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1. INTRODUCTION
Fluid flow measurement can encompass a wide variety of fluids and applications. To
meet this wide variety of applications the instrumentation industry has, over many years,
developed a wide variety of instruments. The earliest known uses for flow come as early as
the first recorded history. The ancient Sumerian cities of UR and Kish, near the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers (around 5000 B.C.) used water flow measurement to manage the flow of
water through the aqueducts feeding their cities. In this age the simple obstruction was placed
in the water flow, and by measuring the height of the water flowing over the top of the
obstruction, these early engineers could determine how much water was flowing. In 1450 the
Italian art architect Battista Alberti invented the first mechanical anemometer. It consisted of
a disk placed perpendicular to the wind, and the force of the wind caused it to rotate. The
angle of inclination of the disk would then indicate the wind velocity. This was the first
recorded instrument to measure wind speed. An English inventor, Robert Hooke reinvented
this device in 1709, along with the Mayan Indians around that same period of time. Today we
would look down our noses at these crude methods of flow measurement, but as you will see,
these crude methods are still in use today.
Fluid flow devices fall into a number of device categories as well as fluid classes. In
general, we can split the fluids into two classes; gasses and liquids. Within these two broad
classes are a number of special classes that one should be careful of. Flammable liquids and
gasses require special handling, as do those that are at temperature extremes (cold or hot).
When selecting a transducer, you should be cautious that the device you are selecting is
compatible with the fluid and conditions you hare working with. A few examples would be
acids, food grade liquids, and DI water. Surprisingly de-ionized water is an extremely harsh
liquid that can cause serious headaches
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for
restricting flow (in the latter two cases it is often called a ‹See Tfd› restriction plate). Either a
volumetric or mass flow rate may be determined, depending on the calculation associated
with the orifice plate. It uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's
principle which states that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the
velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.
2.1.1WORKING
The detail of the fluid movement inside the pipe and orifice plate has to be
understood.
The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the orifice plate’s
opening in its upstream. When the fluid comes out of the orifice plate’s opening, its
cross section is minimum and uniform for a particular distance and then the cross
section of the fluid starts diverging in the downstream.
At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the
pressure of the fluid (P1) is maximum. As the fluid starts converging, to enter the
orifice opening its pressure drops. When the fluid comes out of the orifice opening, its
pressure is minimum (p2) and this minimum pressure remains constant in the
minimum cross section area of fluid flow at the downstream.
This minimum cross sectional area of the fluid obtained at downstream from the
orifice edge is called VENA-CONTRACTA.
The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure
difference (P1 – P2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the
flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
2.1.2 APPLICATION
The concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has a
wide applicability as it has been standardized.
The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of fluids
containing suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and wet steam.
2.1.3 ADVANTAGES
2.1.4 DISADVANTAGES
The vena-contract length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the pipe and
sharpness of the orifice plate. In certain cases, it becomes difficult to tap the minimum
pressure (P2) due to the above factor.
Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss varies from 40% to 90%
of the differential pressure.
In the upstream straightening vanes are a must to obtain laminar flow conditions.
Gets clogged when the suspended fluids flow.
The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this after sometime, inaccuracy occurs.
Moreover, the orifice plate has low physical strength.
2.2VENTURIMETER
A venturimeter is a device used to measure the fluid flow through pipes. This flow
measurement device is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation. Inside the pipe,
pressure difference is created by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow passage. This
difference in pressure is measured with the help of manometer and helps in determining rate
of fluid flow or other discharge from the pipe line. As the main inlet area is more as
compared to throat, velocity of fluid at throat increases therefore pressure decreases. By this,
a pressure difference is created between the inlet and the throat of the venturimeter. Hence,
by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is created and
we measure that difference in pressure by using Bernoulli equation and discharge formula.
Venturi meter is very simple in construction. It has following parts which are arranged
in systematic order for proper operation these are inlet section called as converging cone,
cylindrical throat and gradually diverging cone.
It is the region where the cross section emerges into conical shape for the connectivity
with the throat region. The converging region is attached to the inlet pipe (flow upstream) and
its cross sectional area decreases from beginning to ending. One side it is attached with inlet
and its other side are attached with the cylindrical throat. The angle of convergence is
generally 20-22 degree and its length is 2.7(D-d). Here D is the diameter of inlet section and
d is the diameter of throat. Due to the decrease in the cross sectional area the fluid
accelerates and static pressure decreases. The maximum cone angle of the converging area is
limited to avoid the vena-contract so the flow area will be minimum at the throat.
It is middle part of the venturimeter and has lowest cross sectional area. The length is
equal to diameter of throat. Generally, the diameter of the throat is 1/4 to 3/4 of the diameter
of the inlet pipe, but mostly it is ½ of the diameter of the pipe. diameter. The diameter of the
throat remains same throughout its length.
Diverging section is the third part of this device. One side it is attached with outlet
pipe. The diameter of this section is gradually increases. The diverging section has an angle 5
to 15 degree. The diverging angle is less than the converging angle due to this length of the
diverging cone is larger than converging cone. The main reason of the small diverging angle
to avoid flow separation from the walls and prevents the formation of eddies because flow
separation and eddies formation will results in large amount of loss in energy. To avoid these
losses proper angle of converging and diverging should be maintained.
2.2.2 APPLICATIONS
2.2.3 ADVANTAGES:
2.2.4 DISADVANTAGES:
The major drawback of the venture meter is we cannot use it for small diameter size
pipe.
It is difficult in maintenance and inspections.
Initial cost is high.
2.3FLOW NOZZLE
2.3.1 WORKING
The flow is accelerated from the entrance of the nozzle till the end of the convergent
section. From Continuity of the flow-mass flow rate and the Rate of change of momentum of
the fIn a convergent Nozzle (subsonic flow/subsonic to supersonic flow)
The flow enters the inlet section (say from the end of a combustion chamber of the jet
aircraft/from the highly pressurized chamber of a wind tunnel/by sucking the flow using a fan
in the wind tunnel) with a low velocity and as the fluid flows along the length of the nozzle,
ACS’S DIET ASHTI. Page 8
FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENT 2018-19
the amount of mass flowing per second would be same. So in the converging area-section
more mass will enter per second than the entering area-section so as to maintain the
conservation of the mass flow, treating the flow of the fluid as a Continuum flow. This
accelerated flow is then used to flow over a body under consideration (test unit) inside the
wind tunnel test section kept under a constant area after the convergent section/this
accelerated flow can also be used as a jet stream coming out of the end of the nozzle of the jet
airplane to propel the airplane at supersonic velocity (suitable for M<1.5–2, considering the
cost and additional weight of C-D Nozzle, we prefer simply Convergent nozzle till our
purpose is solved).
Fig 2.5 Pressure variation along with the pipeline for flow nozzle
2.3.2APPLICATION
A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used to
direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas).
Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape,
and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them
2.3.3 ADVANTAGES
2.3.4 DISADVANTAGES.
2.4 ROTAMETER.
The rotameter is an industrial flowmeter used to measure the flow rate of liquids and
gases. The rotameter consists of a tube and float. The float response to flow rate changes is
linear, and a 10-to-1 flow range or turndown is standard. In the case of OMEGA™ laboratory
rotameters, far greater flexibility is possible through the use of correlation equations. The
rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a relatively long measurement range, and
low pressure drop. It is simple to install and maintain.
2.4.1 WORKING
The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a
float in a tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the
higher the float is raised. The height of the float is directly proportional to the flow rate. With
liquids, the float is raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity
head of the fluid. With gases, buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity
head alone. The float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid flowrate and the
annular area between the float and the tube wall. The float reaches a stable position in the
tube when the upward force exerted by the flowing fluid equals the downward gravitational
force exerted by the weight of the float. A change in flowrate upsets this balance of forces.
The float then moves up or down, changing the annular area until it again reaches a position
where the forces are in equilibrium. To satisfy the force equation, the rotameter float assumes
a distinct position for every constant flowrate. However, it is important to note that because
the float position is gravity dependent, rotameters must be vertically oriented and mounted.
2.4.2 APPLICATION
2.4.3 ADVANTAGES
2.4.4 DISADVANTAGES
A magnetic flow meter (mag meter, electromagnetic flow meter) is a transducer that
measures fluid flow by the voltage induced across the liquid by its flow through a magnetic
field. A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference
proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The physical principle at
work is electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid, for
example, water that contains ions, and an electrical insulating pipe surface, for example, a
rubber-lined steel tube.
2.5.1 WORKING
The purpose of a flow meter system is to live the movement, or rate of flow, of a given
volume of fluid Associate to specific it through an unambiguous electrical signal. a typical
flow meter consists of a series of coupled parts that transmits signals indicating the degree,
rate of flow, or volume of fluid moving through a particular channel, and it ideally functions
with bottom interference from environmental conditions. A magnetic flow meter may be a
comparatively noninvasive measuring system that's well-suited for rate of flow analysis as a
result of its varying of functions.
A magnetic or electromagnetic force flowmeter are often put in relatively easy fashion
to that degree as an existing pipe network are often reborn into a measuring system by
applying external electrodes and magnets. These flow meters will track forward and reverse
flow and are minimally laid low with flow disturbances associated with consistency or
density. They’re linear devices which will be label to live a spread of various variables
whereas additionally reacting to changes in fluid movement. Progress in flowmeter
technology has targeted on manufacturing devices that are smaller, less costly, and capable of
constructing additional refined measurements.
2.5.2 ADVANTAGES
2.5.3 DISADVANTAGES
Turbine flow meters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow.[4]
Turbine meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at low flow rates, but the
measuring element does not occupy or severely restrict the entire path of flow. The flow
direction is generally straight through the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less
pressure loss than displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large
commercial users, fire protection, and as master meters for the water distribution system.
Strainers are generally required to be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring
element from gravel or other debris that could enter the water distribution system. Turbine
meters are generally available for 4 to 30 cm (1 1⁄2–12 in) or higher pipe sizes. Turbine meter
bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast Iron, or ductile iron. Internal turbine elements can
be plastic or non-corrosive metal alloys. They are accurate in normal working conditions but
are greatly affected by the flow profile and fluid conditions.
2.6.2 APPLICATION
Turbine flow meters find use in monitoring of clean liquid flows in chemical,
petroleum and water industries.
The custody transfer of hydrocarbons is one of the petroleum applications of turbine
flow meters.
In the water industry, turbine flow meters are used in distribution systems between
and within water districts.
Turbine flow meters are also employed in the food and beverage industries.
2.6.3 ADVANTAGES
2.6.4 DISADVANTAGES
3. REFERENCE
2. Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, Volume 66, April 2019, Pages 50-59 Xining
Zhang, Zhou Xiang, XinRui Xia, Haixing Zhang
4. W. Zhao, H. Zhou and S. Zhang, "Gas flow measurement with wide range using multi-
thermistors," 2016 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology
Conference_Proceedings,Taipei2016,pp.1-6.
doi: 10.1109/I2MTC.2016.7520529