SYSTEM PLANNING

Introduction

System planning is a stage which is connected with the designing of the instrumentation required to perform a
test flight. The test requirement specified by designers of helicopter prototype forms the basis for deciding the
parameters to be measured. Instrumentation required for the specified test is prepared by flight test engineers.
Flight test engineers also define the type, range, dynamic response characteristics, accuracy and the data
presentation methodology.

The prototype helicopter is instrumented based on the above measurement requirements. This involves
planning, procuring instrumentation system hardware, installation design, electrical wiring design for test
signals and power supply. After installation and wiring all the instrumentation on-board, whole system is tested
thoroughly for integrated functioning. Calibration of all sensors as well as functionality of whole system chain
forms another major task.

While designing the instrumentation, the flight test engineers need to keep following things into mind for proper
data acquisition during test flight:

Instrumentation Architecture

The instrumentation system is generally based on pulse code modulated data acquisition with on-board multi-
track recording system and L band telemetry. Sensors are connected to signal conditioner and the electrical
output corresponding to full range is normalized to standard value compatible with PCM system multiplexer.
Anti-aliasing filters are also incorporated into the signal conditioner.

Nearly 50% of the signal outputs are brought to the patch panel to facilitate easy routing of signal to different
data occupation modules. Remaining signals are connected directly to the encoders. The stream is composed of
all slow varying parameters and some of the dynamic parameters which are required in real time als. This
second stream is telemetered to ground station via L band telemetry. Crew voice is also mixed with data using a
separate FM carrier. Accordingly during telemetry operation, crew voice is available at the ground station
without the need to occupy normal VHF band which is busy and crowded crew voice, high frequency signal and
IRIG-B time code is recorded on separate tracks of on-board recorder. The L band RF power is transmitted via
two omni-directional antennas, one mounted on the fine top and other mounted under the belly.

This is the standard configuration of FTI which will be the SOP(standard Of Preparation) for all testing of
helicopter prototype. Additional system can be installed during special purpose testing and removed
subsequently.
Parameters acquired

The parameters acquired can be broadly classified into two categories as

(1)Quasi-static or slow varying parameters

(2)Dynamic parameters

This classification is based upon the frequency response required and consequently the sampling rate. The
quasi-static parameters in turn are grouped into two categories-one with sampling rate of 26 samples/sec, other
with sampling rate of 52 samples/sec. System pressures, temperature and those parameters which don’t change
very fast are being sampled at 26 samples./sec. Control inputs, aircraft response etc are sampled at 52
samples/sec. As against these, loads including forces, bending moments, vibrations etc are sampled at 735
samples/sec.

Few of the frequency signals which don’t fit inside the PCM channel bandwidth are acquired in analog form and
are directly recorded onto the FM recording tracks of the on-board recorder. These are vibrations on the engine
mount whose frequency response is over 800Hz. Some of the FM tracks are also employed to record acoustic
signals as and when required.

Calibration of Channels

The calibration philosophy adopted is as follows:

(i)The sensitivity of all the pressure transducers, air data transducers, gyroscopes, vibration sensors etc will be
established in the lab as electrical output vs physical input by applying the physical quantity in selected steps.

(ii)The thermal sensor channels are calibrated by simulating the precision resistor law or thermocouple law as
the case may be in data acquisition channels.

(iii)Sensitivity of loads and bearing moments will be established at ground test facility as newtons or newtons
meters.

(iv)Sensitivity of vibratory channels are also established through either by earth’s gravity or using precision
electro-dynamic shakers operating at spot frequency.
Timing and Data Correlation

IRIG-B time code forms the basis of timing correlation as is practiced in all flight tests, telemetry and range
instrumentation. Serial IRIG-B code is recorded on one of the tracks of on-board recorder.

From the same source parallel time code in binary coded decimal(BCD) format is inserted into the PCM stream
telemetered to the ground station. In addition to this, an event and time correlation system on-board is used to
correlate the events carried out by the pilot with the data being acquired. During the progress of test, the pilot
establishes the test conditions, switches on the on-board recorder and at specified instant, presses the event
maker button provided to him. Event and timing system on-board prints the IRIG-B time onto a printer along
with the sequential number of the event. This sequential event number is displayed to the test engineer who
notes down the test point against TOP number in his knee pad. Thus, test condition, pilot events, on-board
recording and telemetry data are time correlated.

But the time frame of flight tests for certification purpose should be minimum and optimized. For this, the
following things have to taken into considerations by the test engineer-

(i)Instrumentation design should be such that it gets maximum quantity of data gathered par hour of flying.

(ii)Recording capacity of on-board recorder should be high. Generally, recording capacity increases with
advancement in technology.

(iii)Instrumentation on-board should be flexible so as to accommodate any sudden changes in test programs.

(iv)On-board instrumentation should have modular construction, standardized inputs and outputs so as to add or
remove instrumentation at short intervals. Use of patch panel greatly helps in this purpose.

(v)Stability of calibration and repeatability help to minimize instrumentation work in between of test flights.

(vi)Accuracy, resolution and reliability should be carefully specified because it is a compromise between
requirement on one hand and cost, effort, complexity on other.
PROCEDURE FOR TEST CONDUCTION
In the conduct of test flights typical test conduct proceeds as follows:

(i)Based on the test specification of a test, a test order is released indicating test points to be covered, necessary
instrumentation system and the standard of preparation (SOP) of helicopter.

(ii)Flight test group prepares the instrumentation, shop prepares the helicopter and after inspection is
satisfactory an aircraft readiness(D-Form) is declared. An instrumentation plan valid for every flight is made
available for each flight.

(iii)Flight test releases the flight program in coordination with designer and government certification agency.
The test flight is launched.

(iv)Test engineer instructs the crew to setup flight condition for each test point. The first test point of every test
flight will be a “Pre flight NOP” where a recording takes in ambient condition without rotors running. This is
the reference test point to see the ambient known condition to correlate with the data. This recording is quite
useful in debugging instrumentation problems or errors specifically with respect to strain gauge based sensors
and reference condition of signal conditioners.

(v)At each test point the test engineer provides a marker and notes down his kneepad the test condition. This
marker increments a counter in the FTI. This counter reading is known as TOP(Test Operating Point).
Simultaneously an on board printer prints a line indicating data, Start time in hrs, min, sec followed by TOP
number.

(vi)The telemetry ground station monitors the data where a group of design specialists and another test engineer
monitors the data and keeps a voice contact with on board crew. The test engineer contacts with on board crew
and advices the crew regarding any limits exceed in parameters, test conduct, repetition for test point etc.

(vii)After covering all test points, the aircraft lands back and switches off. Once the rotor stop, the test engineer
records a “Post Flight NOP”, a condition which serves as a reference point when viewed along with “Pre Flight
NOP”.

(viii)A debrief takes place between the crew , designer, shop where aircraft snags are entered if any, and test
engineer debriefs the test condition.

(ix)The type is removed along with the print out generated on board for event number and corresponding testing
and send to data processing.
On Board Instrumentation

Full scale on On-Board instrumentation is done on all four ALH Prototypes, namely,PT1, PT22, PTA
and PTN. On board instrumentation system broadly consists of Sensors, Signal conditioners, PCM encoders or
PCM Multiplexers, Tape recorder, telemetry transmitter, voice mixers, Transmitting antennae.

Data Acquisition System

Sensors

Basically, sensors or transducers are instruments which give the electrical analogue of a physical quantity by
sensing the variations in it. The electrical analogue of the quantity to be sensed, can be in various forms like
variations in voltage, resistance, capacitance, inductance or level or frequency of an alternating quantity or
piezoelectric effects, joule effect , thermo-resistive effect etc. Sensors can accept any of mechanical, thermal,
mass, chemical or electro-chemical variations as inputs. Generally, the linear transduction in electrical form is
desirable as it reduces a lot of burden on data acquisition system and minimizes errors during transduction. The
selection of transducers mainly depends on the characteristics of the input variable. The important
characteristics of a transducer which define the input and output relations for it, are:

(i)Accuracy

(ii)Repeatability

(iii)Linearity

(iv)Sensitivity

(v)Resolution

(vi)Hysteresis

The physical parameters which are most commonly needed to be sensed are displacement, force, pressure,
acceleration , speed, temperature, fluid flow etc. Need to measure these parameters arise depending on the
system using them. The nature of these parameters, cost, reliability and quality are to be kept in mind when
choosing a sensor for a particular measurement. Since , other components used in data acquisition system like
signal conditioners, analog to digital converters etc have very high accuracy figures so in a way overall system
accuracy is dependent entirely on the accuracy of the chosen sensor.
Signal Conditioners

The output signal from various sensors are in different forms and for these signals to be of use, they should be
compatible with inputs of the systems using them like data acquisition system, recording system , display etc.
Direct compatibility is rarely found and appropriate methods are needed to modify these signals to match these
system elements to each other. This signal modification is called signal conditioning.

Depending on the type of sensor used, different types of signal conditioners are adopted. Thus, the signal
conditioner performs one or more of the following functions:

*Amplification

*Attenuation

*Level shifting

*Filtering

*Provide excitation to passive sensors

*Provide cold junction compensation

*Provide special conversion like :

->Synchronous to DC conversion

->LVDT to DC conversion

->Frequency to DC conversion

->Shape transient/ pulse to standard types(TTL)

->RMS peak to DC conversion

Signal distribution and Switching System

In a major FTI instillation, the parameters are required to be routed to different subsystems based on the current
test programme. It is therefore desirable to have all the signals and data acquisition inputs terminated at a
switchboard and quick change over. Therefore a patch panel, even though is bulky used to provide this
flexibility to the FTI of the current test programme. Also use of patch panel reduces the time frame for testing
programme of a prototype.
Generally, we use any one of the following circuits as signal conditioner based on the requirement of the
instrumentation:

(i)Voltage comparartor

(ii)Inverting amplifier

(iii)Non-Inverting amplifier

(iv)Summing amplifier

(v)Voltage follower

(vi)Differential amplifier

(vii)Integrating amplifier

(viii)Differentiating amplifier

(ix)Current to voltage converter

(x)Voltage to current converter

(xi)Voltage to frequency converter

(xii)Frequency to voltage converter

The functions are thus endless; depending mainly on the special demand posed by sensors or data acquisition
units. Signal conditioners require considerable time and other resource in integration, aligning and calibrating a
system chain. These form bulk volume or weight in a major instrumentation package of the FTI system. This
system should be accessible for day-to-day alignment, monitoring etc and bulk of cabling gets in and out of
signal conditioning system. Signal conditioners if not integrated properly are the major causes of failure and
error. In a developmental environment, FTI parameters need to be changed more frequently after each block of
test flights. To minimize down time for instrumentation change, the signal conditioners have to be model with
universal mother board and standardized input and output pin functions.

Multiplexing and Encoding System

This system is required to provide an output in appropriate form taking inputs from several devices. Generally,
this system takes input signals from several devices and them in a form suitable for acquiring on a single
channel which may be a track of a magnetic recorder or a telemetry carrier.
PCM
PCM format is used for above purpose as it fulfills the requirements to a great extent. The pulse code modulator
takes in a large number of signals from various sensors after conditioning, sequentially samples them and
converts them into a digital value of predefined word length, adds identification and synchronizing values to
facilitate decommutation and finally sends out this complex data in a bit serial format. This serial bit train is
converted in to different codes(NRZ-L, Bi-L etc) to facilitate good quality recording or telemetry transmission.

PCM employs time division multiplexing (TDM) to combine several channels in to single media. Care is taken
to minimize error contributing phenomenons like aliasing.

Basically, the main purpose of PCM encoders is to convert the analog data into digital with minimum of errors.
For an optimum system, it should meet following requirements:

(i) The number of analog channels, digital words, word length, clock rate and bit rate may be altered to suit the
changing requirements of a test programme.

(ii)Data enhancement technique should be used to conserve bandwidth by eliminating need for extra parity bit.

(iii)It should have analog multiplexer output so that operator could calibrate transducers without having to
decommunicate the data.

A typical PCM encoder consists of a multiplexer, an ADC and a code converter. The multiplexer not only
multiplexes individual data samples to the ADC but also allows synchronization words to be multiplexed into
the data format. The code converter converts the normal logic level outputs of ADC into symbol for recording
or transmission. Usually, the sampling sequence is controlled by an intelligent device so that each channel is
sampled at different rates to cater to their respective dynamic range requirement.

These PCM encoders are available in different configuration, starting from simplest single frame encoders
complex, distributed remote encoders linked to the central unit using a communication network. The PCM
system however poses a challenge in flight test instrumentation for helicopters, being a machine with large
number of rotary components, the number of parameters that have high frequency content is quite high.
Typically 100 to 200 parameters under load and vibration category each with a frequency response of about
150 Hz is quite common. A PCM system is an environment producing a bit rate in excess of 1mega bits per
seconds. A PCM system is an environment producing a bit rate in excess of 1mega bits per seconds. This rate is
not acceptable to the on-board recorders used for ALH Project, if this recorder is to provide a recording duration
of one hour which is normal test flight duration. Hence 4-5 streams are recorded on separate tracks of on-board
recorder. However high capacity digital recorders, overcoming the above limitations, are slowly making their
way into FTI architecture.
 Modern aircraft systems are integrated through high speed buses driven by on-board processors. This
feature has distinct advantage in terms of efficient data transfer, minimized cabling, reduced weight, high
reliability and easy of expansion. ARNIC 429, MIL-1553B are currently the most popular on board integration
bus standards. Present day flight test data acquisition systems have provision to incorporate these bus data with
FTI sensor data. The PCM data acquisition system has an interface which can take in multiple ARNIC 429
buses and pull out data from user defined labels and paste them into programmed word slot of PCM format. It is
also a common practice to record the entire bus signal onto on-board recording device so that the user at ground
telemetry facility has access to all the bus traffic on-board the aircraft.

DATA RECORDING SYSTEM

In ALH, data recording system consists of magnetic tape recorders. Magnetic tape recorders are used to store
dynamic signals when the frequency components in the signal range from dc to 400 KHz. The recording is
accomplished by applying a magnetizing field to a magnetic film coating on a mylar tape. The magnetic flux in
the record head fluctuates as a result of variations in input signal and a magnetic record of these variations is
permanently imposed on the coating. The data is retrieved by moving the tape under the reproduce head where
the variations in the magnetic field stored on the tape induce a voltage in the windings of the reproduce head
which produces the output signal.

Three types, direct , FM and PCM recording modes are used. The direct mode of recording is the mostly
frequently used since, it is simple, low, cost and suitable for most of the audio recording. The signal to be
recorded is amplified, mixed with a high frequency base signal and then used to drive record heads. In
reproducing the recorded signal, the tape is driven at the same speed that was used while recording. The output
from the reproduce head is proportional to the frequency of the recorded signal. This output is then fed into a
reproduce amplifier with a frequency response that is the inverse of the frequency response of the reproduce
head. This procedure compensates for the frequency distortion generated in the reproduce head and provides a
flat frequency response for the system. Following are the disadvantages in the direct mode of recording-

 The lowest frequency that can be recorded is 50Hz. Therefore, dc or slow varying signals can’t
be stored.
 Due to imperfections in the coating on the tape, significant reduction in signal levels may occur.
This reduction can cause many serious errors.

Due to above mentioned limitations of direct recording technique, direct recording is limited to record
audio/voice signals and IRIG-B time code signals.
 With FM recording the input signals is used to drive a voltage-controlled oscillatory (VCO). The
center frequency of output from VCO corresponds to zero input signal. A positive dc input signal produces an
increase in the frequency of the carrier signal and an ac input produces carrier frequencies on both sides of the
carrier frequency. Thus with FM, the voltage-time data are recorded on tape in the frequency domain. Low
frequency or dc input signals can be recorded and amplitude instabilities resulting from imperfections in the
coating on the tape do not affect the output. The reproduction involves filtering and demodulation. The signal
from the reproduce heads is filtered to remove carrier frequency and then demodulated to give the output signal.
This type of recording is used to record signals with high frequency,

for ex. Engine vibrations, which could not be accommodated in PCM stream data.

Digital recording/PCM recording involves storing two levels of data(0’s and 1’s) and is accomplished by
magnetizing the tape to saturation in either one of the two possible directions. In one type of digital recording
(return to zero), the positive state of saturation representation the binary digit 1 and the negative state represents
the binary state 0. Data are recorded as a series of pulses that represents the decimal number of the voltage input
averaged over a sampled interval. But digital recording technique has got its own disadvantages-

 The output is not strongly dependent on tape speed.

 The recorded data is sensitive to tape dropouts, thus it requires high quality tape and tape
recording system.
 The main disadvantage of digital recording is the need to digitize the input data prior to
recording.

The recorder being used for ALH is a 14 track 1” tape format are which meet the IRIG requirements. Tape
length is approximately 9200ft. Tracks 2,4,6,8,10, and 12 are used for FM recording and tracks 3,5,7,9,11 are
used for PCM recording. Track 1 is used for recording voice signal and Track 14 is used for voice recording.
This is done to maintain the standard so as to minimize the shuffling of cards and not to create confusion while
reproducing this tape recorder can be run at different speeds and for ALH, normally it is run at 30 ips as it is the
minimum speed which supports 250kbps rate. This device is one of the bulkiest components in the on-board FTI
package. This recorder is also the costlier component in the system… Recording systems for flight test
applications derived from IRIG standard 1” tape media with 14 track configurations has been extensively
employed all over the industry. This provides flexibility to take in multiple PCM streams as well as few high
frequency vibrations and acoustic signals. Crew voice and IRIG-B time code are recorded on separate tracks for
data correlation and event identification. However, recently high performance digital data recording devices
with solid state memory meeting the harsh vibratory environment of helicopters are replacing these recorders.