 m3
The amount of air in the cavity = hollow volume per meter per rod
Volume of cavity = r2 .  . (l . 90%) = 2,52 .  . (1000 . 90%) = 17671 mm3
Volume of cavity = 0,000017671 m3
The total volume of cavity per m3 = 0,000017671 . 29411 = 0,52 m3
Total amount of material = 0,83 m3 - 0,52 m3 = 0,31 m3.

Density of reed = 500 kg/m3 = 5 kN/m3
Mass of reed in 1 m3 = 500 . 0,31 = 155 kg = 1,5 kN
Resulting upward force of reed:

We have a volume of 0,83 m3 (the rest is cavity that can be filled with water, because we are
not sure if the reed that is stacked together is air tide) of 1 by 1 by 1 meter, if we assume that
the whole body will be immerged under water, then the depth of immersion is 1 m. This results
in a fluid displacement of 0,83 m3 .
10 . 0,83 = 8,3 kN.
The weigth of the reed is 1,5 kN; the remaining upward force will then be
6,8 kN.
This means that the load that can be applied on the body is 6,8 kN/m2 this is 680 kg/m2. This is
for a floating body of 1 meter high.
BARREL STRUCTURE
The material is HDPE and it has a density of 950 kg/m3. The hollow barrel has a thickness of 2
mm (0,002 m).
This means that the outer volume of the cilinder is:

r2 .  . l = 0,52 .  . 1 = 0,785398 m3
This means that the inner volume of the cilinder (the cavity) is:
(r - t . 2)2 .  . (l - t . 2) = (0,5 - 0,002 . 2)2 .  . (1 - 0,002 . 2) = 0,769791 m3
with t = thickness One barrel of 1 by 1 by 1 m; radius 0,5m
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This means that volume of the material is:
outer volume - inner volume = 0,785398 - 0,769791 = 0,015608 m3
The mass of the barrel (cilinder) is then:

volume . density = 0,015608 . 950 = 14,83 kg = 0,15 kN
For the calculation we assume that we can only place 1 barrel per square meter.
Resulting upward force of a barrel:

The water displacement is equal to the outer volume, so per kubic meter of this floating struc-
ture we have a water displacement of 0,785 m3.
10 . 0,785 = 7,85 kN.
The weigth of the barrel is 0,15 kN; the remaining upward force will then be
7,7 kN.
This means that the load that can be applied on the body is 7,7 kN/m2 this is 770 kg/m2. This
is for a floating body of 1 meter high.
PET BOTTLE OF 1,5 LITER

The PET bottles are simple 1,5 liter bottles
Because the bottles have an irregular shape, I use the dimensions and properties of the coca-
cola company.
The bottles are stacked together in the most optimized way. In the image you can see which
section I used from the example.
Dimensions of example = 60 . 18 . 25 = 27000 cm3 = 0,027 m3 PET bottles stacked together

Total amount of PET bottles = 12 bottles
Dimension of a PET bottle = 9 cm diameter and 32 cm of length
Volume of a PET bottle = 1,5 Liter and of all bottles = 12 . 1,5 = 18 Liter
Weight per bottle = 75 gram
For all bottles = 12 . 75 = 900 gram = 0,9 kg = 0,01 kN
In the example we have 18 liters of PET bottles per 0,027 m3. This means that we have 0,018
m3 PET bottle per 0,027 m3 of volume, the rest is a cavity that can be filled with water when
immerged into it.
Per cubic meter of PET bottles stacked together this means 0,018 / 0,027 = 0,667 / 1 = 2/3
per cubic meter of the PET bottle system is air and PET.
There are 12 bottles per 0,027 m3 this means that there are 1/0,027 = 37,04 times more bot-
tles per m3. 12 . 37,04 = 444,48 bottles per m3.
The weight per cubic meter is then 444,48 . 75 = 33336 g = 33,336 kg = 0,33 kN
Resulting upward force of a the PET system:

10 . 0,667 = 6,67 kN.
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The weigth of the PET bottles are 0,33 kN; the remaining upward force will then be 6,34 kN.
This means that the load that can be applied on the body is 6,34 kN/m2 this is 634 kg/m2. This
is for a floating body of 1 meter high.
COMPARING THE RESULTS

Iceberg = 1,30 kN/m2
Reed structure = 6,80 kN/m2
Barrel structure = 7,70 kN/m2
PET system = 6,34 kN/m2
The iceberg has a very low value compared to the others, this is because the density is high
and it is totally solid. An iceberg has a density equal to 90% of that of water, that means that
90% of the iceberg is always under water. So if you see an iceberg, then you have to imagine
that the real iceberg is 9 times larger than what you see above the water.
The difference between the other structures is not really large. They are all around 7 kN/m3. For
a building, the Barrel and PET structures are probably better, because the reed structure needs
a lot of maintenance and can give health issues.
The difference between the barrel and the PET structure is that barrel structure can have
about 1,4 kN/m2 more load on it. However, the PET system can also be replaced by a garbage
system, because the PET bottles are caught in a net. There is a lot of garbage in the ocean
which is floating, and by puting the nets into the ocean in the right place, they will be filled with
garbage for free. And you also clean the ocean with this principal.
Therefore the PET system is probably the best choice for a building structure.
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FLOATING BRIDGES
One of the first floating structures was a bridge, the first floating bridge have been built in
ancient China by the Zhou Dynasty in the 11th century. During the centuries, floating bridges,
mostly small, have been built all over the world.
Floating bridges were centuries ago oftenly built with small boats, were the real bridge was
constructed on. The material that mostly was used is wood.
Most floating bridges were used by the armies as crossings. Those bridges where usually tem-
porary, and are mostly destroyed after crossing or collapsed and carried a long.
Nowadays permanent floating bridges are still being built. Even highway bridges with a length
of more than 2000 metres are constructed as floating bridges.
Floating Bridge - Dubai

The Floating Bridge is a pontoon bridge Dubai, which spans the entire Dubai Creek and is build
in 2007. The bridge, which cost around 40 million euro, is a temporary bridge.
The German company Waagner-Biro Stahlbau AG did the construction of the first floating
bridge in Dubai. The total length is 365 metres and the bridge has a width of 2 x 22 metres, the
bridge has six lanes on two identical, mirrored decks. For each direction an independent sup-
porting structure has been constructed. The parallel structures were designed to accommodate
three lanes and one footwalk each.
Floating Bridge Dubai
Between the two floating pontoons made of concrete and steel, each 115 metres long and
22 metres wide, a hydraulically driven rotating middle section made of steel is positioned to
allow for undisturbed navigation. To compensate for differences in level as well as for heeling
and triming (skew) from traffic loads and wave action acting on the ramp, another two rows of
28 transitory elements are installed between the floating pontoons and the transitory ramp on
either bank.
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The structure so formed dynamically distributed energy from waves and pressure from vehicles
across the length and breadth of the platform in such a way that they canceled each other out.
The elements are filled with highly resistant polystyrene plates, which serve as the actual float-
ing body supporting several thousands of tons of the heavy bridge on water level.
The bridge will probably be demolished between 2012 and 2014 and replaced with a perma-
nent non-floating bridge.
Rosellini bridge - USA

The Governor Albert D. Rosellini Bridge (formerly the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge) is the
longest floating bridge in the world. It spans 2.285 metres and carries a highway, State Route
520, across Lake Washington from Seattle to Medina, in the state Washington (West-Coast).
The structure of the bridge consitst of column-supported high-rises near the ends of the bridge,
and inbetween a real floating section.
The road of the Floating Bridge Dubai
Rosellini bridge USA
Ferry Bridge - Delft

This a open-water ferry, which is powerd by a engine. The engine is a electric motor fed by a
battery. The ferry is only for pedestrians and cyclists.
A ferry is a boat and in a certain way a bridge as well. It is a boat, because it floats and it can
move freely over the water. But because it mostly stays in its track and is not moving freely it is
behaving more as a bridge than a boat. Therefore in my opinion this ferry is a bridge instead of
a boat.
Most of the older ferrys are made with concrete, steel and foam. Today they are made from
fibreglass, which are lightweight.
Ferry Bridge Delft
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Floating schemes of the different structures
For these different systems I made some schemes showing the principals of the structures.
Floating bridge Dubai and USA Ferry bridge Delft
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
For these floating bodies I have calculated the floating capacity. The dimensions are as ac-
curate as possible.
BRIDGE STRUCTURE
The bridge structure can be seen in two parts, one is the slab where the road is on and the
other part are the two floating bodies on the side.
The main slab V2 is the slab which is actually supporting the load and the other two slabs V1
and V3 are more for stability (but they also support the load).
For this structure we can say that the volume of the body is equal to the water displacement.
The volume of the floating body is V1 + V2 + V3. Section of Floating Bridge Dubai
For the calculation we use the steel part of the bridge in Dubai. This part is the section between
the major floating part and the non-floating part. The other part is equal to a pontoon, like the
ferry bridge or like in the building structures.
Width of the bridge 22 meter (this is for one part), the height and width of V1 and V3 are 1,5 .
0,5 m, the height and width of V2 is 21 . 0,5 m.
So the total area is V1 + V2 + V3 = 2 . (1,5 . 0,5) + (21 . 0,5) = 12 m2 per meter of length. So Scheme of volumes of the bridge
for one meter of length the water displacement can be for the body only, 12 m3. But because
is a U-shape, the hollow volume between the bodies is also creating a water displacement. The
total water displacement is therefore equal to the outer volume.
The area of the outer volume is then the total height . the total width =
22 . 1,5 = 33 m2.
The weight of steel is around 7800 kg/m3. I assume that the side sections of the bridge are
around 25 mm thick and the middle section around 15 mm thick. And also that the middle
Scheme of the bridge
(road) section has vertical segments on every 200 mm. In this way it is possible to calculate the
mass of the bridge.
The mass of the middle section is around:

length of material = (6 . 0,5) + (2 . 1) = 5 meter
volume of steel = length . thickness = 5 . 0,015 = 0,075 m3
mass per square meter = 0,075 . 7800 = 585 kg/m2
total mass of middle section = width . mass per square meter =
21 . 585 = 12285 kg per meter of length
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The mass of the side sections is around:
area = outer area - inner area = (1,5 . 0,5) - ((1,5 - 2 . 0,025) . (0,5 - 2 . 0,025) = (1,5 . 0,5) -
(1,45 . 0,45) = 0,75 - 0,6525 = 0,0975 m2.
mass per meter length = area . density = 0,0975 . 7800 = 760,5 kg
2 sections = 760,5 . 2 = 1521 kg.
So the weight of the bridge is around 12285 + 1521 = 13779 kg = 137,79 kN per meter of
length.
Resulting upward force of bridge:

ture we have a water displacement of 33 m3.
10 . 33 = 330 kN.
The weigth of the bridge is 137,79 kN; the remaining upward force will then be 192,21 kN.
This means that the load that can be applied on the body is 192,21 / 22 = 8,74 kN/m2 this is
874 kg/m2. This is for a floating body of 1,5 meter high.
FERRY BRIDGE
The ferry bridge can be made from hollow steel of hollow concrete filled with air or foam. This is
mostly foam, because when there is a small hole in the steel or concrete, the structure will not
sink.
For this calculation I assume that the structure is steel of 15 mm thick with a core of foam.
The steel has a density of 7800 kg/m3, the foam (EPS) has a density of 16 kg/m3. The structure Scheme of the ferry bridge
is about 2 . 4 . 0,4 meter.
This means that the outer volume = 2 . 4 . 0,4 = 3,2 m3.

The inner volume (EPS) = (2 - 2 . 0,015) . (4 - 2 . 0,015) . (0,4 - 2 . 0,015)
= 1,97 . 3,97 . 0,37 = 2,893733 m3.
The volume of the steel is then outer volume - inner volume = 3,2 - 2,893733 = 0,306267 m3.
Mass of the steel = 0,306267 . 7800 = 2388,9 kg

Mass of foam = 2,893733 . 16 = 46,3 kg
The mass of the structure is then mass steel + mass foam = 2388,9 + 46,3 = 2435,2 kg =
24,352 kN
The total surface area = 2 . 4 = 8 m2.

The mass per square meter = 24,352 / 8 = 3,044 kN/m2.
Resulting upward force of ferry:

10 . 0,5 = 5 kN/m2.
The weigth of the bridge is 3,044 kN/m2; the remaining upward force will then be 1,956 kN/m2.
This means that the load that can be applied on the body is 1,956 kN/m2 this is 195,6 kg/m2.
For the whole ferry the total load can be 195,6 . 8 = 1564,8 kg. This is for a floating body of
0,5 meter high.
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COMPARING THE RESULTS
Bridge structure = 8,740 kN/m2
Ferry bridge = 1,956 kN/m2
The difference between the different structures is large. This because the bridge structure has
a heigth of 1,5 meter and the ferry bridge a height of 0,5 meter. If we both calculate them to 1
m, then the brige would be around 5,83
kN/m2 and the ferry around 3,91 kN/m2 .
The ferry is still small, but this is because of its small size, the materials need a certain strength
and thickness and therefore the ratio between weigth and size is unfavorable.
When we have a building structure, the structure is larger and therefore the ratio would be bet-
ter.
The dubai bridge structure is a structure wich has a good stability system, with the volumes on
the side. In this way the reaction force on the sides is larger and is providing a stability.
This principal is also usefull for the ReVolt House project, because it has most of the loads on
the side of the building.
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BOATS AND OFFSHORE
Aircraft carrier
USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) is a Nimitz-class supercarrier. It has nuclear propulsion and
therefore is practicly unlimited in its travelling distance, the endurance is limited to food and
supplies. The nuclear power supplies enough power for a small city (200MW). Also for the wa-
ter supply there is a on board desalination plant that can turn 1.500 cubic meters of saltwater
into drinkable freshwater every day, which is enough for 2.000 homes.
It is built in 1980 and still active. Building cost are around 4 billion euro. The water displace-
ment is around the 100.000 tonnes, so quite large.
The overall length is around 335 meters and the waterline length is 315 meters. The width (or
beam) is 77 meters and over the waterline it is 40 meters. The draft is around 12 meters. The USS Theodore Roosevelt
height is 75 meters, which is as high as a 25 story building.
The ship is very stable on its own, and it can width stand the large waves on the ocean. For
taking up the disturbance in the stability of the ship, there are two main systems. The first one
is a computer controlled system which remotely makes the air plane roll slightly to give it the
correct angle. And the second system is the cable which is catching the air plane. This cable is
attached to a rail and is also computer controlled, which can give a counter angle to the plane
when it lands.
As a reference to a building, we can consider aircraft carriers as very large floating structures
which contains small cities. With only an extra addition of a food supply this ship could be a The system of a aircraft carrier
independent island on the ocean.
Submarine (boat)
A submarine is a watercraft which can move freely below the surface of the water. Most subma-
rines have a cylindrical body with some additions.
A big difference between surface ships and submarines is that surface ships have a positive
buoyancy condition, weighing less than the volume of water they would displace if fully sub-
merged. A submarine needs to be submerge hydrostatically, so must have a negative buoyancy,
either by increasing its own weight or decreasing its displacement of water. To control their
The system of a submarine
weight, submarines have ballast tanks, which can be filled with outside water or pressurized air.
Because there are different balast tanks all over the submarine, it can be perfectly balanced by
pumping the balast material around.
Offshore (oil)platform
An oil platform, also referred to as an offshore platform, is a l rge structure with facilities to drill
wells, to extract and process oil and natural gas, and to temporarily store product. These plat-
forms are mostly small cities, and contains all kind of facilities to house the workforce as well.
There is a variation in different platforms, some are build on poles and fixed to the ocean floor,
some are build on a artificial island and some are real floating structures.
In general there are four main systems:
- Fixed platform;
- Tension leg platform;
- SPAR platform;
- Subsea system.
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The systems for different platforms
Fixed platform
In shallow water it is possible to physically attach a platform to the sea floor. The legs are con-
structed with concrete or steel, extending down from the platform, and fixed to the seafloor with
piles. With some concrete structures, the weight of the legs and seafloor platform is so great,
that they do not have to be physically attached to the seafloor, but instead simply rest on their
own mass. The main advantage this kind of platform is that it is incredible stable.
The only disadvantage of this structure is that it can’t be used in deep water, because of eco-
nomical reasons.
Tension Leg Platform

This platform consists of a floating body, with a extra balast at the bottom. And there is a at-
tachement to the seafloor with tension legs. The tension legs are long, hollow tendons that
extend from the seafloor to the floating platform. These legs are kept under constant tension,
and do not allow for any up or down movement of the platform. But they have a flexibility which
allows them for side-to-side motion. This is good, because in this way it can withstand the force
of the ocean and wind, without breaking the legs off.
Spar Platform
Spar platforms are one of the largest offshore platforms in use. These large platforms consist of
a large cylinder supporting a platform. The cylinder does not extend all the way to the seafloor,
but instead is fixed to the bottom by a series of cables. The cilinders are mostly around 250
meters high and 25 meters in diameter. The cylinder makes the platform extra stable, and al-
lows for movement to absorb the force of potential hurricanes.
Subsea System
Subsea production systems are wells located on the sea floor. They do not float and are not
able to drill. They are always connected to an other platform to transport the oil or gas.
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BUILDING STRUCTURES
Floating information centre IJburg
Due to a new residential area, called IJburg, Amsterdam needed a transportable information
centre. Because floating is the ultimate flexibility, Attika Architects designed a floating building,
in 2000.
The information centre consist of three platforms all connected together into one rigid struc-
ture. The three platforms first went into the water seperatly and then they where pretensioned
together. With this method we can create incredible large floating structures.
The platform is about 19 meters by 37 meters. The total area is 700 square meters. And the The floating information centre IJburg on transport
building is used for exhibitions for the plans of the new residential area.
The floating body is a pontoon, made from concrete with a expanded polystyrene (EPS) filling.
The building is constructed with a timberframe structure.
It has a heavy foundation with a light weight building.
The floating information centre IJburg on its location
Basic schemes of mostly used floating bodies / pontoons
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Floating Pavilion Rotterdam
In the centre of Rotterdam is situated, a complex of three hemispheres, which are floating on
the water.
The building consists of three interconnecting floating domes, the largest has a diameter of 24
meters. The floor is 46 by 24 meters. The pavilion was built by the contractor Dura Vermeer
and serves as an exhibition and reception area. The location for the pavilion in the Rijnhaven is
temporary, the building we be moved to different locations after a few years.
The building is very durable, due to the used materials, but also in the flexibility (it can move be-
cause it is floating on water). The building is heated and cooled by solar energy and the mass
of the water. Interior of Floating Pavilion Rotterdam
The building cleans its own toilet water, and what is left is clean enough to being discharged
into the surface water.
The building mainly consist of ETFE foil which is about 100 times lighter than glass. This foils is
therefore ideal for floating buildings.
The floating body is made from expanded polystyrene (EPS) with a exteriour protection layer of
polyurea, which is a innovative principal.
It has a very light weight foundation with a very light weight building.
Floating Pavilion Rotterdam
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Floating airport Japan
The first floating airport was one of the largest floating structures on sea ever build. The project
is called ‘Mega Float Airport’, and build in 2000 in Tokyo Bay, Japan.
The airport measures 121 by 1.000 meters and has been tested positively on stability and
vibration by waves. Because it is so large, the structure shows less pitch and roll than a smaller
one. This is because, the larger floating structure receiving more waves, and because the wave-
length is shorter than the structure, the forces that lift the structure up and the forces that pull
the structure down cancel each other out.
On open sea the airport was having some problems with the landing of the planes. The
computerized landing system crashed, because the airport was moving and not staying in its
position.
Therefore it is necessary that a building on the sea should have a guiding structure and a break-
The completed floating body
water structure, to keep it into place. Also the structure can resist the impact of a earthquake,
because the water absorbs the vibration.
Because the results of the test model of 1.000 meters were so positive, the Japanese gouvern-
ment now want to scale the length up to 4.000 meters.
The components getting fixed together
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Floating cities
According to some people, like Koen Olthuis -the owner of Waterstudio-, floating cities are part
of the future. He has designed a lot of different floating cities, with different functions. Most of
his designs are still concepts, but could be build in the future. Until now the only projects that
has been realised are the floating homes that he designed.
The White Lagoon, Floating Watervilla’s, Maldives Floating Golfcourse, Maldives
Amillarah, Floating Private Islands, Maldives
Watervilla De Hoef, The Netherlands

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5 ARCHITECTURE
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3
84 Thames River Park London, United Kingdom
ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH
The architectural research consist mainly in four parts, the first one are the floating building
references, the second one are the theatre references, the third one is the theatre study and
the fourth one is the application or usability of a floating theatre (so first design).
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FLOATING BUILDING REFERENCES
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FLOATING HOUSE I Architect Herman Hertzberger
Completion 2002
Middelburg, The Netherlands
Category Realised - Floating House
The floating house (NL: Watervilla) in Middelburg is a innovative example of architectural

engineering. The goal was to design a building that could replace the classic, not practical
designed houseboat (NL: Woonboot) and which could stay in the water for a long time with-
out much maintenance. According to the architect, floating is freedom and independence.
At first the floating house was used as a exposition space to check out its behaviour in the
water and promote building on water, but now it is used as a home.
Structure and materials

The house has three levels, with a total floor plan of 160 m2. The structure exists of a steel
frame structure with a foam insulation.
The material that is mainly used is pre-coated steel, for the inside and outside covering
material. Because of the round shape of the building, steel is also a good material to use,
because it has a smoother finish. Because the steel is pre-coated, maintenance is almost
unnecessary.
Floating structure
The structure is fixed to a floating body that is made from a steel air cushion system, made
Photo of the house and a steel cable
from six D-section hollow steel tubes with a diameter of two meters and a thickness of 10
mm. With this system the structure floats on the right level. The house can be rotated 120
degree, due to the system with two steering wheels. In this way the house can be orientated
towards or away from the sun. The building is fixed to the waterside with a hook, which is
similar to a towbar from a car, that is connected to a ten meter long steel tube under the
walkway.
Photo of the balcony above the water Photo of the walkway (routing) Photo of the house and the other steel cable
Top view of the floating system, rotation in different positions
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Floor plans of the building
Why is this building floating?

This building is mainly floating so it can move (change its orientation) towards or away from
the sun. This will reduce the use of energy for heating or cooling. Also this building was
made floating to set an architectural example for new ‘houseboats’.
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FLOATING HOUSE II Designer Cees Tadema
Completion 2007
Noordwolde (Fr.), The Netherlands
In Noordwolde, Cees Tadema had built a house, which is able to rotate 360 degrees, so it
can orientate towards the sun. To let the building rotate easy, the building is floating in the
water.

The main structure for the building is made from cellular concrete and wooden, which makes
the building lightweight. The roof is covered with reed which is also light.
The total weight of the building is 30 tons.
Different photos of the building
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Floor plan rotation mechanism
Floating structure Why is this building floating?

The floating structure consist of a EPS (expanded polystyrene) body, which has been put in This building is also floating to change its
a pond. The floating body is 1,6 meters high, which is enough to let the 30 tons float. The orientation. For saving energy and for the
house is rotating with a sleeve around the steel tube in the centre of the building. The build- fun of ‘sitting in the sun’ with your book in
ing is being balanced/levelled with three ballast spaces under de wooden deck around the summer.
building. The building is made round, which makes it easy to rotate, you can even rotate it by
hand. The cables that go in and out the building are made flexible and go into the house at
the centre tube. After the building has rotated 360 degree, it has to rotate back otherwise
the cables will break.
section
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FENNELL HOUSE Architect Robert Oshatz
Completion 2005
Portland, Oregon, United States of America
Architect Robert Oshatz has been creating eco-friendly residences for nearly 40 years.
This passive house “Fennell Residence” floats on Portland, Oregon’s Willamette River. This
elegant designed ultra-low energy house stands out along the riverbed, and draws a lot of
attention to it.
The main reasons for floating is to draw attention, move the building and because its
cheaper then a building on land in this area.
interior
River facade
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Street facade
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DINNING ROOM Architect Goodweather / Loki Ocean
Completion 2010
Noordwolde (Fr.), The Netherlands
Category Realised - Floating Restaurant
This floating dining room, located in Vancouver, Canada, is designed by the architects,
Goodweather Design & Loki Ocean. This building has been built for a summer fund-raiser by
The School of Fish Foundation, a nonprofit organization committed to promoting sustainable
seafood. The semi-enclosed space floats on over 1700 recycled plastic bottles. The project
intends to bring attention to the abundance of plastic litter floating in the oceans, but also
suggests a possible use for such waste. Due to budget and time constraints the design of
the structure remains a conventional post and beam assembly allowing the framing to serve
as finish.

This building is mainly floating to make people aware of sustainability issues, like sustainable
seafood, and the environmental pollution of the ocean due to plastic bottles. Recycling them
in a floating building is a good way to show the possibilities of a waste material.
It also shows an architectural experience of dining on the water, when a ship moves by, the
whole building moves up and down and reminds you that you’re on the water. Also because
the floor is transparent, you can see the plastic bottles.
Bottles
Photo of building
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Drawings and diagrams of building
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THE FLOAT Architect D.S.T.A. Ministry of Defence (Singapore)
Completion 2007
Marina Bay, Singapore
Category Realised - Floating Stadium
The Float at Marina Bay is the world’s largest floating stage. It is located on the waters of
the Marina Reservoir, in Marina Bay, Singapore. The project is designed by the D.S.T.A.,
(Defence Science and Technology Agency), a statutory board under the Ministry of Defence
of Singapore.
The floating stadium is being used for events on the water, and sports, concerts and cultural
performances (like parades).

The floating platform is entirely made of steel. The tribune is made from steel and concrete
and can hold up to 30000 people. It is a shame that the tribune is not floating.
Floating structure
The floating structure is made from a hollow steel structure and measures 120 metres long
and 83 metres wide. The platform can hold up to 1070 tonnes, which is a lot of weight. The
platform is made of smaller pontoons, which are connected together, in this way a lot of dif-
ferent shapes can be made.
The platform stays in place due to six foundation poles. It is connected with rollers, so it can
move up and down. The platform can be reached due to three gangways.
Floating platform in front of the tribune
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Floating platform during performance

This building failed as floating structure, because now it is fixed to its location and that was
not the first intention.
It was meant to be moved, to other tribunes, but the structure is to large to transport easy.
And there where no other tribunes built.
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THAMES RIVER PARK Architect Gensler Architects
Completion 2011
London, United Kingdom
Category Design - Floating Public space
Gensler architects has made a design for a floating public space on the Thames River in
London. The float is designed along the north shore from the Blackfriars bridge to the Tower
of London, the river park will be the first of its kind along the Thames, providing new views
on the buildings around the river. The floating river park will be around 800 meters long and
20 meters wide. It will serve as a long horizontal connection between many landmarks that
are otherwise connected with overcrowded and difficult to navigate streets.
The structure is fast-tracked to be completed in time for next summer’s 2012 Olympic
games in London.

This building is mainly floating to make a connection between the landmarks. In london is a
mayor space problem, there is not a lot of a space available and when it is available it is very
expensive. Also the demolishing of the existing buildings and then built new buildings would
also take up to much time.
The river is a existing horizontal connection which is now not optimal used. Because the river
is already property of the government, building on it save a lot of money, because they don
not have to buy a new piece of land.
Also an other reason to make it floating is that it can be removed from its location, so when it
is not necessary anymore or people don not like it anymore, than it can be removed without
leaving a scar in the city its urban plan.
Render of the Thames River park
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Connection sketch
Renders of the Thames River park
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FLOATING ISLANDS Architect Kim Tae-man
Completion 2011
Seoul, South Korea
Category Realised - Floating Island
FLOATING ISLAND
In 2011 the world’s largest floating island was built on the Han River in Seoul, South Korea.
The floating island is designed by architect Kim Tae-man from H Architecture. The floating
island consists from three islands that are linked together by twenty-three weather-proof
chains.
The buildings are fully all powered by solar energy and therefore very environment friendly.
An other sustainability issue is that there are sometimes floods in Seoul, but because they
are floating, the islands while rise and fall with the water levels, this saves a lot of embodied
energy.
A high tech tracking system will alert a controller if the islands will float too far from their
home site, due to highly changing water levels.
The buildings are three storeys high, which is conventional to a floating building. The build-
ing costs are around 65 million euro and has a building area of 5400 m2.
The buildings are used to host international conventions, cultural performances and exhibi-
tions.
Floating structure
The building is supported by 24 giant air-bags, the building weighs 2000 tons, but can sup-
port building facilities up to 6400 tons. The island will be harnessed by chains to a 500 ton
concrete block to keep it in place.

The building is floating to show to the rest of the world that they can built great building on
water, with a cultural function.
Also for sustainability issues it sets an example to others of how to deal with sustainability
and the dangers of flooding, due to climate change.
Photo of Floating Islands
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Photos of Floating Islands
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THEATRE REFERENCES
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IL TEATRO DEL MONDO Architect Aldo Rossi
Completion 1979
Venice, Italy
Category Realised - Floating Theatre
The Il Teatro Del Mondo, is a floating theatre in Venice designed by Aldo Rossi in 1979. The
building was inspired by elements as the lighthouse and the barge.
The idea for this building was to reintroduce the floating theatres to Venice, which were so
characteristic of Venice in the 18th century. The building was built in a shipyard, then the
theatre was towed to Venice to its location, where it remained during the Biennale .

The main structure of the building consists of a tubular steel frame structure which is cov-
ered with wood on the in- and outside and reaches a height of 25 meters.
The main part of the building is a square of 9 by 9 meters and 11 meters high. On this
square, there is placed a octagonal drum shaped roof, the roof is covered with zinc.
The people can sit on the sides on the tribunes, and on the galleries, which are located on
the upper floors. Total capacity is 400 people with 250 on the main tribunes.
Floating structure
The floating structure consists of a steel structure, which I think is made from an old boat
Facade of the building
structure. The building was connected to the ‘main land’ of Venice (the wooden platforms
connected to the buildings) with a small shore gangway.
Photo of theatre on a location
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sections of the building

This building is floating, because this is
Venice and there is no good ground for a
foundation. Also it needed to be transported
to different locations for different festivals
and transporting on water is one of the most
easiest ways especially in Venice.
Floating also fits to the ‘water theme’ of the

city, almost all transport is done by boat, so
why not build a building on a boat?.
Floor plan of the building
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DE HANGAAR Designer Bernhard Hammer
Completion 2007
Katwijk, The Netherlands
Category Realised - Theatre
The Hangar Theater was originally an aircraft hangar at a former military airfield Valkenburg
between Wassenaar, Katwijk and Leiden. On this historical site a unique concept is created.
The tribune, where the public is seated (contains 1100 seats), is rotating around from one
stage to the other. Also the old runway of the airport is part of the stages. This concept of a
rotation theatre and the relation with the context is a new concept for theatres.
The play that is performed in this theatre is called; ‘De soldaat van Oranje’ (the soldier of
orange), this is about a hero of the second world war (WWII), which also fits in the context
of the military airfield.
This new concept of creating real scenes with real materials (or film sets) creates a new
dimension of theatres. People have to imagine less, and maybe this can attract younger
people, which are used to film technology.
Building the concept model
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Floor plan of the building
Photos of the stage during building and finished
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FELIX MERIX THEATER Architect Jacob Otten Husly
Completion 1787
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Category Realised - Theatre
The Felix Merix Theatre, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, is designed by Jacob Otten Husly
and built in 1787. It is originally built as a society building, to stimulate the ideas of The
Enlightenment on science and art. A lot of scientific research has been done in the building,
next to the performances of different kinds of art, like painting and music.
The theatre room has a ecliptic shape and is famous in the Netherlands because of its
acoustics. The performances that are performed in the theatre room are music or cabaret,
but no large drama/Broadway shows because there is not a lot of space for the stage.
Floor plans of the building

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Different elevations and sections
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THEATRE STUDY
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THEATRE TYPOLOGIES
A theatre is a space where a performance

takes place. A building specialized for
presenting performances. The main parts of
a theatre are the tribunes for the audience
and the scene or stage.
These two parts mainly determine the ap-

pearance and main layout of the theatre.
Therefore to determine the typologies of
theatres, the relation (position) between the
stage and the tribunes is most important.
Mainly we can determine four different types

of theatres:
- Arena or theatre-in-the-round stage;
- Theatron / prescenenium stage;
- Proscenium-arch / picture-frame stage;
- Spatial space (stage).
Arena or theatre-in-the-round stage

The arena is the most elementary theatrical
situation. People assemble a closed ring
around a flat piece of ground to witness
a event. For larger groups, natural slopes
in the landscape provide rising ground to
provide a good view angle. Most simple form
is people sitting around a campfire with one
person standing telling a story.
Theatron / prescenenium stage

The word theatron, which is Greek, means a
space for watching. This is very similar to the
arena, except the audience is now arranged
in a segment of a circle and there is a larger
stage, with a area for a orchestra and a area
for the actors (proscenium). A big differ-
ence between a Greek and Roman theatre
is that the Greek theatre is built on a natural
slope and the Roman theatre is build on
a flat piece of land, and there is a building
structure under the audience.
Typologies
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Proscenium-arch / picture-frame stage
The stage of this type is enclosed on three
sides and the audience is allowed to view
trough a frame opening on the fourth side.
So it looks like looking trough a picture
frame. There are also gallery levels to pro-
vide a good view.
Spatial space (stage)

This type was invented to reunite the stage
with the auditorium / tribune, to form a
single whole again. The gallery levels where
removed again. The performance could go
through the whole building. More different
kind of theatres should be able to perform in
this type of theatre.
Floor plan and section Greek theatre
Floor plan and section Roman theatre
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Timeline of tribunes
1. The last 2000 years, the shape of the trib-
unes has changed, First around the year 0,
the main shape was the shape of the Greek
and Roman theatres. The basic shape of
these theatres is a segment of a circle. The
arena type, was also used during this period,
but less common. One of the most well
know theatres is the amphitheatre in Rome,
called the Colosseum. The Colosseum is a
mix between the arena and the roman thea-
tre. The shape is called the roman elliptical
theatre.
2. Later on, more U-shaped theatre arises,

these theatres had the scene in the middle
and where also used for ‘Roman’ games, like
circus games and chariot racing.
3. During the Renaissance period the

theatres where more focussed on the drama
scenes. Mostly the theatres were three sto-
ries high, and built around an open space at
the centre. The shape had a overall rounded
appearance. The theatres where rather small
around 500-1000 people could be seated
on the tribunes.
4. Since 1876 the V-shape is introduced,

this is a more easy to build shape then the
Renaissance shape. Also the amount of
spectators can be increased very simple
and the shape gives a optimal viewing angle.
This shape is nowadays the most used
shape for theatres.
Timeline tribunes
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Timeline of stages
1. The Greek and Roman theatres had a
very basic square shape. At the back and
on the sides was the scene building, where
all the facilities of the theatre where located.
The roman theatre had a large painting at
the back of the theatre, which was the back-
ground for the play.
2. During the Renaissance the people

started to develop the depth of the theatre.
The square stage was opened up and build-
ings where placed on it so the stage had
for example the appearance of a street. In
this way the people needed less imagination
during the play.
3. Around 1750, people wanted a more

changable stage. Because they where
newer technologies, the introduction of
the Tellari stage was possible. Here the
‘pre-coulisses’ could be changed during the
breaks of the play.
4. Around 1770, the Tellari stage made

place for the coulisse stage. During small
breaks in the play, the background could
be changed very easy. They used curtains
to close the stage and when the curtains
reopened, the stage was changed. This is
nowadays the most used type of stage.
5. The round horizon is a stage that is mostly

used for one-man-shows, like cabaret, or for
television shows.
Timeline stages
6. Nowadays the new developments are
rotating tribunes, with multiply stages or
sliding staged in front of a tribune. This kind
of stage is probably the best choice for a
floating theatre, because it has the highest
flexibility.
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USABILITY FLOATING THEATRE
117
Different kind of movements of a floating object. Horizontal and vertical movement and rota-
tion of the object.
Aspects of flotation
My study to the aspects of flotation gave simple results, but the advantages of these aspects
to a building are great. Horizontal movement (x and y-axis), is probably the most simple and
easiest to use aspect. The flexibility that it creates is very large and gives great possibilities
for a floating theatre, for example it can be used for changing the stages/scenes or trans-
porting the theatre into a other place between the scenes.
Vertical movement (over the z-axis) is the second aspect. This aspect is always there, be-
cause the building is always immerged into the water and due to the movement of people in
the building and the effect of the waves on the building. This aspect can also be used when
I choose to use a vertical (lift) stage, the stages can then sink into the water. This is probably
not the best choice, because then the sea should be very deep on that location.
An other aspect is rotation (around the z-axis) this is an interesting aspect to use, the tribune
can be rotated around the different scene or the other way around. Also it can be used to
orientate the tribune towards a background (the harbour, the horizon or the boulevard) or
towards the different scenes.
The last aspect is skewing (rotation around the x and y-axis) this aspect will probably always
occur, due to the effect of the waves. This can provide an extra input to the drama of the
theatre, but can also give problems like seasickness.
Horizontal displacement Vertical displacement
Rotation Skewing
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Usability of horizontal displacement and rotation
119
Creating perspective / 3D theatre (form study model)
Creating perspective / 3D theatre (form study model)
120
Usability of vertical displacement Usability of skewing
Usability of skewing
121
DESIGN IDEAS FOR FLOATING PARTS
vertical movement of a platform, to rearrange space
horizontal movement, to expand a space
rotation, change of routing, closing of a section for public
122
vertical movement, close or access floor up or below, due to tidal change
vertical movement, change daylight or ventilation of a space
123
horizontal and vertical movement, transport a scene into a public area, so peo-
ple can access it after the show, and re-live the show.
and the use of a pulley system which can be opened due to tidal difference or
us of ballast
124
vertical movement, due to tidal difference, recreate space with wall movement
vertical movement, with ballast tanks, recreate space, creating objects
125
Movements of different functions
There are also other facilities necessary for a theatre like; toilets, a bar, foyer, technical space, backstage, dressing rooms and so on. These
functions will probably be more fixed, like when built on land. It is probably not very practical to have a floating toilet, that moves up and
down.
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Relation between land and floating building
To determine the location of the theatre I did several studies.
Some of the questions that I asked myself are: where should it be placed?, how do you get
there? which depth do I need for my theatre? which part is fixed, which part is floating?
In this way I tried to determine possible locations for the theatre. The relation with the harbour/
land is probably in the urbanism point of view the most important. The exact location is not yet
determined, because I still have to more research on this point. But it won’t be to far from land,
because it is a public function which should be available for everyone. The further away from
the harbour, the less connected it is.
Connection between theatre and harbour/land
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Functions and zones of the theatre
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LOCATION
The Harbour is located in Scheveningen, The Hague, The netherlands and situated in a block
between three roads and the North Sea:
The three roads are; Houtrustweg, Doctor Lelykade and Schokkerweg.
Location harbour area Scheveningen
133
Location harbour area Scheveningen
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ROUTING/INFRASTRUCTURE OF LOCATION
The routing to the location is shown in the figure below. If we look at the map, we can see that
the location has a good infrastructure, but during the summer when the people want to go to
the beach, the infrastructure is not sufficient and also there is not a lot of parking space avail-
able. This is general problem in The Hague and until now, they did not succeeded in getting rid
of this problem.
Location with routing/infrastructure
In the image the colours are representing the following ways of transport, the dots are parking
space or bus and tram stops.
- Blue: Boats;
- Red: Cars;
- Purple: Walking;
- Green: Bus and Tram;
- Orange: Suggestion for bridges.
I also did two suggestions to improve the infrastructure of the harbour, by adding bridges
(orange lines).
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HARBOUR DIMENSIONS
Global dimensions of harbour (800 x 1500 m)
136
WATER DATA
Depths of the sea
- Beach around 2 meters
- Coast line around 4 meters
- Inside harbour 7-8 meters
- Outside harbour (sailing route) 9-10 meters
- Outside harbour (1 km) 13-14 meters
Map of depths of the sea
137
Depths of the sea
The depth of the water is an important feature for floating buildings. Close to the land, where
the swimming area is, the water is not that deep around 2 to 3 meters. Just outside and inside
the harbour, the depth is between 7 and 8 meters, which is quite deep and has great possibili-
ties for a building. A depth of 7 meters means a maximal upward force of 10,3 x 7 = 75 kN/m2,
this is quite large for a building.
When a building is designed the total weight should be calculated to get an idea of how much
depth is necessary for the building. Four potentiation locations are shown in the map below
(black cross-dot mark).
Location map with depths of the sea and harbour
138
Wave height
The most important data of the water are the height of the waves which are mostly
around 2 meters further away on sea (so not close to my location).
DATA:
Wave height between 0 and 2 meters
All directions, due to currents (wind and temperature) and tides
Most are in the west-region (south-west to north-west)
Tide difference 1,5 - 2 meters (1,7 m)
The currents of the ocean / sea are shown in the images on this page, this is the main
factor for the behaviour of the waves.
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URBAN GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN
140
FUNCTIONS
Circus Theatre
(1500 persons)
Appel Theatre
(500 persons)
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7 CASE STUDY: REVOLT HOUSE
As a case study for my graduation project, I am also working on the ReVolt House project. The
ReVolt House is the entry of the TU Delft for the Solar Decathlon Europe 2012.
The Solar Decathlon is a competition between universities from all over the world, which design
and build a self-sufficient house, powered only by solar energy, with the implementation of
technologies that will give the house an efficient use of its resources.
The Revolt House team is a multidisciplinary team from the TU Delft, with various expertise and
experiences in the fields of architecture, climate design, energy production, sustainability, prod-
uct development, innovation, design of construction, engineering and the built environment.
Interior impression of the ReVolt house
My work for the ReVolt House focuses on the floating structure.
Impression of the ReVolt house
Floating structure and rotation

The house will rotate for one reason amongst others because of climatic and energy aspects.
One side of the house will have a closed facade which in summer will continuously face the
sun in order to shade the interior and minimize the solar heat gain inside (lesser cooling). We
call this closed part of the house the “heat shield” where a passive solar cooling system will be
integrated. In winter when the suns’ altitude is lower, the “open” glass facades of the house will
continuously face the sun. This will generate a solar heat gain for the interior (passive heating)
which requires less energy for an actual heating system. Since the house is floating frictionless
on water the rotation won’t require much of an effort.
DIFFERENT FLOATING STRUCTURES

Got get the most efficient shape for the ReVolt House, we tested different shapes on its behav-
iour, we did this mostly with computer simulations.
For these simulations we used the program Orca3D which is a plug-in for the design program
Rhino. This program is mainly used to calculate boat structures (hull design).
145
First calculations
To get familiar with the theory of floating and the computer program, we first made some simple
calculations and tested different shapes.
We first put a load of 200 kN (20 ton) in the centre of the floating body. Then we calculated
how much the body would sink. We tested three different shapes, a flat shape, a hollow shape
and a shape with a thicker edge, flat hollow shape.
The flat hollow shape was the best, because the second test with the load off centred showed
that it was more stable. Also because the loads of the building are coming down on the edge,
the forces are directly transported to the water, in this way the beams in the floor can be thin-
ner.
Calculation results first orca calculation
146
Edge shape
After the first calculations we started to think about the dimensions of the edge, we did several
studies with different heights and widths. The conclusion was that the difference was not that
large, but that the width should be at least 1 meters, because of the line of the centres of grav-
ity of the walls.
After these studies the conclusion was that there should be an other shape for the floating
body that could be easier to built (assemble) and transport.
Different sizes of edges
147
Current shape
The current floating body has a hexagon inner shape and a circular outer shape. In the centre
has been made a hole, for the installations (pipes).
The body is made from PET bottles which are wrapped with a plastic foil. On top of this is a
sandwich platform. Everything is held together with a outer ring.
Results:
Total weight = 17329 kgf
Trim and heel = 0,005 mm
Sinkage = 282 mm
Bottom view of floating body with the water plane
Top view of floating body with the different loads with the water plane
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Location of the point loads on the floating body
NOTE:
Due to a lack of financial support, team TU Delft is withdrawn from the Solar Decathlon Europe
2012, therefore the construction of the Revolt House will not start, and the project will remain a
concept.
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ENGINEERING
Hydrostatics
Most important thing to know for design:
- Building should be in balance on its deadweight;
- Designed according to shape and/or weight stability;
- Light weight structure vs. Heavy weight floating body is better for static stability;
- Vertical movement of 1,7 meters due to tidal difference.
Hydrodynamics
Most important thing to know for design:
- The water around the floating building must be considered as an irregular wave field, but not
a breaking water, so more or less calm water.
- Two parameters of the wave field are important for the design, the significant wave height
and wave period.
- The condition for the dynamic stability is that the natural frequency of the building, is different
from the wave period that is occurring.
- The natural frequency should be tested for the relevant degrees of freedom
(the heave and roll motion).
- As can be shown the breaking in the harbour of Scheveningen has a Iribarren parameter of
larger than 5, this means it is surging. The waves there are not that much disturbed that they
create all kind of different vibrations, the waves are more or less calm.
Problems for dynamic stability that could occur:

- The stages that are design to be floating should be able to width stand the motion that is
generated due to the effect of waves, in a way that the performers are able to perform and
not are getting seasick.
Note:
The effect of the waves is not as large as expected earlier, the location already gives a great
cover to the larger waves. The exact influence of the waves needs to be calculated in a further
stadium.
Solutions could be:

- Temporary fixing to a mooring pole or a fixed building, when it is in place;
- Use of larger and/or heavier structures (improve ofweight and shape stability);
- Shoebox principal (aircushion supported structure) - dr. ir. J.L.F. van Kessel (TU Delft)
- Use of catamaran structure (almost same as shoebox);
- Use of cables, with weight (offshore technology)
- Use of a more efficient shape like a ‘axe bow’ shape (used on boats);
- Use of a temporary breakwater system, which can be used during larger waves.
mooring pole Shoebox principal (aircushion supported structure)
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ARCHITECTURE
The buildings are mostly built on water for sustainability and flexibility reasons, but also for
economical reasons (like expensive ground)
The main parts of a theatre are the tribune and the stage, but also other facilities like second
stages, toilets, restaurant/bar, foyer, dressing rooms and the technical rooms should not be
forgotten in the design.
The V-shape is the most efficient way to build and easier to design.
There are different options/aspects for a floating theatre; horizontal movement, vertical move-
ment, rotation and skew. The horizontal movement and rotation have the greatest potentials for
a floating theatre.
URBANISM (LOCATION)
The location to the infrastructure is good in the afternoon and beginning of the evening. In the
summer the location is extra crowded, but still good to reach with the public transport.
Potential locations are close to the harbour, in this way the relation between the harbour and
the building is also the strongest. People should not have to travel a long time from the harbour
to the building.
POSSIBLE DESIGNS
I made sketches for two different options, the big problem that occurred was that it is hard to
get a solution for changing the stages, when the whole theatre is indoor.
The first on is a amfi-theatre with a floating tribune and floating stages and the rest of the facili-
ties and public space on a fixed overhanging structure. The second one is a closed theatre,
with a large space behind the main stage that could be used to store the stages.
154
First idea sketch
Second idea sketch
155
model from first sketch (P2)
model from form study (P2-retake)
156
Study model scale 1:500
157
15
15
158
588
9 LITERATURE
159
1
1559
5 9
160
Books / Articles
Aerts, J.; Major, D.C.; Bowman, M.J.; Dircke, P.; Aris Marfai, M., (2009), Connecting delta cities:
coastal cities, flood risk management and adaptation to climate change, VU University Press
Curtis, W.J.R., (2009), Modern Architecture since 1900, Phaidon Press London
Dokkum, K. van, (2003), Ship Knowledge: A Modern Encyclopedia, Dokmar, Enkhuizen
Derrett, D.R., (2006), Ship stability for masters and mates, sixth edition, Butterworth-Heine-
mann, Oxford
Dijk, W., van, (2003), Drijvend wonen, Metro
Duin, L. van, Barbieri, S.U., Geerts, F., (1999), Plandocumentatie Theaters, Delft: University
Press, Delft.
Dircke, P., Aerts, J.C.J.H. & Molenaar, A., (2010), Connecting Delta Cities. Sharing -Knowledge
and working on adaptation to climate change, Rotterdam: City of Rotterdam.
Eyres, D.J., (2007), Ship construction, sixth edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
Heide, N., ter, (2009), Betoniek: Spelregels voor 100 jaar, Uitgeverij Æneas
Journee, J. M. J., Massie, W. W. (2001), Offshore Hydro Mechanics, (First Edition), Delft Uni-
versity of Technology, Delft
Kamerling, M.W., (2005 ), Het ontwerpen van pontons voor drijvende gebouwen, Delft Univer-
sity of Technology, Delft
Keuning, Olthuis, K. (2010), Float: building on water to combat urban congestion and climate
change, Frame Publishers, Amsterdam
Kleijer, E. (2004) Instrumenten van de architectuur, een compositie van gebouwen, SUN,
Amsterdam
Knabb, R.D., Rhome, J.R., Brown, D.P., (2005), Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina,
National Hurricane Center
Leupen, B. ea. (2005) Ontwerp en Analyse. (Rotterdam) 010
Neufert, P., Neufert, E., (2002), Architects’ Data (3rd Edition), Blackwell
Ross, P., (1997) The Relationship between building structure and architectural expression:
implications for conservationand refubishment. In: Stratton M. Structure and Style. London: E &
FN Spon.
Schelle, B., Wimmer, F., (2009) Detail: Issue 3 - Music and Theatre, Institut für internationale
Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich.
Sear, F., (2006), Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study, Oxford University Press
Stevens, S.C., Parsons, M.G., (2002), Effects of Motion at Sea on Crew Performance: A Sur-
vey, Marine Technology Magazine
Ulm, F.J., (2009), MIT engineers find way to slow concrete creep to a crawl, Internet source:
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/creep-0615.html
161
Watkin, D., (2001), De westerse architectuur ‘een geschiedenis’, Uitgeverij Sun Nijmegen
Zijlstra, H., (2009) Analysing Buildings from Context to Detail in time: ABCD research method.
Amsterdam: IOS Press.
Videos
Discovery Channel: Build it Bigger, Season 5 Episode 6: Amsterdams Futuristic Floating City
Discovery Channel: Mega Engineering, Season 1 Episode 3: City At Sea
Internet
Attika Architecten, http://www.attika.nl
Deltasync, http://www.deltasync.nl
Drijvende Stad TU Delft, http://tudelft.nl/actueel/dossiers/archief/drijvende-stad/
Dutch docklands, http://www.dutchdocklands.com
Ecoboot, http://www.ecoboot.nl
MIT University, http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/creep-0615.html
Waterstudio (Koen Olthuis), http://www.waterstudio.nl
Wikipedia encyclopedia, http://www.wikipedia.org
Student Thesis
Kuijper, M., (2006), De drijvende fundering een stabiele basis voor waterwonen in de 21ste
eeuw, TU Delft Faculty of Architecture, Delft
Winkelen, M., van, (2007), How high can you float?, TU Delft Faculty of Architecture, Delft
162
Disclaimer: All images, concepts and designs in this document are property of the author (Theo Mestemaker) or their respective owners copying for
something else then educational purposes is not allowed.
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FLOATING STRUCTURES

Student Theo Mestemaker

Teachers Jan Engels

University TU Delft (Delft University of Technology)

Date 30 March 2012

Name T.W.J. Mestemaker (Theo)

6. URBANISM (LOCATION) 131

7. CASE STUDY: REVOLT HOUSE 143

Problem statement and research questions

Research questions that are related to this problem statement are:

Summary of the different studies and research:

Case study: ReVolt House

Tasks to do before P1 (first survey)

Tasks to do before P2 (second survey)

Tasks to do before P3 (third survey)

Tasks to do before P4 (fourth survey)

Tasks to do before P5 (fifth survey)

Literature / information that is used (or going to be used):

Survey Time schedule/deadline

Phase: Preliminary design

P3 AR4AE010 Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio Week 15/16 - 2012

Phase: Definitive design

P4 AR4AE010 Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio Week 19/20/21 - 2012

Phase: Final design

P5 AR4AE010 Architectural Engineering Graduation Studio Week 25/26/27 - 2012

To understand the basics of hydrostatics it is necessary to know the law of Archimedes of

Archimedes proposition 3, states that

Archimedes proposition 4, states that

A solid lighter than a fluid will, if immersed in it, not be completely

Archimedes proposition 5, states that

Archimedes proposition 6, states that

Archimedes proposition 7, states that

Rectangular floating body

Triangular floating body

Fupw = γ w .l.d 2 .tan β

Cylindrical floating body

Determine the central angle []:

Determine the immersion [d]:

Modules of subgrade reaction

This results in the formula:

The modulus of subgrade reaction for a foundation on steel is varying between

Substituting this formula in the formula of the floating foundation.

Substituting this formula in the formula of the floating foundation.

The centre of buoyancy for a triangular body is then:

This is approximately 0,42 times the radius (0,42r).

The centre of buoyancy for a half cylindrical body is then:

The maximal a minimal water pressure at the bottom will become:

Righting moment (torque)

Step 2 Horizontal influences

l.10(6d 2 .δ + 2.δ 3 ) cos α

M ver + M hor = M right = M ext

M right = M ver + M hor

SECOND ORDER EFFECT

THE SECOND ORDER EFFECT AT A CONVENTIONAL FOUNDATION

This displacement results in an extra moment:

Therefore the displacement will increase with:

There are three situations possible:

THE SECOND ORDER EFFECT AT FLOATING STRUCTURES

STABILITY AND SKEW

There are three kinds of reactions and states of equilibrium possible:

CENTRE OF GRAVITY, CENTRE OF BUOYANCY AND METACENTRE

This results in:

M right = Fz .sin α .hm