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Applied Energy
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h i g h l i g h t s
" A two-stage combustion system was implemented to a spark ignited gasoline engine.
" Extremely lean gasoline mixtures (lambda up to 2.0) were burnt effectively.
" The NOx emission from the engine was found to be below the EURO-5 limit.
" Effective burning ultra lean mixtures at partial load allow engine throttleless run.
" 3D modeling was satisfactory verified with the experiments.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The paper mainly focuses on applying the two-stage combustion system with a pre-chamber into the
Received 28 September 2012 stationary internal combustion spark ignited engine. It especially concentrates on applying throttle less
Received in revised form 28 December 2012 operation at partial load and reduction of the NOx emission. Considerations conducted in the paper are
Accepted 31 December 2012
based on the in-cylinder combustion progress analysis. Additionally, analysis of tailpipe toxic emission,
Available online 4 February 2013
with particular focus on the NOx formation in the engine equipped with the pre-chamber, is also
performed. The paper presents both results of 3-D combustion modeling in the SI engine and results con-
Keywords:
ducted on a test SI engine. The 3-D modeling was performed in the KIVA-3V code. Next, results from
Combustion
Stationary engine
modeling were compared with results obtained from tests. Finally, satisfactory good consistency between
Two-stage combustion system modeled and experimental courses of both pressure, temperature and NOx were obtained. Thus, the
Pre-chamber engine model with the proposed two-stage combustion system properly simulates engine working
Heat release rate conditions on the test bed. Results from both analyses confirmed that the two-stage combustion system
NOx significantly shortens combustion duration of an ultra lean gasoline–air mixture and contributes to
reduction in NOx.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.12.080
272 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
range from 0.995 to 1.005, that is around stoichiometric air to fuel engines. They applied the KIVA-3V code to calculate and further to
ratio. This condition is required by a 3-way catalytic converter, optimize pre-chamber shape and find best working conditions for
which at this k range works within its maximal effectiveness with the 6-in-line, turbocharged, intercooled, heavy duty engine. They
respect to NOx reduction. Burning rich mixtures (k < 1) is econom- concluded the pre-chamber volume should have been approxi-
ically unjustified due to presence of combustible content in the ex- mately 3% the whole cylinder volume. The pre-chamber was
haust gases, hence higher fuel consumption is observed. On the water-cooled and located in a cylinder head between two valves.
other hand, burning lean mixture (k > 1) leads to longer combus- A spark plug was located in the bottom of this pre-chamber (no
tion duration [9] and higher instability in engine work as well as fuel injection in the pre-chamber) instead of being directly in-
increase in HC and CO emission [4,5]. Therefore, a two-stage com- stalled at the top of the cylinder as is typical for the SI engine.
bustion system with a pre-chamber was proposed as potential The ignition in the main cylinder was triggered by hot gas jet from
solution to overcome these drawbacks [2,10–13]. In such a system the pre-chamber as a result of combustion there. This study
a combustion chamber consists of two parts: the main chamber in- showed that usage of an unscavenged pre-chamber in a biogas
side the engine cylinder and the pre-chamber in the engine head. fueled engine is particularly beneficial in terms of improvement
The pre-chamber is connected to the main chamber with a channel in fuel conversion efficiency and low toxic content in the exhaust
with its diameter several times lower than the size of the pre- gases.
chamber. Very lean mixture characterized with k above 2.0 is pre- Another conception for lean mixture combustion system was
pared in the engine intake port and aspirated to the cylinder, while developed by Robinet et al. [11]. The pre-chamber was fed with
the nearly stoichiometric mixture is formed in the pre-chamber. rich mixture by additional fuel supply system and the pre-chamber
Fuel–air mixture in the pre-chamber is enriched to nearly stoichi- had four holes with diameter of 1 mm each faced to the cylinder.
ometric ratio by injecting additional amounts of fuel there. Next, Results from this investigation showed positive impact of the
the mixture in the pre-chamber is ignited by spark discharge. two-stage combustion on improvement in both engine work cycles
While combustion is taking place in the pre-chamber, pressure stability, resistance to knock and exhaust toxic content in compar-
rapidly rises, what forces burning content in the pre-chamber to ison with the conventional spark ignited engine. Further studies on
be pushed out through the connecting channel into the cylinder. improving the in-cylinder combustion process by moving the igni-
As result both flame and hot exhaust gases can be treated as tion point from the main in-cylinder combustion chamber to a
sources for igniting ultra-lean mixture in the cylinder. Hence, small pre-chamber were carried out by Roethlisberger and Favrat
plenty of ignition kernels have been generated in the cylinder [12]. They also confirmed positive impact of a pre-chamber, even
space. Consequently, lean mixture in the cylinder is simulta- though their pre-chamber was not fueled.
neously ignited in many regions, but the process cannot be consid- Majority of automotive companies have been conducting works
ered as the HCCI, due to unburnt and burnt zones are separated on a two-stage system for stratified mixture combustion. In some
from each other and temperature in these zones also differs signif- cases, the research resulted in implementation of new engine de-
icantly. Although, leaning the combustible mixture contributes to sign into mass production. The most popular and known is the
remarkable lengthening combustion [5,9], but the combustion Compound Vortex Controlled Combustion (CVCC) system devel-
goes fast enough and is completed before expansion stroke is fully oped by Honda [22]. However, since gasoline direct injection into
developed and the exhaust valve is open. a cylinder was introduced, intensive development in combustion
It is worth mentioning that the idea of two-stage combustion is of stratified mixtures in engines equipped with pre-chambers
not new. A similar combustion system with a pre-chamber was in was postponed [23]. On the other hand, the two-stage system for
common use in compression ignition diesel fueled engines in- stratified mixtures combustion is mainly applied in stationary
stalled in cars in past. The diesel fuel was injected directly onto medium and high power supercharged gaseous engines operating
hot surface of a glow plug located in a pre-chamber. Unlike direct at fixed rotational speed. The two-stage lean mixture combustion
diesel fuel injection into the cylinder, the diesel system with a pre- system with a pre-chamber was applied to stationary gaseous SI
chamber featured itself with lower in-cylinder pressure rate during engines with cylinder diameter of more than 200 mm by such
combusting that contributed to soft run of an engine [14–18]. Main manufactures as Jenbacher, MAN, Wärtsilä, Dresser and Caterpillar
reason for applying this system to a diesel fueled engine was to [24].
slow down combustion rate of diesel fuel, in particular at its first The main goal of investigation presented in the manuscript was
combustion phase. Here, the two-stage combustion system with to prove that ultra lean gasoline–air mixtures with k up to 2.1 for
a pre-chamber is proposed as a method for accelerating combus- in-cylinder charge (overall k = 2.0) can be effectively combusted
tion rate of ultra-lean gasoline–air combustible mixture and mak- in the engine equipped with the two-stage system, that would
ing the combustion more stable. Even though, gasoline combustion make it possible to apply throttle less engine operation. Further-
is remarkably accelerated within the aid of this two-stage combus- more, NOx emission can be found below the EURO-5 regulation
tion system, but following general correlations between knock limit [25].
intensity and fuel combustion rate [19,20] anyone can conclude
that the knock, which is specific for gasoline abnormal combustion,
should not be present while lean mixture is burnt. 2. The test bench description
One of the first attempts to study effectiveness of lean mixtures
ignition and combustion in an engine with a pre-chamber was the The test engine for the investigation has been modified on the
system called the pilot flame torch ignition system. This system basis of the four-stroke compression-ignition engine S320 ER by
was patented in 1963 by Gussak et al. [10]. The two-stage combus- ANDORIA Diesel Engine Factory. The engine after several modifica-
tion system with a small chamber for ignition was also subject of tions was designated to work as a spark-ignition one. The reason
studies conducted by Oppenheim’s group [21]. Their research re- for taking a CI engine for the investigation was to obtain high tur-
sulted in development of a controlled burning system, there lean bulence in the main in-cylinder chamber for better mixing flame
mixture ignition was generated by the pilot flame generator and the unburnt mixture to be completely burnt. Shape of the com-
(Pulsed Jet Combustion). The system was beneficial in terms of bustion chamber in the SI engine does not provide conditions for
satisfactory good thermal efficiency of the engine as well as low such high in-cylinder turbulence.
emission of CO and HC. Roubaud and Favrat [2] investigated a The main engine component which was remarkably modified
combustion system with a pre-chamber to stationary biogas fueled was the engine head (Fig. 1).
S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281 273
It was equipped with a pre-chamber, that was made of Nimonic – data acquisition system – National Instruments USB-6251 – 16
90 (alloy with enhanced strength at high temperatures). In the bits resolution, sampling frequency 20 kHz,
pre-chamber (its volume stands for 4.5% the total combustion – crank angle encoder – Kistler CAM 2611 – resolution 1024
volume) a spark plug and a piezo-ceramic pressure transducer pulses/rev,
were installed. The pre-chamber was connected with the cylinder – UHC, CO, NOx gas analyzer – Signal 4000VM.
by a single channel with optionally 3, 6 or 9 mm diameter. The
diameter size was assumed on the basis of [12,26,27]. Second pres- 3. Introduction to KIVA computational code
sure transducer was installed in the main cylinder combustion
chamber. As found in the up-to-date literature [3,12,30–32] modeling
A gasoline–air lean mixture pushed from the cylinder into the combustion process inside a SI engine is satisfactory inline with re-
pre-chamber was enriched by injecting small amounts of gaseous sults from tests due to employing sophisticated mathematical tools
LPG at the end of the compression stroke. Enriching the lean and calibrating models before solving it in three dimensional
mixture in the pre-chamber to nearly stoichiometric ratio was space.
required with respect to its easy and effective ignition. The LPG Although, the KIVA code was worked out several years ago, but
applied to both modeling and the tests, consisted of 50% propane it is known for its open-source feature. That provides possibilities
and 50% butane. Volumetric fraction of the LPG injected into the of various modifications in its source code as far as the researcher
pre-chamber to provide nearly-stoichiometric combustion in the is skillful in it.
pre-chamber was 20% and 36% while the overall k was 1.4 and Modeling with aid of the KIVA takes into account as follows:
2.0, respectively. Similar LPG content was found in investigation
conducted by others on combusting LPG–gasoline in a SI engine – non-reactive flows (model cannot be modified),
[6,28,29]. Although, the LPG content is relatively high, but it is – reactive flows (the Chemkin solver was added and a combustion
associated with the pre-chamber volume. The LPG fraction referred mechanism was changed).
to total amounts of gasoline is around 2.5% only. Thus, from this
point of view, this phenomena cannot be managed as LPG–gasoline As known, the KIVA-3V code [33] allows calculation of 3-D
co-combustion. The LPG in this case is used to reinforce combus- flows in the engine cylinder including effects of turbulence and
tion in the pre-chamber. Other gases as hydrogen or CNG can be heat transfer to walls. As far as the mathematical description in
also applied instead of the LPG. However, LPG can be easily stored. details is provided by the KIVA manual [33], there is no necessity
Unlike gaseous fuels, gasoline cannot be used to enrich lean mix- to insert all the equations here.
ture in the pre-chamber. Gasoline provides several problems with The default model of combustion process in KIVA usually is
proper evaporation when it is injected into a small-size pre-cham- simple and based on a single global reaction. Both non-reactive
ber, particularly during engine cold start. As mentioned, modeling and reactive flows are modeled on the basis on the laws as follows:
and tests were performed with overall k of 1.4, 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0. The
main parameters of the test engine are shown in Table 1. – continuity of mass,
The study was conducted on a test stand consisting of the – momentum conservation,
following measurement apparatus: – energy conservation,
– species conservation.
– piezo-ceramic pressure transducer – Kistler 6061 SN 298131 –
installed in the main combustion chamber, After rearranging, these equations are in form of the three-
– piezo-ceramic pressure transducer – PCB Piezotronics M112B10 dimensional Navier–Stokes equations for a compressible fluid.
SN 20761 – installed in the pre-chamber, Turbulence phenomena can be modeled using one of the three
274 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
Table 1
Engine specification and fuel composition.
Engine specification
Displacement volume 1810 cm3
Pre-chamber volume 10.6 cm3
Number of cylinders 1
Cylinder configuration Horizontal
Cylinder bore 120 mm
Connecting-rod length 275 mm
Stroke 160 mm
Geometric compression ratio 9
Effective compression ratio (including pre-chamber volume) 8.6
Intake valve opening (before TDC) 23°
Intake valve closure (after BDC) 40°
Exhaust valve opening (before BDC) 46°
Exhaust valve closure (after TDC) 17°
Engine rotational speed 1000 rpm
sub-models: SGS (Sub-Grid Scale), k–e or RNG k–e (ReNormalisa- convergence in iteration process and unsatisfactory accuracy of re-
tion Group). The k–e model was used in case of turbulence model- sults were reported. Thus, finally another mechanism, the C8–C16
ing, in which the kinematic viscosity depends on the turbulent n-alkanes [36], was taken into computations. This mechanism is
kinetic energy k and the rate of this energy dissipation e. based on the mechanism for the primary reference fuels PRF and
Ignition in the KIVA-3V software is realized by delivering spe- was recommended by others [37]. Preliminary results obtained
cific amount of energy to a cell or block of cells. from the KIVA based model and the KIVA-Chemkin model, pre-
Heat transfer to cylinder walls was modeled using the heat sented here, do not remarkably differ from each other as far as
transfer sub-model based on the so-called turbulent wall law the basic combustion products (CO2, H2O) are considered. Finally,
(law-of-the-wall). authors came to conclusion, that the simpler model, that uses the
The computational algorithm was based on the Arbitrary KIVA mechanism only, can also satisfactory determine the NOx
Lagrangian–Eulerian Method (ALE), in which a mesh of fluid was formation due to its origin based on the thermal mechanism. How-
made up of arbitrary cuboids. The mesh moves with the fluid ever, several important radicals as e.g. H, OH, CHO playing crucial
(Lagrangian scheme) and is fixed in space (Eulerian scheme). This role in occurrence of abnormal combustion knock can be evaluated
method makes it possible to conduct calculations in two phases. only in the model extended with the mechanism taken from [36]
and solved with aid of the Chemkin software.
3.1. Chemical kinetic mechanisms for gasoline combustion
3.2. Modeling the cylinder and the pre-chamber mesh
There are several works done on improvement the combustion
mechanism implicitly implemented in the KIVA software. Among The mesh for fluid filling both the cylinder and the pre-chamber
others interesting approach was proposed by Kong and Reitz was generated in the KIVA-3V code in accordance with the test en-
[34]. They implemented the Chemkin II solver into the KIVA code. gine geometry as depicted in Fig. 2. The mesh consisted of 24,500
Thus, following their successful achievements, the similar ap- cells and 27,000 nodes. It included these two combustion cham-
proach was applied into this computational simulation of combus- bers: the pre-chamber in the engine head and the main chamber
tion. As mentioned, the default mechanism implemented in the in the engine cylinder. The total volume of those chambers is
KIVA code is based on the single global chemical reaction for gas- 237 cm3. The pre-chamber volume of 10.6 cm3 stands for approxi-
oline combustion [33]. mately 4.5% the minimal volume of the main cylinder combustion
4C8 H17 þ 49O2 ! 32O2 þ 34H2 O
This reaction is split into four sub-reactions that form a simple
combustion submodel. Additionally this combustion submodel is
enriched with the extended Zeldovich mechanism [7] for NO for-
mation. This is a relatively simple chemical kinetic mechanism,
which makes it difficult to model combustion of the two fuels: gas-
oline and LPG at various equivalence ratios in two different com-
bustion chambers, unless it was precisely calibrated. Hence, by
coupling the KIVA code with the Chemkin solver, made it possible
to model combustion of both gasoline and the LPG fuel simulta-
neously present in both the main in-cylinder combustion chamber
and the pre-chamber. The each cell in the mesh was treated as the
perfectly stirred reactor (PSR) for which the combustion mecha- Fig. 2. Geometric mesh of combustion chambers of the engine model corresponded
nism for alkanes was applied. At first, the detailed mechanism to piston location at the TDC; look from the top-shape of the cylinder head, channel
for iso-octane [35] was used, but several problems with diameter = 6 mm.
S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281 275
Fig. 3. Distribution of excess air ratio k over combustion chambers at ignition point while the overall k = 2.0 and in the pre-chamber kp = 1.1, channel diameter = 6 mm.
276 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
Fig. 7. Spatial temperature distribution in both combustion chambers during combustion progress at k = 2.0.
the cylinder to the pre-chamber was also intensified (Fig. 7c) due the pre-chamber dropped faster in this case when compared with
to the piston squeezing effect at compression stroke. Hence, the the channel of 9 mm. The faster temperature drop stands for lower
back flow generated a swirl in the pre-chamber with higher heat transfer to walls. As known from the diesel engine knowledge,
momentum. Thus, significantly higher amounts of lean mixture the pre-chamber is responsible for remarkably (up to 8% – [14])
in the pre-chamber were burnt at lower combustion rate, that high heat losses there. Thus, lower heat losses, then higher engine
caused the overall combustion process slower and incomplete. As overall efficiency. It should be also noticed, that the diameter of
depicted in Fig. 7 the fastest combustion history is presented in 6 mm was found as the best one, but it should not be treated as
case b (6 mm channel diameter). Furthermore, temperature inside the optimal one. The optimization function with respect to channel
S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281 277
diameter was not worked out. These three values 3, 6 and 9 mm the engine with the pre-chamber is significantly advanced with re-
proposed for the channel diameter were presented to show influ- spect to the HRR peak in the conventional engine. Additionally,
ence of the channel diameter on progress in combustion. Although, profile of the cumulative heat (Figs. 11 and 12b) also appears ear-
these diameters were taken arbitrarily without any optimization lier. Unfortunately, heat losses were not quantified. Furthermore,
works done before, but, as analyzed, the diameter of 6 mm was authors did not also break down the overall heat losses into pre-
found as close to its optimal size. chamber and main chamber contribution. Such studies were con-
Further analysis concerns heat release rate (HRR) and accumu- ducted by Rakopoulos and Giakoumis [14], however they worked
lative heat released during combustion process. Figs. 8 and 9 depict with a compression ignition engine. They found the contribution
heat release rate during combustion and cumulative heat released from a pre-chamber is approximately 8% of the total heat losses
against crank angle for the model with these three different diam- to walls although the total pre-chamber surface constituted 5% of
eters of the connecting channel at k = 1.4 and 2.0, respectively. the total surface of the combustion chambers.
Plots presented in Figs. 8 and 9 confirm that the most favorable
conditions for the fastest combustion were provided in the engine 4.2. Comparison between modeling results and results from
equipped with the channel diameter of 6 mm. In this case peak in experimental studies
the heat release rate was the highest among all these three cases
(Figs. 8 and 9a). That results in earlier end of combustion as de- As mentioned, there were several difficulties in the conven-
picted in graphs for cumulative heat (Figs. 8 and 9b). tional spark ignited engine during combustion tests with the air–
As evidenced by now, the numerical analysis provides justifica- gasoline mixtures at k of 1.4 and higher up to 2.0. The engine work
tion for implementing the pre-chamber into the spark ignited gas- was unsteady with lot of misfiring events. Thus, results presented
oline engine. The Fig. 10 shows temperature distribution in both here concern the engine equipped with the pre-chamber. The pri-
the conventional engine and the engine with the pre-chamber with mary target of these tests was to verify the numerical model. The
the channel diameter of 6 mm. Results were computed at k = 2.0, model evaluation was determined on the basis of comparison the
under which such the ultra-lean gasoline–air mixture is very diffi- combustion pressure traces from the test engine and from the
cult to be ignited and completely burnt in a conventional spark ig- model. Additionally, temperature courses from these both works
nited engine due to high instabilities in flames and requirements were also analyzed. As plotted in Fig. 13 these courses are in good
for extremely high energy to create ignition kernel and initiate consistency with each other and provide premises for applying 3-D
combustion. As far as the combustion model in KIVA does not con- modeling to analyze the two-stage combustion in the real engine.
tain any sub-models for flames instabilities, the combustion his- Difference between the results obtained from modeling and from
tory for the conventional engine (left column in Fig. 10) should testing the real engine can be used to validate the numerical
be treated as an ideal process with regard to flame propagation. model.
In case the pre-chamber is installed, then combustion starts inside
it at stoichiometric ratio. Thus, energy of spark discharge is high 4.3. Toxic emission
enough to initiate combustion there. Next, high energy in flames
thrown from the pre-chamber into the cylinder can easily ignite As discussed, combustion goes faster when the pre-chamber is
the lean mixture. Additionally, higher turbulence by flame jet applied, hence, following the thermal NOx mechanism by Zeldovich
accelerates combustion in the cylinder chamber. Thus, flame insta- [7] higher NOx emission is expected. However, the highest temper-
bilities associated with lean mixture combustion are less crucial ature was observed in the pre-chamber, in which the mixture was
and might be neglected in the engine equipped with the pre-cham- stoichiometric or even was slightly rich, thus, there were oxygen
ber. As seen in Fig. 10, the combustion process goes faster in the amounts not enough to form high NOx concentration there. Mix-
engine equipped with the pre-chamber, even though temperature ture in the cylinder chamber was highly lean, that resulted in lower
of the intake mixture at the ignition is lower due to lower compres- combustion temperature and lower rate of NOx formation. The ex-
sion ratio (the conventional engine CR = 9, the engine with the pre- haust NOx emission from the engine and from modeling is shown
chamber CR = 8.6). Computed both the HRR and the cumulative in Fig. 14. As seen, at k = 1.4 the NOx from the test engine without
heat released during combustion at k of 1.4 and 2.0 are plotted and with the pre-chamber is compared. Additionally, the modeled
in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively. As depicted in these figures the NOx is also included. As found, the NOx from the conventional en-
thesis on faster combustion process with aid of the pre-chamber gine was approximately 2.5 times higher than the NOx from the en-
can be confirmed. As seen in Figs. 11 and 12a, peak in the HRR in gine with the pre-chamber.
Fig. 8. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) during combustion vs crank angle at k = 1.4.
278 S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281
Fig. 9. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) during combustion vs crank angle at k = 2.0.
Fig. 10. Spatial temperature distribution in a conventional engine and in the engine with the pre-chamber (channel diameter of 6 mm) at overall k = 2.0.
Among the toxic compounds in the engine exhaust gases, only (CO) were not reduced, even they were slightly increased due to
the NOx emission was significantly reduced through applying the pre-chamber cooling effect. Moreover, small pre-chamber size
two-stage combustion system with the pre-chamber. Other toxic contributes to higher number of three-body reactions that lead to
emission as unburnt hydrocarbons (UHCs) and carbon monoxide terminate combustion in the pre-chamber. Summing up, as far as
S. Szwaja et al. / Applied Energy 105 (2013) 271–281 279
Fig. 11. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) during single and two stage combustion vs crank angle at k = 1.4 for the channel diameter of 6 mm.
Fig. 12. Heat release rate (a) and cumulative heat released (b) in the conventional engine and the engine with the pre-chamber vs crank angle at k = 2.0 for the channel
diameter of 6 mm.
Fig. 13. Pressure and temperature histories from the KIVA-3 V model and the test engine at k = 1.4 and 2.0 for the channel diameter of 6 mm.
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