The Beginning of Modern Architecture

4/1/2019 The Beginning of Modern Architecture | Boundless Art History
Boundless Art History
European and American Art in the 18th and 19th Centuries
The Beginning of Modern Architecture
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-beginning-of-moder… 1/14
Changes in Technology
Building materials spawned by the Industrial Revolution, such as iron,

steel, and sheet glass, determined new architectural techniques.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Name some of the common themes of modern architecture
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Among the common themes of modern architecture

was the use of industrially produced materials.
In the 1830s Britisher Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the

section beam, leading to widespread use of iron
construction.
The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, which housed the

Great Exhibition of 1851, was an early example of iron
and glass construction.
Around 1900 a number of architects and designers

around the world began developing new solutions to
integrate traditional precedents (classicism or Gothic,
for instance) with new technological possibilities.
Key Terms
Industrial Revolution: The major technological,

socioeconomic, and cultural change in the late 18th and
early 19th century when the economy shifted from one
based on manual labor to one dominated by machine
manufacture.
William Le Baron Jenney: (1832–1907) An American
William Le Baron Jenney: (1832–1907) An American

architect and engineer who is known for building the
rst skyscraper in 1884 and became known as the
Father of the American skyscraper.
Crystal Palace: A cast-iron and plate-glass building

erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the
Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors
from around the world gathered in the Palace’s
990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to
display examples of the latest technology developed in
the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Joseph Paxton,
the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m)
long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m).
Modern Themes
Common themes of modern architecture include:
The notion that ” form follows function,” a dictum originally

expressed by Frank Lloyd Wright’s early mentor Louis Sullivan,
meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its
purpose
Simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of “unnecessary

detail”
Visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of

structural elements)
The related concept of “truth to materials,” meaning that the true

nature or natural appearance of a material ought to be seen rather
than concealed or altered to represent something else
Use of industrially produced materials
Adoption of the machine aesthetic, particularly in International

Style modernism
A visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines
Application of Themes
Application of Themes
With the Industrial Revolution, the increasing availability of new building

materials such as iron, steel, and sheet glass drove the invention of
equally new building techniques. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles
Bage rst used his “ reproof” design, which relied on cast iron and brick
with agstone oors. Such construction greatly strengthened the
structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger
machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron’s properties as a construction
material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early
1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to
widespread use of iron construction.
This kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the

landscape of northern Britain, leading the poet William Blake to describe
places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as “Dark satanic
mills.” The Crystal Palace, designed by Joseph Paxton for the Great
Exhibition of 1851, was an early example of iron and glass construction. It
was followed in 1864 by the rst glass and metal curtain wall. A further
development was that of the steel-framed skyscraper in Chicago,
introduced around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan.
Modernist Schools
Around 1900, a number of architects and designers around the world

began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents
(classicism or Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities.
The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor
Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner and the
Vienna Secession in Austria, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow,
among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old
and new. The work of some of these were a part of what is broadly
categorized as Art Nouveau (“new art”).
Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, Stil Modern, and the
Spanish word for Art Nouveau, Modernismo, are cognates of the English
word “Modern,” though they carry di erent meanings. An early use of
the term in print around this time that approached its later meaning can
be found in the title of a book by Otto Wagner. The aftermath of the First
World War would result in additional experimentation and ideas
World War would result in additional experimentation and ideas.

Following the experiments in Art Nouveau and its related movements
around the world, modernism in architecture and design grew out of
stylistic threads originating throughout the world.
The transept façade of the Crystal Palace: The Crystal Palace, 1851, was
one of the rst buildings to have vast amounts of glass supported by
structural metal, foreshadowing trends in Modernist architecture.
Modern Architecture: Form Follows Function
Modern architecture adhered to Louis Sullivan’s famous precept, “form

follows function,” which called for an absence of ornamentation beyond
functional necessity.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain Louis Sullivan’s adage, “form follows function,” and its

in uence on modern architecture
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
“Function” came to be seen as encompassing all

criteria of the use, perception, and enjoyment of a
building, not only the practical aspects but also
aesthetic, psychological, and cultural.
Modern architecture is generally characterized by

simpli cation of form and by the creation of ornament
from the structure and theme of the building.
In the early stages of Modern architecture, “decoration

is a crime” was a popular motto.
Key Terms
Louis Sullivan: (1856–1924) An American architect who

has been called the “father of skyscrapers” and “father
of modernism.” He is considered by many to be the
creator of the modern skyscraper, was an in uential
architect, critic of the Chicago School, and a mentor to
Frank Lloyd Wright.
Bauhaus School: A school in Germany that combined

crafts and the ne arts, and was famous for the
approach to design that it publicized and taught. It
operated from 1919 to 1933.
Deutscher Werkbund: A German association of artists,

architects, designers, and industrialists. The Werkbund
was to become an important event in the development
of modern architecture and industrial design,
particularly in the later creation of the Bauhaus School
of design.
A Revolution in Scale and Form
The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted

an overriding precept to architectural design: “Form follows function ”
an overriding precept to architectural design: Form follows function.

While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be
entirely subject to functionality was met with both approval and
skepticism, it had the e ect of introducing the concept of “function” in
place of “utility.” “Function” came to be seen as encompassing all criteria
of the use, perception, and enjoyment of a building, not only practical
but also aesthetic, psychological, and cultural.
Modern architecture is generally characterized by simpli cation of form

and by the creation of ornament from the structure and theme of the
building. It is a term applied to an overarching movement, with its exact
de nition and scope varying widely. In a broader sense, early modern
architecture began at the turn of the 20th century with e orts to
reconcile the principles underlying architectural design with rapid
technological advancement and the modernization of society. It would
take the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and
architectural styles, some in tension to one another, and often equally
defying classi cation.
The Industrial Revolution introduced and popularized the use of steel,

plate glass, as well as mass-produced components in architecture.
These new materials opened up a new world for bold structural frames,
with clean lines and plain or shiny surfaces. In the early stages of
modern architecture, a popular motto was “decoration is a crime.” In
Eastern Europe, the Communists rejected the West’s decadent ways,
and modernism developed in a markedly more bureaucratic, somber,
and monumental fashion.
Some historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction

against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and
Edwardian architecture. Around the turn of the 20th century, a general
dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate
decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as
precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these are the
philosophies of the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus School.
The AEG Turbinenfabrik (“turbine factory”), 1909, designed by Peter

Behrens, illustrating the combination of industry and design.: Behrens’s
turbine factory re ects the absence of decorative elements typical of
modern architecture.
The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to

pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of
functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural
elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding
them behind decorative forms.
Chicago School of Architecture
The Chicago School of architecture is famous for promoting steel-frame

construction and a modernist spatial aesthetic.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Indicate the major features of the Chicago School of

architecture, as well as some of the names most closely
associated with it
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
While the term ” Chicago School ” is widely used to

describe buildings in the city during the 1880s and
1890s, Chicago buildings of the era displayed a wide
variety of styles and techniques.
One of the distinguishing features of the Chicago

School is the use of steel-frame buildings with masonry
cladding (usually terra cotta), allowing large plate-glass
window areas and limiting the amount of exterior
ornamentation.
The “Chicago window” originated in this school. It is a

three-part window consisting of a large xed center
panel anked by two smaller double-hung sash
windows.
Key Terms
Chicago School: A school of architects active in

Chicago at the turn of the 20th century. They were
among the rst to promote the new technologies of
steel-frame construction in commercial buildings, and
developed a spatial aesthetic that co-evolved with, and
then came to in uence, parallel developments in
European Modernism.
“Chicago window”: A three-part window consisting of a

large xed center panel anked by two smaller double-
hung sash windows.
modernism: The modernist movement in the arts, its set

of cultural tendencies and associated cultural
movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-
reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries. In particular, the development
of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of
cities followed then by the horror of World War I were
cities, followed then by the horror of World War I, were

among the factors that shaped Modernism.
Chicago’s architecture is famous throughout the world and one style is

referred to as the Chicago School. It is also known as Commercial style.
In the history of architecture, the Chicago School was a school of
architects active in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century. They were
among the rst to promote the new technologies of steel-frame
construction in commercial buildings, and developed a spatial aesthetic
that co-evolved with, and then came to in uence, parallel developments
in European Modernism.
While the term Chicago School is widely used to describe buildings in

the city during the 1880s and 1890s, this term has been disputed by
scholars, in particular in reaction to Carl Condit’s 1952 book The Chicago
School of Architecture. Historians such as H. Allen Brooks, Winston
Weisman, and Daniel Bluestone have pointed out that the phrase
suggests a uni ed set of aesthetic or conceptual precepts, when, in fact,
Chicago buildings of the era displayed a wide variety of styles and
techniques. Contemporary publications used the phrase Commercial
style to describe the innovative tall buildings of the era rather than
proposing any sort of uni ed school.
One of the distinguishing features of the Chicago School is the use of

steel-frame buildings with masonry cladding (usually terra cotta),
allowing large plate-glass window areas and limiting the amount of
exterior ornamentation. Sometimes elements of neoclassical architecture
are used in Chicago School skyscrapers. Many Chicago School
skyscrapers contain the three parts of a classical column. The rst oor
functions as the base, the middle stories, usually with little ornamental
detail, act as the shaft of the column, and the last oor or so represent
the capital, with more ornamental detail and capped with a cornice.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-beginning-of-mod… 10/14
The Chicago Building by Holabird & Roche (1904–1905): This steel frame
building displays both variations of the Chicago window; its facade is
dominated by the window area (limiting decorative embellishments) and it is
do ated by t e do a ea ( t g deco at e e be s e ts) a d t s

capped with a cornice, elements that are all typical of the Chicago School.
The “Chicago window” originated in this school. It is a three-part window

consisting of a large xed center panel anked by two smaller double-
hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade
typically creates a grid pattern, with some projecting out from the facade
forming bay windows. The Chicago window combined the functions of
light-gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually
xed, while the two surrounding panes were operable. These windows
were often deployed in bays, known as oriel windows, that projected out
over the street.
Chicago School window grid: The Chicago window combined the functions
of light-gathering and natural ventilation; a single central pane was usually
xed, while the two surrounding panes were operable.
Architects whose names are associated with the Chicago School include
Henry Hobson Richardson, Dankmar Adler, Daniel Burnham, William
Holabird, William LeBaron Jenney, Martin Roche, John Root, Solon S.
Beman, and Louis Sullivan. Frank Lloyd Wright started in the rm of Adler
and Sullivan but created his own Prairie Style of architecture.
The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Ilinois: Some regarded the

Home Insurance Building, designed by architect William Le Baron Jenney,
as the rst skyscraper in the world. It was built in Chicago in 1884 and was
demolished in 1931.
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4/1/2019 The Beginning of Modern Architecture | Boundless Art History

Boundless Art History

European and American Art in the 18th and 19th Centuries

Building materials spawned by the Industrial Revolution, such as iron,

Name some of the common themes of modern architecture

Among the common themes of modern architecture

In the 1830s Britisher Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the

The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, which housed the

Around 1900 a number of architects and designers

Industrial Revolution: The major technological,

William Le Baron Jenney: (1832–1907) An American

Crystal Palace: A cast-iron and plate-glass building

Common themes of modern architecture include:

The notion that ” form follows function,” a dictum originally

Simplicity and clarity of forms and elimination of “unnecessary

Visual expression of structure (as opposed to the hiding of

The related concept of “truth to materials,” meaning that the true

Use of industrially produced materials

Adoption of the machine aesthetic, particularly in International

A visual emphasis on horizontal and vertical lines

With the Industrial Revolution, the increasing availability of new building

This kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the

Around 1900, a number of architects and designers around the world

World War would result in additional experimentation and ideas.

Modern Architecture: Form Follows Function

Modern architecture adhered to Louis Sullivan’s famous precept, “form

Explain Louis Sullivan’s adage, “form follows function,” and its

“Function” came to be seen as encompassing all

Modern architecture is generally characterized by

In the early stages of Modern architecture, “decoration

Louis Sullivan: (1856–1924) An American architect who

Bauhaus School: A school in Germany that combined

Deutscher Werkbund: A German association of artists,

A Revolution in Scale and Form

The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted

an overriding precept to architectural design: Form follows function.

Modern architecture is generally characterized by simpli cation of form

The Industrial Revolution introduced and popularized the use of steel,

Some historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction

The AEG Turbinenfabrik (“turbine factory”), 1909, designed by Peter

The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to

Chicago School of Architecture

The Chicago School of architecture is famous for promoting steel-frame

Indicate the major features of the Chicago School of

While the term ” Chicago School ” is widely used to

One of the distinguishing features of the Chicago

The “Chicago window” originated in this school. It is a

Chicago School: A school of architects active in

“Chicago window”: A three-part window consisting of a

modernism: The modernist movement in the arts, its set

cities followed then by the horror of World War I were

cities, followed then by the horror of World War I, were

Chicago’s architecture is famous throughout the world and one style is

While the term Chicago School is widely used to describe buildings in

One of the distinguishing features of the Chicago School is the use of

dominated by the window area (limiting decorative embellishments) and it is

do ated by t e do a ea ( t g deco at e e be s e ts) a d t s

The “Chicago window” originated in this school. It is a three-part window

The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Ilinois: Some regarded the

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