MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 1

Topic Contents

 INTRODUCTION

 Measurement of Energy meter

 Ballistic Tests

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 2

Measurement of Energy
 Energy is the total power consumed over a time interval, that is
Energy = Power × Time.
 Generally, the process of measurement of energy is same as
that for measurement of power except for the fact that the
instrument used should not merely measure power or rate of
consumption of energy, but must also take into account the time
interval during which the power is being supplied.

 The unit of energy can be expressed in terms of Joule or Watt-second

or Watt-hour as per convenience. A larger unit that is most commonly
used is kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is defined as the energy consumed
when power is delivered at an average rate of 1 kilowatt for one hour.
In commercial metering, this amount of 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) energy
is specified as 1 unit of energy.
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 3
SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION-TYPE
ENERGY METER
 Induction-type instruments are most commonly used as energy
meters for measurement of energy in domestic and industrial ac
circuits.
 Basic Theory of Induction-type Meters
 In all induction-type instruments, two time-varying fluxes are created in
the windings provided on the static part of the instrument.
 These fluxes are made to link with a metal disc or drum and produce
emf therein.
 These emfs in turn, circulate eddy current on the body of the metal
disc.
 Interaction of these fluxes and eddy currents produce torques that
make the disc or drum to rotate. Schematic diagrams representing front
and top views of such an instrument is shown in Figure
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 4
 A thin aluminum disc free to rotate about its central axis is fitted with a
spindle and placed below the two poles φ1 and φ2. Fluxes φ1 and φ2
coming out of the two electromagnets φ1 and φ2 link with the
aluminum disc placed below.

 These fluxes are alternating in nature, and hence they induce emfs in
the aluminum disc. These induced emfs will in turn produce eddy
currents i1 and i2 on the disc, as shown in Figure.

 There are two sets of fluxes φ1 and φ2, and two sets of currents i1
and i2. Current i1 interacts with flux φ2 to produce a force F1 and
hence a torque Td1 on the disc.

 Similarly, current i2 interacts with flux φ1 to produce a force F2 and

hence a torque Td2 on the disc. Total torque is resultant of the torques
Td1 and Td2.

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 5

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 6
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 7
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 8
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 9
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 10
Constructional Details of Induction-Type
Energy Meter

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 11

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 12
 1. Volatage coil–many turns of fine wire encased in
plastic, connected in parallel with load.
 2. Current coil–few turns of thick wire, connected in series
with load
 3. Stator–concentrates and confines magnetic field.
 4. Aluminum rotor disc.
 5. Rotor brake magnets
 6. Spindle with worm gear.
 7. Display dials

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 13

 A single phase energy meter has four essential
parts:
 (i) Operating system

 (ii) Moving system

 (iii) Braking system

 (iv) Registering system

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 14
1. Operating System

Pivot and jewel bearing

 The operating system consists of two electromagnets. The

cores of these electromagnets are made of silicon steel
laminations. The coils of one of these electromagnets (series
magnet) are connected in series with the load, and is called the
current coil.

 The other electromagnet (shunt magnet) is wound with a coil

that is connected across the supply, called the pressure coil.
The pressure coil, thus, carries a current that is proportional to
supply voltage.
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 15
 Moving System

 The moving system consists of a light aluminum disc

mounted on a spindle. The disc is placed in the space
between the series and shunt magnets.

 The disc is so positioned that it intersects the flux

produced by both the magnets. The deflecting torque on
the disc is produced by interaction between these fluxes
and the eddy current they induce in the disc.

 In energy meters, there is no control spring as such, so

that there is continuous rotation of the disc.
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 16
Braking System
 The braking system consists of a braking device which is usually a
permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminum disc.
The arrangement is shown in figure.

 The emf induced in the aluminum disc due to relative motion between
the rotating disc and the fixed permanent magnet (brake magnet)
induces eddy current in the disc.

 This eddy current, while interacting with the brake magnet flux,
produces a retarding or braking torque. This braking torque is
proportional to speed of the rotating disc.

 When the braking torque becomes equal to the operating torque, the
disc rotates at a steady speed.
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 17
 Brake magnet to provide eddy current braking in induction-type single-phase energy meter:
(a) Schematic diagram (b) Actual picture (1) Aluminum rotating disc (2) Brake magnet

The position of the permanent magnet with respect to the rotating disc is
adjustable. Therefore, braking torque can be adjusted by shifting the
permanent magnet to different radial positions with respect to the disc.
It is pertinent to mention here that the series magnet also acts as a braking
magnet, since it opposes the main torque producing flux generated by the
shunt magnet.
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 18
4. Registering System

 The function of a registering or counting system is to continuously

record a numerical value that is proportional to the number of
revolutions made by the rotating system.

 By suitable combination of a train of reduction gears, rotation of the

main aluminum disc can be transmitted to different pointers to
register meter readings on different dials.

 Finally, the kWh reading can be obtained by multiplying the number

of revolutions as pointed out by the dials with the meter constant.
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 19
Magnetic Measurements

 Ferromagnetic materials are used for the construction of

electrical machines and instruments.

 the properties of ferro-magnetic material affect the operating

characteristics of electrical machines and instruments.

 Knowledge about the characteristics of magnetic material is

necessary to design electrical equipment.

 The magnetic measurement is defined as the measurement of

different characteristics of magnetic materials. The various
requirements of the magnetic measurements are as follows:
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 20
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 21
Ballistic Tests

Flux Meter- To
Measure -B

The test conducted on ferro

magnetic material to determine
the flux density, B-H curve and
hysteresis loop is called Ballistic
Test.

Measurement of flux density using

Ballistic Test

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 22

 φ = flux linking the search coil
R = resistance of the ballistic galvanometer circuit
N = number of turns in the search coil
t = time taken to reverse the flux
 Average emf induced in the search coil

Average current through the ballistic galvanometer is,

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 23

 Charge passing through it,

Let θ1 be the deflection of the galvanometer. Charge indicated by the

galvanometer =K2θ1

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 24

 In uniform field and with search coil turns at right angles to the flux
density vector, the flux density,

where, As = cross-section area of the specimen

Thus, observing the throw of the ballistic galvanometer, flux density may be
measured.
For the above analysis, it is assumed that the flux remains uniform throughout
the specimen and that the effective cross-section area of the search coil is
equal to the cross section area of the specimen.
However, search coil is usually of larger area than the specimen and thus the
flux linking the search coil is the sum of the flux confined in the specimen and
the flux which is present in air space between the specimen and the search coil.
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 25
 So, Flux observed = Actual flux in the specimen + Flux in the air space
between specimen and search coil.

 Hence actual value of the flux density

 where, B’ = apparent or observed value of the flux density

 B = actual or true value of the flux density in the specimen
 As = cross-section area of the specimen
 Ac = cross-section area of the coil, actual value of the flux density

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 26

 Measurement of value of Magnetizing
Force (H)

A ballistic galvanometer and a

search coil may be used to
measure the magnetising force
of a constant magnetic field.
The value of H inside the
specimen may either be obtained
from the calculations with data of
magnetising coil and the
specimen or from measurements
made from outside the specimen.

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 27

 Direct measurement cannot be done. If the magnetising
force is to be determined in the air gap, the search coil is
placed in the air gap itself.

 In case of testing ferromagnetic materials, the magnetising

force, within the specimen may be determined by
measuring the magnetising force on its surface, since the
tangential components of the field are of equal in
magnitude for both sides of the interface. The search coil,
as placed in Figure
2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 28
 measures flux density in air, B0. This search coil is called an “H coil”.
While the flux densities encountered in iron testing, there is usually no
trouble in getting a good sensitivity by using a B-coil of sufficient turns
but there is some difficulty in achieving adequate sensitivity in the H
coil placed at the surface.

 At the first instance, its cross-sectional area is much smaller than the
coil surrounding the specimen and then H is not constant across the
section.

 Secondly, the permeability of iron is very large as compared to that of

air and therefore flux density B0, in the search coil, is very small
compared to that in the specimen.

 The value of the flux density B0 in H coil is measured in a similar way

as described before for measuring of B in a specimen.

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 29

DETERMINATION OF MAGNETISING
CURVE
 There are two methods used to determine the
magnetising curve or B-H curve of a Specimen.

 1. Method of Reversal

 2. Step-by-step Method

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 30

 Method of Reversal

A ring specimen with known

dimensions is used for the test.

At first, ring specimen is

prepared by placing search coil,
and magnetising coil with proper
insulation arrangement as
mentioned earlier.

The arrangement of the test

circuit is shown in Figure.

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 31

Keeping the switch S2 on the tap 1 position, the switch S1 is closed. Current
flow in the magnetising winding sets up a magnetising force, H1 which in turns
increases the flux density in the specimen, from zero to some value B1, and
corresponding throw of galvanometer is observed. The B1 value can be
calculated from the throw of the galvanometer.

H1 value may be calculated from the reading of the Ammetre, connected to the
magnetising winding circuit. The magnetising force is then increased to some
value H2 by switching S2 suddenly to the tapping 2 and the corresponding
increase in flux density ΔB is determined from the throw of the galvanometer.

Then the flux density B2 corresponding to magnetising force H2 is calculated

as B2 = B1 + ΔB. The process is repeated for other values of H up to the
maximum point and the complete B-H curve thus drawn as shown in Figure

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 32

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 33
DETERMINATION OF HYSTERESIS LOOP

 Step-by-step Method

 The determination of the hysteresis loop by this method is carried

out simply by continuing the procedure described in the previous
section where the B-H curve was obtained.

 After reaching the point of maximum H with S2 on the tapping 8,

the magnetising current is then reduced, in steps to zero by
moving S2 down through tapping points 8,7,6…2,1. After the
reduction of the magnetising force to zero, negative values of H
are obtained by reversing the reversing supply to the potential
divider and then moving the switch S2 in steps as before.

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 34

By Method of Reversal

 The circuit connections for the test are shown in Figure 12.12. This test
is carried out by means of a number of steps. The flux density is
changed in steps from the maximum value +Bmax down to some lower
value, the iron specimen being passed through the reminder of the
magnetisation cycle back to the flux density +Bmax.

 In Figure 12.12, R1 is there to adjust galvanometer circuit; whereas,

R2 and R4 are there to adjust the magnetising circuit. R3 is a variable
shunting resistor, connected across the magnetising winding by
moving over the switch S2, thus reducing the current in this circuit from
its maximum value down to any desired value—depending upon the
value of R3.

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 35

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 36
 The value of Hmax required to develop Bmax to be used during the
test is taken from the previously obtained B-H curve of the specimen.
R2 and R4 are then varied so that the magnetising current is such that
this value of H is obtained when S2 is in the OFF position.

 Since H = NI/l. When the maximum value of the magnetising is

reversed, to get a suitable deflection of the galvanometer, R1 is
adjusted. R3 is adjusted to such a value that a suitable reduction of the
current in the magnetising winding is obtained when this resistance is
switched in the circuit.
 Switch RS2 is then placed on contacts 1 1’ and the short-circuiting key
K opened. Since at this moment, maximum magnetising current is
flowing, the magnetisation of the specimen corresponds to the point A
on the loop shown in Figure

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 37

 In the next step, the switch S2 is quickly thrown over from the OFF
position to contact X, thus shunting the magnetising winding by R3 and
reducing the magnetising force to Hc(say).

 The corresponding reduction in flux density, −ΔB, is obtained from the

galvanometer throw, and hence the point C on the loop is obtained.

 The key K is now closed, and the switch RS2 reversed on to contacts 2
2’. Switch S2 is then opened and RS2 moved back again to contacts 1
1’.
 In this procedure, the specimen undergoes a cycle of magnetisation
and back to the point A and it is ready for the next step in the test. The
section AD of the loop is found by continuation of this procedure

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 38

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 39
 To find out DEF section of the loop, with K closed and S2 in the OFF
position, RS2 is placed on contacts 1 1’. Then throw S2 on the contact
Y position, open the key K and rapidly reverse RS2 on to contacts 2 2’.
From this throw, the change in flux ΔB’ (Figure) may be obtained, since
the switching operations described cause H to be changed from
+Hmax to -Hk (say).
 To bring the magnetisation of the specimen back to the point A, close
the key K, open S2 and reverse RS2 on to contacts 1 1’. By continuing
this process, other points on the section DEF of the loop are found.

 The section FGLA of the loop may be obtained by drawing in reverse

of ADEF, since the two halves are identical.

 By measuring the area of the hysteresis loop so obtained, by means of

a planimeter, and expressing this area in B-H units of area, the
hysteresis loss for the material may be obtained, since, hysteresis
loss/cycle/m3 in joules = area of the loop in B-H units.

2/11/2019 Lecture - Analog Meters - Dr. P. Anbu 40