MINE 7041 - Course Notes - 2009 PDF

BRITISH COLUMBIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAM

MINE 7041 – GEOLOGY

Prepared by: Robert Stevens and Russell Hartlaub
Department of Mining and Mineral Exploration Technology

Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1
2.0 PLATE TECTONICS.............................................................................................................. 1
2.1 Significance ......................................................................................................................... 1
2.2 Development of the Theory .............................................................................................. 3
2.3 Plate Tectonic Theory and Structure of the Earth ......................................................... 7
2.4 Plate Boundaries ................................................................................................................ 8
2.5 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots ........................................................................................ 12
3.0 MINERALS ............................................................................................................................ 14
3.1 Chemical Composition of Minerals ................................................................................ 14
3.2 Crystallinity ........................................................................................................................ 16
3.3 Physical Properties of Minerals ...................................................................................... 17
3.4 Mineral Classifications ..................................................................................................... 20
4.0 ROCKS (IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, METAMORPHIC) ............................................. 22
4.1 Igneous Rocks .................................................................................................................. 23
4.2 Weathering ........................................................................................................................ 27
4.3 Sedimentary Rocks .......................................................................................................... 31
4.4 Metamorphic Rocks ......................................................................................................... 36
4.5 The Rock Cycle ................................................................................................................ 42
5.0 GEOLOGIAL TIME .............................................................................................................. 43
5.1 Relative Geological Time ................................................................................................ 44
5.2 Geological Contacts ......................................................................................................... 45
5.3 Absolute Geological Time ............................................................................................... 47
5.4 Geological Time Scale .................................................................................................... 49
6.0 DEFORMATION ................................................................................................................... 52
6.1 Stress and Strain .............................................................................................................. 52
6.2 Planes and Lines .............................................................................................................. 56
6.3 Form and Shape of Deformation Structures ................................................................ 57
6.4 Deformation and Tectonics ............................................................................................. 66
7.0 EARTHQUAKES .................................................................................................................. 67
7.1 Seismic Waves ................................................................................................................. 68
7.2 Locating an Earthquake Epicenter ................................................................................ 70
7.3 Measuring Earthquake Size ........................................................................................... 72
7.4 Major Canadian Earthquakes ......................................................................................... 75
7.5 Earthquakes, Faults and Plate Tectonics ..................................................................... 76
7.6 Effects of Earthquakes .................................................................................................... 78
7.7 Earthquake Prediction ..................................................................................................... 85
7.8 Assessing Seismic Hazard in Canada .......................................................................... 86
7.9 Earthquake Web Links .................................................................................................... 88
8.0 SURIFICAL PROCESSES .................................................................................................. 89
8.1 Groundwater ..................................................................................................................... 89
8.2 Mass Wasting and Movements ...................................................................................... 95
8.3 Glaciers and Glaciation ................................................................................................. 102
8.4 Streams and Drainage Systems .................................................................................. 109
9.0 MINERAL AND ENGERGY RESOURCES .................................................................... 120

9.1 Fossil Fuels ..................................................................................................................... 120
9.2 Mineral Resources ......................................................................................................... 127
10.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 132

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Geology is a dynamic science. It is one that strives to explain the world that we live on and that
affects the everyday life of humans across the planet. Catastrophic events such as earth quakes,
volcanic eruptions, landslides and tidal waves are the result of geological processes. As are the
reasons why British Columbia has spectacular mountain ranges, Saskatchewan is flat and
subdued, and Ontario is dotted with thousands of lakes. Our natural environment is
fundamentally controlled by geology.

The geological Earth is also the source of our mineral and energy resources. Modern society
would not exist if it were not for our ability to utilize the mineral and rock resources of the
Earth.

Geology is an observational science. Geologist find it very difficult to carry out controlled
experiments in their “geological laboratory”, which is the environment in which we live. The
scales of space and time are simply too large. Thus geologists must study the Earth as it exists.
From these observations they draw conclusions about the processes that have shaped the Earth
today and the events that have shaped the Earth over the past 4.6 billion years.

Geology is a diverse natural science. It incorporates aspects of all the other “pure” sciences such
as physics, chemistry and biology, and most geological processes can be modeled
mathematically. In many ways geology is a derivative science that is built upon the natural laws
that govern the other sciences and mathematics. However it is also a unique and practical
science with its own natural laws and guiding principles.

2.0 PLATE TECTONICS

2.1 Significance

Prior to the development and acceptance of the theory of plate tectonics geologist were unable
to effectively explain the origin of many common geological features. For example, how is it that
we find marine limestone at the summit of Mt Everest!! Catastrophes and supernatural
processes were often called upon to explain these features. Others felt that the Earth had been
cooling and contracting for a long time and the contraction produced mountain belts. Still others
suggested that the Earth is expanding and the ocean basins are the location of the expansion.
Each of these ideas were able to explain the origin of some geological features, but none
adequately explained the origin of the wide variety of features that were observed.

All this has changed with the development of plate tectonic theory. We now have a “Unifying
Principle of Geology” that is able to explain the origin of the Earth’s geological features.

MINE 7041 – Geology 1

 Plate tectonics is able to tie together apparently unrelated geological events into a
single concept and view these events as part of the on‐going evolution of the earth,
rather than as separate isolated incidents.

The word “evolution” is appropriate. Plate tectonics shows us that the Earth is constantly
evolving. New material is being created and old material is being consumed and the shape of the
continents and oceans have been changing for billions of years.

Plate tectonics allows us to understand why and where earthquakes and volcanic activity occur.
It tells us that the interaction of “plates” determines the location of continents, ocean basins
and mountain systems, which in turn affect the atmospheric and oceanic circulation that
ultimately determines global climates. Plates also have a profound influence on the distribution,
evolution and extinction of plants and animals. Finally, plate tectonics has allowed us to
understand why and where mineral deposits occur and thus aid us in exploring for new deposits.

Principle of Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonic theory is based on the relatively simple idea that the Earth’s surface is
divided into a series of rigid lithospheric plates that change shape and size with time,
and that move relative to each other by floating on, and gliding over the plastic
asthenosphere. Intense geological activity generally occurs only along the plate
boundaries (e.g. earthquakes, volcanoes).

Plates of the world (Plummer et al., 2003)


2.2 Development of the Theory

The Plate Tectonic theory is a new theory relative to the development of other significant
scientific theories (e.g. Darwin’s theory of evolution for Biology, and Newton’s laws of motion
and gravity for Physics). It has only been widely accepted since the mid‐1960’s.

However in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s several prominent scientists began to propose that
continents have moved or “drifted”. Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist is generally
credited with developing the hypothesis of continental drift in a 1912 publication. This was
followed by his famous work “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” in 1915. Wegener suggested
that all the continents were joined together in a supercontinent called Pangea. His evidence was
that not only do the continents fit together, but that mountain ranges, rock types, fossils, glacial
deposits and other features from eastern South America matched those of western Africa.
Other scientist suggested that the continents of the southern hemisphere were once joined
together into a supercontinent called Gondwanaland and the continents of the northern
hemisphere were joined into a supercontinent called Laurasia.

The supercontinent Pangea consisted of Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Evidence that the continents were once
joined includes common glacial and fossil evidence as well as the obvious fit between Africa and South America
(Plummer et al., 2003)


Distribution of fossils across the southern continents of Pangaea (after Renton, 1994)

In general the early proposals for continental drift were not widely accepted. In many cases they
were consider blasphemy or heretical. The ideas contradicted all that had been taught about the
Earth. Namely that the size, shape and location of the continents as we see them now is how
they have been since the early formation of the earth. Much of the reason for rejecting the
continental drift idea appears to be the ego of northern hemisphere geologists, and that no
plausible mechanism could be proposed for the movement of continents (Wegener thought that
continents plowed through the ocean).

Between the 1930’s and 1960’s a significant amount of new data about the geological and
physical character of the earth was acquired (e.g. topographic mapping of the ocean floor). This
data provided evidence to further support the early ideas of continental drift. However, it was
not until the early 1960’s that new scientific hypotheses were proposed that forced most
geologist to gradually accept the idea of Plate Tectonics. The first key hypothesis was present by
Harry Hess in 1962. Hess proposed a mechanism for continental drift whereby the ocean floor
separates at oceanic ridges (topographic highs beneath the ocean) and subducts at ocean
trenches (long, narrow, deep topographic lows beneath the ocean). He suggested an idea of a
mantle convention cell to drive this process where hot (low density) magma rising from the
mantle is extruded along the separating ridges and cold (high density) crust is subducted at the
trenches.


Possible driving forces in plate tectonics. Hess’s proposal was mantle convection currents.

The second key hypothesis which confirmed Hess’s ideas and provided the foundation for
modern plate tectonics is the Vine‐Mathews‐Morely hypothesis after the scientist who
proposed it in 1963 (note: Morely is a Canadian from the University of Toronto). Vine, Mathews
and Morely identified that the magnetic pattern (normal and reverse polarity) of rocks on one
side of an oceanic ridge is identical to the pattern on the other side. In other words there is a
symmetrical and parallel pattern of magnetic zonation. The identification of this pattern
confirmed Hess’s idea that the sea floor is spreading along oceanic ridges.

The age of the rocks on the sea floor is symmetrical around spreading ridges (Plummer et al., 2004)


Development of magnetic strips on the sea floor. This pattern of symmetrical magnetic stripping was a key piece of
evidence to support sea floor spreading and plate tectonics (Renton, 1994)

Key Evidence for Plate Tectonics
- Fit of the continents
- Similarity of rocks sequences and mountain ranges
- Glacial evidence
- Fossil evidence
- Paleomagnetism and polar wandering
- Ocean ridges and trenches
- Magnetic reversals


2.3 Plate Tectonic Theory and Structure of the Earth

Plate tectonic theory is based on the relatively simple idea that the Earth’s surface is divided
into a series of rigid lithospheric plates that change shape and size with time, and that move
relative to each other by floating on, and gliding over the plastic asthenosphere. Movement of
the plates is driven by convection cells in the underlying mantle. Intense geological activity
generally occurs only along the plate boundaries (e.g. earthquakes, volcanoes). At present the
Earth is divided into seven large plates (Pacific, North American, Nazca, South American, African,
Eurasian and Indian‐Australian) and several smaller plates.

In order to understand these basic principles of plate tectonics we need to look at the overall
structure of the Earth.

The Earth is divided into 3 main layers that are distinguished by differences in chemical
composition:
Crust – thin and rigid; divided into oceanic and continental crust;
o oceanic crust is 5‐10 km thick and comprised mostly of the relatively dense
mafic volcanic rock basalt;
o continental crust is 20‐40 km thick (locally up to 70 km) and is comprised of a
wide variety of rocks, but is dominated by the relatively less dense felsic
plutonic rock granite.
Mantle – thick (almost 2900 km thick) and varies from rigid to plastic; comprised of
ultramafic rocks under high pressure and temperature.
Core – A sphere with a radius of 3470 km; outer core is molten; inner core is sold;
extremely hot and under intense pressure; comprised mainly of iron and nickel.

The crust and mantle are also divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere based on
mechanical differences.
Lithosphere – consists of the crust and the uppermost mantle; rigid; 70 km thick
beneath the oceans and 125 km thick or more beneath continents.
Asthenosphere – consists of the upper mantle below the lithosphere; plastic or
semi‐molten; extends from the base of the lithosphere to approximately 350 km
depth.

In plate tectonic theory the plates are comprised of the lithosphere and these plates
“float” on the plastic or semi‐molten asthenosphere. You can think of the plates as
irregularly shaped ice floes, packed tightly together and floating on the sea. Ice floes
drift over the sea surface and in a similar way, lithospheric tectonic plates drift
horizontally over the asthenosphere. Individual plates contain both oceanic and
continental crust.


Cross‐section of the Earth showing the main divisions. The crust, mantle and core are based on chemical changes in
the composition of the Earth. The Lithosphere and Asthenosphere are based on changes in mechanical properties
(Busch, 2003)

2.4 Plate Boundaries

As plates moves past each other at rates of approximately 1 to 10 cm/year (about the rate that
your fingernails grow) great forces are generated at their boundaries. These forces generate
mountain ranges and produce volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. These processes are called

tectonic activity. In contrast to plate boundaries the interior regions of plates are generally
tectonically quiet.

There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent and transform.

Divergent Plate Boundaries (rifts, spreading centers)
- Plates move away from each other, new crust is created (e.g. mid‐Atlantic ridge;
East African Rift)
- At an ocean‐ocean divergent boundary a mid‐oceanic ridge is generated. Magma
(basaltic composition) upwelling from the mantle fills in the gap between the
separating plates.
- At a continent‐continent divergent boundary a rift‐valley or mid‐continent rift is
generated. A rift valley develops because continental crust stretches, fractures and
sinks as it is pulled apart. With continued rifting the continent will completely
separate and eventually a mid‐ocean ridge will develop.

Divergent plate margins: at the early stages of divergence, an inter‐continental rift valley develops. As spreading
continues a new ocean basin develops. The majority of divergent plate margins occur in the oceans (Plummer et al.,
2004)

Convergent Plate Boundaries (subduction zones, mountain belts, island arcs)
- Plates move towards each other, crust is destroyed or consumed (e.g. British
Columbia Coast, Himalayas, Indonesian Islands).
- At an ocean‐ocean convergent boundary, one plate is subducted (or dives) beneath
the other and an oceanic trench is formed. The subducted plate is consumed. An
island arc or chain of volcanic mountains generally forms above the subducted plate
due to melting of the subducted rocks as they descend into the mantle (e.g.
Indonesia).

Ocean‐ocean convergent boundary

- At an ocean‐continent convergent boundary the denser oceanic crust is subducted
beneath the less dense continental crust. The oceanic crust is consumed and a
continental margin trench is formed. A magmatic arc and chain of mountains forms
along the continent above the subducted plate (e.g. northwest coast of North
America).

Ocean‐continent convergent boundary

- At a continent‐continent convergent boundary two continental land masses collide
and a large, thick collisional mountain belt forms along the boundary. This type of
boundary is usually preceded by an ocean‐continent convergent boundary. Since

oceanic lithosphere is dense, it can subduct into the underlying mantle, however
continental lithosphere is less dense than the underlying mantle therefore it is
unable to subduct. As a result when two continents converge neither is subducted.

Continent‐continent convergent boundary

Transform Plate Boundaries (transform faults)
- Plates moves past each other horizontally in opposite directions or at different
rates. (e.g. San Andreas Fault, California).
- Most common transform boundaries connect an offset between two divergent plate
boundaries along a mid‐ocean ridge. Offsets between divergent plate boundaries
occur due to irregular plate boundaries or different rates of spreading along the
length of a divergent boundary (e.g. mid‐Atlantic Ridge).

Transform plate boundary


2.5 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots

Mantle plumes are stationary regions, typically within the interior of a plate, in which there is a
rising column of hot plastic magma that originates deep within the mantle. These plumes result
in the eruption of large quantities of magma at the earth’s surface and the formation of volcanic
mountains at locations called hot spots. It is thought by some scientists that mantle plumes
may eventually evolve into the location of a new spreading center (divergent margin).

One of the best known hot spots is the islands of Hawaii. The chain of Hawaiian islands mark out
the movement of the Pacific Plate over the stationary mantle plume. The oldest island (Kauai) is
farthest from the plume and the youngest island (Hawaii) lies overtop of the plume. A second
well known example of a hot spot lies beneath Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming.

A fixed hotspot lies below the island Hawaii


The emperor seamounts and Hawaiian Ridge chain of mountains mark out the movement of the pacific plate of the
past 60 million years


3.0 MINERALS

The basic building blocks of all geological materials are minerals. Minerals combine to form
rocks and rocks combine to form mountain ranges, continents, etc. More than 3,500 mineral
have been identified and described on the earth. Fortunately only a dozen minerals make up the
bulk of the rocks on the earth’s surface, and the average geologist or engineer need only have
working knowledge of a few dozen minerals to identify most common rocks.

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline substance with a
definite chemical composition.

There are four important aspects to this definition: a) naturally occurring, b) inorganic, c)
crystalline, and d) definite chemical composition.

Naturally occurring means just that. It must be found in nature not manufactured. For example a
synthetic diamond is not a true mineral even though it may be identical to a natural one.

All minerals are inorganic and most form completely independent of life.

3.1 Chemical Composition of Minerals

Elements are to minerals what minerals are to rocks. In other words, elements are the building
blocks of minerals and it is the elements that give a mineral a definite chemical composition.

All matter is made up of chemical elements, each of which is composed of incredibly small
particles called atoms. There are 92 naturally occurring elements on the earth, however only
eight make up more than 98% of the earth’s crust. Thus the majority of minerals are comprised
of these 8 elements.

Eight most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust

The forces that bind together the atoms (or ions or ionic groups) of crystalline solids are
electrical in nature in which a positively charged cation and a negatively charged anion bond
together. These forces are responsible for many of the physical properties of minerals,
particularly hardness, cleavage and electrical and thermal conductivity. These forces are called
chemical bonds. There are four principle types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, metallic, and
van der Walls. A fifth type of bond, hydrogen bond, is a type of covalent bond specific to water
molecules.

Ionic bond: two ions are bonded together by the attraction between their unlike electrostatic
charges (e.g. Na+ and Cl‐ join to form NaCl by ionic bonding). The resulting mineral compound is
electrically neutral.
 Ionic bonded crystals are generally of moderate hardness, have high melting points and
are poor conductors of electricity and heat. This is the most common type of bonding in
minerals, however in most minerals the bonds between atoms are not purely ionic.

Covalent bond: covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms. An
electrically neutral atom generally has an incomplete number of electrons in its outer shell. This
atom is highly reactive and will try to combine with other atoms to fill its outer electron shell. In
covalent bonding two like atoms unite together and share one or more electrons so that each
atom has a filled outer shell. This type of bond is the strongest chemical bond.

 Covalent bonded crystal are very hard, have very high melting points and do not
conductor electricity. A good example of a covalent bonded mineral is diamond (C).
Most silicate minerals (rock‐forming minerals) are characterized by covalent bonding
between silicon and oxygen atoms.

Metallic bond: in metallic bonds, attractive forces between atomic nuclei and a cloud of freely
moving electrons holds the structure together. In metallic bonded substances the electrons are
not attached to any particular nucleus and are free to drift through the structure or even out of
it entirely. Only native metals display pure metallic bonding (e.g. copper, gold, silver).
 Metallic bonding results in high plasticity, ductility and conductivity and low hardness
and melting points.

Van der Waal’s bond: this type of bond is a weak electrostatic attraction that may occur
between atoms or ions in a mineral’s atomic structure. They are important in minerals like mica,
in which individual sheets are formed of covalent or ionic bonded atoms and adjacent sheets are
held together by weak van der Waal’s bonds. Other important minerals with van der Waal’s
bonds are clays and graphite.

Chemical Formulas
Since a mineral has a definite chemical composition it can be expressed as a chemical formula,
which is written by combining the symbols of the individual elements.

For example ‐ sphalerite contains one positively charged zinc cation for every one
negatively charged sulphur anion.

Zn2+ + S2‐ = ZnS (formula for sphalerite)

Chalcopyrite with the formula CuFeS2 has one copper cation and one iron cation for
every 2 sulphur anions.

Cu2+ + Fe2+ + 2S2‐ = CuFeS2 (formula for chalcopyrite)

3.2 Crystallinity

Minerals are crystalline substances whose atoms are arranged in a regular, repeated pattern
called the crystal structure.

For example the mineral halite (otherwise known as table salt) has the composition NaCl. The
sodium and chlorine atoms of halite are bound together in orderly rows and columns that
intersect at right angles. This arrangement is called the crystalline structure.

In every crystal structure there is a small group of elements or atoms that form the
basic building block of the structure. This group of elements are called the unit cell
and the unit cell repeats itself over and over as the crystal grows. The unit cell can
be thought of as a single brick within a brick wall.


Minerals consist of chemical elements (atoms) that combine together in a regular three dimensional pattern to
produce crystal structures (Perkins, 2002).

3.3 Physical Properties of Minerals

The chemical composition and crystal structure of a mineral distinguish it from other minerals.
However the geologist or engineer in the field cannot easily determine these properties.
Therefore we use a variety of physical properties that each mineral possesses to distinguish one
from the next. These physical properties are a direct result of their composition and crystal
structure and most are easily measured and evaluated in the field. Not all physical properties
will be useful for every mineral. However most minerals have 2 or 3 physical properties that are
diagnostic and can be used to distinguish that mineral.

 Colour – most obvious, but commonly unreliable. For example minor chemical
impurities in quartz (SiO2) can change the colour from white to black, purple, pink or
yellow.
 Streak ‐ the colour of a fine powder of the mineral. It is observed by rubbing the
mineral across a piece of unglazed porcelain called a streak plate. More reliable than
colour


Stream of the mineral hematite (Fe3O4) – note that different forms of hematite have very different colours crystal
shapes, but the streak colour is the same for all varieties (Busch, 2003)

 Luster – the manner in which a mineral reflects light. Luster is divided into metallic
and non‐metallic. Minerals with non‐metallic luster can be further described as
vitreous, earthy, glassy, pearly, resinous.
 Hardness – the resistance of the mineral to scratching. Mohs’ hardness scale.

Mohs hardness scale (Busch, 2003)

 Cleavage – the tendency of some minerals to break along flat surfaces. The surfaces
are planes of weak bonds in the crystal. A mineral may have several non‐parallel
cleavage planes. Fracture refers to minerals that do not break along flat planes.


Mineral Cleavage planes (Busch, 2003)

 Density (specific gravity) – the “weight” of a mineral. Can estimate the relative
densities of different minerals simply by holding them.
 Crystal habit – the characteristic shape of the mineral. The arrangement of crystal
faces and the angles between the faces.
 Magnetism, radioactivity, conductivity – magnetite, zircon, some sulphides
 Reaction to dilute HCl (hydrochloric acid) ‐ carbonates


3.4 Mineral Classifications

There are several different mineral groups that are classified according to the dominant anion in
the group. The most common minerals are those in the silicate group which are built around the
(SiO4)4‐ complex (silicate tetrahedron). Approximately 95% of the earth’s crust is made up of
silicate minerals. For economic geologists the sulphide mineral group (S2‐) contains many of the
important ore‐bearing minerals. The most common mineral groups area listed below.
- Silicates: (SiO4)4‐ ‐ (rock‐forming minerals)
o e.g. quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine
- Sulphides: S2‐ ‐ (metallic, commonly ore‐bearing minerals)
o e.g. chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite
- Native elements (gold, silver, platinum, copper, etc.)
- Oxides: O2‐ ‐ (non‐metallic ore‐bearing minerals, industrial minerals)
- Carbonates: (CO3)2‐ ‐ (calcite, dolomite)
- Sulphates: (SO4)2‐
- Phosphates: (PO4)3‐

Silicates (rock forming)
Silicate minerals are by far the most abundant on the Earth’s crust and are often referred to as
the rock forming mineral. Silicates are built around the silicate tetrahedron which is a compound
that comprises four silicon ions and one oxygen ion (SiO4)4‐. The crystal structure and properties
of all silicate minerals are determined by the way the silicate tetrahedrons pack or bind
together. Regardless of how they pack together, most of the tetrahedron structures maintain a
net negative charge. This negative charge is balanced by bonding of cations (e.g. Mg2+, Fe2+, Ca2+,
Al3+) to the silicate tetrahedron structures. It is the structure of the tetrahedrons and the
composition of the cations bonded to the tetrahedrons that give minerals their definite
structure and chemical composition.

The common silicate mineral groups are:
- Single tetrahedron (orthosilicates): olivine
- Single chain – pyroxene group
- Double chain – amphibole group
- Sheet structure – mica and clay groups
- Framework structure – quartz and feldspar group.

Sulphide Minerals (economic)
Sulphide minerals are built around the element sulphur, and most are bound with metallic
bonds. Sulphide minerals are an important group of economic minerals. Most precious and base
metal mineral deposits are mined for the sulphide minerals.
Examples of some common sulphide minerals are:
- pyrite (iron sulphide – FeS2). Pyrite is the most common sulphide mineral.
Chalcopyrite (copper sulphide – CuFeS2)
- Sphalerite (zinc sulphide – ZnS)
- Galena (lead sulphide – PbS)
- Molybdenite (molybdenum sulphide – MoS2)
- Pentlandite (Nickle sulphide – (Fe,Ni)9S8)


Carbonate Minerals
Carbonate minerals are built around the “carbonate” chemical compound (CO3)2‐ and include
the important minerals calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Calcite and dolomite make
up the rocks limestone and dolomite. Limestone is a common host rock to a number of different
mineral deposit types (e.g. skarn).

Native Element Minerals
A few minerals consist of only one chemical element and are referred to as the native elements.
 Probably the best known mineral in this group is Diamond which consists of Carbon (C).
 Gold is a relatively inert element which means it does not readily combine with other
chemical elements. Thus gold usually occurs in the native state. Native gold is typically
found as extremely small flakes trapped in small cracks and cavities in other minerals
such as pyrite.
 Copper, platinum and silver also occur in the native state, although they are more
common in sulphide minerals.

Common mineral groups (Lutgens and Tarbuck, 2003)

4.0 ROCKS (IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY, METAMORPHIC)

The surface of the earth and most of the subsurface down to the outer core consist of rocks. The
science of geology is based on the study of rocks and technologists, engineers or geologists
working in the mining, civil, geotechnical and petroleum industries will evaluate rocks from
many different perspectives.

Rocks can be divided into three main groups:
1) igneous rocks that are formed from the solidification of molten material,
2) sedimentary rocks that originate from the deposition of material from water or air,
and
3) metamorphic rocks that are formed from a previously existing rock by some process
of chemical or physical change.

The study of rocks involves two important components: a) the description, identification and
classification of rocks, and b) the interpretation of the origin of those rocks. Both are equally
important. For example if you do not observe and describe the rock and identify what type of
rock it is, then you will be unable to determine if it might host a coal deposit or a copper deposit
or be the host to a gas reservoir.

Volcanic igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks form on or close to the Earth’s surface and thus
are directly visible. Plutonic igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks form below the Earth’s
surface; often at great depths. However, large areas of plutonic and metamorphic rocks are
currently exposed on the Earth’s surface. They are exposed through tectonic processes which
uplift rocks from depth and from weathering and erosion, which over millions of years expose
rocks that were once deeply buried under the Earth’s surface.

Common geological environments of the three main groups of rocks (Busch, 2003)


4.1 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and soldification of molten material
(rock).

Molten rock forms below the surface of the earth (lower crust and mantle) in areas of high
temperature, low pressure and/or high fluid (water) content. The molten rock (or magma) rises
to the surface as it is buoyant and less dense than the surrounding solidified rock. As the magma
rises it cools and mineral crystals begin to form. Eventually the magma body will cool sufficiently
such that it completely solidifies and an igneous rock is formed.
- When a magma cools and crystallizes before it reaches the earth’s surface the
resulting rock is called an intrusive or plutonic igneous rock.
- When a magma reaches the earth’s surface and cools in contact with air, water or
ice, the resulting rock is called an extrusive or volcanic igneous rock.

Classification
Igneous rocks are named and classified according to their composition (mineralogy) and
texture.
- The composition is reflected by the minerals that comprise the rock, and the texture
refers to the size, shape and arrangement of the mineral grains in the rock.

This classification system is primarily descriptive, but it is also partially genetic. Igneous rocks
with the same mineralogy and texture are considered to have formed in a similar geological
environment, and those with different textures and mineralogy are considered to have formed
under different environments.

Both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks can have the same composition. However intrusive
and extrusive rocks with the same composition will have very different textures. For example a
granite (intrusive) and a rhyolite (extrusive) have the same mineral composition (feldspar and
quartz), but a granite has large mineral grains that are visible to the naked eye, and a rhyolite
has very small mineral grains that are not visible to the naked eye.

Classification of Igneous Rocks (Busch, 2003)

Common Igneous Rocks and their Characteristics
Important Terms:
- Felsic Rocks: light coloured; high silica content and low iron and magnesium
content; granite and rhyolite.
- Intermediate Rocks: medium green or gray; intermediate in composition between
felsic and mafic rocks; diorite and andesite.

- Mafic Rocks: dark gray or black: high magnesium and iron content, low silica
content; gabbro and basalt.
- Ultramafic Rocks: very dark green to black; very high magnesium and/or iron
content; peridotite.

There are a large number of igneous rock textures, particularly for volcanic rocks. However the
main difference between plutonic and volcanic rock textures is grain size.

Plutonic rocks form from the solidification of magma within the crust. The overlying rocks
insulates the magma like a thick blanket, thus the magma crystallizes slowly and the crystals
have hundreds of thousands or millions of years to grow. As a result, most plutonic rocks are
medium to coarse grained. That is, they have crystals that are greater than 1 mm in diameter
and are visible with the naked eye.

Volcanic rocks form from magma that erupts and solidifies on the relatively cool Earth surface.
The magma crystallizes rapidly within a few days or years. As a result, most volcanic rocks have
very fine‐grained (<< 1mm) crystals that are not visible with the naked eye.

In some cases a magma rises slowly through the crust before erupting. In this case some crystals
may grow while the magma remains molten. If the mixture of magma and crystals then erupts
on the surface, it solidifies quickly, forming a porphyry, a rock with the large crystals, called
phenocrysts, embedded in a fine‐grained matrix.

Porphyritic igneous rock (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

The type of volcanic rocks referred to above are called volcanic flows or lava flows. They
comprise the common volcanic rocks such as a basalt flow or a rhyolite flow. There is a second
important group of volcanic rocks called pyroclastic rocks.

Pyroclastic rocks form from the explosive eruption or ejection of rock material from a volcano.
The material (called pyroclasts) can be very fine, such as volcanic ash, or as large as boulders.
Thick deposits of pyroclastic rocks occur around many volcanic centers and are typically
interlayered or interbedded with volcanic flows. One of the most common pyroclastic rocks is
called a tuff.

Form of Igneous Rocks
Intrusive igneous bodies occur in a number of different forms, each defined by its three‐
dimensional shape and its relationship to the country rock.


The most common forms are illustrated on the attached figure.
- Pluton: An igneous body exposed over less than 100 km2 of the Earth surface.
Plutons are commonly 1‐5 km across and have an approximate oval shape. The term
“stock” is often used interchangeably with pluton.
- Batholith: An igneous body exposed over more than 100 km2 of the Earth surface.
Batholiths are commonly comprised of several smaller plutons intruded sequentially
over millions of years (e.g. Coast Range Batholith).
- Dyke: A tabular or sheet‐like intrusive rock that cuts across the layering or grain of
the country rock. A dyke is discordant to the rock layering.
- Sill: A tabular or sheet‐like intrusive rock that is parallel to the layering of the
country rock. A sill is concordant to the rock layering.

Common forms of igneous rocks including pluton, batholith, dyke and sill (Press and Siever, 2001)

Extrusive igneous rocks form a wide variety of rocks and landforms. The most common and
obvious landforms are volcanoes. But not all extrusive igneous rocks are associated with
volcanoes. Lava plateaus (flood basalts) and submarine mid‐ocean ridge basalts are also
significant volcanic rock bodies.

The gentlest type of volcanic eruption occurs when highly fluid magma oozes and flows out of
cracks in the land surface called fissures. This magma is commonly basaltic (mafic) in
composition as it has a low viscosity. In places these fissures are tens to hundreds of kilometers
long and thousands of cubic kilometers of lava erupt on the Earth’s surface. These are called
flood basalt, as they flow over the surface like a flood. The large volume of magma that is

erupted produces a plateau called a lava plateau. A good example of this is the Columbia River
basalts in Washington, Oregon and Idaho.

Submarine volcanic eruptions along mid‐ocean ridges at divergent plate margins are similar to
the flood basalts in that the lava erupts from a fissure and is basaltic in composition. However
since the lava erupts underwater it is cooled quickly and does not tend to flow a great distance.
Rapid cooling of lava underwater causes it to contract into pillow‐shaped structures called
pillow lava.

If lava is too viscous to spread out over great distance like a flood basalt, it builds a hill or
mountain called a volcano. The two most common volcanic forms are shield volcanoes and
stratovolanoes (composite volcanoes). Shield volcanoes consist of gently sloping mountains that
can be an enormous size. The volcanoes are generally composed of basalt. The Hawaiian
Mountains are a good example of a shield volcano. Stratovolcanoes or composite cones are
steep‐sided, cone shaped mountains that can attain great height. They consist of layers of lava
and pyroclastic rocks that have erupted repeatedly over a long time. Mountains such as Mt.
Baker, Mt. St Helens and Mt Fuji are strotovolcanoes.

Structure of a stratovolcano: interlayering of volcanic flows and pyroclastic material
4.2 Weathering

Weathering and erosion are key geological process in which rocks exposed at or near the Earth’s
surface are broken down and moved. Weathering and erosion produce the material transported
by rivers and oceans and is the source of material to produce sedimentary rocks. Weathering
and erosion also result in the formation of soils.
Weathering: the general process by which rocks exposed at or near the Earth’s surface
are broken down by physical or chemical process.
Erosion: a set of processes that loosen and transport broken rock and soil material down
slope or down wind. Erosion is the movement of weathered material.


Weathering is a slow to rarely rapid process whereby physical and chemical alteration of rock
occurs near the Earth’s surface. It occurs in the zone where the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
biosphere and atmosphere mix. Most weathering occurs at the Earth’s surface, but fractures,
breaks and openings in rocks allow weathering agents to penetrate below the surface,
sometimes to tens or even hundreds of metres of depth.

Weathering involves two principle processes: physical (or mechanical) weathering and chemical
weathering.

Physical weathering
The mechanical breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces that retain their original chemical
composition – the main processes are: freeze‐thaw action, crystal growth, plant wedging and
from moving water and ice.
Daily heating and cooling of rocks, particularly in desserts has been invoked as a physical
weathering process. However, laboratory experiments to test this hypothesis have failed to
demonstrate that daily heating and cooling alone can cause any degree of mechanical
breakdown. It is more likely that the freeze‐thaw action of water causes the weathering. Others
argue that the time frame of the laboratory experiments does not effectively test a process that
may take hundreds of years.

 Freeze-thaw action: water has the unique property that it expands when it
changes from a liquid to a solid (ice is about 9% larger by volume than an equal
amount of water). Water that lies in small cracks or pores in a rock will exert
considerable pressure on the rock when it converts to ice. In addition, growing ice
crystals will attract more water that in turn converts to ice. This further exerts
pressure on the rock. The result is cracking and breakage of rocks. This processes
is particular effective in climates with repeated freeze-thaw cycles, such as mid-
latitude mountain ranges (e.g. BC)

Frost wedging in an Alpine environment produced by freeze‐thaw action (Renton, 1994)

 Crystal growth: groundwater moving through rocks contains dissolved salt
material. Salt crystals that precipitate out of the groundwater exert pressure on the
wall of the fractures in which the crystal grows. In a similar manner to freeze-
thaw action this results in fracturing and breakage of rocks.

Crystal growth assists in the physical breakdown or rocks (Renton. 1994)
 Plant wedging: as roots grow down into rock cracks and expand they exert forces
that break the rock apart.
 Moving water and ice: both water and ice are very effective at carrying sediment
and rock material. Sediment in river water will abrade rocks along the edge and
bottom of the river causing the rocks to gradually break down. Similarly sediment
and rock fragments moving within glaciers will scrape and break apart rocks
along the base of the glacier.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is the breakdown of minerals in rocks at the Earth’s surface through
interaction with air, water and biological organism. Most minerals are chemcially
unstable at the Earth’s surface and, with time, will undergo changes. In some cases
minerals will dissolve and in others the elements will combine with water or air to form
new minerals.
One of the common mineral products of chemical weathering are clay minerals.
Feldspars and many other common minerals will eventually convert to clay minerals at
the Earth’s surface. Clay minerals are small flat minerals that make up most of what
looks like “mud” in rivers and other areas of sediment accumulation.
The primary processes of chemical weathering are: oxidation, hydrolsis, leaching and
dissolution.

 Oxidation: with regard to weathering, we can define oxidation as any reaction
where a chemical element combines with oxygen. Water is an important part of
this process as the oxygen must be dissolved in water to be an effective oxidizing
agent. The most common form of oxidation involves iron which is released by the
dissolution of minerals that contain iron (a large number of common minerals
contain iron). Oxidation of iron produces a red, or rusty colour to many rocks at
the Earth’s surface.
A typical oxidation process, where iron in the rock‐forming mineral pyroxene is released and reacts with oxygen to
form hematite – an iron oxide mineral (Press et al., 2004)
 Hydrolysis: hydrolysis are decomposition reactions involving water and in

particular the H+ ions that naturally exist in water (rain and surface waters are
weak acids and thus have H+ ions available for reaction). In general the H+ ions
and water react with minerals to cause the release of silica (SiO2) and cations such
as K+, Na+ or Ca2+. Once in solution these elements combine with water to form
clay minerals. A large number of common minerals breakdown to form clay
minerals (see example below).

4KAlSi3O8 + 4H+ + 2H2O = 4K+ + Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 8SiO2
K-feldspar + hydrogen ions + water = potassium ions + kaolinite + silica
 Leaching: leaching is the process where chemical elements are removed, by

water, from a rock undergoing weathering. For example when silica or potassium
ions are released from the hydrolysis reaction shown above, some of the material
is “washed” away by leaching.
 Dissolution: some minerals, such as salt (NaCl), will readily dissolve into water,
but in most cases dissolution occurs along with hydrolysis and leaching.
Ultimately the processes of weathering produce sediments that are carried by wind, water or ice
(erosion) away from their place of origin and are deposited in a new location. This is the
beginning stages of the formation of clastic sedimentary rocks. In addition, weathering results in
the dissolution of chemical elements into surface water. In many some cases these elements are
later precipitated out of surface water to form chemical sedimentary rocks (see the next
section).

4.3 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the deposition and subsequent
lithification (cementation) of material from water or air.

Sedimentary rocks are generally divided into three groups depending on the origin of the
material that comprises the rock.
 Clastic or detrital sedimentary rocks consist of small fragments of rock or minerals
derived from the weathering of pre‐existing rocks (e.g. sandstone, siltstone and shale).
 Organic sedimentary rocks consist of plant or animal remains and fragments, and (e.g.
limestone)
 chemical sedimentary rocks consist of material (minerals) precipitated from solution
(e.g. chert).

Relative abundance of the main sedimentary rock types (Thompson and Turk, 1998)


Common sedimentary deposition environments from mountains to marine (Plummer et al., 2004)
As sediment material is transported it is sorted and eventually settles out in essentially

horizontal layers. Over long periods of time these sediments become deeply buried by the
continued accumulation of sediments. With time and burial the sediments are compacted
and cemented together and they become sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
characterized by original horizontal layering or bedding. A sedimentary rock bed
consists of a single rock type (i.e. single composition and texture). As one moves up a
pile of sedimentary rocks, numerous different beds will be encountered, each with their
own composition and texture. The different sedimentary beds forms because the
environment of deposition (e.g. the energy of a stream or river) and the source of the
sediments changes continuously. The transition from one bed to another is called the
contact, and it may be sharp or gradational.
Sedimentary bedding is clearly visible in the Green River in Wyoming

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks are the most common comprising over 80% of the sedimentary
rock record. The fragments that make up clastic sedimentary rocks (clastics) are produced
by the weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks (igneous, metamorphic or
sedimentary).

The products of weathering are transported via erosion, sorted, rounded and eventually settle
into horizontal sediment horizons. The larger pieces of material (e.g. boulders) tend to be
transported short distances from their source, whereas fine material such as silt and clays may
be transported hundreds or even thousands of kilometers from their source.

With time and burial these sediments are compacted and cemented into hard rock. The
cementation of sediments into rock occurs by the precipitation of dissolved minerals out of
water that circulates through the sediments as they are compacting. The most common
materials to act as cements are calcium carbonate (limestone), silica (quartz) and iron.

Fundamental components of a sedimentary rock: grains, matrix, cement and porosity


Formation of sedimentary rocks through compaction and lithification (Davidson et al., 2002)

Clastic sedimentary rocks are named primarily on the size of the material that comprise the
rock.
- Conglomerate: Coarse grained rock that is the equivalent of a gravel. Each piece of
gravel in the rock is called a clast. Conglomerates may be clast supported or matrix
supported.
- Sandstone: Medium grained rock that is the equivalent of lithified sand. Generally
consists of quartz and feldspar.
- Siltstone: Fine grained rock comprised of silt‐sized particles. Generally consists of
quartz and clay material.
- Shale: Very fine grained fissile rock composed of clay and small amounts of silt.
Shale has a finely layered structure called fissility.

Common clastic sedimentary rocks and the materials that comprise them (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Particle size for clastic sedimentary rocks (Thompson and Turk, 1998)

Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Organic sedimentary rocks form by the accumulation of organic debris. Limestone, coal and
chalk are common organic sedimentary rocks.

Coal forms from the rapid and thick accumulation of plant material. Typically when plants die,
their remains decompose by reaction with oxygen. However if there is a rapid and thick
accumulation of plant material all the available oxygen is used up before the material
decomposes. Initially this material forms peat, but with burial and compaction it is converted to
hard black coal.

Limestone (CaC03) forms by the accumulation of the shells and skeletons of marine animals such
as corals and algae. The shells and skeletons of these animals are composed of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) which compacts, dissolves and re‐cements itself into limestone with time.
Many limestones contain abundant fossil remains of the organism whose shells and skeletons
comprise the rock. Limestone may also form through chemical sedimentation.

Chalk is fine grained, white limestone made of shells and skeletons of microorganisms that float
near the surface of the ocean.

Limestone typically forms in association with Coral reefs (Plummer et al., 2004)


Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks form by the precipitation of minerals dissolved in water. Most
water bodies contain a significant amount of dissolved elements and minerals produced through
chemical weathering. For example salt in the ocean is essentially dissolved rock salt. Under
certain conditions these minerals precipitate out of the water and form accumulations that
become rocks. Limestones and evaporates (gypsum, salt, potash) are the most common
chemical sedimentary rocks.

4.4 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form from pre‐existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary or other
metamorphic rocks) through processes of chemical and physical change. These
processes generally occur deep in the Earth’s crust and involve high temperatures
and/or pressures and the introduction or removal of chemical components by
fluids.

The temperature and pressure of the Earth’s crust increases with depth (e.g. temperature
increases by about 30°C per kilometer of depth). Thus, as rocks become buried their
temperature and pressure increases, and if they are buried deeply enough metamorphic
reactions will occur. The temperature of a rock mass may also increase significantly due to the
intrusion of a nearby magma and igneous rock. These temperature increases may occur
relatively close to the Earth’s surface.

Common metamorphic environments, including regional metamorphism resulting from widespread increases in
temperature and pressure, usually associated with mountain building, and contact metamorphism located adjacent
to igneous intrusions (Busch, 2003)

Metamorphic reactions are generally solid state reactions. In other words the changes in the
chemical or physical structure of the rock occur without melting. Solid state reactions tend to be
very slow, and thus time is an important variable in metamorphic reactions.

Metamorphism results in a change in the texture and mineralogy of the parent rock. Minerals
are only stable under certain conditions of temperature or pressure. If the temperature or
pressure of a rock increases significantly one or more minerals may become unstable. The
elements of these unstable minerals will recombine to form a mineral that is stable under the
new temperature or pressure conditions. Mineralogical changes may occur without an overall
change in the chemical composition of the rock. Alternatively, if chemical components are
added or removed from the rock mass, new minerals may grow in response to the changes in
temperature, pressure and chemical composition. Chemical components are added or removed
from rocks undergoing metamorphism through the flow of fluids that contain dissolved
elements. It may be difficult to imagine fluids flowing through a deeply buried solid rock mass,
but they do indeed flow and often in great volumes; albeit very slowly.

In addition to growth of new minerals during metamorphism, many existing minerals will change
their shape and size. Together these mineralogical changes produce textural changes in the
rock. The high pressures (or stresses) that often occur during metamorphism have a strong
influence on these textural changes. High pressures develop from deep burial of the rocks and
from forces generated by tectonic activity. For example when two plates are converging, strong
tectonic forces are generated parallel to the direction of convergence. These pressures or
stresses are often stronger in one direction than another resulting in differential stresses.

Formation of a preferred orientation of minerals in a metamorphic rock. As metamorphism develops, new minerals
grow perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress


Uniform and differential stress: (a) under uniform stress a rock may undergo a volume change but no realignment
of minerals, (b) under a differential stress that is common in metamorphism, minerals realign into a preferred
orientation called a foliation – the rock in (b) is a gneiss (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

The rocks and minerals affected by differential tectonic stresses are crushed, broken, bent and
transformed during metamorphism through a processes called deformation. Minerals that grow
under high pressure tend to align themselves parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of highest pressure. The parallel alignment of minerals produces a layering in the rock
called foliation. Common types of foliation are schistosity, slaty cleavage and gneissosity.

Schistose texture (a type of foliation) (Plummer et al., 2004)


Metamorphic Grade and Facies
Metamorphic grade expresses the intensity of metamorphism that affected a rock. The higher
the temperature or pressure of metamorphism the higher the grade. Grade is expressed by the
subjective terms low, medium or high.

Temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism

Rocks that form under identical temperature and pressure conditions are said to belong to a
metamorphic facies. In other words metamorphic facies refers to a specific set of temperature
and pressure conditions. A given metamorphic facies is reflected by a diagnostic set of minerals
that are stable under the temperature and pressure conditions of that facies. Facies names are
usually derived from these diagnostic minerals. For example amphibolite facies refers to the
amphibole mineral hornblende which is stable at amphibolite facies.

Metamorphic facies


Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are classified on a first order by the temperature and pressure conditions of
metamorphism. The main types of metamorphism are contact, regional, dynamic and
hydrothermal.

Contact metamorphic rocks develop when hot magma intrudes cooler country rock. The highest
grade of metamorphism occurs adjacent to the magma and decreases away it. The metamorphic
halo around the magma can extend for a few metres or several kilometers. Contact
metamorphic rocks are commonly massive and unfoliated as they develop in areas of low
pressure. The general name for contact metamorphic rocks is a hornfels.

Contact metamorphism
Regional metamorphic rocks are the most common and develop when large areas of the lower
crust are elevated in temperature and/or pressure. They often develop adjacent to subduction
zones or in areas of continental collision. Common regional metamorphic rocks are slate,
phyllite, schist, gneiss and migmatite.

Dynamic or shock metamorphic rocks are not very common and develop in areas of intense and
often catastrophic pressure. Rocks affected by earthquake activity and asteroid impacts may be
transformed into dynamic metamorphic rocks.

Hydrothermal metamorphic rocks develop when hot fluids (water and dissolved elements) react
with a rock and change its chemical composition. This processes is called hydrothermal
alteration or metasomatism. Hydrothermal alteration is an important processes in the
formation of many mineral deposits as the hot fluids often contain elevated concentrations of
elements such as gold, copper or zinc. These elements may precipitate out of the fluids in veins
or cavities in the host rock. If the volume of fluids that pass through the rock is great enough,
then economic concentrations of these elements may develop.


Hydrothermal metamorphism: an important process in the formation of many mineral deposits (Plummer et al.,
2003)


4.5 The Rock Cycle

The Earth is a dynamic planet. The processes of plate tectonics are constantly changing the
structure of the Earth’s crust, and these processes in combination with weathering and erosion
are constantly changing the shape and form of the Earth’s surface. Rocks and minerals are also
dynamic. Igneous rocks can be broken down or transformed into sedimentary or metamorphic
rocks, and sedimentary rocks can be carried down a subduction zone where they melt and
become magma which in turn forms a new igneous rock. This process of constant change and
recycling of rocks and minerals is called the rock cycle. The rock cycle encompasses processes
that occur on the Earth’s surface and subsurface. Thus it is tied into the tectonic cycle which are
primarily subsurface processes, and the hydrological cycle which are surficial and atmospheric
processes.

All rock types are linked together in a continuum where one rock type can change into another rock type over time
(United States Geological Survey)

5.0 GEOLOGIAL TIME

Our solar systems and the planets within it are considered to have formed approximately 5.0
billion years ago by the gravitational coalescence of dust and gas. The earth as a discrete planet
is thought to be approximately 4.6 billion years old. However the oldest rocks known on the
earth are the Acasta Gneisses in the Northwest Territories which are approximately 4.0 billion
years old. The early history of the earth, prior to 4.0 billion years ago is uncertain. Many
geologists contend that the earth was covered by an extensive magma ocean which gradually
cooled until the first pieces of crust (oceanic crust) formed about 4.2 to 4.0 billion years ago.
After 4.0 billion years the crust grew rapidly such that large areas of continental crust had
formed by 3.8 billion years ago. Gradually with the formation of the earths crust the processes
of plate tectonics began to operate. These tectonic processes continue to this day and have
shaped the geological evolution of the earth for the past 3.5 billion years or more

Geological time related to the distance across North America (Plummer et al., 2004)


One of the most important concepts to grasp in geology is one of geological time. Most of us
think of time in terms hours, days, weeks or years. However in geological time a year is an
infinitesimal amount of time. Although some geological events such as a volcanic eruption or
earthquake occur rapidly, the majority of events occur very slowly such that 1,000 or 10,000
years is a relatively short period of geological time. In most cases we refer to geological events
that occur on a scale of millions of years. If we consider the history of the earth as 1 year,
humans and human‐like ancestors have existed for less than 1/3 of one day and modern man
for only a few minutes!!

Prior to the late 1700’s or early 1800’s the earth was thought to be about 6,000 years old, and
major geological events were placed within a biblical chronology. In 1820 geologist Charles Lyell
published a book called “Principles of Geology”. In this book Lyell expanded on an observation
first proposed by James Hutton in 1788 that geological processes operating at present are the
same processes that operated in the past.

This principle was called uniformitarism and is more succinctly stated as “The
present is the key to the past”.
 The principle of uniformitarism is one of the most important tenets of geology that
allows us to look at the geological processes acting on the earth today and determine
what has happened in the past by invoking these processes.

In addition to developing this important principle the work of Hutton and Lyell also established
that the earth was of great age and thus began the importance of dating the age of the earth
and establishing geological time.

Today, geological time is measured in two primary ways: relative time and absolute time.

5.1 Relative Geological Time
Relative geological time is based on establishing the order in which events occurred.
It is founded on the simple principle that in order for an event to affect a rock, the
rock must exist first. Thus the rock must be older than the event. This principle
seems obvious, yet it is the basis of much geological work.

The process of establishing relative geological time is undertaken by applying several simple
principles or laws. Application of these principles and other basic geological concepts allows one
to unravel the geological history of a region.

Principle of original horizontality
- Beds of sediments originally form as horizontal or nearly horizontal layers. Thus if
the sediments are tilted then a tectonic event has effected them.


Principle of superposition
- In a sequence of sedimentary or volcanic rocks the layers or beds get younger going
from bottom to top.

Principle of cross‐cutting relationships
- A geological feature or rock is younger than any rock or geological feature that it
cuts across. In other words a rock must first exists before anything can happen to it.

Principle of lateral continuity
- A sedimentary layer extends laterally, often for a great distance, until is tapers or
thins at its edges.

Principle of Faunal Succession
- Fossil organism have evolved through time in a recognizable order, and thus the
relative ages of rocks can be established from their fossils.
- This principle is based on the theory of evolution which states that life forms have
changed throughout geological time. By establishing the order in which these life
forms changed we can determine the relative ages of fossils and by extension the
relative ages of the rocks they are found in.

Schematic cross‐section illustrating many of the principles of relative geological time (Busch, 2003)

5.2 Geological Contacts

The boundary or contact between different rock types or units can tell us a lot about the relative
geological time of an area of rocks. There are a variety of geological contacts that can be divided
into three broad groups: primary, erosional, and tectonic.

Primary Contacts

Primary contacts are those that form at the same time as the rocks that they separate. These
include bedding contacts, intrusive contacts and some types of metamorphic contacts.
- Bedding contacts refer to the surface or horizon between sedimentary and volcanic
rock beds. Bedding contacts are usually flat, originally horizontal (or subhorizontal),
and separate older beds below from younger beds on top.
- Intrusive contacts refer to the boundary between a plutonic rock and the country
rock that the plutonic rock intrudes. These contacts are often irregular in form and
may be at any angle. They can be conformable intrusive contacts (e.g. sill) or
disconformable intrusive contacts (e.g. dyke, pluton).
- Primary metamorphic contacts are those that separate rocks of different
metamorphic facies. However metamorphic contacts are often hybrids and may be
transposed or altered bedding or intrusive contacts, or tectonic contacts.

Erosional Contacts (unconformities)
Erosional contacts or unconformities are those that reflect a gap in time within a sequence of
rocks. This gap is due to a period of erosion or non‐deposition. There are three main types of
unconformities: angular unconformities, disconformities, and nonconformities.
- An angular unconformity is a surface or horizon that is marked by an angular
discontinuity between underlying (older) and overlying (younger) rocks. An angular
unconformity implies that the older strata were deformed and then truncated by
erosion before the younger layers were deposit.
- A disconformity is an irregular surface of erosion between parallel rock beds. The
beds above and below the disconformity may be parallel to each other and the
disconformity can be difficult to distinguish from bedding. Evidence of a gap in time,
such as the fossil record, can help to distinguish between the two.
- A nonconformity is when sedimentary rocks overlie igneous or metamorphic rocks.

Types of unconformities (Busch, 2003)

Tectonic Contacts
Tectonic contacts are those that develop as a result of deformation and metamorphism. The
most important tectonic contacts are faults. A fault is a break in a rock or rock sequence along
which movement has occurred. A fault may separate rocks that originally formed at a great
distance from each other. Faults can be large global‐scale features that are 1 km or more wide
and hundreds of kilometers long, or they may be small features that are a few metres in length.


Many of the contacts between metamorphic rocks are considered tectonic. The differential
stresses and deformation that accompanies the development of metamorphic rocks commonly
produces a layering or foliation. This foliation is often parallel to the surface (contact) that
separates one metamorphic rock from another. This contact is referred to as tectonic or
metamorphic. Some geologists may consider these types of contacts as primary, since they
formed at the same time as the rocks.

Relative geological time problem – sort out the oldest to youngest rock units and features (Busch, 2003)

5.3 Absolute Geological Time
Absolute geological time is based on determining the exact or absolute age of a
rock or geological event through the process of isotopic or radiometric dating.

Isotopic dating is based on the radioactive decay of elements that are present in many minerals.
Radioactive decay is the chemical process whereby an unstable “radioactive” parent element
(called an isotope) spontaneously breaks apart or decays to a more stable daughter element
with a different chemical composition. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain
different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. In most cases the number of neutrons and
protons are the same, but in some isotopes there are more (or less) neutrons than protons. In
most atoms there is a limit to the number of excess neutrons that can exist in a nucleus before it
becomes unstable. For example in some carbon atoms there are 6 protons but 8 neutrons.
These carbon atoms (14C – referred to as carbon‐14), are “radioactive” and will decay to 14N
(nitrogen‐14) with time.


The radioactive decay of Uranium‐238 to Lead‐206 involves a number of steps and has a half‐life of 4.5 billion years
(Plummer et al., 2004)

Radioactive decay is a constant process and the rate of this decay for a given isotope can be
measured in the laboratory. The rate of decay is usually expressed as the half‐life, which is the
time it takes for a given amount of a radioactive element to be reduced by one‐half.

Therefore when a radioactive element is sealed into a newly crystallized mineral it begins to
decay at a constant rate. If today, we measure the ratio of the radioactive parent element to its
stable daughter element, then we can calculate how long ago the mineral crystallized.

The most common radioactive minerals that are used for isotopic dating are uranium, potassium
and carbon. Uranium and potassium have long half‐lives and are used for dating rocks that
range from 50,000 to 4.5 billion years old. Carbon has a shorter half life and is used for dating
rocks 100 to 70,000 years old.

 The following example illustrates how radioactive decay can be used for absolute
geological dating. Consider that the half life of carbon‐14, which decays to nitrogen‐14,
is 5,730 years. If a mineral originally contained 100 carbon‐14 atoms and today it has 50
carbon‐14 atoms and 50 nitrogen‐14 atoms than the rock would be 5,730 years old. If
there were only 25 carbon‐14 atoms the rock would be 11,460 years old and so on.


(Thompson and Turk, 1998)
5.4 Geological Time Scale

The geological time scale has evolved over the past 100 years or more through the gradual work
of many geologists. Initially it was established through relative dating where geologist in England
and Europe defined major rock units by applying the principles of superposition and faunal
succession. The geologists were able to correlate the geology across large regions. It was the
study of fossils and faunal successions that have defined the major periods of geological time.
For example the boundary between the Cambrian and Ordovician periods is marked by the first
appearance of fish. As isotopic dating developed geologist were able to place exact dates on the
boundaries between the geological time periods. The main subdivisions of the geological time
scale are Eons (e.g. Proterozoic), Eras (e.g. Paleozoic), Periods (e.g. Cretaceous), and Epochs (e.g.
Pleistocene). Not all geological time scales show the same divisions, or give the same dates for
the major divisions. Disagreement among the geologist of different countries is the main reason
for these differences.
 In North America the best time scale to use is the Decade of North American Geology
(DNAG) time scale.


Geological time scale

DNAG geological time scale

6.0 DEFORMATION

The movement of lithospheric plates and the processes of plate tectonics generate great
pressures and stresses in the Earth’s crust, particularly along plate boundaries. Rocks affected
by these stresses bend and break and undergo a transformation called deformation. We also
refer to rocks that have been affected by great stresses as being strained. Thus stress produces
strain. Deformation of rocks is responsible for large‐scale features such as the development of
mountain belt and crustal‐scale faults (e.g. San Andreas), and for features at a variety of scales,
such as faults, folds, cleavage, joints, fractures and foliation.

6.1 Stress and Strain

Stress is defined as force per unit area and is a vector quantity (i.e. it has direction). Most rocks
that are buried deep in the Earth’s crust are under a confining pressure or lithostatic stress.
Lithostatic stress is the result of the weight of the overlying rock mass. It is a
confining stress that acts equally in all directions.

Thus a rock may be compressed under confining stress, but it does not distort. Hydrostatic
pressure is the confining stress imposed by an overlying column of water.
Differential stress is stress that is not equal in all directions. It is produced by
tectonic activity and is the stress that deforms most rock bodies.

Differential stresses are analyzed through three mutually perpendicular axis referred to as 
(sigma 1), the direction of maximum stress; (sigma 2), the direction of intermediate stress;
and  (sigma 3), the direction of minimum stress.

Stress produces strain. Strain is defined as the change in size (volume), shape or both of a rock
under stress. Strain produces a deformation.

There are three kinds of differential stresses and resulting strain: tensional, compressional and
shear.
 Tensional stress stretches a rock and results in stretching or extensional strain
 Compressional stress squeezes a rock and results in a compressive or
shortening strain.
 Shear stress causes slippage and translation along a boundary and results in
shear strain.


Effects on a rock of different forms of stress (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Effects on rock deformation from different forms of stress (Thompson and Turk, 1998)


Behavior of Rocks to Stress and Strain
Rocks behave as elastic, plastic or brittle materials depending on the amount of stress, the rate
of strain, the type of rock and the temperature and pressure under which the rock is strained.

 Elastic deformation is a reversible or non‐permanent strain. When the stress is
removed the rock returns to its original shape and size. Most rocks can behave
in an elastic way at very low stresses, however once the stress applied exceeds
the elastic limit the rock will deform in a permanent way.
 Brittle deformation is a permanent irreversible deformation that involves a
break or fracture in the rock. Brittle deformation occurs above the elastic limit.
Rocks under lower temperature and pressure, near the Earth’s surface generally
deformation in a brittle fashion. Brittle deformation involves visible breaks in
the rock generally along one or a small number of distinct surfaces or planes
(faults).
 Plastic or ductile deformation is a permanent irreversible deformation that
involves bending and transformation without breaking. Ductile deformation
occurs above the plastic limit. Rocks under high temperatures and pressure
generally deform in ductile fashion. Ductile deformation involves
transformation and recrystallization of minerals at the atomic scale (i.e. a
rearrangement of chemical bonds). In plastic deformation rocks, bend, fold or
“flow” and behave like a soft plastic or like silly putty.


Characteristics of brittle to ductile deformation (Van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997)

The deformation we see in rocks is a result of brittle or ductile deformation. The factors that
control whether a rock deforms in a brittle or ductile manner are the magnitude of the stress
(pressure), the strain rate (time), temperature and rock composition.
- Higher confining stress or pressure favors ductile deformation. At high confining
stresses it is easier for a rock to bend and “flow” than to break.
- Higher strain rates favor brittle deformation. If there is a rapid build up in stresses
the elastic limit will be quickly exceeded and rocks will fracture and break. A rock
generally deforms in a plastic manner when there is a gradual build up in stresses or
a steady stress rate.
- Higher temperatures favor ductile deformation. The higher the temperature the
more ductile and less brittle a rock becomes.
- The composition of a rock has a strong influence on deformation. Some minerals are
“strong” (e.g. feldspar, quartz, garnet, olivine) while others are “weak” (micas,
calcite, gypsum, salt). Thus at a given temperature, pressure and strain rate some
minerals and rocks will deform in a brittle manner (e.g. quartzite) and others in a
ductile manner (e.g. salt beds). The presence of water in a rock can have a strong
influence on its competency or strength. In some situations water promotes brittle
behavior and in other cases it promotes ductile behavior.

Relative strength of different rock types (Davis and Reynolds, 1996)


6.2 Planes and Lines
The world we live in is three‐dimensional, and as such all structures are three‐
dimensional. One of the great challenges for students of geology is often the
ability to visualize structures in three‐dimension.

The geometric shape of geological structures are planar, linear or curviplanar. Curviplanar
structures, such as a folded bed, can be further characterized by defining its planar and linear
components.

This is an important concept to understand. It means that measuring the geometry of geological
structures in the field only requires recording its planar and/or linear orientation. It also means
that understanding the three‐dimensional shape of a geological structure only requires
visualizing the orientation of a plane and/or line in three‐dimensional space.

Thus all geological structures can be defined geometrically by a planar
and/or linear shape.

Basic geological fabrics: a) random, b) planar and linear, c) planar, d) linear (Van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997)

Subdivision of a fold into planar – axial surface, and linear elements – hinge line or fold axis (Van der Pluijm and
Marshak, 1997)


6.3 Form and Shape of Deformation Structures

The form and shape of deformation structures depend on whether the deformation is brittle or
ductile.
 Brittle deformation involves the formation of distinct planar breaks or fractures
in the rock. Fractures are divided into joints and faults.
o Joints are fractures along which there has been no movement.
o Faults are fractures along which there has been movement.
 Ductile deformation involves the formation of penetrative planar and/or linear
fabrics along which there is no break.
o Foliation, cleavage, schistosity, and gneissosity are examples of ductile
fabrics.
o Ductile deformation also involves the formation of folds.

Strike and Dip
Deformation causes rocks to move (translation and rotation). The result of deformation is that
rock beds or units that were originally horizontal often become tilted. One of the first important
steps in analyzing deformed rocks is to measure the angle and direction of this tilting. By
convention this is determined by establishing the angular relationship between the tilted
surface and an imaginary horizontal plane (strike and dip).
 The strike of a bed is the line of intersection of the tilted surface with a horizontal plane.
 The dip of a bed is the angle between the horizontal plane and the tilted plane
measured down from the horizontal.
Strike and dip are used to determine the orientation of a planar surface.

In addition to tilted beds, many of the structure that develop during deformation, such as faults
and foliation, form at an angle to the Earth’s surface. The orientation of these structures are also
measured using strike and dip.

Strike is measured using azimuth directions on a compass


Strike and Dip: strike is the trend of a horizontal line on a geological structure measured from 0° to 360°. Dip is the
angle that the structure make from horizontal measured from 0° (horizontal) to 90° (vertical) (Plummer et al., 2003)

Joints
A joint is a break or crack in a rock along which there has been no movement or
displacement.

Examples of joint sets (Plummer et al., 2003)


Erosion often preferentially attacks the walls of joints, so that a joint surface is accentuated and
highly visible at the Earth’s surface. Knowledge of the orientation and character of joints are
important in mining, quarrying and highways construction because they are planes of weakness
in an otherwise strong rock.

Joints are tensile surfaces, in other words surfaces of extension in which the walls of the joint
move apart slightly as the joint develops. Thus in order for joints to develop the rock mass
undergoes an extension. Joints can occur as isolated surfaces or in sets, and vary from 1‐2 cm to
hundreds of metres long. Some of the common types of joints are:
- Unloading joints – These are flat‐lying joints that develop due to uplift and erosional
unloading of a rock mass.

Uplift joints (Van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997)

- Cooling joints – These are variably oriented joints that develop due to the
contraction of a rock mass as it cools and exceeds the elastic limit of the rock.
Columnar jointing in basalts is the best example of this type of joints.

Columnar jointing in basalt from Iceland


- Hydraulic fractures and joints – Fluids in a rock reduce the effective compressive
stresses because when the fluids are compressed they push back and outwards. This
causes a tensile stress regime to develop. An increase in fluids increases the tensile
stresses and results in the formation of joints.

Effects of pore fluid pressure on deformation. Pore fluid (Pf) reduces the mean confining pressure of a rock which
influences the type of deformation. In this example it has reduced the effective confining pressure into the tensile
regime and joints develop (Van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997)

Cubic joint set. The orientation of joint sets has a large influence on stability of rock cuts whether next to a road or
in an open pit or underground.


Faults
A fault is a fracture along which there has been movement. In other words rock
on one side of the fault has moved relative to the rock on the other side.

Faults are one of the most important and dominant geological structures. Movement along
faults causes earthquakes and many features of the Earth’s surface are influenced by faults in
the underlying bedrock. The boundaries of all tectonic plates are faults, and a significant number
of ore deposits, particularly of gold and silver, are directly related to faults and fault zones.
Faulting can also produce important traps for the accumulation of oil and gas.

There are three main types of faults that are defined based on the dip of the fault and the
direction of relative movement. They are: normal faults, reverse or thrust faults, and strike‐slip
faults. The movement along faults is often described by reference to the hanging wall and
footwall of the fault. The hanging wall is block of rock above an inclined fault, and the footwall
is the block of rock below an inclined fault.

Hanging wall and footwall (Plummer et al., 2004)

 Normal fault – a steeply‐dipping fault in which the hanging wall has moved down
relative to the footwall. Two common features produced by normal faults are grabens
and horsts.

Normal faults develop in extension regimes and are defined by hanging wall down relative to the footwall


 Reverse fault – a steeply‐dipping fault in which the hanging wall has moved up relative
to the footwall. A thrust fault is a reverse fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip
(generally < 15°).

Reverse faults develop in compressional regimes and are defined by hanging wall up relative to the footwall

 Strike‐slip fault – a steeply‐dipping to vertical fault in which the displacement has been
horizontal. The movement on a strike‐slip fault is characterized as either right‐lateral or
left‐lateral. If a person stands on one side of the fault and looks across it, the movement
of the block on the other side will be to the right (right‐lateral) or left (left‐lateral). A
transform fault is a crustal‐scale strike‐slip fault that forms part of a plate boundary.

Strike slip faults develop in shearing regimes and defined by the horizontal movement of blocks of rock on either
side of the fault

Many faults are hybrids in which the movement is a combination of the normal, reverse or
strike‐slip. As a general term they are called oblique‐slip faults.

A fault can be characterized by measuring its strike and dip, the sense of movement and, if
possible, the amount of movement (net slip). Many faults may have a few metres or less of net
slip. However crustal‐scale faults can have one hundred or more kilometers of net slip (e.g.
thrust faults it the Canadian Rockies, the San Andreas strike‐slip fault).

Penetrative Fabrics
Fabric refers to the shape, size and orientation of the mineral grains in a rock. Common types of
fabrics include:
 Random ‐ no preferred orientation to the mineral grains,
 Planar ‐ mineral grains are aligned in a planar orientation, and
 Linear ‐ the minerals have a preferred linear alignment.


Ductile deformation of rocks under differential stresses results in re‐crystallization and
realignment of the minerals in the rock. The minerals tend to align themselves parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the direction of highest stress. The parallel alignment of minerals
produces a planar fabric or layering in the rock called foliation. Common types of foliation are
cleavage, schistosity, and gneissosity.

In some cases, during ductile deformation, minerals will align themselves with their long axes
parallel to each other. This produces a distinct mineral lineation in the rock. Lineations also
develop by the intersection of two or more planar fabrics, in which case it is called a
intersection lineation.

Folds
A fold is a bend or warp in a layered rock. Folding produces a wave‐like form, or a series
of arches and troughs. These arches and troughs are similar to what you see when you
crumple a carpet or a piece of paper.

In most cases, folding produces a bend in the rock without breaking, thus folds are ductile
structures that are produce through processes of plastic “flow”.

The wave‐like pattern of folds results in two basic geometries: an anticline and a syncline.
 An anticline is an upward arching fold, and
 A syncline is a downward‐arching or trough‐like fold.

(Natural Resources Canada)

(Natural Resources Canada)


A variety of features are used to describe and classify folds, and many of these features are used
to measure the geometry of folds in the field. The most common features are:
- Limb: the two sides of a fold are called the limbs
- Axial Plane: an imaginary surface that divides a fold into two parts with one limb on
either side of the axial plane
- Hinge Line or Fold Axis: A line defined by the intersection of the axial plane and the
beds. The fold axis traces out the linear crest of an anticline or trough of a syncline.

Components and terminology of a fold (Busch, 2003)

Both the axial plane and fold axis are used to describe the geometry and orientation of the fold
structure. The axial plane is a planar feature and thus has a strike and dip. The fold axis however
is a linear feature, and thus has a trend and plunge.

The axial plane is also used to describe its symmetry. For example, symmetrical folds are those
in which the shape and dip of the two limbs are the same. Asymmetrical folds on the other
hand, are those in which the shape and dip of the two limbs is different. Commonly, one limb
dips more steeply than the other. In some cases strong folding results in one limb being folded
beyond the vertical producing an overturned fold.

Common fold shapes (Grotzinger et al., 2007)


The orientation of the fold axis tells us whether the fold is upright of plunging. An upright fold
has an horizontal fold axis, and a plunging fold has a plunging fold axis (i.e. a non‐horizontal fold
axis).

Terms such as open, closed and tight are use to describe the degree of folding. For example an
open fold is characterized by a gentle warping and the fold limbs dip gently. A tight fold on the
other hand is characterized by strong folding in which the fold limbs are sub‐parallel to each
other.

The use of several of the terms described above can tell someone a lot about the shape and
orientation of a fold. For example picture in your mind a steeply‐plunging, symmetrical, open
syncline. Or an upright overturned closed anticline.

Domes and Basins
A structural dome is a structure in which the beds dip away from a central point. In
cross‐section a dome resembles an anticline.

Structural domes can be very important in petroleum geology because oil is buoyant and tends
to migrate upward through permeable rock (such as sandstone). If the rocks at the high point of
a dome are not easily penetrated (like a shale), the oil becomes trapped against them and we
have a structural trap.

A structural basin is a structure in which the beds dip toward a central point. In cross‐section a
basin resembles a syncline.

Domes and basin are commonly large structures that are several kilometres in diametre. The
origin of domes and basin is varied. In some cases a portion of the crust subsides due to tectonic
stretching. Sediments deposited in a shallow sea produced from the subsidence can further
depress the crust, producing a basin. Domes on the other hand can result from uplift of the crust
due to the intrusion of an igneous body.


Dome and basin (Thompson and Turk, 1998)

6.4 Deformation and Tectonics

Many of the large geological features that we see on our continental land masses, such as
mountain belts, are the result of tectonic processes and rock deformation. The strong forces
produced along convergent tectonic boundaries result in the development of folds and faults
which uplift and move rocks over great distances. For example, the geology and landscape of
British Columbia is fundamentally the result of convergent tectonic processes and deformation
of the crust. In the Rocky Mountains, many of the large mountain ranges are the result of uplift
along enormous thrust faults that extend for more than 100 km along strike, and which have
displacements of several tens of kilometres. However deformation in mountain belts such as the
Rockies, is not confined to large‐scale structures. Small‐scale features such as cleavage, foliation
and outcrop‐size folds and faults are also produced during the tectonic‐induced deformation.

7.0 EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are probably the most dramatic and destructive of geological events. A
single large earthquake can cause damage to buildings and roads over hundreds or
thousands of square kilometers and in cases where a tsunami develops that destruction
can extend across an entire ocean basin. In addition to the damage caused to human
infrastructure and the loss of life, earthquakes shift blocks of rock on the surface of the
earth, create landslides and uplift mountains.
An earthquake is a trembling and shaking of the ground caused by the sudden release of
stresses that have built up in rocks. The release takes place along new or existing faults
that are normally related to plate margins. As plates move, stresses build up in the rocks
on either side of a plate margin. As some point the built up stresses exceed the normal
forces and friction acting on a fault and failure occurs. Earthquakes are commonly
explained using the elastic rebound theory. The idea behind this theory is that rocks on
either side of a fault undergo elastic deformation as the stresses build up on either side of
a fault. Eventually the stresses exceed the normal and frictional forces acting on the fault
and the built up elastic strain is released as an earthquake. After the earthquake, the rocks
on either side of the fault return to their normal unstrained state as they have elastically
rebounded from the strained stated they were in prior to the earthquake.
Elastic rebound theory of earthquake movement. Elastic strain builds up in rocks on either side of a fault.
Eventually the built up stresses exceed the normal and frictional forces acting on the fault and an earthquake
occurs. The energy of the earthquake is derived from the release of the elastic strain built up in the rocks on either
side of the fault (Plummer et al., 2003)

Although most earthquakes, and certainly the major earthquakes, occur in relationship to
plate margins, other geological processes can cause a shifting of rocks in the Earth’s crust
and produce an earthquake. The most common is igneous (volcanic) activity. The
movement of lava underground, particularly related to volcanic eruptions, causes rocks to
shift and produces earthquakes. Other processes, such as crustal rebound related to
glaciations can also produce small earthquakes.
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and the seismic waves that are generated by
earthquakes.
7.1 Seismic Waves

Earthquakes result in the propagation of waves of energy through rocks of the crust as
well as deep within the interior of the Earth. These are referred to as seismic waves.
Seismic waves originate at a point in the Earth’s crust referred to as the focus or
hypocenter. This is where failure and movement first occur along the fault. The epicenter
of an earthquake is the geographic point directly above the focus.
The focus of an earthquake is point of origin of seismic waves and the epicenter is the geographic point directly
above the focus (Plummer et al., 2003)
Seismic waves propagate outward from an earthquake’s focus point and travel in two
main wave forms:
 Body waves travel through the Earth’s interior and spread outward from the focus
point in all directions. Body waves consist of primary or P-waves and secondary
or S-waves.
 Surface waves travel on the Earth’s surface and spread outward from the
epicenter. Surface waves consist of Love waves and Rayleigh waves.
If a seismograph were placed at any given location on the Earth’s surface it would take
only a few hours or less for it to record seismic waves from an earthquake that occurred
somewhere in the Earth. The first waves to arrive would be the primary waves, followed
by the secondary waves. These in turn would be followed by the surface waves.

Seismic waves: body waves move outward from the focus point and travel through the Earth’s interior; surface
waves move outward from the epicenter and travel along the Earth’s surface (Renton, 1994)
Body Waves
Body waves are divided into P-waves and S-waves.
P-waves are similar to sound waves that travel through air, except P-waves travel through
rock at speeds between 4 and 7 km/sec. They are the first waves to arrive at a recording
station after an earthquake. They are compressional waves in which rocks vibrate back
and forth parallel to the direction of wave propagation. They can be thought of as push-
pull waves. P-waves can also occur in liquids and gases.
S-waves travel through rock at about half the speed of P-waves (2-5 km/sec) and are the
second set of waves to arrive at a recording station after an earthquake. S-waves travel in
a shearing motion in which the rocks vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. S-waves do not exist in liquids and gases.
Surface Waves
Surface waves are slower than body waves, and are confined to the surface of the Earth.
Like ocean waves, they require a free surface to ripple. Surface waves generally cause
more damage than body waves as they produce more ground movement and travel more
slowly, thus taking longer to pass a given point. The two most common types of surface
waves are Love waves and Rayleigh waves and both waves travel together. Love waves
are a side-to-side motion in a horizontal plane that is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. Rayleigh waves are an up and down motion like ocean waves. They
cause the ground to move up and down in an elliptical path opposite to the direction of
wave propagation. Since both Love and Rayleigh waves travel together, the surface of the
Earth (and infrastructure) are subject to both side-to-side and up and down movement at
the same time.

Types of seismic waves and associated particle motion: (A) and (B) are body waves and (C) and (D) are surface
waves (Plummer et al., 2003)
7.2 Locating an Earthquake Epicenter

Locating the epicenter of an earthquake involves measuring the time interval between the
arrival of P- and S-waves at three or more different locations. As such, accurate
measurement of the arrival time (and magnitude) of seismic waves is critical. Today
seismic waves are measured using a seismometer. However measurement of seismic
waves extends back almost 2000 years to when Chinese scholar Chang Heng invented the
seismoscope (see below).

Seismoscope invented by Chinese scholar Chang Heng around A.D. 132. The instrument consisted of eight balls
balanced in the mouths of dragons around a jar. When an earthquake occurred the balls would fall into the mouths
of waiting copper frogs.
Modern seismometers are highly sensitive and can measure small movements of the
Earth’s crust. The general principle is to suspend a heavy mass from springs such that it
remains virtually motionless if the ground moves up and down or side to side. Recording
the seismic waves is done with a seismograph that measures the level of movement as
squiggly lines on a rotating drum. Normally seismometers are placed in groups of three to
record motion in the x, y, and z axes of three-dimensional space.
Example of a simple seismometer and seismograph for measuring vertical movement. A pen records the ground
movement of the seismometer as the spring stretches and compresses. The frame and recording drum move with
the ground while the weight stays virtually motionless (Plummer et al., 2003)
Example seismograph for a 1967 earthquake in Taiwan, magnitude 6.2, recorded in California, 10,000 kilometres
away (Plummer et al., 2003)
To determine the exact location of an earthquake, seismologist measure the arrival time
of P- and S-waves at at least three different recording locations. The principle is that the
farther away the recording station is from the epicenter, the larger the time interval
between the arrival of the P- and S-waves. Since the increase in the P-S interval is regular
with increasing distance for several thousand kilometers it can be graphed in a travel-time

curve (see below). Once the distance to the earthquake is determined a circle can be
drawn around the recording station with the radius equal to the distance to the
earthquake. If the earthquake is measured at three different recording stations, circles
drawn around each recording station will intersect at a point that is the epicenter of the
earthquake.
Travel‐time curve used to determine the distance to an earthquake from three recording stations (Plummer et al.,
2003)
Using the travel‐time curve above the location of the epicenter can be determined (Plummer et al., 2003)
7.3 Measuring Earthquake Size

Earthquake size is measured in two somewhat different ways. The first, and most
common, is to measure the magnitude or intensity of seismic waves produced from an
earthquake and apply the magnitude to a scale, usually the Richter scale. The second is to
measure the destructiveness and damage produced from an earthquake at a given site.
This is measured using the Mercalli Intensity scale.

Richter Magnitude Scale
The Richter scale was developed by Charles Richter in 1935. Richter assigned
magnitudes to earthquake based on the largest ground motion registered by a
seismograph. To keep the scale manageable, he took the logarithm of the largest ground
movement. As such an earthquake with a magnitude of 4 has 10 times the ground
movement of an earthquake with a magnitude of 3. Energy released by an earthquake
also increases with magnitude, but by a factor of 33 for each Richter unit. The Richter
scale is open ended such that very small earthquakes can have negative numbers and
there is no upper limit to the size of earthquakes, although the largest recorded to date is
9.5 in Chile in 1960.
Since seismic waves decrease with distance from the earthquake, corrections must be
made to account for the distance from the earthquake. Once these corrections are made,
all recording stations should arrive at the same value of magnitude.
The magnitude of an earthquake is determined by measuring the maximum amplitude of the seismic waves and
correcting for the distance from the earthquake epicenter (Press et al., 2004)
Shaking Intensity (modified Mercalli Intensity)
An alternative means of measure the size of an earthquake is to determine the extent and
kind of damage produced from an earthquake. Intensities are expressed as Roman
numerals from I to XII on a Mercalli Intensity scale. The higher the number the greater
the damage.
Although there is appeal to measuring the damage caused by an earthquake, there are a
number of drawbacks to this approach. For example different locations will arrive at
different intensities depending on the distance from the earthquake, the type of geological
materials underlying the structures and the materials used in construction.

Comparison between earthquake magnitude, energy release, number of earthquake per year and other large
sources of sudden energy release (www.iris.edu)

Intensity of 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake. What sort of damage would Vancouver have faced? (NRCan)

7.4 Major Canadian Earthquakes
Thousands of earthquakes have affected Canada over the past several hundred years,
particularly along the west coast in relation to the Cascadia subduction zone.
Map of the top 10 largest earthquakes to affect Canada (NRCan)

Table of top 10 Canadian earthquakes (NRCan)
Date Lat N Lon W Magnitude Location
1700/01/26 48.5 125 9.0 Cascadia subduction zone, British Columbia.
1949/08/22 53.62 133.27 8.1 Offshore Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.
1970/06/24 51.77 130.76 7.4 South of Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.
1933/11/20 73.00 70.75 7.3 Baffin Bay, Northwest Territories.
1946/06/23 49.76 125.34 7.3 Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
1929/11/18 44.50 56.30 7.2 Grand Banks south of Newfoundland.
1929/05/26 51.51 130.74 7.0 South of Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.
1663/02/05 47.6 70.1 7.0 Charlevoix, Quebec.
1985/12/23 62.19 124.24 6.9 Nahanni region, Northwest Territories.
1918/12/06 49.62 125.92 6.9 Vancouver Island, British Columbia.

Magnitude 9.0 Cascadia Earthquake
At 9PM on January 26, 1700 one of the world's largest earthquakes occurred along the west coast of
North America. The undersea Cascadia thrust fault ruptured along a 1000 km length, from mid
Vancouver Island to northern California in a great earthquake, producing tremendous shaking and a
huge tsunami that swept across the Pacific. The Cascadia fault is the boundary between two of the
Earth's tectonic plates: the smaller offshore Juan de Fuca plate that is sliding under the much larger
North American plate.
The earthquake shaking collapsed houses of the Cowichan people on Vancouver Island and caused
numerous landslides. The shaking was so violent that people could not stand and so prolonged that it
made them sick. On the west coast of Vancouver Island, the tsunami completely destroyed the winter
village of the Pachena Bay people with no survivors. These events are recorded in the oral traditions
of the First Nations people on Vancouver Island. The tsunami swept across the Pacific also causing
destruction along the Pacific coast of Japan. It is the accurate descriptions of the tsunami and the
accurate time keeping by the Japanese that allows us to confidently know the size and exact time of
this great earthquake.
The earthquake also left unmistakeable signatures in the geological record as the outer coastal
regions subsided and drowned coastal marshlands and forests that were subsequently covered with
younger sediments. The recognition of definitive signatures in the geological record tells us the
January 26, 1700 event was not a unique event, but has repeated many times at irregular intervals of
hundreds of years. Geological evidence indicates that 13 great earthquakes have occurred in the last
6000 years.
We now know that a similar offshore event will happen sometime in the future and that it represents a
considerable hazard to those who live in southwest B.C. However, because the fault is offshore, it is
not the greatest earthquake hazard faced by major west coast cities. In the interval between great
earthquakes, the tectonic plates become stuck together, yet continue to move towards each other.
This causes tremendous strain and deformation of the Earth's crust in the coastal region and causes
ongoing earthquake activity. This is the situation that we are in now. Some onshore earthquakes can
be quite large (there have been four magnitude 7+ earthquakes in the past 130 years in southwest
B.C. and northern Washington State). Because these inland earthquakes can be much closer to our
urban areas and occur more frequently, they represent the greatest earthquake hazard. An inland
magnitude 6.9 earthquake in 1995 in a similar geological setting beneath Kobe, Japan caused in
excess of $200 billion damage.
7.5 Earthquakes, Faults and Plate Tectonics

Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of built up strain energy in rocks on either
side of a fault. So it stands to reason that we can learn something about these faults from
the earthquake.
One of the interesting aspects is that we can determine the type of fault related to a given
earthquake by comparing the P-wave arrival pattern at a number of recording stations
around the earthquake. In other words we can determine if it is a strike-slip or dip-slip
fault and the relative direction of movement. Seismologists have found that in some
directions from a focus, the very first P-wave to arrive is a “push” wave, whereas in other
directions it is a “pull” wave. That is because if the fault movement is toward the
recording station, the first wave will be a push, and if the fault movement is away from
the recording station the first movement will be a pull.

The first motion of P‐waves arriving at recording stations can be used to establish the type of fault related to a
given earthquake (Press et al., 2004)
Earthquake Depth and Plate Margins
Earthquakes can be described as shallow-, intermediate- or deep focus, depending on the
depth of the earthquake focus.
 Shallow-focus – depths down to about 50 km. These are the most common,
including the major earthquakes
 Intermediate focus – depths from about 50 to 300 km. Second most common.
 Deep-focus – depths from about 300 to 670 km. Below approximately 670 km, it
is thought that rocks are in a plastic or semi-molten state and thus do not
accumulate the strain necessary for earthquake generation.
World seismicity map for the period 1976‐2002. Shallow‐focus earthquakes are common in divergent and
transform margins, whereas intermediate and deep focus mark out the major subduction zones (Press et al., 2004)

Divergent plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries are dominated by narrow belts of shallow-focus earthquakes.
Evidence from first P-wave motion indicates that the faults are normal faults that dip
toward mid-ocean or continental rift valleys.
Transform plate boundaries

Transform boundaries are also dominated by shallow-focus earthquakes, but show a
greater level of earthquake activity than divergent boundaries. First P-wave motion
indicates that these boundaries are dominated by strike-slip faults as would be expected.
Convergent boundaries
Convergent boundaries show a range of earthquakes from shallow through to deep and
the world’s largest earthquakes are associated with convergent boundaries. A range of
faulting appears responsible for earthquakes associated with subduction depending on
depth (see figure below).
7.6 Effects of Earthquakes

The effects of an earthquake on people, structures and the land can be quite variable
depending on a number of factors including:
 Intrinsic factors to the earthquake such as its magnitude, location, type of
faulting and depth;
 Geologic factors underlying a given area such as types of soil or bedrock and
water saturation of soil; and
 Societal factors such as quality of construction, preparedness of the population,
communication networks, emergency response systems and time of day (e.g.: rush
hour).
In general we can divide earthquake effects into primary and secondary effects.
 Primary effects are the movement, uplift or subsidence of land as a result of fault
movement associated with the Earthquake; and the ground movement related to
seismic waves. Effects related to fault movement are commonly limited or non-
existent, particularly if the earthquake is intermediate- or deep-focus. Effects
related to seismic waves can be considerable, particularly in areas close to the
epicenter of large earthquakes. Seismic waves are the primary cause of structural
damage to buildings, bridges and other forms of infrastructure (electrical systems,
gas piplines, etc).

Primary earthquake effect: damage to a parking garage from the 1994 Northridge CA Earthquake (USGS)
Primary earthquake effect: overpass collapse from the 1989 Loma Prieta CA earthquake (USGS)
Primary earthquake effect: building collapse from the 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake (USGS)

Primary earthquake effects: direct damage to roads from fault movement (USGS)
 Secondary effects are those that are a response to the primary effects and include
hazards such as fires, landslides and ground failure, liquefaction and tsunamis.
Landslides
Several types of landslides take place in conjunction with earthquakes. The most
abundant types of earthquake induced landslides are rock falls and slides of rock
fragments that form on steep slopes. Shallow debris slides forming on steep slopes and
soil and rock slumps and block slides forming on moderate to steep slopes also take
place, but they are less abundant.
Large earthquake-induced rock avalanches, soil avalanches, and underwater landslides

can be very destructive. Rock avalanches originate on over-steepened slopes in weak
rocks. One of the most spectacular examples occurred during the 1970 Peruvian
earthquake when a single rock avalanche killed more than 20,000 people; a similar, but
less spectacular, failure in the 1959 Hebgen Lake, Montana, earthquake resulted in 26
deaths. Underwater landslides commonly involve the margins of deltas where many port
facilities are located. The failures at Seward, Alaska, during the 1964 earthquake are an
example.
The size of the area affected by earthquake-induced landslides depends on the magnitude
of the earthquake, its focal depth, the topography and geologic conditions near the related
fault, and the amplitude, frequency composition, and duration of ground shaking. In past
earthquakes, landslides have been abundant in some areas having intensities of ground
shaking as low as VI on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
Liquefaction
Liquefaction is the process of transforming a soil from a solid state to a liquid state,
usually as a result of increased pore pressure and reduced shearing resistance.
Liquefaction takes place when seismic shear waves pass through a saturated granular soil
layer and disrupt the soil structure such that individual soil grains become separated from
each other and become “suspended” in pore water that exists in the soil material. The

result is that the entire soil mass behaves like a fluid for a short period of time.
Liquefaction is restricted to certain geologic and hydrologic environments, mainly areas
where sands and silts were deposited in the last 10,000 years and where ground water is
within 30 feet of the surface. Generally, the younger and looser the sediment and the
higher the water table, the more susceptible a soil is to liquefaction.
Liquefaction model (http://earthsci.org/)
Lateral flows: Lateral spreads involve the lateral movement of large blocks of soil as a
result of liquefaction in a subsurface layer. Lateral spreads generally develop on gentle
slopes and involve spreads of 3-5 metres, but may involve spreads up to 30-40 metres.
Damage caused by lateral spreads is typically moderate, but may be significant in some
circumstances. For example, during the 1964 Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake,
more than 200 bridges were damaged or destroyed by lateral spreading of flood-plain
deposits toward river channels.
Lateral spreading in the soil beneath the roadway embankment caused the embankment to be pulled apart,
producing the large crack down the center of the road. From the 1964 Alaska Earthquake
(http://www.ce.washington.edu/)

Flow Failures: Flow failures, consisting of liquefied soil or blocks of intact material
riding on a layer of liquefied soil, are the most catastrophic type of ground failure caused
by liquefaction. These failures commonly move tens of metres and in some cases many
kilometers with velocities of several kilometers per hour. Flow failures can originate
either underwater or on land. Many of the largest and most damaging flow failures have
taken place underwater in coastal areas. For example, submarine flow failures carried
away large sections of port facilities at Seward, Whittier, and Valdez, Alaska, during the
1964 Prince William Sound earthquake. These flow failures, in turn, generated large sea
waves that overran parts of the coastal area, causing additional damage and casualties.
Loss of Bearing Strength: When the soil supporting a building or some other structure
liquefies and loses strength, large deformations can occur within the soil, allowing the
structure to settle and tip. The most spectacular example of bearing-strength failures took
place during the 1964 Niigata, Japan, earthquake. During that event, several four-story
buildings of the Kwangishicho apartment complex tipped as much as 60 degrees. Most of
the buildings were later jacked back into an upright position, underpinned with piles, and
reused.
Liquefaction of load bearing soils beneath apartment complexes in Niigata, Japan occured in response to a 1964
earthquake. The buildings tilted and sank into the soil (USGS)
Tsunamis
Tsunamis are water waves that are caused by sudden vertical movement of a large area of
the sea floor during an undersea earthquake. Tsunamis are often called tidal waves, but
this term is a misnomer. Unlike regular ocean tides, tsunamis are not caused by the tidal
action of the Moon and Sun. The height of a tsunami in the deep ocean is typically about
1 foot, but the distance between wave crests can be very long, more than 60 miles. The
speed at which the tsunami travels decreases as water depth decreases. In the mid-Pacific,
where the water depths reach 3-4 kilometres, tsunami speeds can be more than 600
kilometres per hour. As tsunamis reach shallow water around islands or on a continental
shelf; the height of the waves increases many times, sometimes reaching as much as 25
metres. The great distance between wave crests prevents tsunamis from dissipating

energy as a breaking surf; instead, tsunamis cause water levels to rise rapidly along coast
lines. Significant damage from tsunamis can occur hundreds of kilometers away from
earthquake epicenter.
The Sumatran earthquake of December 26, 2004 produced a deadly tsunami that caused
damage across much of the Indian Ocean basin. Photos of the Banda Aceh area of
Indonesia both before and after the tsunami can be found here:
http://homepage.mac.com/demark/tsunami/2.html
Model for the formation of a destructive tsunami (Press et al., 2004)

Propagation of the tsunami created by the December 26, 2004 Sumatran earthquake (UNEP)
Before and after shots of the damage in Banda Aceh from the tsunami generated by the December 26, 2004
earthquake (http://homepage.mac.com/demark/tsunami/2.html)

7.7 Earthquake Prediction
Earthquakes are in general difficult to predict with any degree of accuracy. One of the
best measures we can use to try and predict future earthquakes is to examine past
earthquakes. As a first pass we can create seismic hazard maps that outline where major
earthquakes are likely to occur, based on where they have occurred in the past. In
addition, we can include information such as the underlying geological materials to
assess the potential for damage. However this will not tell us when the next earthquake
will occur, just where it may occur and what sort of damage we could expect.
Global seismic hazard map. Areas in white have very low hazard, whereas those areas in red and purple have a high
seismic hazard.
The history of past earthquakes can be used to help predict future earthquakes using a
recurrence internal. That is the average time between large earthquakes. According to the
elastic rebound theory, the recurrence internal is the number of years required to
accumulate enough strain to cause the fault to slip. However this only provides a rough
estimate and could be used for long-term forecasting.
Short-term forecasting has not been very successful. One method is to monitor swarms of
small micro seismic events that may occur before a major earthquake. This was used
successfully in China in 1975, where swarms of tiny earthquakes and rapid deformation
of the ground several hours before a major earthquake were used to warm residents of an
impending earthquake, thus saving many lives. Other methods include monitoring water
wells that are known to rise or fall before a major earthquake due to changes in rock
porosity; or to monitor animal behavior, which is thought to change just before an
earthquake.

7.8 Assessing Seismic Hazard in Canada
(Information below modified from Natural Resources Canada Earthquake Hazards
Section http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/hazard/zoning/haz_e.php)
The damage potential of an earthquake is determined by how the ground moves and how
the buildings within the affected region are constructed. Expected ground motion can be
calculated on the basis of probability, and the expected ground motions are referred to as
seismic hazard.
In Canada, the evaluation of regional seismic hazard for the purposes of the National
Building Code (NBC) is the responsibility of the Geological Survey of Canada. The
seismic hazard maps prepared by the Geological Survey are derived from statistical
analysis of past earthquakes and from advancing knowledge of Canada's tectonic and
geological structure. On the maps, seismic hazard is expressed as the most powerful
ground motion that is expected to occur in an area for a given probability level. Contours
delineate regions likely to experience similarly strong of ground motions.
Seismic hazard map for Canada (earthquakescanada.ca)
The seismic hazard maps and earthquake load guidelines included in the National
Building Code are used to design and construct buildings to be as earthquake proof as
possible. The provisions of the building code are intended as a minimum standard. They
are meant to prevent structural collapse during major earthquakes and thereby to protect
human life. The provisions may not, however, prevent serious damage to individual
structures.

Seismic Hazard Information in the National Building Code (NBC)
Building design for various earthquake loads is addressed in many parts of the national
building code. In the code, seismic hazard is described by spectral-acceleration values at
periods of 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 seconds. Spectral acceleration is a measure of ground
motion that takes into account the sustained shaking energy at a particular period. It is a
better measure of potential damage than the peak measures used by the older 1995 code,
and thus will improve earthquake-resistant design. Peak Ground Acceleration is still used

for foundation design. All parameters are expressed as a fraction of gravity. The four
spectral parameters allow the construction of uniform hazard spectra (UHS) for every
place in Canada.
Uniform Hazard Spectra for Vancouver, Montreal, Toronto and Winnipeg at 2%/50 year probability on firm ground
conditions (NBC soil class C). To interpret the spectra, consider that buildings vibrate with a resonance period (in
seconds) about 1/10th their number of stories (earthquakescanada.ca)
Ground motion probability values are given in terms of probable exceedence, that is the
likelihood of a given horizontal acceleration or velocity being exceeded during a
particular period. The probability used in the 2005 NBC is 0.000404 per annum,
equivalent to a 2-per-cent probability of exceedence over 50 years. This means that over
a 50-year period there is a 2-per-cent chance of an earthquake causing ground motion
greater than the given expected value.
Most buildings are well designed for withstanding vertical forces, but the horizontal
component of ground motion is critical to earthquake-resistant building design. In the
urban areas of coastal British Columbia, for example, 40-per-cent gravity is a typical
seismic load at an appropriate probability for buildings. A building, designed to tolerate a
sideward pushing force equal to 40 per cent of its own weight, should prove earthquake
resistant.
Calculation of Seismic Hazard

The seismic hazard at a given site is determined from numerous factors. Canada has been
divided into earthquake source regions based on past earthquake activity and tectonic
structure. The relation between earthquake magnitude and the average rate of occurrence
for each region is weighed, along with variations in the attenuation of ground motion
with distance. In calculating seismic hazard, scientists consider all earthquake source
regions within a relevant distance of the proposed site. The four spectral acceleration
seismic hazard maps show levels of ground shaking at periods of 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0
seconds (equivalent to frequencies of 5, 2, 1, and 0.5 Hertz). This is important because
different buildings are susceptible to different frequencies of earth motion, and damage is

frequently associated with a resonance between earthquake ground motion and the
building's own natural frequency. A high-rise of ten stories or more may sway with a
natural period of 1 or 2 seconds, whereas in response to the same earthquake a brick
bungalow across the street may vibrate at nearly 10 Hertz. The UHS is a description of
the seismic hazard at a site in terms of building height.
Sample seismic hazard map for Canada based on a spectral acceleration for a period of 0.2 seconds at a probability
of 2%/50 years for firm ground conditions (NBCC soil class C). Spectral acceleration is contoured in g
(www.earthquakescanada.ca)

Consequently, low brick buildings can be severely damaged by a moderate (magnitude
5.5) local earthquake that has most of its energy in the high-frequency range. High-rises
may be affected more acutely by larger, more distant events. In the Mexican earthquake
of 1985, most of the severe damage in Mexico City, 400 kilometres from the earthquake's
epicentre, occurred in high-rise buildings with natural periods near 2 seconds, due to
ground amplification by poor foundation conditions.
In building construction and design, not only the size of a probable earthquake should be
considered, but also the nature of the ground motion most likely to occur at the site.
Seismic hazard calculations provide part of this information. As our understanding of
earthquakes and of their effects on engineered structures continues to develop, the
seismic provisions of the National Building Code will be revised to enhance public safety
and minimize earthquake losses.
7.9 Earthquake Web Links

1) Recent earthquake information - http://www.iris.edu/quakes/quakes.htm
2) Earthquake animations of recent quakes:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/recenteqsanim/
3) Information on the December 26, 2004 Sumatran Earthquake:
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/eqcenter/eqinthenews/2004/usslav/
4) Animation of seismic wave travel times:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/animations/earthquakes/index.html
5) Live seismographs for Canada: http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e.php

8.0 SURIFICAL PROCESSES

8.1 Groundwater

Groundwater is a significant source of the world’s fresh water. The total amount of groundwater
is equal to about 22% of all the water stored in lakes, rivers, glaciers, polar ice caps and the
atmosphere.

Groundwater is formed by the infiltration of rain water through soils and unconsolidated surface
materials and also through cracks and openings in bedrock. Large stores of groundwater can be
found in many areas of the Earth’s surface. These zones of accumulation are called aquifers. The
majority of the Earth’s groundwater occurs within the top 750 m below the Earth’s surface.

Movement of Groundwater
The movement of water through subsurface materials is controlled in large part by two factors:
porosity and permeability.
‐ Porosity: the percentage of the total volume of a soil, sediment or rock that is taken
up by pores. Porosity depends on the size and shape of the grains and how they are
packed together. Soils and loose sand and gravel have the highest porosity (>40%)
of all subsurface materials. For rocks, sandstones and sedimentary rocks in general
have the highest porosity (10‐40%) and igneous and metamorphic rocks the lowest
(1‐2%).
‐ Permeability: the ease with which a fluid will pass through the material. In some
cases a rock may have high porosity, but the passage ways for water movement are
small and tortuous, thus the rock will have a low permeability. Clay beds and shale
are an example of material with high porosity, but low permeability. In general as
porosity increases, so does permeability.

Good groundwater sources or aquifers are those that have both high porosity and permeability.
High porosity means the material will hold a lot of water, and high permeability means that
water can be easily be pumped out of the aquifer.


(Press et al., 2004)

Porosity in earth materials (Press et al., 2004)

Water Table
The water table separates the unsaturated zone from the saturated zone. The unsaturated
zone, or zone of aeration lies close to the ground surface. Material is this zone is unsaturated
with respect to water. This means that pores will contain some water and some air. In the
saturated zone all the pores are filled with water.

The shape of the water table tends to mimic the shape of the Earth’s surface. It rises under hills,
and falls under valleys. Lakes and streams are commonly areas where the water table comes to
surface. The water table will also change its position depending on the climate. In periods of
high rain fall, the water table will rise. In periods of drought, the water table falls.

Groundwater moves under the influence of gravity. Water moves from areas where the water
table is high, such as under hills, to areas where the water table is low, such as a spring where
groundwater exits to the surface.

Water enters and leaves the saturated zone through recharge and discharge. Recharge is
typically the infiltration of water into subsurface materials by infiltration of rain and snow. In
some cases a stream may recharge the ground water, if it lies above the water table. This type
of stream is called an influent stream and is characteristic of arid regions. Discharge is the exit

of groundwater to the surface. Discharge typically occurs in springs or effluent streams where
groundwater discharges to the stream. Effluent streams are typical of humid areas.

A typical groundwater system showing the zones of aeration and saturation separated by the water table (Skinner
and Porter, 2000)

Confined and unconfined aquifer (Plummer et al., 2004)

Aquifers
An aquifer is a body of highly permeable rock or sediment that stores large quantities of water
that is sufficient to supply water wells. Groundwater may flow in a confined or unconfined
aquifer.


An unconfined aquifer is a body of material that has more or less uniform permeability to the
surface in both recharge and discharge areas. The level of the water reservoir is the same as the
height of the water table.

Unconfined aquifer (contours are elevations of the water table) (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

A confined aquifer is a permeable unit that is bound above and below by impermeable layers
that restrict the flow of water. The impermeable beds are called aquicludes. Water flow in a
confined aquifer is controlled by pressure. Impermeable beds above the aquifer prevent
infiltration of rain. Recharge only occurs where the permeable units intersect the Earth’s surface
allowing water to enter and flow down the aquifer. Water flow in a confined aquifer is known as
artesian flow and occurs under pressure. At any point in the aquifer, the pressure is equivalent
to the weight of the overlying water in the aquifer.

If a well is drilled into a confined aquifer at a point where the elevation of the ground surface is
lower than the elevation of the water table in the recharge area, water will flow out of the well

spontaneously. Such wells are called artesian wells. These wells are desirable because no
energy is required to pump water to the surface.

Confined aquifer and artesian wells. Water in the drilled well rises to the height of the water table in the recharge
zone (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Water Wells (Balancing Recharge and Discharge)
Groundwater flows slowly and its rate of recharge varies from season to season and year to
year. For a reservoir to be in balance the rate of recharge and discharge must be equal.
Generally recharge and discharge are not equal and the water table fluctuates with time.

Water wells that are placed into an aquifer to serve as a water supply will affect the rate of
discharge and produce a cone of depression in the water table. High rates of pumping in relation
to the rate of recharge will produce a pronounced cone of depression that may extend below
the bottom of the well. When this happens the well will run dry.

Excessive water removal from an aquifer can cause undesirable environmental effects.
Depletion of the water may cause the ground surface above the aquifer to sink and heave. It
may also result in compaction of the reservoir material thus reducing its porosity and restricting
its ability hold water in the future. Parts of Mexico City have sunk by as much as 8 metres due to
excessive withdrawal of water from a reservoir that underlies the city. Excessive pumping of
water out of reservoir may also cause increased inflow of undesirable fluids such as salt water,
or contaminated water.

Effects of excessive draw down of well water (Thompson and Turk,1998)

Speed of Groundwater Flow
The rate of recharge and discharge is strongly affected by the speed at which water moves in
the ground. Most groundwater moves slowly and travel only a few centimeters/day or year. The
differences in the rate of groundwater movement can be explained using Darcy’s Law:

Darcy’s Law states that the volume of water flowing in a certain time is proportional to the
vertical drop divided by the flow distance.

Q = AK(h/l)
Where Q = discharge (m/s)
A = cross‐sectional area (m2)
K = hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability) (m/s)
h = vertical drop (m)
l = flow distance (m)

Thus for a given material the rate of flow will depend on the vertical drop and the distance
traveled which is called the hydraulic gradient (h/l). For different materials, the coefficient of
permeability becomes important. The coefficient of permeability depends on the permeability
of the material as well as the properties of the fluid, such as density and viscosity.

Contamination of Groundwater
Human activities have had a pronounced affect on our groundwater resources. Urban
development restricts the infiltration and recharge of aquifers, and at the same time increases
the discharge through water wells. Industrial activity including chemical plants, manufacturing,
agriculture, mining and urban development may have a deleterious impact on groundwater
through contamination with pollutants. Septic tanks, land fill sites, mining waste piles,
pesticides, buried gasoline tanks, livestock wastes and chemical effluents all result in the
infiltration of chemical pollutants into the groundwater system. The flow of these pollutants in
the groundwater will bring them into contact with water wells large distances from the source
of the pollution. This is particularly a problem in water wells with excessive pumping, as
groundwater is drawn into the cone of depression.


The Walkerton, Ontario well contamination (Plummer et al., 2004)

Groundwater continuation from a landfill site (Plummer et al., 2004)

8.2 Mass Wasting and Movements

Mass wasting or mass movement refers to the downhill movement of masses of soil, rock, mud,
or other unconsolidated (loose and uncemented) materials under the influence of gravity. In
includes rock avalanches, debris flows, mudflows, creep, and solifluction.

‐ Movements occur when the force of gravity exceeds the strength of the slope
materials.
‐ Triggering mechanisms are commonly earthquakes, floods and freeze‐thaw action.
‐ Mass movements are a consequence of weathering and rock fragmentation and are
an important part of the general erosion of the land, particularly in mountains
regions.

Factors that Influence Mass Movements
There are three principle factors that influence mass movements: nature of the slope material
(solid rock, sediment or soil), the amount of water in the materials, and the steepness and
instability of the slope.

Nature of the Slope Materials
The nature of slope materials can be divided into unconsolidated and consolidated.

Unconsolidated materials include any loose and uncemented material. One of the most
important factors for the stability of unconsolidated materials is the angle of repose. The angle
of repose is the maximum angle at which a slope of loose material will lie without cascading
down. For example, loose sand has an angle of repose of around 35°. Thus any pile of sand
regardless of how large, will tend to settle with a slope of 35°. A higher angle can be maintained
for a short period of time, but any perturbation will cause the slope to fail, and return to the 35°.

Angle of repose in unconsolidated material is the maximum slope at which loose material will remain stable
(Thompson and Turk, 1998)

The angle of repose varies for materials with different sizes and different moisture contents.
Generally large and flatter materials have a higher angle of repose. The moisture content will
increase the angle of repose for small amounts of moisture, but increasing the water content to
saturation will greatly reduce the angle of repose. The increase in the angle at low moisture
contents is due to surface tension created by the water (that is why you can build a sand castle
with moist sand, but not saturated or dry sand).

Consolidated materials include rocks and vegetated soils. Slopes of these materials can be
steeper and more irregular than those of unconsolidated material. Failure of these materials
requires overcoming the cohesion of the material (attractive forces that bind the material
together), and the shear strength or internal friction which is the resistance to movement due
to cohesion, cementation and the binding action of plants. Materials with a higher internal
friction resist movement and failure.


Relationship of shear force and normal force to gravity. The steeper the slope the stronger the shear force and the
more likely the slope will fail (Renton, 1994)

Water Content
Water can increase or decrease the stability of slope materials. In unconsolidated material, a
thin film of water increases surface tension and thus increases the angle of the slope that
remains stable. Excessive amounts of water will saturate the material which greatly reduces the
strength of the material as it forces the grains apart (e.g. a sand castle remains standing when
the sand is moist, but will fail when the sand dries out, or if it becomes saturated).

In other cases water acts as a lubricant that lowers the internal friction and allow particles to
move past one another more easily. In rock bodies, water may seep along bedding planes,
promoting failure along the plane. Complete saturation of materials may cause separation of the
grains and the mass will flow like a fluid.

The effects of water in sand: moist is held together by surface tense, whereas saturated sand forces the grains
apart which greatly reduces strength (Plummer et al., 2004)

Steepness and Instability of Slopes
The general process of weathering and erosion may gradually steepen a slope or cause it to
become unstable. For example, the undercutting action of a river, or the gradual erosion of a
“weak bed” that is overlain by more competent beds will destabilize the slope above. The slow
and gradual erosion of a rock mass, such as a shale may also result in over‐steepening and
destabilization of a slope. Slope stability can also be affected by the structure of the underlying
rocks. For example, if bedding is parallel to the angle of the slope, the slope will be unstable.


The dip angle of bedded rocks relative to the slope has a big effect on stability. When beds dip down slope rock
layers are subject to sliding and may fail. When rock layers dip away from the slope remains stable (Thompson and
Turk, 1998)

Triggers for Mass Movements
When the right combination of materials, moisture and steepened slope angle make a hillside
unstable, all that is needed is a trigger to set off failure. Common trigger mechanisms include,
heavy rain storms, vibrations from earthquakes or man‐made events, freeze‐thaw action,
volcanic activity, and the gradual steepening of a slope that result in it suddenly giving way.

Earthquakes are probably the most important trigger mechanism due to the severity of earth
vibration that they cause. One consequence of earthquake vibration is something called
liquefaction. Liquefaction is the process whereby a water‐saturated material liquefies into a
fluid slurry. It is akin to the effects of slapping a mud paddy and watching it turn to liquid.
Saturated sediments at depth can cause the failure of the overlying sediment material, thus
magnifying the effects of the liquefaction.

Landslide in Alaska triggered by a 1964 earthquake (Press et al., 2004)


Classification of Mass Movement
Mass movement are classified according to several characteristics. These include:
‐ the nature of the material (rock or sediment)
‐ the speed of movement (a few centimetres/year to many kilometres/hour)
‐ the nature of the movement. Whether it is sliding in which the bulk of the mass
moves as a unit, or flowing in which the material behaves as if it were a fluid.

Rock Mass Movements
Rock mass movements include rockfalls, rockslides and rock avalanches.
‐ Rock falls refer to individual blocks that detach from a slope and plummet in free
fall from a cliff or steep mountain slope. Freeze‐thaw action can be important in
initiating a rock fall. The effects of rock falls are Talus. Talus is the accumulation of
rocks at the foot of a steep bedrock cliff.
‐ Rock slides occur when rocks slide rapidly down a slope rather than free falling.
‐ Rock Avalanches are rock flows. They are composed of large masses of rocky
materials that flow downhill at speeds of tens to hundreds of kilometres/hour. Rock
avalanches are one of the most destructive forms of mass movement due to the
volume of material moved and the speed of the movement.


The three main categories of mass wasting: flow – unconsolidated material moves as a fluid either slow or fast;
slide – movement of coherent blocks of rock masses or unconsolidated material; fall – rapid free fall of normally
rock material (Thompson and Turk, 1998)

Unconsolidated Mass Movements
Unconsolidate materials include soils, sediment, broken rock and organic debris. Most
unconsolidated mass movements are slower than rock movements due to lower slope angles.
Unconsolidated mass movements are typically flow‐like (like a viscous fluid).
‐ Creep: the downhill movement of soil and other debris at rates of 1 to 10 mm/year.
The soil gradual flows downhill with the top layer of the soil moving faster that
lower layers. The heavy weight of these masses can break retaining walls and crack
buildings.
‐ Earthflow: fluid movement of fine grained soils, and sediments. Can move at rates
up to a few kilometres/hour.

‐ Debris flow: fluid movement of rock fragments supported by a muddy matrix.
Debris flows contain coarser material that earth flows and typically move faster (up
to 100 km/hour).
‐ Mudflows: flowing masses of fine‐grained material containing large amounts of
water. Rapid movement due to the high water content. Often initiated after a high
rainfall in a dry region. Large boulders or even houses can be carried in mudflows.
‐ Debris Avalanche: fast downhill movement of soil and rock usually in a humid
climate. Speed is due to high water content and steep slopes. Debris avalanches can
be highly destructive and travel at speeds up to 70 km/hour.
‐ Slump: a slow slide of unconsolidated material that moves as a unit. Movement
occurs along a basal slip surface.
‐ Solifluction: Occurs only in cold regions when water in the surface layers of the soil
freeze and thaw. When surface layers thaw they become saturated because the
water cannot flow down into the frozen layers below. As a result the upper layers of
the soil ooze and flow downhill.

Creep of surface material has bent sedimentary rock layers down slope
Debris flow in California

8.3 Glaciers and Glaciation

A glacier is a permanent body of ice, consisting largely of recrystallized snow that shows
evidence of downslop or outward movement due to the pull of gravity. Glacier will develop in
any area where the amount of snow fall during the winter months exceeds the melt during the
summer.

Glaciers are, in essence, a type of rock. Glaciers are composed of the mineral ice and are non‐
living, solid aggregate masses.

10.3.1 Types of Glaciers

A variety of types of glaciers are recognized based largely on their shape and size and also on
their geographic location.
- Mountain or Valley Glaciers and ice caps:
o Cirque glaciers occupy a protected bowl‐shaped depression in a mountain
side.
o A valley glacier is a enlarged cirque glacier that spreads out down a valley.
o A fjord glacier is a large valley glacier that extends down to the mouth of a
fjord at sea level.
o An ice cap covers a mountain highland or low‐lying land at high altitudes
and generally spreads out laterally.
- Continental Ice Sheets:
o Ice sheets are continental‐sized masses of ice that occupy most of the land
mass within their margins. Only Greenland and Antarctica have modern ice
sheets. However in the past most of Canada has been covered in massive
ice sheets.

Types of mountain glaciers (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Continental glacier – Greenland superimposed over western North America for scale. At the thickest point the
glacier ice in Greenland is more than 3 km thick (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Formation of Glaciers
Glaciers start with abundant winter snowfall that does not melt in the summer. The snow is
slowly converted to ice, and when the ice is thick enough, it begins to flow. This essentially
requires two elements. Low temperatures and abundant snowfall.

A glacier can be divided into two main components. A zone of growth (accumulation) and a
zone of shrinkage (ablation). Accumulating snow is light and contains up to 90% air by volume.
As snow continues to accumulate it gradually compacts and converts to ice. Eventually after
considerable burial and many years, the snow will convert to glacial ice with less than 20% air.
Once this ice is thick enough to move it will flow down slope under the influence of gravity. The
down hill movement will bring it to lower altitudes where is will begin to melt and the glacier
shrinks. Shrinkage of glaciers is primarily due to melting of ice, that may be enhanced by wind or
iceberg calving. In some cases the ice will convert directly to water vapor (sublimation).


Stages in the formation of glacial ice – the whole process takes from a few to 10‐20 years (Press et al., 2004)

Movement of Glaciers
Glaciers flow in a very similar manner to water flow in streams. However the flow is very slow
and is not readily detectable by the naked eye. Glacial flow is achieved by two main
mechanisms: internal plastic flow, and basal sliding.
- Internal plastic flow: glaciers flow and deform in a similar manner to ductilely
deforming rocks. The processes involve slip and deformation of the ice crystal
structure at the microscopic‐scale. The accumulated affect of millions of tiny
displacements is the flow of a glacier.
- Basal sliding: Many glaciers have abundant melt water at their base. This may be
melt water that has flown through the glacier to the base, or it may be pressure‐
induced melt water at the base of the glacier. In either case the water lubricates the
base of the glacier allowing it to slide over the underlying rocks and gravel.

The relative importance of plastic flow to basal sliding will depend a lot on the temperature of
the glacier. In mid‐latitude glaciers melt water will be common and basal sliding may be the
dominant movement mechanism. In high‐latitude environments, the climate may be too cold
for the generation of abundant melt water and the glacial movement will be dominant by flow.

Flow patterns in glaciers can be quite complex. However friction at the sides and base of the
glacier generally causes the ice mass to flow the fastest in the center and the slowest at the
margins and base.

Glacial Landscapes
Glaciers are highly efficient at eroding solid rock. A valley glacier only a few hundreds of metres
wide can tear up and crush millions of tons of bedrock in a single year. This erosion and the
ultimate deposition of the eroded material produces a variety of glacial landscapes.
- Along its base and sides, a glacier picks up and engulfs blocks of rock. These rocks
create a grinding action along the interface between the glacier and the bedrock
with produces rock fragments in a variety of sizes from large boulders to fine silt and

clay sized material called rock flour. Most of the rock fragments are carried down
with the glacier, but some of the fine rock flour is picked up by the wind and can be
transported for tens to hundreds of kilometers.
- The grinding action of rock fragments against the underlying bedrock produces a
series of scratches or grooves that are parallel to the movement direction of the
glacier. These grooves are called striations.
- In mountainous areas, glacial erosion produces a series of distinct landforms. In fact
most of the physical geography of British Columbia is the result of glacial erosion.
The most common features are:
o Cirques – an amphitheater‐like hollow high up in the mountains.
o Aretes – sharp ridge tops with cirques on either side of the ridge. The sharp
ridges are produced by the erosion that forms the cirques.
o Horn – A high, sharp‐pointed peak formed when three or more cirques have
sculpted a mountain mass.
o U‐shaped Valleys – A characteristic U‐shaped valley that is produced by a
valley glacier.
o Hanging Valley – A valley the lies above the main U‐shaped valley floor.
These are produced when a tributary glacier, high up in the mountains joins
a larger valley glacier.
o Fjord – Large u‐shaped valleys that are filled with sea water. The valleys
usually have steep walls, and extend a large distance inland from the coast.

Alpine glaciers (Busch, 2003)

Mountain landscape developed from alpine glaciers (Busch, 2003)

Glacial Deposits
Glaciers are excellent transporters or eroded material. A large variety of rock materials and sizes
are carried by glaciers. Unlike water or wind transport, materials do not settle out of glaciers
until they melt. Therefore when a glacier melts, it leaves behind a poorly sorted, heterogeneous
mix of boulders, pebbles, sand and clay. This material is called glacial drift, or just drift. Drift is
used to refer to all types of glacial deposits. There are two main types of drift: ice‐laid deposits
and water‐laid deposits.

Ice laid drift are formed by the deposition of material directly out of the glacier as it melts. This
material is poorly sorted and unstratified.
- The most common type of ice‐laid deposits are moraines. A moraine is a deposit of
rocky, sandy or clayey material carried and deposited by the glacier. A variety of
types of moraines are recognized depending on their position with respect to the
glacier that formed them. Some examples are:
o Terminal moraines that mark the farthest advance of the ice sheet,
o Lateral moraines that form along the edges of glaciers.
o Medial moraines that form where two joining glaciers merge their lateral
moraines below the junction. Medial moraines are commonly visible in
active glaciers as a line of dirt in the middle of the glacier.
o Ground moraines are piles of debris formed at the base of the ice.


Types of moraines produced in mountain glaciers (Plummer et al., 2004)

- Erratics refer to large boulders (as large as houses) that are left lying in isolation
after the glacier melts. These boulders can be recognized by their isolated position
and they usually have a different composition than the local bedrock.
- Drumlins – large streamlined hills of till and bedrock that parallel the direction of ice
movement. They are usually found in clusters.

Water‐laid deposits are formed by transportation of material that has melted out of the glacier
by rivers and streams. These rivers and streams may flow within and beneath the glacier and out
of its end. Like most types of waterborne sediment, this material is sorted and stratified. A
general term for water‐laid deposits is outwash (i.e. it has washed out of the glacier).
- Eskers – long, narrow, winding ridges of sand and gravel. They may travel for several
kilometers. They are formed from the deposition of material out of streams that run
along the base of the glacier. The tend to parallel to direction of ice movement.
- Kettles – hollows or undrained depressions that are often occupied by ponds and
lakes. They are formed by large blocks of ice that are left behind as the glacier melts.
These blocks of ice are surrounded by outwash sand and gravel. When the ice finally
melts it leaves behind a depression.
- Kames – small hills of sand and gravel dumped near the edge of the ice.


Glacial landforms and deposits (Busch, 2003)

Ice Ages – Pleistocene Glaciation
During the past 1 million years the climate has cooled sufficiently to produce large continental
glaciers that have covered most or all of Canada up to depths of 3 km. The most recent glacial
episode only ended about 10,000 year ago. These glacial periods have left behind a wide variety
of deposits that now cover most of Canada. For example, in the prairies the landscape is
scattered with small irregular hills and ponds that reflect poorly drained glacial till that underlies
most of the prairie region.

Pleistocene glaciation in Canada – approximately 18,000 years ago (Plummer et al., 2004)


Sea Level Changes and Deformation of the Crust
The enormous amount of water that becomes tied up in continental ice sheets during a glacial
period results in a lowering of global sea level. During the last ice age sea level lowered by as
much as 100 metres. Lowering of sea level during glacial periods is thought to be responsible for
the migration of animals and plants between continents that become joined by “land‐bridges”
during periods of low sea level.

The enormous weight of continental ice sheets on the land mass, causes the crust to subside
beneath then. This is called isostasy. An ice sheet three kilometers thick could cause the crust to
subside by as much as 1 km. After the ice melts the crust gradually rebounds. This is called
isostatic rebound. In Canada the crust is still rebounding from the last ice age. As the land
masses rise, features such as raised beaches can be seen for large distances away from the
current coast line.

Uplift of the crust in eastern Canada over the past 6,000 years due to glacial rebound (Plummer et al., 2004)

8.4 Streams and Drainage Systems

Streams are major geological agents operating on the surface of the Earth. They play an
important role in shaping the face of the continental landscape. They erode mountains, carry
the products of weathering to the oceans and deposit billions of tons of sediment along the
way. Worldwide streams carry about 16 billion tons of clastic sediment and 2 to 4 billion tons of
dissolved material every year.

Some terms:
- A stream is any flowing body of water, regardless of size.
- A river is a major branch of a large stream system.
- The stream passage way is called the channel.
- The sediment carried by the stream is called the load, and
- The quantity of water passing a given point is called the discharge.

Water Flow in Streams
Water flowing in a stream moves by one of two main processes: laminar flow and turbulent
flow.
- Laminar flow is straight or gently curved streamlines that run parallel to one
another without mixing or crossing.
- Turbulent flow has a complex pattern of movement with streamlines crossing and
forming swirls and eddies.

The relative importance of laminar or turbulent flow in a stream depends primarily on the
velocity of flow and the geometry of the stream (e.g. depth and width).

Turbulent and laminar flow (Press et al., 2004)

Stream Loads and Sediment Movement
Streams vary considerably in their ability to carry sediment. Laminar flows of water can lift and
carry only small, light silt sized particles, whereas turbulent flow may carry pebble and cobbles.
- A suspended load is all the material temporarily or permanently suspended in the
flow.
- A bed load is the material carried by the stream along its bottom by sliding and
rolling.

A stream’s ability to carry sediment depends on a balance between the uplift of turbulent flow
and the downward pull of gravity. Small grains such as clay and silt are easily lifted and slow to

settle and thus typically travel in the suspended load. However larger grains such as sand settle
quickly and thus tend to stay in the suspended load for only a short time. Sands grains typically
move by a process called saltation. Saltation involves intermittent jumping of sands grains as
they are lifted off the bottom, carried a short distance and then settle out.

Movement of sediment material in a stream (Plummer et al., 2004)

In addition to the erosion and movement of unconsolidated material, streams are effective
agents in eroding solid rock. It is not the water itself that erodes the rock, but it is abrasion.
Sediments in the suspended and bed load affect a sandblasting action against the rocks.

Relationship of bed load grain size to stream velocity (Skinner and Porter, 2000)


Stream Channels, Valleys and Floodplains
As a stream erodes the Earth’s surface, it produces a valley. The stream valley is the entire area
between the tops of the slopes on both sides of the river. Stream valleys are commonly V‐
shaped, but may be broad open flat‐bottomed valleys.

At the center of the valley lies the stream channel through which the water runs. This channel
carries all the water during normal, nonflood times. In broader valleys, a floodplains lies on
either side of the channel. The flood plain is a flat area about level with the top of the stream
valley.

A variety of common stream channel patterns are recognized.
- Meanders: these are curved and bent river channels that wind across a floodplain.
Meanders are common is streams with a low gradient that typically cut through
unconsolidated material. Meanders migrate over a period of years, eroding the
outside banks of the stream where the current is the strongest. The meanders shift
from side to side and downstream. As outside banks are eroded, curved sandbars
called point bars deposit on the inside bank where the current is slower. As
meanders migrate the curves in the stream may become closer and closer until
finally the river bypasses the next loop in the stream. The river now takes a shorter
loop, and the abandoned path is called an oxbow lake – a crescent‐shaped, water‐
filled loop.

Development of an oxbow lake (Plummer et al., 2004)

- Braided Steams: High energy streams that have many channels instead of one single
channel are called braided streams. The stream channels split apart and then rejoin
in a pattern resembling braids of hair. Braided rivers typically form in high energy
streams with a high sediment load.


Braided stream: Slim River, Kluane National Park, Yukon

Stream channels change their characteristics with time (e.g. movement of meanders) and with
distance down the stream. Factors such as gradient, discharge, velocity and sediment load affect
how the stream flow changes.
- The gradient of a stream is the distance the stream falls between two points.
Usually a stream decreases its gradient down stream and down the stream’s long
profile. The long profile is a line drawn along the surface of the stream from its
source to its mouth. It is a concave upward curve due to decreases in gradient down
stream. The longitudinal profile is controlled by the base level at its lower end. The
base level occurs where a river enters a body of standing water.
- The discharge is the amount of water in cubic metres/second that passes down the
river. It is equal to: Discharge = cross‐sectional area x average velocity. Thus either
an increase in cross‐sectional area at constant velocity or an increase in velocity at
constant cross‐sectional area is required to increase the discharge. Discharge will
change down stream and with time.
- The load of a stream will affect its flow. Increases in load reduce stream flow due to
friction and the physical resistance of the load to flow (the affects of gravity).

Generally changes down stream include: 1) increased discharge, 2) increased cross‐sectional
area, 3) slight increases in velocity, and 4) decreases in gradient. Most of these changes are
obvious. However an increase in velocity seems contradictory. One would expect that a
decrease in gradient will result in a decrease in velocity. However the shallow nature of streams
in their headwaters causes the stream bed to produce considerable resistance to flow. Deeper
streams further down the gradient encounter less resistance to flow and thus have a higher
velocity.

Changes in time are primarily related to increased discharge during high precipitation events or
during snow melt, and increases in sediment load during high discharge and periodically during
high erosion.

River discharge is related to stream velocity and cross‐sectional area (Press et al., 2004)

Floods
A flood occurs when a streams discharge exceeds the capacity of the channel and the stream
overflows its banks. Floods not only increase the discharge of the stream, but also its velocity.
These increases mean that a much greater amount of load is carried by the stream during
floods, and the size of the material that is carried increases. Thus flood events result in a large
amount of erosion and redeposition of sediment material.

Floods also have a big impact on humans as many communities are built on stream flood plains.
In order to prepare for potential flood events the history of flooding needs to be known. This is
accomplished by plotting the occurrence of past maximum discharges, including floods of
different sizes on a probability graph. This establishes a flood‐frequency curve and a recurrence
interval. The recurrence intervals are commonly expressed as 10 year flood events or 100 year
flood events. Smart communities will be prepared to deal with at the very least a 100 year flood
event. Recurrence intervals are also used in mine planning. The design of tailing dams and ponds
and mine infrastructure must be able to deal with extreme flood events (200 year or greater).


Predicting flood events with a recurrence interval (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Stream Deposits
Streams are efficient carries of sediment as the suspended, dissolved and bed load. The size of
the sediment carried by a stream is primarily related to the flow velocity. In general the size of
sediment transported by a stream decreases in the down‐stream direction. This is opposite of
what is expected if the stream velocity increases down‐stream. The main reason for this is
sorting and abrasion. The fine particles higher up in the stream are removed by the stream
leaving the larger particles behind. Larger particles are also affected by abrasion. Thus with time
and distance down the stream larger particles are reduced in size. Ultimately when a stream
reaches its base level it is only moving particles of sand size or less.

The composition of particles carried by a stream also changes down stream. As the stream
crosses a variety of rock types and sediment deposits it erodes these materials and begins to
carry them down‐stream, thus changing the composition of the stream’s load.

Sediment material that is deposited out of a stream is called alluvium.


The combined effects of erosion, sediment transport and deposition produces a variety of
stream deposits. These include:
- Floodplains and levees: The flood plain is the part of the stream valley inundated
with flood waters. The levee is a broad low ridge of sediment built along the side of
the river channel. During floods the depth, velocity and turbulence of the water
changes abruptly at the submerged stream channel margin. These changes result in
a rapid deposition of coarse material from the suspended load along the margins of
the stream channel and the build‐up of a natural levee.

Flood plain and levee (Thompson and Turk, 1998)

- Terraces: A flat alluvial terrace that lies above the floodplain. It is the remains of an
abandoned flood plain that is no longer used due to down‐cutting of the river. It
may be underlain by sediment and/or bedrock. Thus a terrace is a landform, rather
than a deposit.

- Alluvial Fans: a fan shaped body of alluvium built where a stream leaves a steep
mountain valley. When a mountain stream with a high gradient suddenly emerges
on a valley floor, its gradient, velocity and ability to carry load rapidly decreases.
Thus it deposits its load on the valley floor. Repeated depositional events combined
with movement of a braided stream channel from one side to another produces a
fan shaped deposit.

- Delta: A sedimentary deposit that forms where a stream flows into a standing body
of water. When a stream enters a standing body of water (lake or ocean) it velocity
decreases rapidly and the sediment load drops out. Deltas can be very large such as
the Fraser River Delta or the Mississippi Delta, or they can be small features a few
10’s of metres long.

Characteristics of a typical delta (Renton, 1994)

Fraser River Delta

Drainage Systems

Every stream is surrounded by its drainage basin. This is the total area that drains into the
stream. Drainage basins range from a few square kilometers to near‐continental dimensions
(e.g. the Mississippi).

The arrangement and dimensions of streams in a drainage basin tends to be orderly. Streams
within a basin can be numbered according to their order.
- The smallest streams lack tributaries and are classified as first‐order streams.
- Where two first order streams join they form a second‐order stream.
- Third order streams where two second‐order streams join. They can have first and
second‐order tributaries.

A typical drainage basin showing the stream order (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

A variety of common stream patterns are recognized. These patterns develop primarily as a
result of the nature and structure of the underlying rocks. In fact, an experienced geologists can
look at a drainage pattern and infer a great deal about the underlying geology. Some common
examples are:
- Dendritic: ‐ branching channels that are treelike – this reflects massive and/or flat‐
lying rock strata. In this case the rock imposes little control on the stream patterns.
- Radial: Channels radiate out – forms around a topographic high, such as a dome or
volcanic cone.
- Rectangular: rectangular arrangement of channels marked by right‐angled bends –
forms in areas where rocks are heavily jointed and fractured.
- Trellis: rectangular arrangement of channels in which principle tributaries are
parallel and very long, like vines on a trellis – reflects dipping or folded strata in
which the edges of rock units are exposed on the surface.


Typical stream drainage patterns (Thompson and Turk, 1998)

Placer Deposits
A placer deposit is a deposit of heavy minerals that have been concentrated mechanically. Gold
has traditionally been mined from placer deposits, where the high density of gold relative to
other minerals results in the concentration of gold. Gold is commonly deposited in areas where
the stream flow is high enough to remove most other minerals, but not high enough to move
gold. Examples include behind rocks, or in bedrock holes, below waterfalls or where a tributary
enters a main stream. Much of the gold in placer deposits is very fine (gold dust) and is delivered
to the stream by erosion and mass wasting on the hill slopes of the drainage basin. Due to its
high density, gold placer deposits are usually found within a relatively short distance from the
bedrock source of the gold. Other placer deposits include platinum group elements and titanium
dioxide.


9.0 MINERAL AND ENGERGY RESOURCES

Resources are like air, of no great importance until you are not getting any.
Anonymous

Our modern society has an insatiable demand for the resources of our Earth. Everything we
need to live comes from the Earth, whether it is food, clothing, shelter or the amenities and
conveniences of modern life.

The development of our modern society would never have happened if we had not learned how
to harness the benefits of the Earth’s mineral and energy resources. No cars and nothing to
power cars, no pavement, no buildings, no movies or CD’s or telephones and the internet would
be in the realm of science fiction!

Example of the total Earth Resources an average North American uses in their lifetime

9.1 Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels refer to any organically derived sedimentary rock, or a product from an
organic sedimentary rock that can be burned for fuel. Fossil fuels consists of
combinations of carbon and hydrogen that will combust. The principle types of fossil
fuels are petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Secondary types are peat, oil shales and
oil sands.

Fossil fuels are the principle source of the energy consumed by modern man. Approximately 85‐
90% of all our power needs are generated by burning fossil fuels.
 Currently more than 40% of the worlds electricity is generated by burning coal and
the vast majority of steel manufacturing uses coking coal as a heat source.
 Natural gas is also an important source of electricity as well as energy for cooking
and heating.

 Petroleum is the primary product used to power our automobiles, trucks, planes,
ships, etc and thus is invaluable for our transportation network. Petroleum products
are also used as a source of electricity generation and heat.

Canada’s energy consumption and electricity generation (Plummer et al., 2003)

Historic and projected energy sources 1980‐2030

The use of fossil fuels has risen gradually over time.
 Coal was the first to gain prominence in the industrial revolution of the eighteenth and
nineteenth century.
 This was followed by oil in the early twentieth century. The first oil well was drilled in
1859 in Pennsylvania, but oil usage did not become well established until the
automobile appeared in large numbers.
 Natural gas was known for a long time, but its use was limited until distribution systems
became available following the second world war.

Fossil fuels are often referred to as hydrocarbons, because they are composed of a variety of
organic molecules that contain hydrogen and carbon.


Global oil and gas basins (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Formation of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels owe their origin to organic matter that is trapped in sedimentary rocks. All
sedimentary rocks contain some organic matter, from a trace in sandstones to a major
constituent in coal and oil shales. In most cases organic matter that accumulates along with
sediments decays by oxidation and bacterial activity and the carbon is driven off as CO2. In rare
cases a significant amount of organic matter may accumulate and be preserved in sediments
and subsequently in sedimentary rocks. This material is the pre‐cursor to a fossil fuel.

Hydrocarbon energy cycle (Press et al., 2004)


The different types of fossil fuels owe their origin to:
- Different kinds of organic material (e.g. leaves and stems from land plants versus
phytoplankton matter in marine basins).
o Coal is derived from terrestrial plant material
o Petroleum and most natural gas are derived from marine organism such as
phytoplankton and bacteria.
- Different degrees of alteration that occur as a result of oxidation and bacterial
action near the Earth’s surface, and
- Increases in temperature and pressure that occur due to burial in a sedimentary
basin.

In a general manner all fossil fuels go through two stages of formation:
1) Organic matter undergoes biochemical alteration near the surface due to the activity of
bacteria in the presence of oxygen. CO2 and water as well as biological methane (CH4),
(otherwise known as swamp gas) are produced at this stage.

2) Gradual burial of the sedimentary material drives off water, and increases the heat and
pressure imposed on the organic material. This brings about a cracking of the organic
material in which large complex hydrocarbon molecules are broken down into smaller
molecules. Also during this process oxygen, nitrogen and other elements are driven off
as gasses and the percentage of carbon and hydrogen increases. It is this high
component of carbon and hydrogen that makes fossil fuels a good source of heat.

Coal
Coal is the fossil fuel that bears the greatest similarity to the original organic material. In low
grade coal, imprints of plants and pieces of wood can still be found.

Coal is a type of sedimentary rock, and like all sedimentary rocks it occurs in beds. Coal beds or
seams as they are commonly called occur interbedded with other sedimentary rocks such as
sandstone, shale and limestone. Most coal seams range from <1m to 10 m thick and it is
estimated that 1 m of coal requires about 500 to 5,000 years of plant accumulation to form.

Most coal is thought to have formed from plants that lived in broad, shallow coastal plains and
swamps, or in broad interior lowland plains that are covered with shallow water for most of the
year.

The formation of coal is progressive and proceeds as follows:
1) Plants and trees die and accumulate on land or under water. Some of this material will
decompose into CO2 and water, but if it accumulates rapidly, it will gradually build up in
thickness. The activity of bacteria near the surface will partial break down the organic
material and will liberate oxygen and hydrogen thereby concentrating carbon. With
time this material becomes peat.
2) The formation of coal from peat involves chemical and physical changes induced by
increases in pressure, temperature and time. Burial of the sedimentary rocks increases
the pressure and temperature imposed on the peat and it eventually converts to coal.
Initially low grade coal called lignite is formed. This coal contains about 30‐40% carbon.
With increased temperature, pressure and time, coal increases in rank (meaning it

increase in carbon content), and changes from lignite to bituminous coal (40‐70%
carbon) to anthracite (>80% carbon). At the high grades, coal consists of more than 90%
carbon.

Formation of Coal (Press et al., 2004)

Petroleum and Natural Gas
Petroleum refers to all liquid hydrocarbons found in rocks. Petroleum is chemically complex and
can be refined into many different products such as gasoline, diesel fuel and oil lubricants.
Natural gas is a simple hydrocarbon that occurs in the gaseous state at the Earth’s surface.
Natural gas consists primarily of methane (CH4) with small amount of other gases such as
ethane, butane and propane.

The formation of petroleum and natural gas deposits involves 4 important components:
1) a source rock that contains marine organic material,
2) formation of hydrocarbon molecules by increases in temperature and pressure
associated with burial in a sedimentary basin (maturation stage)
3) migration of the hydrocarbon molecules away from the source rock, and,
4) trapping of the molecules in a suitable reservoir rock.

Source Rocks
Any sedimentary rock containing organic material is a potential source rock for the formation of
petroleum and natural gas. However fine grained, low energy rocks such as marine shales and
organic sedimentary rocks such as limestones typically contain the highest amount organic
material and are the best sources of hydrocarbon molecules.

The majority of petroleum and natural gas source rocks occur in sedimentary basins. A
sedimentary basin is a region where sediments accumulate over a long period of time resulting
in the formation of a thick sequence of sedimentary rocks. In Canada, the Western Canada
Sedimentary Basin in Alberta and BC is the source for major deposits of oil and gas. Intracratonic

rifts, divergent plate margins and passive continental margins are areas where thick
accumulations of sediments commonly develop.

Model for source rocks in the Gulf of Mexico

Maturation
As a sedimentary basin develops, trapped organic material is subjected to increasing heat and
pressure. This results in cracking of the organic compounds and maturation of the organic
material. At depths of between 1 and 4 km most organic material is converted to petroleum and
natural gas hydrocarbon molecules.

Migration
As pressure increases in a sedimentary basin, liquids and gases including petroleum, natural gas
and water are expelled out of the sedimentary basin. These liquids and gases migrate upwards
and laterally along bedding planes and fractures and through porous rocks.

Accumulation and Trapping
Most sedimentary rocks contain too little petroleum or natural gas to form a commercial
deposit. Thus we must find areas where hydrocarbons have accumulated and been trapped in
reservoir rocks.
o A reservoir rock is one with a high degree of porosity and permeability and is
usually a sandstone or limestone.
o A trap is a zone where migrating hydrocarbons become confined and prevented
from further movement by an impermeable seal or cap rock.

Traps
There are two general types of hydrocarbon traps: stratigraphic traps and structural traps.
o Stratigraphic traps: This occurs when porous and permeably rocks are sealed off by an
overlying impermeable bed. Evaporates such as salt, and clay‐rich rocks such as shale
are good cap rocks. An example of a stratigraphic trap is where a shale bed overlies a
sandstone bed that pinches out laterally.

o Structural Traps: this occurs where structures such as folds and faults serve to trap
hydrocarbons. Some examples include:
- Anticlinal domes
- The flanks of a salt domes
- Normal faults

Common Oil Traps

Model for Oil Traps

9.2 Mineral Resources

Fossil fuels are the principle source of energy to power our modern society, and mineral
resources are the source of the materials to build the machines and infrastructure that require
the fossil fuel power.

A mineral resource is essentially any rock or mineral that is extracted (mined) for the benefit of
society. This benefit may take the form of an aggregate for road building, iron for steel, copper
for electricity transmission, silver for photography, or gold for jewellery.

In order for a mineral resource to be mined, it must occur in sufficient quantity to be extracted
at a profit. Such an occurrence is referred as a mineral deposit or an ore deposit.
- Mineral Deposit: a naturally occurring anomalous concentration of a mineral or
minerals that may be extracted at a profit.
- Ore Deposit: A naturally occurring anomalous concentration of a mineral or
minerals in amounts sufficient to permit economic and profitable recovery.

In the case of a mineral deposit, profitable extraction is not a requirement. For an ore deposit
profitable extraction is a requirement. Mineral deposit is a geological term, whereas ore deposit
is, in a sense, an economic term.

Mineral deposits can be divided into the following primary groups:
- Precious and Base Metal Deposits: gold, silver, platinum, copper, zinc, lead and
aluminium.
- Ferrous metal deposits: iron, nickel, molybdenum, cobalt, tungsten (traditionally
used to denote those metals that are used in the manufacturing of steel)
- Mineral fuels: coal, uranium, tar sands
- Industrial Minerals: a wide variety of minerals and rocks with industrial uses. It
includes aggregates, clays, limestone, silica and building stone.

In most precious, base and ferrous metal deposits, the elements of interest do not occur in their
native form. The elements occur within minerals (e.g. copper typically occurs in the mineral
chalcopyrite – CuFeS2). In these deposits, the rocks containing the minerals are mined, but in
order to extract the element of interest several secondary processing techniques are required to
separate the minerals from the rock and finally the element from the mineral. In industrial
mineral deposits it is commonly the mineral or rock itself that is of interest. In this case the
material is mined directly and little if any secondary processing is required (e.g. aggregates or
limestone).

Economic mineral deposits are rare. Less than 1% of the Earth’s surface contains deposits of
minerals or rocks that are of use to society and that could be extracted at a reasonable profit.

The presence of a mineral deposit usually means that one or more geological processes have
concentrated metals or minerals within the Earth’s crust. For example, gold occurs naturally in
most rocks, but in extremely small quantities. In order for gold to occur in such a quantity that it
forms a mineral deposit, it must be concentrated by a factor of at least 2,000.


Typical Concentration Factors
Element Average Grade (%) Concentration
Abundance (%) Factor Factor
Aluminum 8.0 30.0 3.8
Iron 5.0 25.0 5
Copper 0.005 0.4 80
Nickel 0.007 0.5 71
Zinc 0.007 4.0 571
Tin 0.0002 0.5 2500
Lead 0.001 4.0 4000
Gold 0.0000001 0.0005 5000
Concentration Factors needed to form economic mineral deposits

Formation of Mineral Deposits
A variety of geological processes are responsible for concentrating minerals and elements and
thus forming mineral deposits. Three of the most common processes are:
1) Hydrothermal
2) Magmatic
3) Sedimentary

Hydrothermal Processes
Hydrothermal processes involve the circulation of hot aqueous solutions through rocks of the
Earth’s crust. These solutions contain dissolved elements and minerals that in special
circumstances precipitate out of the solutions and become concentrated to form mineral
deposits.

All rocks in the Earth’s crust contain minor amounts of fluid in small pores, fractures and cracks.
In areas of magmatic activity, elevated temperatures cause these fluids to expand and rise in the
crust. The effect of these rising fluids is to draw cool fluids down into the crust from the surface.
The net result is that a convective circulation system is set up.


Model for Hydrothermal Processes (Plummer et al., 2003)

Hydrothermal solutions may contain dissolved elements from the magmatic activity and/or they
may pick up elements by leaching them out of rocks that they pass through. However the most
important process in the formation of hydrothermal mineral deposits is where the minerals and
elements precipitate out. Generally three processes cause elements to precipitate out of
hydrothermal fluids:
- Rapid decrease in temperature. (e.g. fluids emanate at the Earth’s surface)
- Rapid decreases in pressure. (e.g. fluids enter faults or other openings in the crust)
- Composition changes in the fluid. (e.g. the fluid passes through rocks of different
composition)

Black Smoker Model (Skinner and Porter, 2000)

Hydrothermal process are responsible for many important types of minerals deposits including:
 Volcanic massive sulphide deposits: these are the “black smoker” deposits that form in
volcanic rocks on the sea floor. Hydrothermal fluids rich in copper, zinc lead, gold and
silver travel along faults in the Earth’s crust. When these fluids hit the sea floor, they

cool rapidly and sulphide minerals precipitate out of the fluids. The name massive
sulphide refers to a deposit with at least 50% sulphide minerals such as pyrite (FeS2),
pyrrhotite (FeS), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), sphalerite (ZnS) and galena (PbS). (e.g. Myra Falls
deposit near Campbell River).

 Gold Vein Deposits: many of the World’s significant gold deposits consist of gold
occurring within quartz veins. These veins are formed by precipitation of quartz and
gold out of hydrothermal solutions that enter fault zones or other openings in rocks of
the crust. In some cases the hydrothermal solutions are the cause of the openings
through a processes called hydraulic fracturing.

 Porphyry Copper±Molybdenum Deposits: Porphyry copper deposits are an important
deposit type in BC (e.g. Highland Valley). These deposits consists of copper‐bearing
minerals in fractures, veins and disseminations in porphyritic granitic rocks. During the
later stages of cooling of the plutonic igneous rock, magmatic fluids become
concentrated near the top of the intrusion. These fluids may be rich in copper,
molybdenum, gold and other elements. Hydraulic fracturing of the igneous rock and the
surrounding host rock by these fluids can result in precipitation of the copper minerals
into these fractures.

Common hydrothermal mineral deposits: A) Copper Skarn Deposit, B) Gold Vein Deposit, C) Porphyry‐copper
Deposit, D) Massive Sulphide deposit (Plummer et al.,, 2003)

Magmatic Processes
Magmatic mineral deposits are those that form directly out of a magma due to a variety of
processes that occur when a magma intrudes into the Earth’s crust and cools. For example, one
processes that can occur is called fractional crystallization. This is where minerals that form
early in the cooling process drift down through the magma chamber and settle out at the
bottom and become concentrated in layers.


The most common mineral deposits formed by magmatic processes are:
 Platinum and palladium deposits such as those at Stillwater Montana and in the
Bushveld complex in South Africa.
 Nickel + copper deposits such as Voisey’s Bay and those in the Sudbury area.

Magmatic mineral deposit: Metal‐bearing minerals form and settle down to the bottom of a magma chamber
forming a concentrated layer of economic minerals.

Sedimentary Processes
These are mineral deposits formed through processes of sedimentation.
 Evaporites: These mineral deposits are essentially chemical sedimentary rocks.
Evaporation of lake or sea water increases the concentration of elements until they
precipitate out of the water. Examples include table salt (NaCl), borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O),
and potash (several potassium bearing minerals such as sylvite KCl).
 Banded Iron Formations: These form one of the world’s most important sources of iron.
Banded iron formations are sedimentary rocks that consist of alternating layers of iron
oxide minerals and silica. These rocks formed as chemical precipitates between about 2
billion and 3 billion years ago. At that time the Earth’s atmosphere contained much less
oxygen than today. In the low oxygen environment, surface waters were more acidic
and dissolved large quantities of iron. This iron was transported by rivers into lakes and
seas where it precipitated out.
 Placer Deposits: placer deposits are concentrations of minerals with a high specific
gravity (high density) in unconsolidated sand and gravel. The transportation of clastic
material (minerals and rock fragments) by water is a highly effective means of sorting
material by its density. In various physical traps, high density material becomes trapped,
while lower density material is carried away by water currents. This results in a
concentration of the high density material. Gold with a density many times that of the
average material is commonly concentrated in placer deposits. Other examples include
platinum, tin and diamonds.


10.0 REFERENCES

Busch, R.M., 2003. Laboratory Manual in Physical Geology, American Geological Institute.
Prentice Hall, 271p.

Davis, G.H., and Reynolds, S.J., 1996: Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions 2nd Edition. John
Wiley and Sons, 776p.

Davidson, J.P., Reed W.E., and Davis, P.M., 2002. Exploration Earth: An Introduction to Physical
Geology. Second Edition. Prentice Hall, 549p.

Grotzinger, J., Jordan, T.H., Press, F., and Siever, R., 2007: Understanding Earth, 5th Edition.
W.H. Freeman and Company, 579p.

Hamblin, W.K. and Christiansen, E.H., 2001. Earth’s Dynamic Systems, ninth edition. Prentice‐
Hall, Inc., 735p.

Lutgents, F.K., and Tarbuck, E.J., 2003. Essentials of Geology 8th Edition. Prentice Hall, 466p.

Lydon, J.W., 1988. Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits Part 2: Genetic Models; in Ore
Deposit Models, Geoscience Canada Reprint Series e (ed). R.G. Roberts, PA Sheahan, pg
155‐181.

Natural Resources Canada – Earthquakes Canada: 2007:
http://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e.php

Perkins, D., 2002. Mineralogy. Prentice Hall, 483P.

Plummer, C.C., McGeary, D., and Carlson, D.H., 2003. Physical Geology, ninth edition. McGraw
Hill, 574p.

Plummer, C.C., McGeary. D.,, Carlson D.H., Eyles, N., & Eyles, C., 2004, Physical Geology & The
Environment, 1st Canadian Edition, McGraw‐Hill Ryerson, 574p.

Press, F., and Siever, R., 2001. Understanding Earth, 3rd Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company,
573p.

Press, F., Siever, R., Grotzinger, J., Jordan, T.H. 2004. Understanding Earth 4th edition. W.H.
Freeman and Company, 567p.

Renton, J.J. 1994: Physical Geology. West Publishing Company, 607p.


Skinner, B.J. and Porter, S.C., 2000. The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology, 4th
Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 575p.

Thompson, G.R., Turk, J. 1998: Introduction to Physical Geology. Saunders College Publishing,
371p.

USGS: United States Geology Survey Earthquakes Hazards Program: 2007.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/

Van der Pluijm, B., Marshak, S. 1997: Earth Structures: An Introduction to Structure Geology
and Tectoncis. McGraw‐Hill, 495p.


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BRITISH COLUMBIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

2.0 PLATE TECTONICS

2.4 Plate Boundaries

3.1 Chemical Composition of Minerals

3.3 Physical Properties of Minerals

 Hydrolysis: hydrolysis are decomposition reactions involving water and in

 Leaching: leaching is the process where chemical elements are removed, by

4.3 Sedimentary Rocks

As sediment material is transported it is sorted and eventually settles out in essentially

4.4 Metamorphic Rocks

5.2 Geological Contacts

5.3 Absolute Geological Time

5.4 Geological Time Scale

6.1 Stress and Strain

6.4 Deformation and Tectonics

7.1 Seismic Waves

7.2 Locating an Earthquake Epicenter

7.3 Measuring Earthquake Size

7.5 Earthquakes, Faults and Plate Tectonics

Transform plate boundaries

7.6 Effects of Earthquakes

Large earthquake-induced rock avalanches, soil avalanches, and underwater landslides

Calculation of Seismic Hazard

7.9 Earthquake Web Links

8.2 Mass Wasting and Movements

8.4 Streams and Drainage Systems

9.1 Fossil Fuels

Iron 5.0 25.0 5

Copper 0.005 0.4 80

Nickel 0.007 0.5 71

Zinc 0.007 4.0 571

Tin 0.0002 0.5 2500

Lead 0.001 4.0 4000

Gold 0.0000001 0.0005 5000

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