Professional Documents
Culture Documents
for
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
Conservation & (1) Sh. Ram Asre, APPA (IPM), HQ, Faridabad
2. Augmentation of Bio-
(2) Dr. C. S. Patni, PPO (PP), CIPMC, Faridabad
control agents
7. Design & Layout (1) Sh. Arunabha Chakraborty, PPO (E), HQ, Faridabad
Contents
Foreword
Preface
List of Contributors
Sl. No. CHAPTER PAGE NO.
1. HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT 1-41
i. Standardization of FFS Curriculum 01
ii. Orientation Training Programme 08
iii. Season Long Training Programme 09
2. CONSERVATION & AUGMENTATION OF BIO-CONTROL AGENTS 42-68
i. Introduction 42
ii. Programmes to be implemented 42
iii. Tools for conservation & augmentation of bio-control agents 42
iv. Items required for conservation & augmentation kit 42
v. Some pests and their common natural Enemies 43
vi. Ways and Means of Conservation of Natural Enemies 44
vii. Conserve & Augment following Bio-agents 45
viii. List of Bio-control agents of different crops 46
ix. Natural enemies of crop pests in India 57
x. Ecological Engineering 48
xi. Recognize natural enemies 50
xii. Cultural practices that affect natural enemies 52
xiii. Identify the natural enemies 52
xiv. Augmentation of Natural enemies 60
xv. Recommended dose of bio-control agents 61
xvi. Biological agents used against different crop insect pests 64
3. PESTS SURVEILLANCE & MONITORING 69-83
i. Surveillance 69
ii. Agencies to be involved for surveillance 69
iii. Aims & objectives of surveillance 69
iv. Why to conduct pest surveillance 70
v. Outcome of the surveillance action 70
vi. Types of survey 71
vii. Electronic-pest surveillance through hand held device 71
viii. Pest surveillance and advisory system in india 72
ix. Sampling 72
x. Items required for survey & surveillance in the kit 73
xi. Sampling methods 74
xii. Disease assessment 75
xiii. Sampling for nematodes 76
xiv. Rodents survey 75
xv. Estimation of weeds 77
xvi. Identification of diseases, pests, weeds, natural enemies in different
crops
4. WEED ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT 84-97
i. Introduction 84
ii. Classification of Weeds 84
iii. Weed Ecology 90
iv. Survival Mechanisms of Weeds 91
v. Weed competition 92
vi. Principles of Weed Management 93
vii. Integrated Weed Management (IWM) 93
5. LABORATORY MANUAL 98-131
i. Mass Production of Trichogramma sp. and Trichogrammatoidea sp. 98
ii. Mass production of Bracon hebetor 103
iii. Mass production of Goniozus nephantidis 104
iv. Mass production of Chelonus blackburni 104
v. Mass production of Trichoderma viridae 105
vi. Mass production of Beauveria bassiana 107
vii. Production of the nuclear polyhedrosis virus of Helicoverpa armigera 109
viii. Mass production of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant 111
ix. Mass production of Chilocorus nigrita (Fabricious) 114
x. Mass production of Scymnus coccivora Ayyar 117
xi. Mass production of Anthocorid bugs 120
xii. Mass production of Reduviid predators 122
xiii. Mass production of Chrysopid predetor 126
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
2
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
The time to start FFS session The farmers should be committed and devoted
The duration of FFS sessions to the work
Norms/regulations/rules for FFS Attendance will be maintained in every session
Grouping of participants If any farmer remains absent for more than 25%
Assign the name to each group of the FFS session, he should not be given
Allow the participants to select the leader for certificate.
their group No substitute should be allowed.
Finalize the responsibilities of group leaders
Facilitators:
Base line survey: Should have good experience in hand to
The base line survey should be conducted in conducting FFS
FFS and Non FFS villages. All the 30 farmers and Should be punctual
10 non FFS farmers from the neighboring village Should give due respect to the ideas of the
should be interviewed. The survey should be participants
completed immediately after the selection of FFS Should be committed and devoted to the work
village and farmers and prior to conducting He can use inputs of the group
planning meeting.
Training methodologies:
Grouping of farmers: Season long
At the beginning of the FFS, the trainees will be Fully field oriented
grouped into five small groups and the grouping Learning material is field and it is mainly based
will be maintained till the end of FFS. Each group on learning group
will be named by the beneficial insects after Teaching science to farmers
discussion with the participants. FFS should have minimum lecture and
maximum interaction
FFS gathering place:
The basis for training approach is Non- formal
The FFS will have a gathering place, close to
Training curriculum is based on local needs
the FFS field, where the farmers will be able to
assemble, make drawing of their field observations, FFS is characterized by free and open
discuss and make presentations communication
Close to the training field Working in small groups.
Accessible to road
Objectives and quality indicators:
Provision for protection from sun and rain
Grow healthy crop
Sufficient arrangement to accommodate to all
Conserve natural enemies
participants
Select the site in concurrence with farmer Observe field weekly
participants. Protect environment
Make farmers expert in their own fields
FFS Duration:
The FFS should last for entire crop season.
There will be a 14sessions during the period
excluding FFS and field day.
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Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
6
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
7
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
room facilities may also be used for panel The curriculum should be based on the
discussion and to have discussion with experts. principles of IPM while drafting the training
Normally it should be carried out during afternoon curriculum before the commencement of the
hours. Rooms should have minimum of 45 chairs, training based on the principles of IPM.
writing and display boards, slide projector, OHP
and other training materials like drawing paper, Principles of IPM:
sketch pens, cello tape, markers etc. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for sustainable
agriculture seeks to improve farmer practices in
Transport: order to create higher profits while improving
At least two mini buses and one Jeep are environment quality and community health. In
required for the participants and resource persons order to do this IPM implementation is based on
are needed to meet the transport requirements. The four practical principles:
transport is required to visit FFS villages, study Grow a healthy crop
tours, field visits and to provide transport to floating Conserve natural enemies
resource persons. Regular vehicle with drivers may Observe field regularly.
be drawn from Central IPM centers and from Farmers become experts
Department of Agriculture (Host state) These principles describe the main actions of
IPM implementation. Specific processes that take
Training site: into consideration the variation of each field and
Training site should have at least five acres farm family backup each principle, so that decision
with different stages of crop growth. making process will be done on a field-by-field,
season-by-season basis. Each principle is described
FFS villages: below:
Since participants are divided into five groups, Grow a Healthy Crop means using varieties
five nearby villages should be selected for resistant to major pests and diseases but well
conducting practice FFS sessions.30 farmers from adapted to the local environment. The principle also
each village are to be identified. They will assemble includes using proper fertilizers (chemical and
on a specific day during morning hours to conduct organic), irrigation, and soil management which are
FFS sessions. Field day is conducted during last critical for a healthy plant. A healthy crop can resist
day of the session.FFS farmers are subsequently diseases and compensate for damage caused by
encouraged to form IPM clubs to promote IPM. diseases and insects so that plant injury does not
always lead to yield-losses. A robust healthy crop is
Recreation room: the first step in IPM methods, and foundation for an
Since training site is normally away from town optimal yield.
participants and resource persons need recreation
after training hours. A separate room may be
provided to play indoor games and to make
newspaper/magazines available with TV facilities.
The resource persons and facilitating group
members can meet and plant for the next day
activities.
Medical facilities:
First aid boxes should be made available to the
training site. Essential common medicines for cold Conserve Natural Enemies. In all agricultural
fever, dysentery, diarrhea, headache, body pain may ecosystems, there are predators (e.g. insects,
be stored in office room may be given to spiders, frogs, etc.), parasites and diseases which
participants as and when need arises. attack eggs, larvae, nymphs, pupae, and adult stages
of insect pests. These "natural enemies" occur
Support for SAU/ICAR/ARS: naturally in all fields, orchards and vegetable fields.
It is better to select training site from They biologically control most insect pests most of
ARS/SAU/ICAR institutes. This will have facilities the time. Learning to recognize and manage these
for accommodation, experimental fields also natural enemies is one major focus of IPM training
scientists for panel discussion. so that they are not destroyed by unnecessary
applications of herbicides, insecticides and
SLTP field guide:
11
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
fungicides but are allowed to work for the farmer's new technologies and limited resources. More
benefit. emphasis in all agriculture programs must be placed
on the ability of farmers to make better decisions,
Conserve natural enemies: increase their own efficiency, and become better
Observe Fields regularly is necessary to assess managers. The future of food production and food
crop development, diseases, weeds, rats, and Insect security will depend on how well farmers can
pest populations. In most cases, an experienced innovate and manage systems. IPM is implemented
IPM farmer does this observation during a short by farmers and thus requires an emphasis on
time (usually less than a few minutes per field) farmers' skills and knowledge.
while carrying out other crop maintenance activities
(irrigation, etc.). Observations should determine
how the crop is growing and if there are pests or
usually present and sufficient to keep pests at low
numbers. Weather conditions, soil nitrogen levels,
and degree of host plant resistance will determine if
diseases will subside or become more serious. In
the case of rats, community level dynamics
determine rat infestations and control programs.
IPM Farmers must be knowledgeable of these
factors to properly and economically manage crops.
In some cases natural enemies, plant resistance and
plant compensation cannot prevent yield-losses due
to weeds, rats, insects, or diseases. Proper Basic Concepts and Assumptions:
assessments must be made to effectively and IPM is not a "packaged technology" that is
profitably manage the use of inputs such as labor, "adopted" by farmers. IPM is a process of
quality seed, resistant varieties, fertilizers, drainage decision making and farming which is
systems, community organizing and pesticides in gradually improved with greater ecological
order to ensure profitable production. Observation knowledge, and observation skills.
skills and decision making are key to becoming an IPM skills and concepts are best learned,
expert IPM farmer and require field level practice practiced, and debated in the field. The field is
for most farmers and extension staff. the best teacher. Stay away from energy
intensive multi-media lecture halls.
Season-long training courses allow all plant,
insect, disease, and weed development
processes and management to be observed and
validated over time. IPM training must be
carried out over all crop stages.
Farmers must be allowed to actively participate
and share their experiences during training to
achieve maximum interest and effectiveness.
Local or indigenous knowledge of the
environment, varieties, pests, etc. must play a
major role during decision making.
Farmers Become Experts is necessary for a Trainers must not lecture, but should facilitate a
modern agriculture in which farmers are process of learning. Trainers do not convince
responsible for farm level management. Future farmers, but rather provide structured
gains in yields, profits, and sustainability will be the experiences so farmers can test IPM methods
result of farmers making better use of available and and convince themselves about which are
useful and which are not.
The content of IPM training programs for
extension staff and farmers are not limited to
the traditional "plant protection methods" (e.g.
mechanical, biological, cultural, mechanical,
and ETLs) but also includes the following:
12
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
13
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
different stages of the crop like seedling, vegetative, Non formal education:
flowering, pod formation and grain maturity stages. NFE is an activity or force which works to
Participants should collect plants from each stage achieve common goal of the group. Each group has
and study plant characteristics viz plant height, a leader and takes a collective decision. Once
number of branches, leaves, flowers and fruits, collective decision is made, then execution is the
influence of a biotic and biotic factor on plants. responsibility of all members of the group. The
Plant compensation ability, management practices leader must accord due recognition to all members
to overcome adverse a biotic and biotic factors. in achieving the group’s goal. He should not take
Before commencement of the training arrangement credit for himself. It is a team building exercise
should be made In the training site to have different from which group members learn how to work
stages of crop growth so that the participants can together and contribute for the success of the group.
study all stages of the crop within the training It creates healthy competition between the groups
period. and motivates for high involvement. The group
dynamics should provide enjoyment to the
Agro ecosystem analysis: participants by breaking the monotony and to come
It is a field exercises mainly used as a tool to out with desired results. The example of group
educate the participants/farmers to analyze the field dynamics are water brigade, tower building
situation and make a decision about actions message relay nine dot game, no lifting of pen etc.
required in the field. It is a group exercise having
set of rules and is carried out under the guidance of Farmers Field School Activities (FFS practice
resource persons.. It consists of four stages. Field session):
observation, analysis of observation data, drawing SLTP has in build provision to conduct FFS
and presentation. Participants/farmers groups have simultaneously. This provides opportunity to
to carry out AESA every prescribed day in a week participants to understand field based learning
and in their drawing charts should make experiences involving the farmers, the need to
recommendations for implementation during the transfer IPM skills immediately to the farmer and to
week. It is a vital exercise to make conduct FFS after SLTP
participants/farmers experts in the field on decision During SLTP five participants groups are
making process. conducting FFS on the crop selected for IPM
training. Hence organizer should select a training
Special topics: time when SLTP site and FFS villages have the
To deal the topics such as water, weed nutrient crop selected for the training. Normally whatever
management, management of soil and disease participants learnt in SLTP during the week period
management. Special topics should focus on major in on the basis for preparation of lesson plan for
pest, symptoms of their damage, management conducting FFS in the week or participants can
practices, insect ecology; pesticide poisoning, make file visits to FFS village one or two days in
adverse effects of pesticides etc may be discussed. advance, observe crop condition and prepare lesson
The topics are also given. Plan for FFSs A model FFS curriculum is
developed and enclosed. Each group visits the
Participatory Action Research: village on a particular day in a week, meets 30
This exercise involves participants in studying selected farmers and conduct FFS session. A set of
field problems and finding solutions to them. It is activities to be carried out during FFS sessions are
primary learning strategy for empowering also given. FFS farmers should undergo pre and
participants and only secondary as producing post evaluation tests. The main aim is to introduce
results. It is mainly used as collective investigation IPM concepts and principles. FFS farmers should
to initiate community actions on solving local be encouraged to form IPM clubs to continue IPM
problems. It is normally a season long exercise with activities.
weekly observation and decision making. The
models for PAR are also given. Varietal impact, Course evaluation:
IPM vs. Non-IPM, simulation studies, water SLTP needs periodic evaluation to assess the
management and Nutrient management etc. PAR training impact. Evaluation activities strengthen
encourages participants/farmers to play a central training design and increase feeling of ownership.
role to find solutions to their field problems. Pre and post evaluation are carried out through
ballot box test methods. Mid –term evaluation is
carried out by written test in the middle of the
training programme. Daily evaluation is done by
15
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
16
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
Each morning, the teams will spend time in pre-test should be field based to test recognition
their Field Studies to take care of the field of insect pests, diseases, weeds, natural
(irrigation, weeding, fertilization, pest management, enemies, damage, etc. as well as problem
etc.), and collect data for the Field Study solving. A written pre-test could also be given
implementation. to test basic knowledge on life cycles,
No. Day Activities pesticides, health and environmental issues.
1 Monday Crop physiology The pre-test should be repeated at the end of the
Agronomy course to help evaluate the effectiveness of the
2 Tuesday Agro ecosystem analysis field training.
observation, presentation and
discussion, Non formal
education Resource Persons:
3 Wednesday Participatory action research, Resource persons are non-resident trainers and
Special topics, Non formal other experts that can provide practical inputs
education to the SLTP. Typically, researchers, university
4 Thursday Insect pests, natural enemies, professors, international visitors, NGOs, and
panel discussion others can provide some refreshing input to the
5 Friday Farmers field school and season-long training. However, it is important
feedback from FFS to provide some tips to these resource persons
6 Saturday Field visit and review of Go to the field together for field walks where
weeks activities questions and answers can take place.
Leave slides and lectures until after field
Study fields: interactions.
• Study Fields with a total area of about 5 Ac for Request the resource person to be as
40 trainees will be needed for field work during "participatory" as possible.
the training. The fields should be close Be sure that the resource person gives an
(walking distance) to the training site. address and other contact information for future
• Pre-SLTP Preparations reference by trainees.
• There are numerous pre-TOT preparations that
must be done 2 to 3 weeks prior to the course Farmers' Field Schools (FFS) (Practice FFS
initiation. Usually this will require one or more sessions):
SLTP trainers to be on site before the training The SLTP is designed to prepare participants to
begins. become trainers in FFS is to be organized during
• Field Preparation should be done beginning 2-3 the SLTP course, 5 FFS should be organized in
weeks before the beginning of the SLTP. If the communities nearby the SLTP site. Villages and
trainees are too learn how to prepare land, and farmer groups will need to be identified before the
then set aside a small area for experience. start of the training. The fields used in the training
However, to save time the fields should be (about 1000 m2) should be of same crop age around
ready for layout of field studies and planting the same time as the training will start.
before the SLTP begins. One team of participants is responsible for
• Materials for training should be listed and conducting one FFS. A FFS usually consists of
bought before training. Seed, fertilizer, about 25 farmers, which will also work in groups of
manures, field signs and labels, etc. should be 4-6 persons during the FFS. The FFS will run in the
ready on the first day of training. Other training morning once in a week. The trainers will be able to
materials such as paper, markers, name tags, use experiences gained and exercises carried out
hats, shirts, etc. should also be purchased during the previous week with a farmers’ group.
beforehand. The programme for the FFS will be planned every
• Logistics such as transportation, sleeping week together with the trainers. Ecosystem analysis
arrangements, meals, bathing, clothes washing, will be done every week by the farmers. Special
telephone/mail service, newspapers, recreation topics will be carried out as well every session.
(football, badminton, TV, video), religious Snacks should be served.
services, etc. should be considered before
trainees arrive. At the end of a FFS, a "Field Day" will be
• A pre-test (field based ballot box style, and/or organized to present the results of the FFS, other
written exam) should be prepared to test farmers, agricultural staff, and local government
trainees during the first days of the SLTP. The officials in the community.
18
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
appropriate
Describe the toxicity of commonly used Cont….
pesticides (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides,
rodenticides, and molluscicides) and methods to
avoid exposure to pesticides.
Describe the effect of pesticides (herbicides,
fungicides, insecticides, rodenticides, and
molluscicides) on target pests, natural enemies,
non-target pests, the environment and health of
farmers and consumers.
Describe the level of potential yield-loss given
a particular field condition and compare with
• Carry out simple field studies – to identify and
the cost of controlling yield-loss factors count pests and beneficial insects (Defenders) 18
(decision making).
Describe the potential development of pests in
the field given the field conditions (plant Insect Zoo studies:
Contd…
development and stage, weather pattern, plant
resistance, water levels, pests, natural enemies,
etc.) and compare to potential management
activity costs (irrigation, fertilization, pest
control practices) that could be undertaken to
improve yields and reduce impact of yield-loss
components (decision making)
Non-Formal education:
Contd…
19
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
3. Cages may or may not be used. In the case that Note that collections are only a process in which to
cages are not used, the actual level of damage learn functions, structures and names of diseases.
should be computed for final analysis. Labels are written in the lower right hand corner of
4. Sampling: Weekly sample the tiller number, % the page on which the plant is mounted.
dead hearts and % whiteheads. Note any other All specimens should be correctly labeled with
insect, disease or rate damage. At the end of the the following information where appropriate:
season, measure the yield of the 1 m2 block in each
replication. Common Name (in local language)
Name of collector
Results: Date collected, Place collected
1. Compute the actual damage for each replication Ecological function
and treatment if there was any natural infestation. Latin name with genus, species, and order.
2. Plot the yields for each treatment. Thick paper with writing in black ink should be
used for dry labels. Thick paper and writing in
Discussion: pencil should be used for specimens in alcohol.
What was the effect of the simulated damage on
yield? Was any plant compensation evident? What Insect Collection:
would happen if the nitrogen level was higher?
What does this mean for usual farmer practice? Do
sprays for defoliation reduce yield loss, or increase
the chance for BPH resurgence?
Introduction:
Insects and spiders can be collected many ways.
The best way is to sit in a field and watch the
insects and spiders to observe their activity and
behavior. Keep a record of what specimens are
doing in the field. Collecting can be done by hand,
with a sweep net, or with an aspirator. Kill insects
Introduction: by placing the specimens in a bag with a small
Diseases can be collected by collecting the amount of alcohol or by placing the bag into a
plant parts which show signs of the disease. For freezer for an hour. Insects, especially parasites and
example, for bacterial leaf blight (BLB), infected adult moths, can also be collected by collecting
leaves of different stages of infection should be larvae or eggs in the field and rearing the insects
collected. When collecting the plant parts, collect until adult parasites or other insects emerge.
the whole tiller and keep the base of the tiller moist. Insects and spiders that are collected can be
After returning to your room, place on the infected divided into two groups. First are hard-bodied
parts between sheets of newspaper. Place heavy insects which are usually adults. Second are soft-
objects such as books or mattress on top of the bodied insects, which are usually immature nymphs
papers so that the plant parts are flat when dry. and larvae, and soft-bodied spiders. Hard-bodied
The dried plant parts should then be glued onto a insects should be placed on pins and soft-bodied
heavy large piece of white paper. If it is difficult to insects and spiders should be placed in 70%
glue the plant part to the paper, use strips of white alcohol.
paper like tape to keep the plant on the paper. All specimens should be correctly labeled with
After mounting, keep all sheets of papers flat the following information where appropriate:
and out of the sunlight. The collection can be kept
in a large plastic bag to keep insects and mites out First label
of the collection. Treat the collection with pesticide Common Name (in local language)
if necessary. Occasional drying of the collection Host (plant or insect)
will reduce pest damage.
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Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
Ecological function (plant feeder, predator, parasite, compensation is important for reducing the effects
detritus feeder, etc.) of injurious organisms.
Second label
Name of collector Tillering Ability in Vegetative Phase
Date collected, Place collected Introduction:
Latin name with genus, species, and order. During the vegetative phase, the plant is
growing very rapidly. The initial two or three small
You should use thick paper with writing in plants transplanted were simple plants consisting on
black ink for labels on pins. Thick paper and one stem, a couple of leaves and a few roots. As the
writing in pencil should be used for specimens in plant grows during the vegetative phase several
alcohol. changes are taking place. On modern high tillering
Mounting large insects on pins should be done varieties, two of these changes have important
on pins on the right side of the thorax when the implications for pest management: tillering ability
head is pointing away from you. and leaf growth.
For small insects, the insect can be glued on a Tillering ability is an important characteristic of
triangular piece of paper using most any glue (see the modern varieties. Traditional varieties generally
below). Clear nail polish is commonly used as glue have few tillers and each tiller is very tall. Much
for this kind of mounting. nutrient is used for a few tillers in traditional
Keep the collection in a safe place away from varieties. Modern varieties use the same nutrients
ants and other insects. Dry the insects well using a for shorter plants that have more tillers and more
desk lamp. Treat with insecticide if the collection is potential for producing panicles. The ability of
being damaged. Keeping moth balls modern varieties to produce more tillers is related
(paradichlorobenzene) in the collection will reduce to their ability to use more nitrogen. In traditional
insect damage. varieties, more nitrogen result in taller plant that are
Note that collections are only a process in likely to lodge (fall over) at maturity. Modern
which to learn functions, structures and names of varieties increase the number of tillers with
insects. The final product is nice to look at, and increasing nitrogen.
usually very impressive, but the goal of the Each new tiller a really a complete plant. New
collection is the actual collecting process. tillers produce a stem, leaves, roots, and other new
Collecting and mounting are good ways to get to tillers. Tillers can be given names depending on
know the insect and spider communities in your where they emerge. The main tiller is the stem of
area, and to understand the ecological relationships the transplanted seedling. The primary tillers
between organisms in an ecosystem emerge from the main tiller. Secondary tillers
emerge from the primary tillers, and tertiary tillers
Crop Physiology- (Rice crop - A Model) emerge from the secondary tillers. The main tiller
Anatomy and function are closely related. A and the primary give most of the yield for the hill,
nose has holes (anatomy) so that air can enter the especially on short maturing varieties. Secondary
body (function). A plant's anatomy is important to tillers also have good yield but are partly green at
study to understand the function. The vessels in the harvest. Many tertiary tillers may not produce a
leaf (anatomy) are important for transport of water, panicle if nutrients, sunlight, and water are not
nutrients and systemic pesticides (functions). available.
Each week during the crop growth, you will New tillers are produced from seedbed to about
collect, observe and draw plants. Use the primordial stage. If the tillers from one plant in the
microscopes or magnifying glasses for better hill are damaged early in the vegetative phase, more
observations. The micro view of the leaf surface is tillers will be produced by the other plants in the
fascinating as are all other parts of the plant. hill ("compensation"). Early stem borer damage
Drawing is a tool to assist in observation, does not seem to effect yield because the tillers are
remembering and for recording what you have seen. easily replaced.
Try to spend time to make detailed and well labeled The leaves on the tillers are also growing from
drawings. seedbed to primordial stage. The leaves will emerge
You will find that a deep understanding of the and later die. As the bottom leaves are dying, new
plant is the first step in understanding the effects of leaves are emerging from the top. The process
disease and insects on the rice plant. You will also allows the plant to renew leaves that are damaged
find out why not all injury caused by diseases, by the wind, insects, or disease. The new leaves are
insects and rats results in yield losses. Plant also able to grow larger because of the larger supply
of energy from the plant as the plant grows bigger.
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Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
The growth of the new tillers and leaves is 5. What is happening with the leaves on the
determined by plant spacing, water, sunlight, and different tillers? Are there dead leaves and newly
nutrients (fertilizers) available to the plant. emerging leaves? Way is this important?
2. To explain how systemic insecticides control moving around like insects or rats. We must learn
insects sucking or chewing on plant vessels new ways of thinking about these organisms in
Time required = 120 minutes (Whole time not order to have long-term control. There will be four
used. Best to run activity while doing other activities for discussing diseases. The topics will
activity.) cover management methods, observation methods,
epidemiology (the spread of disease), and causal
Material: organisms.
Water, red ink or food coloring, 2 cups per group, The most important first step in thinking about
plants and 2 straws diseases is to realize that diseases must be managed
not controlled. What is the difference? Management
Procedure for one group: means a complete set of activities that support each
1. Go outside and find many kinds of plants other. Management means that these activities are
including rice seedling, grasses and other plants. carefully planned and are implemented over several
2. Add water to the 2 cups and place several drops seasons, not controlled within a single season.
of the red food coloring. The water should be dark Management included control methods for
red. prevention, and control methods to slow down
3. Place the plants in the cups with the stems in the epidemics; diseases will never be completely
cups. Also place the straws in the cups. One straw eradicated - only populations reduced to very low
should be flattened first. Place the plants in a bright levels. Management usually needs the cooperation
place. of several farmers working together to reduce
4. Wait 90 minutes and observe the plants. What overall disease in an area. Management requires
has happened to the color of the leaves? How has someone who can observe larger areas of disease
the red coloring moved in the plants? incidence and levels of infection.
5. What do you think happens with rice in the rice For an example, management of tungro in rice
field when systemic insecticides are used? Where is would be impossible without observing the larger
the insecticide in the plant? What kind of insects picture of disease infection levels. The management
suck on the fluid in the plant vessels? What kind of system requires distribution of new varieties,
insects chew on the plant vessels? What about careful monitoring of GLH, monitoring of disease
insects that feed on the leaf edge? Do they also feed incidence, planting time coordination, and
on the main vessels? sometimes a break in planting rice. These are
7. What happens after the solution reaches the tip of activities that are done by individual farmers, but
the leaf? Have you noticed the water on the leaf tips managed so that the activities are carried out
in the evening and morning? Where does this water together. Think about the management needed to
come from and what does the solution contain? control other diseases such as polio, malaria, and
How might the solution effect natural enemies in small pox!
the field? How about farmers walking in the early What are management activities? Below is a
morning field? summary of activities.
25
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
However, if both left to grow in the field it can There are a few differences between rats and insects
result to reduce yields. that make implementation of management different.
Objectives: First is the ability of rats to stay in one area even
1. Classify weeds according to economic though there is no crop. This means that we can use
significance. damaged caused in one season to initiate controls in
2. Identify factors that contribute to severe the next season. The other difference is the methods
occurrence of weeds in the field. of control. Rat control must be organized over a
3. Develop management strategies for weeds. wide area to be very effective. Rat drives, baiting,
digging, and any other method of control is most
Time requirements: 90 minutes effective when done as a community.
Rat Population Growth
Materials required: marker pen, crayon, pen, and
notebook
Procedure:
1. Each group should assess weed population in
different areas in the rice fields.
2. Each group should collect as many different
species of weeds from the rice field.
3. Each group should classify weeds collected
according to their gross morphology, qualifying
characteristics (i.e. perennial or annual) and
distribution. Introduction
4. Process data. Rat populations increase very rapidly because
5. Distribute discussion question to each group. rats have many offspring very often. Rats can live
6. Present and discuss answer with the big group. for one year or longer. Females may reproduce up
to 4 times a year and have an average of 6 offspring
in a litter. This exercise is designed to visualize
simple population growth for one year.
Objective
1. Able to show rat population growth over several
months using nails, seeds or other items.
2. Able to ask leading questions about rat
populations to bring out two management points;
(1) It doesn't matter how many rats were killed, it
only matters how many rats remain in the field, and
(2) continuous rat control is important to keep
Cyprus populations low.
Discussions questions
1. Among weeds collected, which weeds are Time required = 120 minutes
difficult to control? Why?
2. Based on your experiences, on what stage of the Materials (per group)
rice crop is critical to weed competition? 2500 Bengal gram seeds, glue and paper, pencil and
3. What are weed management practices can you pen
recommend for direct seeded rice? For
transplanted? Procedure
4. What are your general recommendations to 1. This can be done using nails on wood or seed on
manage weeds? paper on the piece of large paper.
5. How will you justify that weeds are also useful to 2. In the first section place 2 seeds. One nail
farmers? represents one female rat, and the other represents a
Rats male rat.
Rats are one of the most consistent and serious 3. Move to the first month. Add 6 seeds for 6
pests of rice. The main problem of rat control is that offspring from the original pair of rats. 3 rats are
rats must be controlled by community action, and females and 3 rats are male.
organizing communities is not an easy task. 4. Move to the fourth month. Add 6 seed for 6
offspring from the original female, then add 18
27
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
28
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
For other insects and spiders, collecting young Demonstrate predation of hunting spiders
hopper (BPH) nymphs, adult moths or spiders is the (number consumed per day) using hoppers for
best way to begin rearing these groups. However, food
for nymphs and for adult moths, you must have Demonstrate web-making of web-making
prepared plants ahead of time. For spiders, it is best spiders
to have lots of insect prey in a rearing cage before Demonstrate moth predation by web-making
beginning to rear. spiders
For parasites that are not collected from hosts, Demonstrate larval and adult ladybeetle
it is sometimes possible to put "sponge plants" in predation (number consumed per day) of hoppers
the field. This means that from reared insects you
have plants in pots with egg masses or larvae.
These plants with the host are placed in the field for
up to four days to attract the parasites. The parasites
will lay their eggs in or on the host. The "sponge" is
then brought back to the pot area and kept in a cage.
Objective
Rear the following insects and spiders for the life
stages shown to understand the functional role.
Hoppers: adult to adult
Stem borer: adult moth to first instar
Leaf folder: adult moth to first instars
Rice bug: keep nymphs and adults for one week
Various larvae: larva to adult
Hunting spiders: keep for one week
Web-making spiders: keep until makes web
Ladybeetle larvae and adults: keep for one
week
Other predators: keep for one week
Stem borer egg mass parasites: keep egg Demonstration of predator-prey relationship
masses until adult parasite emerges Parasites emerging from especially Apantles
Leaf folder larval parasites: keep larva until parasite pupae
adult parasite emerges
Other caterpillar parasites: keep larvae or
parasite pupae (especially Apanteles) until adult
parasite emerges
Demonstrate the following processes using the
insects and spiders in your Insect Zoo. These
are the most important processes in the rice
ecosystem which effect the crop and pest
dynamics.
Demonstrate hopper feeding on the plant
Demonstrate hopper development from nymph
to adult
Demonstrate eggs in the stem of the plant
Demonstrate hopper mating
Demonstrate egg laying and egg masses of
collected adult stem borer moths
Demonstrate emergence of first instars stem
borers Demonstration of leaf folder egg parasites
Demonstrate eggs and larvae of leaf folders
Demonstrate rice bug feeding on the panicle Time Requirements for Insect zoo
Demonstrate adults of field collected larvae Each week at least two hours is needed special for
the Insect Zoo.
Materials
29
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
Plants, cages, small plastic bottles, plastic bags instars. If the plant becomes brown, move the
Procedures for Rearing nymphs to new green and healthy plants.
There are many ways of rearing insects and spiders. Alternative method is to place hoppers in cages on
Below are some general methods and some specific plants in the field. Be sure all natural enemies have
tips for specific insects: been removed first.
General Rearing Methods
1. Bottles and Plastic Bags are very useful rearing
tools. Always carry a couple in your pocket or bag.
If egg masses, larvae or nymphs are found in the
field, collect and place in the bottle or plastic bags.
The bottle should have a piece of netting over the
mouth of the bottle. Add plant material daily for
herbivores. Transfer to larger cages if necessary.
Try to collect older larvae that will quickly pupate. BPH eggs BPH
Parasites will also emerge from egg masses, larvae 2. Stem borers: Collect adult moths in the field
and pupae. using hands or sweet net. The best way to collect is
2. Simple Cages can be made using waste materials with a bottle so that the moth is not damaged. Place
such as transparent glass or plastic bottles. Place the moths that look alike in cages on plants.
leaves and stems in the bottles with insects and Observe the egg laying. Wait for emergence of the
cover with netting. For soft drink bottles, place a first instars from the egg.
bouquet of stems and leaves in the bottle and cover 3. Leaf folders: Collect adult moths in the field
with large plastic bag. For seedlings, invert the using hands or a sweep net. The best way to collect
plastic bottles which have one end open and other the moths is with a bottle so that the moths are not
end covered with netting material. injured. Place many leaf folder moths in cages on
3. Field Cages are useful to cover infestations of young plants. Observe egg laying and wait for
large larvae, hoppers, and other insects. Make cages emergence of the first instars from the eggs.
from large plastic bags, or netting materials. Use 4. Rice bugs: Collect nymphs and adults from the
bamboo sticks to hold the cages above the plant. rice field. Place the insects on older plants in the
milky stage. Observe feeding and egg laying.
5. Other larvae: Collect larva in the field. Old
larvae are easiest to rear to adult. Place the larvae in
cages on plants of the same age as those in the field.
If the plant is consumed quickly, move the larva to
a new plant. Observe pupation and adult
emergence.
6. Hunting spiders: Collect hunting spiders in the
field. Place in cages with or without plants. To
4. Potted plants and Cages is useful especially for demonstrate feeding, do not feed the insects for at
demonstrations and exhibitions. Grow your own least one day before demonstration. On the day of
plant in the pot, or transplant from field grown demonstration, place several types of insects from
plants. For cages use netting suspended strings or the rice field in the cage. To show the number of
frames, or use plastic bags with netting glued over hoppers eaten in a day, place many hoppers in the
one end. Expensive thick stiff plastic is also very cage (count them first) then leave for one day.
useful. Count the remaining hoppers the next day.
5. Be Creative! It is surprising where insects can be 7. Web-making spiders: Collect web-making
reared. Use discarded cans for pots, and transparent spiders in the field and place in cages on older
plastic bottles for cages. Clear glass jars and small plants so the spider can make a web. Observe web-
plastic containers will suffice for most needs. making. After the web is made, place a moth in the
Rearing Tips for Specific Insects cage and observe the results.
These are only tips. You can probably improve on
all of them.
1. Plant hoppers: Place at least 3 male and female
pairs in cages on young (30-40 HSS) plants. Allow
mating and egg laying. After nymphs emerge (8
days after egg laying) remove excess nymphs to
other plants when the nymphs are in the second
30
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
31
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
32
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
Poisons in Agriculture: Health Aspects What does this 10% probability mean in another
example? It means that there is a probability that for
every 10 people that cross the road, one will die
while crossing the road. In other words, 10%
probability is still very high. Dosage for mammal is
usually measured in mg/kg. This means that a LD50
of 1 mg/kg (the oral LD50 for Temik) for a person
who weighs 50 kg is about 50mg, which is a very
small quantity. Lethal dosages are usually given in
both oral (through the mouth) and dermal (exposure
to skin) levels.
But pesticides cause other effects besides death.
Other symptoms of pesticide exposure include
nausea, dizziness, headaches, fatigue, and diarrhea,
irritation of nose, eyes, and throat. Recognition of
these effects is an important part of pesticide safety
and in your job as an IPM field expert. These and
Introduction other effects of pesticide exposure will be explored
Pesticides are poisons which cause in this activity with demonstration of pesticide
physiological changes that result in the death of effects on animals.
insects and other organisms such as humans. Most
pesticides attack the nervous system of organisms, Natural enemies are usually more susceptible to
both invertebrates (insects, spiders, etc.) and insecticide that pests because natural enemies
vertebrates (fish, frogs, people, etc.). The usually do not build up resistance. What
carbamates and organophosphates both interfere happens when a low dosage is applied to the
with the correct transmission of nerve pulses. The field (i.e. a dosage that is LD50 for BPH, but
action of interference can be the result of a high LD90 for natural enemies)? Poisoning
single dose (common in suicide by insecticides), or Symptoms
over a long period such as in farmers and children Use the following list. Go through the list and
working and playing in fields with pesticide check any symptoms you have seen or about
applications. which farmers complain.
How are the poisonous effects of insecticides After spraying have you are had the following
measured? There are many types of studies done symptoms immediately or within a few days:
before a pesticide may become registered for Mild symptoms
general usage. Some of the tests are the effects of Irritation of eye, nose, or throat
chemicals on skin, on eyesight, and on moist tissues Headache
such as lungs. There are also tests to see how much Dizziness
pesticide is needed to kill insects, and mammals.
Fatigue
For most of these tests, rats and rabbits are used in
Diarrhea
large numbers. For example, insecticide is sprayed
in the eyes of these animals and the reactions are Moderate symptoms
noted. Redness or itching skin
Test on the dosage of insecticide which kills Upset stomach
test animals are called Lethal Dosage tests. Blurred vision
Basically the process is simple and depends on the Extreme weakness
fact that not all animals will die with the same Excessive perspiration
dosage because some individuals are more sensitive Rapid heartbeat
than others. If a very low dose is applied to 100 Severe symptoms
individuals, only a few individuals will die. If a Pinpoint pupils
very high dose is given, then most of the 100 Difficulty in breathing
individuals will die. The dose at which 50 of the Unconsciousness
100 (50%) die is called the 50% lethal dosage or
LD50. The dosage at which 90 of the 100
individuals (90%) die is called the LD90. This is a
moderately useful measure, except that even at low
dosages there is still an LD10 in which 10% die.
33
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
34
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
3. Now in each of the cups, add the same number Demonstrate simple adaptations to reduce
and same kind of natural enemies. Cover the cups exposure to poisons.
with netting and rubber bands. Time required = 120 minutes.
4. In the cup labeled "carbamate", spray the inside Materials: sprayer, bucket, red batik dye, white
with the hand sprayer. The concentration and pants and shirt.
dosage should be the same as in the field. Procedure (for group of five)
5. Watch all three cups for changes in activity or 1. Go to the field. One person in the group should
death of natural enemies. Record the time of put on the white pants and shirt. Four other
activity changes and deaths over 45 minutes. members should make notes on what the first
6. What happened? How did the natural enemies in person is doing. Note especially how to make
the control compare with the other treatments? Why reduce exposure to the spray liquid.
did natural enemies die in the carbofuran treatment? 2. Fill the tank with water. Add red batik dye. Add
Do spiders and beetles walk on the water in the a lot so that the water is very red. Close the tank
field? What is the significance of a basal and shake the tank to mix the water and dye.
application of carbofuran? 3. Now spray 500 meter square of the field with the
7. Present your results and answers to the above tank of water. Others should measure the time
questions to the other groups. required and observe the spraying.
4. After finished spraying, empty an excess spray.
Spraying 5. Now observe the sprayer. Is the red dye on the
Spraying pesticides is dangerous. The compounds skin or clothing of the person who sprayed? What
used for spraying are in a concentrated form which could be done to reduce the exposure? What would
makes them even more dangerous than usual happen to the person if the liquid was a real
exposure. Concentrated liquids direct from the pesticide and the farmer used his regular spraying
bottle, and exposure to sprays in the field during clothes?
application will cause numerous symptoms such as 6. Present you observations, discussion and
skin rashes, dizziness, nausea, and headaches. clothing to the other groups. Discuss "Is there really
The usual recommendation for gloves, boots, 'safe application' of pesticides?”
rain cloths, and respirator are impossible to
implement for most farmers because of the cost. Ice-Breakers, Energizers and Team Building
But all these articles can be substituted; plastic bags Exercises
for gloves and boots, large plastic sheet cut like a Ice Breakers
rain poncho or apron, a hat and cloth for the nose Energizers
and mouth. Team fun
The direction and velocity of the wind should Team skills
be considered when spraying. If the wind is Introduction
blowing hard, do not spray! Your chemical will Facilitators should build up a repertoire of
never reach most of the plant. Never walk into the activities that can used for interesting opening that
wind when spraying. Always walk at a 90o angle to help participants to become comfortable with each
the wind. other ("Ice Breakers"), activities that boost the
Remember that when you broadcast carbofuran energy level of the group after visiting the field or
in the water, you are walking in a soup of water and after a break ("Energizers"), activities that are just
dissolved carbofuran. fun to do in groups and make getting together a
In this activity, you will see the result of spraying in better time ("Team Fun"), and activities that build
the field. team capacity through learning techniques for
planning, organizing, and action ("Team Skills").
The term "Team" is used here to emphasize that a
group need to work together with common goals for
common interests and that teams often have
structure. There are coaches, captains, and players
with various positions. No team can work well
without each team member, and the team succeeds
more often when everyone works together while
each improves individual skills and commitment.
During the cycle of the FFS over one season,
Objective energizers and team fun might be used more at the
beginning of the season, with more emphasis on
35
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
Team Skills near the end of the season, especially but often related to agriculture. Like many
in preparation for community organizing. organizations, the name merely reflects its history
Remember that training should be enjoyable for and not its focus. The Clubs have officers, local
the facilitator and FFS members. Ask members of budgets, and action plans.
the group to lead other activities like warming up IPM Labeling of crops
exercises at the beginning of each meeting, or other IPM Villages
activity that they may have learned at another FFS that focus on developing a block of IPM
training program. fields with lower pesticide inputs
IPM Trainer Association:
Ice Breakers Trainers make a newsletter and sent it among
Introduce neighbor themselves for reading and comparison of efforts
Expectation picture with their self-proclaimed goal of training at least
Throw a ball four FFS each year. Personal opinions and
Name memorization in circle information, research results, and progress reports
Money under chair are included in the newsletter.
Air numbering "Entering Pesticide Free Zone"
This would be a title displayed along the side of
Energizers the road as one travels into an area where IPM has
advanced to the point where pesticides have been
Coconut and other songs
replaced with non-pesticide plant protection
Group words (boy - hmmm, girl - clap, cow - methods,
stomp)
Parasite (pen in bottle) Training Evaluation
Ballons on leg There are numerous ways for a facilitator to
Number on paper (practice makes perfect) evaluate the progress of one training season, but
20 questions four methods that have been widely used are
Give characteristics game explained below.
Ballot Box evaluations are field based methods
Team Fun that use real specimens and field situations to test
Water passing field abilities. The Ballot Box test should be given
Broken squares before and after training with levels of difficulty
Strings that are the same. The questions on the test should
be developed before the beginning of the season
Energizers and relate to the core objectives of the course.
Mini-tower and bridge (leadership style) Questions should focus on;
Message passing (communication) agronomic practices and plant compensation
recognition of pests, natural enemies, diseases
Farmer Field School- Follow-up Activities recognition of damage from pests, diseases,
The following is a short list of activities. The rats, and birds
possibilities are numerous, but will require action management of pests, diseases, rats, and birds
on the part of facilitators and the group they get other areas covered in the course
organized. The mechanism of the test is to write a question
Farmers' Planning Meetings are one step on a thick paper board and mount it on a stick in the
towards farmers determining what type of follow- field. Questions should be multiple choices. The
up activities is appropriate to their interest, time board and stick are placed like a sign in the field
availability, and funding situation. The planning next to a real condition or object that is being asked
meeting should try to assess the common problems about in the question. For example:
the members are facing, and establish goals towards 1. What caused this damage?
which to work. Work plans and success criteria A) Stem borer
should also be developed, although these will B) Rats
usually have to be undertaken at a second meeting C) Tungro
established specifically for that purpose.
The sign should have a string connecting the
Farmer to Farmer FFS
sign to the plant part showing the damage. The
Problem Specific Field Labs
participant will then mark A, B, C on the answer
IPM Clubs: ARE to carry out follow-up activities.
sheet for question one. Alternatively, each farmer is
The Clubs usually focused on non-IPM problems,
36
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
given many small pieces of paper (Ballots) with the be present if the quality of the process of training is
same number specific for him or her. On the small to be maintained. While most of these questions can
containers(ballot box) marked A to C the farmer be answered by "yes" or "no", don't stop there.
can put in their Ballots. If the correct answer is A, Explain why you answered "yes" or "no". This
then the person puts their number in the A checklist can also be of used as an outline for
container. reports on IPM training.
Twenty to thirty questions should be prepared "What's this?"
for the test. After everyone has taken the test, the 1. Are questions answered by further probing or
facilitator should walk with the group to each leading questions?
question and determine the correct answer. If the 2. Do probing questions concern functional
question or answer is not clear, the group or relationships in the agro ecosystem?
facilitator may decide to discard the question. 3. Are participants able to define functional
Written Exams can also be used together with relationships in the agro ecosystem?
the Ballot Box. Of course it is important to consider Agro ecosystem Activity
the literacy level of the group, and the knowledge 1. Before the activity begins are participants told
of names or technical terms. The names used in one the goal of the activity and the process to be
village, may not be the officially accepted names followed in the activity?
nationally and this can lead to confusion. Written 2. During observation do participants get into the
tests must be tested for clarity beforehand, and field?
checked to ensure local applicability. Remember 3. Do participants look at all parts of the plant as
that knowing the name of something is not part of their observation activity?
important for field management, but knowing it's 4. Do participants note down what they find?
function and ecological attributes is important. 5. Do participants collect specimens?
Don't be academic about names. Also don't be 6. Are observations summarized in the agro
academic about definitions. Be practical and keep ecosystem drawings?
tests focused on real issues, skills, and knowledge. 7. Does the leader pose problems, ask questions
Give the test before and after training. After the relevant to the drawings, or use the list of questions
test, always review together to determine the in the Field Guides to encourage participant
correct answer. Discard unclear questions. analysis of the drawings?
Field Walks are the best evaluation method 8. Does discussion take place concerning field
because there is time to clarify questions and conditions?
answers. Field Walks are basically walking in the 9. Are "what if" scenarios posed by the leader and
field in pairs (facilitator and farmer) with a discussed by the participants?
predetermined list of questions. The facilitator 10. Are previous week’s agro ecosystem drawings
should have already prepared questions, and know used for comparisons to the situation this week?
parts of the fields where the questions can be used. 11. Are field management decisions taken and
Questions will be similar to the Ballot Box. The list critically examined before acceptance?
of questions should not change significantly 12. Are other factors considered in addition to the
between persons and from the beginning and end of economic threshold in decision making around
training. control issues?
A few do not do's also: 13. Are participants active and working together in
Do not use pictures (photographs or drawings). the small groups?
Do not assume the name of something is the 14. Can participants state the difference between
same everywhere. pests and natural enemies?
Do not assume anyone knows the nationally 15. Are decisions based on levels of insect
accepted proper name. populations and analysis of their functional
Do not use Latin names whenever local names relationships in the rice field?
are available. 16. Does the leader, by means of questions, help the
Do not assume your question is very clear (they participants to analyze the activity and what they
never are!). have learned?
37
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
3. Are group activities dominated by one fertility in cases where organic material is built up
individual? in the soil using IPM methods (green manure or
4. Can participants present results stating or compost). Such economic evaluations could be
summarizing what has happened and why? done on a seasonal or annual basis with IPM trained
5. Can participants state what they have learned farmers to see long term impact.
from the activity? Environment and health benefits may accrue
6. Does the leader ask open ended questions to: with implementation of IPM. Fewer pesticides and
help participants examine what happened during the less toxic pesticides use is a common outcome of
activity; generalize from the activity; apply what beginning field observation and IPM methods.
they learned to "real life"? Measuring these benefits is not easy; however, a
few indicators may be used. For environment, the
Group Dynamics occurrence of more natural enemies, or other wild
1. Before activity does the leader tell participants life may be considered.
the goal and process of the activity? For health, immediate benefits can be measured by
2. Are all participants involved in the activity? counting such indicators as lost work days,
3. Does the leader ask open ended questions to: stomachaches, headaches, visits to local clinics for
help participants examine what happened during the post-pesticide treatment ills, and other common
activity; generalize from the activity; apply what illness related to pesticide exposure. A baseline
they learned to "real life"? should be made be measures before training at one
season or more. It is important to separate crops:
Ballot Box some farmers continue to spray heavily on some
1. Does the "ballot box" test field based crops while reducing sprays.
knowledge? Community Organization and Self-Funding can
2. "Ballot box" questions should not have Latin also be evaluated, and is one of the important goals
names, but are they still used? of organizing the FFS through SLTP. Community
3. Does the leader use the "ballot box" as a learning organizations may continue to pursue IPM
reinforcement tool by reviewing each item with the activities, but if the FFS group gets organized to
participants? take on other issues, like setting up of bio control
lab through self funding, then the impact of the FFS
will be much greater
Economic benefits
The most sought after measures of FFS impact
by those that paid for the FFS. The investment in
training is usually expected to produce some
political good will, but moreover, should increase
economic benefits to the farmer and community,
and eventually the nation. The major factors to be
measured are inputs such as pesticides, time and
labor, fertilizer, water use and equipment. Other
benefits should also be considered such as higher
rice prices for low or no spray crops that may be
obtained with special labeling or improved soil
38
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
(Annexure-I) (Annexure-II)
Requirements of essential stationery and field Allocation of additional duties and responsibilities
materials for SLTP to resource persons
39
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
(Annexure-III)
Profile /Bio data of Participants (Annexure-VII)
Certificate for participants
Name Certificate Model
Date of birth Government emblem
Qualifications Certificate
Experience
Present official address This is to certify that
Phone number and Shri/Smt……………………………………………
address of participant ……………………………………….. has
controlling offer successfully completed the season long training
Home address programme in Cotton IPM progamme held at -------
Address and phone ------- --------- --------- ---------- --------- --------------
number of person to be from --------- ------------- to ---------- -------------
contacted in the event of
emergency Plant Protection Advisor Director of Agriculture
Place: Signature with date Government of India Government of ----------
Date: -
….(Annexure-VIII)
(Annexure-IV) Certificate Model
Attendance sheet for participants Certificate for Resource person
Government emblem
Date: Certificate
Sl.No Name Signature with date
Shri/Smt……………………………………………
…… ……… ……… …………… …….. has
participated has resource person in the season long
Counter signed: General Co-ordinator training programme in Cotton IPM progamme held
at ---------------------------------------------------- from-
(Annexure-V) ------ --------- to ----------- ----------- -----------
Attendance sheet for Resource persons
Plant Protection Advisor Director of Agriculture
Sl.No Name Signature with date Government of India Government of ----------
-
Counter signed: General Co-ordinator (Annexure- IX)
40
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: FFS, HRD, OTP, SLTP
42
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Items required for conservation & augmentation Some pests and their common natural enemies
kit: NATURAL ENEMIES
1. Vehicle (4 wheel drive) with driver
2. Survey route map Other groups and
3. Survey Performa examples
Predatory mites
Parasitic wasps
4. Pen or pencil, Eraser, Sharpener
Parasitic flies
5. Writing pad
Lacewings
6. GPS enabled Data logger
PESTS
7. Collection vials with lid
8. Cotton
9. Rubber bands
10. Brush
11. Needle • • • entomopathogenic fungi
aphids
12. Thread syrphid fly larvae
13. Polythene bags
14. Aspirator
15. Sweeping / butterfly net • • • Bacillus thuringiensis
16. Watch glass birds, pathogenic fungi
caterpillars
17. Hand lenses of different capacity and viruses, predaceous
18. Chloroform wasps, Trichogramma
19. Killing bottle spp., spiders, predacious
20. Pruning knife bugs.
21. Spade
22. Khurpi • • vedalia beetle
cushion
scale
29. Cloth
30. Muslin cloth
31. Field cap
32. Rain coat/Umbrella
33. Stapler with pins • • • pirate bugs
bugs
lace
beetle
38. Paper soap/liquid soap
39. Torch with cell
40. First aid box with medicine
41. Blade
42. Drawing sheets
• • • pirate bugs
43. Sketch pens
psyllids
43
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
vertebrates of demonstration.
13. By adopting P: D ratio and AESA.
14. Reduce the use of broad spectrum persistent
• • • sixspotted thrips pesticides where ever possible. Use reduced
Stethorus sp. (spider risk pesticides. Avoid use of neonicotinoids
spider
mites
bacteriophora(entomopa
(Fabr.).
soil-dwelling
thogenic nematodes),
soil dwelling predatory
beetles and other
predators.
*
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/p
n74140.html
Ways and Means of Conservation of Natural
Enemies of Crop pests
1. Avoiding blanked sprays of Pesticides and
adopting spot application as a last resort.
2. Replacing chemical pesticides with bio-
pesticides. Ammania baccifera
3. Growing of Trap crops (attractant crops for 16. Intercropping of crop plants like mustard and
natural enemies) and flowering plants like dill, linseed (alsi) etc. provide nectar to the
anise, spear mint, buck wheat, yarrow, white parasitoids and support their population.
clover, tansy, cow pea, fennel, cosmos etc. 17. Efforts to educate farmers in recognizing
4. Intercropping with nectar rich plants like natural enemies and the beneficial role played
caraway, coriander, sunflower, parsley by them are important as the role played by the
(ajwain), mustard, marigold, carrot, alfalfa, parasitoids remain unnoticed. Utilization
corn flowering/push-pull plants. conservation of natural enemies in situ in the
5. Installation of conservation cages or bamboo rice ecology is the most practical option
cages. available for promotion of natural bio-control.
6. By growing the crops that provide Pollen and 18. Birds are the efficient predators of various
Honey dew to the natural enemies. insect pests. Efforts should be done to educate
7. Augmenting the population from areas of farmers about the role of predatory bird and
abundance to the areas of absence. their need in crop ecosystem.
8. Avoiding the trash burning where the 19. Conserve spiders in field
abundance of Natural enemies is found.
9. By releasing proper strains of natural enemies
timed with proper pest stage.
10. Promoting Non-chemical methods of Pest
Management like bio-pesticides
11. Keeping a regular and strict surveillance
Programme to note the buildup of population
of Crop pests and their natural enemies.
44
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Conserve and Augment the following BC Agents plant like mango, Litchi etc.
Name of BC Ways & Means of *Make sure flowers (e.g. dill,
Agents conservation Lacewings sunflower, carrots) are present
Bracon sp. Braconides feed on honey dew, in the field or close to the crop
nectar or pollen; hence, the to ensure food supply for adult
flower plants like Dill, Parsiety, lacewings. Populations can be
Zinnia, Clover, Aalfa-alfa, maintained on a non-pest aphid
Cosmos, and Sunflower may be species and other hosts outside
grown on border or as crop area (in weedy areas on
intercrops to attract the native field margins).
Braconides population. Lady bird beetle Avoid indiscriminate use of
Cotesia sp. By planting above flowering pesticides. Grow fodder crops
herbs like Barseem. Collect from the
Trichogramma Releases may be timed with plants like Calotropis and
presence of host egg stage in release them in desired fields.
the field *Ladybirds can be encouraged
-Suitable strains must be by growing non-crop plants
release. which support aphid species
-Continue the releases till the which do not attack crops.
natural breeding is established. Grow strips or groups of non-
crop flowering plants such as
Epiricania -Strict surveillance programme fennel, thistles, coriander,
melanoliuca may be put in operation. carrots and/or milkweed. They
- Avoid indiscriminate trash can also be brought in by hand
burning. from outside the crop. Spraying
-Augmenting in new area. with pesticides should be
-Avoiding Aerial spray of avoided wherever possible in
pesticides. order not to kill the ladybird
Damsel bug -Collect from the areas of high adults and larvae but if it is
(Nevid sp.) abundance and release them to necessary, selective pesticides
the areas of absence. and methods should be used.
Damsel and Larvae found in water. Spider Mulching in strips. Avoid
Dragon fly Maintain watery condition indiscriminate use of pesticides.
around field by making a water Hover-flies *Hover flies can be encouraged
channel. by allowing non-crop plants to
Ground beetle Strip mulching provides grow around fields - these
(Ophionia)/ permanent pest and perennial support non-pest species of
Rove planting. aphids that hover fly larvae can
beetle/carabid -Plant white clover or feed on. They are attracted to
beetle Amaranths sp. as ground cover. all flowering plants but
Rove beetles * Conserve or develop refuges especially to fennel, milkweed,
(Staphylinid for soil dwelling rove beetles. sun hemp,
beetles) and This could be done by flowering brassicas or wild
Ground promoting plant diversity, using mustard, thistles, sunflower,
Beetles(Carabid mulches and keeping stones, coriander and dill. In rape and
beetles ) logs or other items that provide kale, some of the previous crop
protection. can be left to flower (provided
Green lace wing Plant flowering plants such as the pest and disease levels are
(Chrysoperla Dill, Parsiety, Zinnia, Clover, low) or a small number of
sp.) Aalfa-alfa, Cosmos, Sunflower, plants from the current crop can
Carrot, Dandelion as they are be encouraged to bolt and
good source of pollen and flower by stopping watering.
Nectar for adults. Provide the Avoid spraying with pesticides
source of water during dry whenever possible but if it is
season. Maintain perennial necessary, use selective
45
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
47
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
48
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
49
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
50
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Convergent lady beetle adults (left) and most reddish lady Lady beetle eggs are Syrphid fly larvae eat
beetle species prefer aphids. Their larvae (right) prefer aphids oblong, widest in their mostly aphids but also soft-
but sometimes eat whiteflies and other soft-bodied insects. middle, usually yellowish bodied mealybugs, psyllids,
or orange, and can be laid and whiteflies.
in groups or individually.
Green lacewing adults (left) eat nectar and pollen. Some Green lacewing eggs are Soldier beetle adults eat
species also eat insects. Lacewing larvae (right) feed on laid on slender stalks in mostly aphids. Their soil-
mites, eggs, and small insects, especially aphids. groups (as shown here) or dwelling larvae eat beetle
individually, depending on and moth eggs and larvae.
the species.
Predaceous ground beetle adults (left) stalk soil-dwelling Assassin bugs attack Pirate bugs attack mites
insects, such as cutworms and root maggots. almost any insect. and any tiny insect,
Their larvae(right) live on soil and in litter, feeding on almost especially thrips.
any invertebrate.
Western predatory Sixspotted thrips attack Spiders, including this crab Praying mantids don’t
mitesattack pest mites. mostly mites. spider, attack all types of control pests, because they
insects. eat both beneficials and
pests.
Adults of predatory wasps, Syrphid fly (flower fly, hover fly) adults eat pollen and nectar and resemble honey bees
such as this paper wasp, prey and wasps. Adults act as good pollinator.
on caterpillars and other
insects.
Source:www.ipm.ucdavis.edu Cultural practices that affect natural enemies
Tillage
51
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Tillage can have a major impact on soil Screening of hibernating parasites: Screening of
organisms and on the relationships between hibernating parasites in the cotton bolls etc. and
organisms of different trophic levels. Tillage release them in the field may be done.
intensity, the method used, the frequency of tillage Provide supplementary food: Provide
operations and the dates of crop planting and supplementary food for the natural enemies or
harvesting are all factors that can affect natural beneficial fauna like predatory ants. Spray dilutes
enemies. Generally, reduced tillage promotes a sugar solution to provide food for the free living
more stable environment, which in turn promotes a natural enemies adults.
diversity of species. Less tillage is associated with Provide neutral organisms as food to avoid
greater abundance and diversity of the fauna. cannibalism among predators.
However, the effects vary from one species to
another, depending on their specific ecological IDENTIFY THE BIO-CONTROL AGENTS
characteristics. For example, species with a soil- A. Spiders
dwelling larval or pupal stage are particularly
sensitive to tillage. A study carried out with canola
demonstrated that post-harvest tillage led to a
reduction the next spring in the rate of emergence
of parasitoids overwintering in the soil.
52
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Cyclosa insulana
Saint Andrews Cross
Leucauge venusta
Chrysso argyrodiformis
53
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Oxypes
Crab Spider
Water Spider
54
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Goblin/Ant Spider
B. Insect Predators
Cicindela punctulata
Chrysoperla carnea
Bembidion quadrimaculat
55
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Water strider
Assassin bugs (Reduvius sp.)
Xanthopimpla
Syrphid fly larvae
56
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Anthocorid bug
C. Parasitoids
Praying mantis
Trichogramma sp.
57
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Chelonus blackburni
Apanteles sp.
Epiricania melanoleuca
Bracon-hebetor
Brachymeria
Tetrasticus
Tachinid fly
58
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Goniozus spp
Aenasius bambawalei
D. Entomopathogens
Gonatocerus spp.
Beauveria bassiana
Metopius sp.
Metarhizium anisopliae
Trichospilus pupivora
59
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
60
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Hymenoptera:
incertulas day
Trichogramma
Paddy: 6 releases on
Hymenoptera:
japonicum (I)
Hymenoptera:
50,000/ha on
achaeae (I)*
vegetables
Parasitised
egg cards
transplantation
dae
dae
61
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Targeted - -
Matsumara (E)*
Trichogrammati
Trichogramma
Hymenoptera:
and
dendrolimi
Parasitised
egg cards
sugarcane
dae
Diamondback moth Plutella 100,000/ha Six releases at weekly
Trichogrammati
Trichogramma
brassicae (E)*
Trichogrammatid
Parasitised
egg cards
dea
ae
Parasitised
Nixon (E)
egg cards
remus
Bethylidae
arenosella
Goniozus
Cocoons
(I)
2 adults per kg of
Braconidae
Chelonus
Coccinellidae
Coleoptera:
Mealy bugs on citrus, grapes 600 – 2500 One or more releases based
(Ramakrishn
Coccinellida
a Ayyar) (I)
Coleoptera:
62
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Chilocorus nigrita Sugarcane scale insect 1500 beetles/ha; One or more releases based
Melanaspis glomerata Citrus or 10 egg pads on pest intensity
scale Aonidiella aurantii (with 40 eggs per
(Fabricius) (I)
Coccinellidae
Adults / Eggs
pad) in 100
Coleoptera:
spots/ha (40,000
eggs/ha)10
adults/tree
Adults / Eggs
Coleoptera:
Coccinellidae
Adults / Eggs
Linnaeus (I)*
Coccinellidae
Coleoptera:
Brumoides
suturalis
Adults
Coleoptera:
coeruleus
Curinus
Adults
instar larvae
Neuroptera:
Eggs / First
Syrphidae
Ischiodon
oilseed crops
Cocoons
Diptera:
*
63
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Hemerobiidae
(Hagen) (I) *
oilseeds & Sugarcane Woolly progress
Neuroptera:
Micromus
Aphid
timidus
Larvae
Adults/ Nymphs
Anthocoridae
Hemiptera:
(I)
per plant
Blaptostethus
Anthocoridae
Hemiptera:
pallescens
Poppius
(I)
# Sugarcane, Cotton and Vegetable strains of T. 8. Procure parasites from authentic source.
chilonis maintained; I: Indigenous; E: Exotic 9. Develop field level technology for mass
multiplication of bio-control agents.
Tips for Augmentation of Bio-control agents: 10. Transfer/transport bio-control agents in ice
1. Always release ferrate adults (newly emerging boxes to avoid the emergence of adults on the
adults) of parasitoids in the field. Release way before releasing them in the field.
eggs/nymphs/grubs/adults of insect predators 11. Crop specific strains of parasitoids should be
as the case may be. released to get the desired control.
2. Releases must be made in early morning or in 12. Indigenous bio-control agents are found more
evening hours. effective than exotic one.
3. Do not release long stored in fridge (over 13. Restrict/prevent movement of ants by banding
frozen) parasitized eggs. with pesticide on tree trunks in orchards before
4. Always see the percentage of parasitization on releasing insect predators of mealy bugs.
Trichocard before release. 14. Provide sufficient food for the insect predators
5. Always release the Trichocard ensuring their in packages during transport before field
safety with rain and wind conditions (adverse release in order to prevent cannibalism.
weather conditions). Farmers can augment the number of natural
6. Attempt larval parasites along with the egg enemies by bringing them from the field. for
parasites for augmentation to get the desired example, ladybird beetles or parasitized
result.
aphids/larvae/egg masses which contain young
7. Ensure quality of bio-control agents to be
released. parasitoids.
Information on Bio-control agents against insect pests
Common Concept of Target organism Method of Recommende Reason for
name active ingredient /host application d dose & recommendation
in the mode of
formulation application
Acerophagus Endoparasitoids On papaya Field 250 To reduce
papayae of papaya mealybug release per ha mealybug
mealybug Paracoccus infestation
marginatus
Anagyrus Endoparasitoids of On papaya Field 250 To reduce
loecki papaya mealybug mealybug release per ha mealybug
Paracoccus infestation
marginatus
64
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
Coccinella Adults / Eggs Aphis craccivora Field 5000 larvae Two releases;
septempunctat on legumes and release or 500 first release to
a Linnaeus Lipaphis erysimi adults per coincide with
(I)* on oilseed crops ha the appearance
Coleoptera: of aphids
Coccinellidae
Curinus Adults Subabul psyllid Field 20 Adults Two
coeruleus Hetropsylla release per tree releases
Mulsant (E) cubana during July
Coleoptera: and October
Coccinellidae
Chrysoperla Eggs / First instar Sucking pests Field release 10,000 first Twice during the
carnea larvae on cotton, instar season with an
(Stephens) (I) tobacco, larvae/ha interval of 15
Coleoptera: sunflower, days
Coccinellidae groundnut& On fruit crops, 10
some fruit – 20 larvae per
crops infested tree
Mallada spp. Cocoons Sucking pests Field release 10,000 first Twice during the
(I) * on cotton, instar season with an
Neuroptera: tobacco, larvae/ha interval of 15
Chrysopidae sunflower, days
groundnut& On fruit crops, 10
some fruit – 20 larvae per
crops infested tree
Ischiodon Cocoons Aphis Field release 5000 One or more
scutellaris craccivora on larvae/ha releases based on
(Fabricius) (I) legumes and pest intensity
* Diptera: Lipaphis
Syrphidae erysimi on
oilseed crops
Cardiastethus Adults/Nymphs Opisina Field release 50 Three
exiguus Poppius arenosella nymphs/adu releases
(I) Hemiptera: Coconut black- lts per tree
Anthocoridae headed
caterpillar
Blaptostethus Adults/Nymphs Spider mites Field release 5 to 10 Five
pallescens on bhendi nymphs per releases
Poppius (I) plant
Hemiptera:
Anthocoridae
Heterorhabditis Infective White grubs, Soil 20k For combating
indica (Entomo juveniles in Root weevils & Application g/ha Soil insect pests
pathogenic wettable soil pests and reducing
nematodes) powder chemical
insecticide usage
Bacillus Bt crystals and Bt Lepidopteran, Foliar 1kg/ha To reduce
thuringiensis spores 5% coleopteran and spray the use of
dipteran pests of chemical
crops pesticides
Spodoptera Poly hedral Spodoptera Foliar 250 Larval To reduce the
litura bodies of the litura spray Equivalent use of
67
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Conservation & Augmentation
68
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Pest surveillance and monitoring
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)
For Pests Surveillance & Monitoring AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF SURVEILLANCE
In general, Survey/Surveillance is of two types:
Process to find the target pests in the surveyed 1. General Pest Surveillance (Crop Specific)
area is expressed as surveillance and the methods to 2. Specific Pest Surveillance (Pest Specific)
find the target pests is monitoring. Hence by Crop pests surveys are conducted to monitor
monitoring of pests one can perform surveillance. the pest population on different crops in the area
Surveillance is the constant, systematic watch and to generate field data of -
of biotic and abiotic factors of the crop ecosystem Ecology
in order to predict the pest outbreak. In pest Epidemiology of major pest and diseases
surveillance programmes one studies the population Reaction of crop variety
dynamics and the key natural mortality factors Estimation of crop losses
operating under field conditions which help in Status of pest & diseases
devising the appropriate management strategies. Role of Bio-control agents
(Close watch= निगरािी). It is observing something
for a long period of time WHY TO CONDUCT PEST SURVEILLANCE:
Pest surveillance implies close and regular Pest Surveillance is under taken for the
vigilance over the development of following purposes:-
insect-pest population
disease 1. To monitor and forewarn the crop pests,
weeds, and diseases, weeds, and Bio-control agents
bio-control agents population buildup in the agricultural crops.
Whereas Survey is conducted to study the 2. To monitor the locust population in the
abundance of a pest species. The survey conducted Scheduled Desert Area (SDA) of Rajasthan and
over a defined period of time and detailed Gujarat States of India.
inspection to determine the characteristics of a pest 3. To know the occurrence of pests and provide
population or which pest species occur in an area is basis for pest identification, listing of pest, pest
called as pest survey. status, pest categorization, to conduct risk
analysis and to earmark the pest prone and pest
free areas as a pre-requisite for phyto- sanitary
measures and agreement for global trade.
ADVANTAGES OF SURVEILLANCE
to know existing and new species in an area
to assess pest population and damage at
different growth stage of crop
to assess natural enemies population and their
build up at different growth stage of crop
to study the influence of weather parameters on
pests & their natural enemies
to study pest status change on a particular crop
to assess abundance of natural enemies and
their influence on pests
to evaluate effect of new cropping pattern and
varieties on pest
AGENCIES TO BE INVOLVED FOR to determine pest trends affecting agricultural
SURVEILLANCE: management practice
State Department of Agriculture / Horticulture to alert growers and other agriculture
State Agricultural Universities. professionals to the presence of plant pests and
Indian Council of Agricultural Research outbreaks.
Institute.
Crop based Directorates of Department of INSECT FORECASTING MAY SERVE AS
Agriculture and Co-operation of Government of - To predict the forthcoming infestation level of
India. pest
69
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Pest surveillance and monitoring
- To find out the critical stage at which with him to note down any details which cannot
management practices should apply be accommodated in the field cards and should
be designated as “Comments”. He should report
OUTCOME OF THE SURVEILLANCE to his in-charge on weekly basis. Report thus
ACTION: prepared should be submitted to his in- charge
The surveillance programme is beneficial for:- who in turn will sent it to State Plant Protection
1. Early detection of pest occurrence, outbreaks, Authority, Directorate Head quarters and state
upsurges Research Units.
2. For making suitable pest management strategy These plots are to be kept free from chemical
before the pest causes the economic loss. sprays till Economic Threshold Level (ETL) is
3. For adopting timely pest management reached.
measures. Roving Survey: Roving Survey is performed
4. For earmarking the endemic, hot spots and pest by assessing pest population/ damage wherein pest
free areas. information is gathered from randomly selected
5. For making forewarning and issuing of timely spots over large area in a short period. The survey
advisory to farmers and State Governments. routes to be finalized before the commencement of
6. For managing the pest emergencies. the seasons (Kharif/ Rabi) in consultations with
7. For knowing the emerging pest problems. state department of agricultural officials. The
8. For checking further spread of the pest in the survey routes should cover major crops grown in
other areas. the state. The survey team should be finalized
9. 10.For adopting pro-active steps for expected before onset of surveillance programmes. The time
pest problems. interval between surveys should be at least a
minimum of ten days. The survey should spread
TYPES OF SURVEY: over in the entire crop season. The survey report
- Qualitative survey: Useful for detection of finalized and sent to Head quarters and to
pest concerned district head of state Departments
- Quantitative survey: Useful for enumeration through fastest mode. Wherever forewarning is
of pest i.e. numerically abundance of pest required to be issued, it should be done on the same
population in time and space day during survey period. A minimum of 200-250
- Fixed Plot Survey: In this programme Kms is covered in a day. Observations are done at
cultivated area is divided into four sectors with least at every ten kilometer distance and on both
the help of officer-in- charge of the area. All sides of the road. The observation is performed
sectors should be of equal size. Each of these after entering at least 100 mts inside the fields.
sectors must be accessible by road and properly
shown in a map, showing number of villages in
each sector. Each sector should have 3
observational fields of about an acre area. Each
field should be at least a mile apart from each
other. Thus there will be in all 12 observational
fields with each technical observer. Every field
cultivator must be personally contacted by the
technical observer to seek his co-operation that
is going to happen while making observations
in those fields. Each observer is required to pay
two visits to each of his observation fields per Single Point Survey (Eye ball method of survey):
week and survey and sample the pest and A qualified plant Pathologist traverses through
natural enemies’ population in accordance with the cropped area, halts at periodic intervals to
sampling methods. An acre plot may be divided inspect crop health and record all observations. This
into 5- micro plots of meter square area one method helps to understand the immediate course of
each in four corners (6-100 meters away from action needed to maintain crop health.
bund) and fifth in the centre. Periodical
assessment is done in these chosen micro plots. Multiple point survey:
Agro-ecological parameters have also to be This is conducted at different crop growth
noted. Each technical observer will fill the field stages and enables to identify major production
card (See model ann-I&II) each time he makes constraints and predict yields. Such methodically
trip to his fields. A note book should be along collected data for a few crop seasons through
70
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Pest surveillance and monitoring
regular surveys provide necessary information in 1. Joint Secretary (Plant Protection), DAC,
developing disease management strategies. Chairman
2. ADG (PP), ICAR , Member
3. Plant Protection Advisor, Dte of PPQ & S,
ELECTRONIC-PEST SURVEILLANCE Member Convener
THROUGH HAND HELD DEVICE: 4. Director, NCIPM (ICAR), Member
The foundation of electronic pest surveillance 5. Representatives of crop specific ICAR
primarily is based upon to collect, store, access, Institutions – Invited by the Committee
capture and transfer pest information to all 6. Representatives of State Agriculture
concerned. This helps the delivery of data through Universities – Nominated by the Committee
fastest mode. The e- surveillance targets the critical 7. Selected Commissioners/ Director of
requirements of a crop cycle, i.e. pest management. Agriculture -Depending on the season and
The collection of crop data manually is laborious crop
and at the same time takes a lot of time to transfer 8. Representatives of NIC
from field to the decision making authorities. This 9. Representatives of farmers - Nominated by the
methodology provides the required solution. It is Committee
estimated that the timely intervention in the crops
may reduce the crop losses as much as 25-30 Functions:
percent. • Coordinating pest surveillance and providing
• The hand Held Device (Data Logger) is an guidance to the CIPMCs and States
important field data capture system • Analysis of pest surveillance data and advice on
(qualitative), quantitative with Geo-referencing. emerging pest threats
• The device has inbuilt Global Positioning • Enabling the research Institutes for taking up
System (GPS) so that geo-referenced field data special and time bound activities in special
can be collected. areas
• At the end of the pest surveillance the device • Launching campaign for creating farmer
would generate a data file which can be easily awareness on specific situations where
transferred through Internet to centralized community action is required
database for Analysis and transferring data into • Advising the neighboring States on possible
usable report. pest migration.
• The project was taken up in couple of states
and is being pursued by the Directorate to be State Pest Surveillance and Advisory Unit
implemented through the CIPMCs. • Commissioners/ Director, State Department of
Agriculture - Chairman
Data Transmitting & Storage System • Director of Research, State Agriculture
• dacnet/pdmis System : It is a system on pest University
observations, at district level; the system runs at • Plant protection experts from State Agriculture
state level and a subset of the data is also University
visible at national level (crop, crop stage, pest, • Representatives of ICAR Research Institute in
extent of disease/infestation); the source, and the State
principal user, is State departments of • Selected District Joint Directors depending on
agriculture, and it is also used to manage crop season and area
pesticide availability • Representatives of CIPMC of the State
• http://dacnet/iipm System: It is a system to • Coordinator of KVK in the State
support entry of the results of roving survey • Farmers representatives
reports, and includes the potential to report a • Selected NGO active in plant protection areas
more complete view with Agro Ecosystem • Joint Director/ Deputy Director (PP) - Member
Analysis (additionally numbers of pests, Convener
predators, field conditions, weather, etc) and is
designed to administer CIPMC roving survey Functions:
data • Direct State-wide multi-district surveillance
activities and manage the data
PEST SURVEILLANCE AND ADVISORY • Arranging training of personnel and extend
SYSTEM IN INDIA support for district level surveillance
National Pest Surveillance and Advisory Unit. It • Analyze reports on the pest and disease
is composed of situation district wise
71
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Pest surveillance and monitoring
• Log all issued advisories and ensure that 2. Migration: Locust swarm etc.
advisories and other activities are consistent 3. Crop variety- HYV= are more
with guidance given susceptible for particular pests, consider them
• Confirm issuing of any State-wise advisories 4. Agronomic practices-
prepared by SAU, if needed spacing, planting date, nitrogen application
• Arrange special surveys or surveillance
depending on the need SAMPLING
A. Sample: A set of unit or portion of
DISTRICT PEST SURVEILLANCE AND aggregated material which represents the whole
ADVISORY UNIT population.
Sampling helps –
• Joint Director (Agriculture/ Horticulture)- • Identifying & monitoring pests & natural
Chairman enemies
• Representatives of KVK • Understanding biological & environmental
• Representatives of local research institute of factors that affect pests & natural enemies
SAU and/or ICAR • Using treatment threshold for control decisions
• Block Agriculture Officers depending on the • Knowing efficacy of control tactics & impact
season and crop on non-target pests & natural enemies
• Representatives of farmers groups
• Assistant Director/ Deputy Director (PP) - Sampling patterns:
Member Convener • Zigzag pattern- Sampling a fallow field or one
with no obvious symptoms in the current crop
Functions: to see the incidence- viral, wilt
• Direct and coordinate local arrangements / • Square pattern- Sampling within the drip line
activities on pest and disease surveillance and of trees and shrubs
review results and draft appropriate advisories • Star pattern- Sampling from a damaged area.
• Arrange to send the data to State and National • At random pattern- Through the square (1m x
units 1m) in field (4-5 points)
• Communicating the advisories to farmers
through mass media and print media
• Taking up special campaigns for surveillance
and pest control practices
• Involving the farmers groups, commodity
groups, NGOs in surveillance and special
campaigns.
B. DISEASE ASSESSMENT
Determination / measurement of plant disease
incidence or intensity
BAIT TRAPS
Many materials varying from raw plant Objectives
materials and crushed insects to refined For taking up timely management practices
chemicals attractants which stimulate sexual To assess disease resistance
odors or food odors are known to attract To assess crop losses
insects. These materials are used as baits in
special types of traps made for the purpose Incidence
depending on the insect species to be trapped. No. of plant units infected and expressed as
Insects (termite) percentage to total units examined, e.g. wilt
Snails (Metaldehyde)
Rats (Zinc phosphide, Bromadiolone) Severity
Area of plant tissue affected and expressed as
WATER PAN METHOD percentage to total units examined
In this method a wide mouthed plastic container
is used with water. Few drops of detergent or
teepol is added to reduce the surface tension and for
easy settling of insects at the bottom of the
container. The plastic container with water is taken
to the bottom of rice plant and the hills are tapped
three times enabling the insects etc to fall inside the
pan. It is repeated in ten different hills and the
insects thus collected are be separated out as pests
and defenders. This method is useful for the insects
which feed at the basal portion of rice plant.
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DISEASE ASSESSMENT KEYS: 2- Plant sampling
Soil Sampling
Prior to sampling a field plot may be divided
into strips or blocks
Systematic at equally-spaced point according
(Zigzag manner)
Sampling pattern:
If plants are not present, sample in the row
If plants are present, sample just outside the
row
Take 4-5 cores to make a composite soil
samples
Insect-Pests of Paddy
Thrips (Nymph & Adult) Green Leaf Hopper Rice case worm symptom & its larvae
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Paddy stem borer attack & its egg mass Swarming Caterpillar (L,P,A)
Rice Skipper symptoms, its larvae & Adult Gall Midge short horned grass hopper
Rice Hispa symptoms, its larvae & adult Sheath blight Bacterial blight Rice Blast
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Spodoptera. litura
Amaranthus spinosus Fimbristylis miliaceae
Jassid Aphid
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Annexure-I
RICE SURVEY FIELD CARD
(MODEL)
Survey routes:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
State:_____________________________
Reporters:_________________Date:__________
I - Location Details
Field & Mile stone no. Remarks
Village
Block
District
II – General Information *
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Variety
DOS/DOT
Crop stage
Crop Appearance
Water
Weather
Weeds
Deficiency
III - Pests**
Leaf Folder
Stem Borer
Rice Hispa
Green Leaf Hopper
Gall Midge
Case worm
Grasshopper
BPH
WBPH
Whorl maggot
Others 1
2
3
Rats Live burrows (number)
IV- Defenders: ***
Spiders
Coccinellids
Damsel/Dragon fly
Carabid
Staphylinid
Mirid bug
Tetrastichus Egg parasites
Telenomus
Bracon
Ichneumonids
Pathogens
Others 1
2
3
V- Diseases**
Sheath blight
Sheath rot
Rice blast
False smut
Brown spot
Bacterial blight
Tungro
Others 1
2
3
* Use following codes for recording general information
Variety: Local (1); Hybrid (2)
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Crop Stage: Seedling (1); Tillering (2); Booting (3); Heading (4); Flowering (5); Milky (6); Dough (7); Matured
(8)
Crop appearance: Healthy (1); Yellowing (2); Browning (3); Dead (4)
** Observe 20 plants diagonally across the field and record the pests/diseases and BCA ( Bio-control agents)
by using following scales:
0 Nil; Low (L)- < 5 % damage; Moderate (M)- 5-10 % Damage; severe (S) > 10% Damage
*** Use following scale for recording defenders: 0- Nil; 1- Low ; 2- Moderate ; 3- Abundant
Annexure-II
I - Location Details
Field & Mile stone no. Remarks
Village
Block
District
II – General Information *
Variety
DOS/DOT
Crop stage
Crop Appearance
Water
Weather
Weeds
Deficiency
III - Pests**
Pyrilla
Shoot Borer(Early/Top etc)
Stem borer
White fly
Aphids
Black Bug
Mites
Scale
Termites / White grub
Mealy Bug
Black bug
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Others 1
2
3
** Observe randomly the field and record the pests/diseases & BCA(Bio-control agents) by using scales:
IV- Defenders: ***
Spiders
Coccinellids
Damsel/Dragonfly
Carabid
Staphylinid
Mirid bug
0 Nil; Low (L)- < 5 % damage; Moderate (M)- 5-10 % Damage; severe (S) > 10% Damage
*** Use following scale for recording defenders: 0- Nil; 1- Low ; 2- Moderate ; 3- Abundant
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Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
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1. Introduction
Weed is a plant growing where it is not desired.
Weed is an unwanted plant in a specific crop
ecosystem. Weeds are the serious pest and a major
impediment in production of field crops through
their ability to compete for resources viz. Nutrients,
light, space, water, air and their adverse impact on
product quality. The losses due to weed infestation
vary from crop to crop and depend mainly on type
of weed species and their intensity. According to an
estimate the losses due to weeds account nearly one
third i.e.33%, diseases 26%, insects 20%, storage
pest 7%, rodents 6% and other pests 8% of total
crop losses1. Weeds are responsible for heavy yield Echinochloa colona2
losses to almost every important agricultural crop to
the extent of complete crop loss under extreme
conditions.
In India increased agricultural productivity is
needed to meet the increasing needs of the growing
population. Proper weed management technologies,
if adopted can result in an additional crop
production. As the weed problems are multi-
pronged, a holistic multi-disciplinary integrated
approach would be imperative. In this context,
integrated weed management (IWM) may provide a
more sustainable crop production by combating
weed menace effectively, economically and
ecologically.
Weeds are harmful in many ways, such as:
Reduction in crop yield and production
efficiency, Echinochloa crusgalli3
Reduce produce quality,
Adversely affect the soil productivity
Weeds harbour insect pests and diseases,
Obstruct the flow of water in irrigation channels
and fields,
Contamination of water bodies,
Menace to human and animal health,
Damage to industry and public utilities,
Deterioration of aesthetics, and
Reduction in farmers’ income.
2. Classification of Weeds
2.1 According to Life Cycle:
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2.1.2 Biennial Weeds: They take at least two years Digitaria sanguinalis5
or two seasons to complete their life cycle. They
complete their vegetative growth in first year or
season and produce flowers and seeds in the next
year or season. e.g., Wild carrot (Daucas carota),
Bold-leaf launaeae (Launaea nudicaulis) etc.
Amaranthus viridis7
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Phyllanthus niruri13
Agropyron repens17
Cleome viscose22
Cyperus rotundus18
Eichhornia crassipes23
Sorghum halepense19
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Circium arvense25
Orobanche aegyptiaca29
Argimone maxicana
27
Saccharum spontaneum
Cuscuta campestris28
Convolvulus arvensis31
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Parthenium hysterophorus
3. Weed Ecology:
Weed Ecology is the interrelationship between
weed and their environment. It is concerned with
growth characteristics and adaptations that enable
weeds to survive the changes in the environment.
The environment includes climatic, edaphic and
biotic factors and it determines the distribution,
prevalence, competing ability, behaviour and
survival of the weeds. Persistence of a weed is
largely influenced by climatic, edaphic (soil) and
biotic factors which affect its occurrence,
abundance, range and distribution.
Achyranthes aspera32
3.1 Climatic factors:
The important climatic factors of the environment
that affect persistence of weeds are light,
temperature, rainfall, wind and humidity.
Light intensity, quality and duration are important
in influencing the growth, reproduction and
distribution of weeds. Photoperiod governs
flowering and time of seed setting and maturation
and also has impact on the evolution of various
ecotypes within a weed species.
Soil temperature affects seed germination and
dormancy which is a major survival mechanism of
weeds. The winter survival of underground parts
(rhizomes, bulbs, tubers and roots) of perennial
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Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
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weeds is very much dependant on their resistance to Crops that serve as host to parasitic weeds and
extreme temperatures in the soil. crop-induced stimulants and toxin (allelopathy) are
Rainfall and water have a significant effect on also example of other biotic factors.
weed persistence and distribution. The distribution Many factors influence the presence and abundance
pattern of rain is a determining factor in utilization of weed species on groups of weeds in fields.
of water supply by the plant, since water shortages Important factors include: method of sowing, soil
at critical stages of growth are often responsible for moisture, crop rotation, type and amount of
failure of reproduction and survival. fertilizers applied, time of fertilizers application,
Wind velocity, frequency and direction may also cultivar, water management; crop management and
restrict or limit the occurrence and persistence of weed control methods used. These factors influence
weeds. Wind plays a role in stabilizing oxygen and the weed growth and subsequently the productivity
carbon dioxide balance in the atmosphere. It also and quality of crop produce. These factors are
modifies the transpiration losses from all the plants. manageable to provide optimum crop stand and
create microenvironment in favour of crop plants.
3.2 Soil factors:
Soil factors which influence weed persistence are 4. Survival Mechanisms of Weeds:
soil water, aeration, temperature, pH, fertility level, The seed is the primary means of survival
and also cropping system. mechanism of annual weeds. The vegetative plant
The ideal pH for most plants to grow ranges from propagules such as buds, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs
6.2 to 7.3. This is the range where nutrients are and stolons offer an additional survival mechanism
most available for uptake by the roots of plants. for perennial weeds. The major adaptations for
Some weed species are characteristically ‘alkali’ survival of weeds include prolific seed production,
plants, also known as basophiles (pH range 7.4 to survival of vegetative propagules under adverse
8.5) which can grow well in alkali soils, e.g., conditions, seed dissemination and dormancy, and
Alkaligrass (Puccinallia spp.) and quackgrass ability of seeds and propagules to resist any
(Agropyron repens) Some weed species like detrimental effects of environment. Of these,
Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria sanguinalis and dormancy is probably the single most important
Borreria spp. habitat only in acidic soils(pH range characteristics of weed that enable them survive
4.5 to 6.5)called Acedophiles. A shift in soil pH, for when crops cannot.
example, towards acid side due to continuous use of 4.1 Seed Production:
ammonium sulphate as a nitrogen source could also Seed production is the sole means of propagation
cause a shift in the weed spectrum. and survival of annual and biennial weeds while
Several species of compositae and polygonaceae perennial weed are less dependent on this
grow well in saline soils. These weeds serve as mechanism. A single plant of an annual weed can
indicator plants. Some weed species like produce enough seeds in one season to cover an
Commelina benghalensis thrive well in moist soil entire area of one acre with same weed species in
condition while the perennial grasslike Imperata the next year. For example, redroot pigweed
cylindrica, Agropyron repens etc. persist even in (Amaranthus retroflexus), purslane (Portula
drought conditions. Weeds like Typha spp. live only caoleracea) and black nightshade (Solanum
in waterlogged soils. nigrum) produce approximately 196,405; 193,213
and 178,000 seeds per plant, respectively. Wild oats
3.3 Biotic factors: (Avena fatua) germinate at the same time, the crop
Plants and animals are the biotic factors that modify was shown but shatter their mature seeds before
the growth in a variety of ways that affect weed crop harvest operations33.
persistence directly and indirectly. In a cropping 4.2 Seed Dissemination:
situation, the major effects on weeds are those Most weeds are good travellers. They use various
exerted by the crop as it competes for available forces or agents to transport and scatter themselves
resources like nutrients, light, space and water. from place to place. Of all the agents by which
Once certain weed species are introduced, their weeds are disseminated, wind, water, animals and
persistence in a given crop is determined largely by man play important roles.
the degree of competition offered by the crop. The a. Wind: Many weeds seeds have
competitive ability of a weed and its persistence modifications or adaptations e.g., saccate, winged
depends upon its vegetative habit, readiness of seed comate, parachute and plumed which aid them in
germination, rate of seedling growth and the extent getting scattered by the wind. Seeds or small fruits
and nature of root and top growth. Besides, the with tufts of hair or wing-like appendages are
agricultural practices associated with the crop carried by the wind over long distances; the lighter
grown may encourage or discourage specific weeds. seeds may drift for miles. The achnes of dandelions,
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thistles and species of compositae floating in the air of the seeds of Lactuca (lettuce), Xanthium
on a windy day are a common sight. Similarly, the (cocklebur), Lepidium (pepper weed) and Rumex
seeds of Imperata cylindrica and Saccharaum (sorrels) genera is controlled by phytochrome33.
spontaneum are carried away by wind to faraway Many weeds germinate under aerobic conditions
places. while some require anerobic conditions. Soil turn
b. Water: Many weed seeds are light or are during ploughing and other land preparation
covered with an oily film so that they float on the operations exposes the seeds to light and induces
surface of water. Such seeds are frequently washed germination.
into the streams by surface run-off during heavy Summer annuals favour higher temperatures for
rains or they are picked up by overflowing streams germination and one can see flushes of weed
and are carried to other fields lower down the seedlings when temperature reaches at favourable
valley. levels. Winter annuals germinate at lower
c. Animals: Weed seeds are also temperature and shorter days in the autumn and
disseminated by animals. Many seeds pass through winter seasons. Some weeds can germinate freely
the digestive tracts of animals without loss of throughout the year. Viability is an integral and
viability. Birds also consume large quantities of major part of weed infestation.
weed seeds and scatter them in droppings. The 4.4. Seed Dormancy:
dispersal of seeds in the form of incompletely Dormancy is a state in which viable seed fails to
digested materials passing through the animals is germinate in spite of favourable conditions of
termed as ‘endozoochory’. Seeds also stick to the moisture, temperature and oxygen for plant growth.
fur, feathers and muddy feet of birds and animals It is a survival mechanism of weeds. Further, when
and are carried from place to place. This method of the conditions for germination are not favourable,
dissemination is, however, not as important as the seeds can become dormant. Seeds of weed species
other means. of Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
d. Man: Seeds of many weed species have Leguminasae and Poaceae have long dormancy
specialized structure like hooks, spines, barbs and period often running into several years.
awns which tend to cling to man’s clothing and foot Types of seed dormancy:
wear or agricultural implements used by man. a. Inherent or innate dormancy: It is due to
Fruits of Tribulus terrestris have sharp spines the genetically controlled characters in the plant
which cling to animals and man and get dispersed species, e.g., hard seed coats in Setaria and
far and wide. Achyranthus aspera and Chrysopoga Xanthium spp.
aciculatus have awns which get disseminated by b. Induced dormancy: It develops when the
sticking to man’s clothing. Weed seeds are carried non-dormant seed becomes dormant after exposure
in packing materials and in soil and sand or gravel to specific environmental conditions e.g., rise in
used in construction. Man often carries weed seeds temperature / CO2 content in soil, low O2 pressure,
of interest from one part of the country to the other water logging etc. e.g. Avena ludoviciana seeds.
and from one country to another. The movement of c. Enforced dormancy: It is a non-specific
commercial seeds and grain is an important means character and it develops when limitations of the
of weed seed dispersal by man, e.g., widespread habitat or environment prevent non-dormant viable
occurrence of Phalaris minor is because of its seeds seeds from germinating and germination occurs
contaminated the wheat grain imported in the only when the limitations are removed e.g. deep
1960’s. placement of seeds, when such seeds restored to the
top 3-5 cm of soil during ploughing, the seeds
4.3 Seed Germination: germinate. Absence of red light to some seeds also
Germination is a critical factor in the establishment leads to enforced dormancy e.g., Avena ludoviciana
of weed infestation. For germination, seeds of both seeds.
crops and weeds must have adequate soil moisture,
favourable temperature and a supply of oxygen. 5. Weed competition:
Weed seeds, however, possess a variety of special The degree of weed competition is determined by
germination mechanisms adapted to changes in the weed species infesting the area, density of
temperature, soil moisture, aeration, exposure to infestation and duration of infestation. Weed
light, depth of burial of seeds etc. When conditions species differ among themselves in their competing
are unfavourable for germination, they can remain ability e.g., Monochoria vaginalis is more severe
dormant or delay germination. competitor than Echinochloa crusgalli in rice
Seeds of many weeds require an exposure to light culture. Similarly, Avena fatua was found more
for germination. This is regulated by bluish-green competitive in wheat than Setaria viridis.
protein pigment called phytochrome. Germination
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5.1 Critical period of crop weed competition (a) Adopting the weed management options that
This is most important time period for Integrated suits to the environment of the region, including
Pest Management. The critical period for weed soil, water, climate and biotypes present at the site
control is a period in the crop growth cycle during and (b) Optimizing the use of cultural, biological,
which weeds must be controlled to prevent yield physical, mechanical and chemical resources for
losses. Critical period of crop weed competition effective management of weeds. An important
observed in India w.r.t. various crops are given principle underlying long-term weed management
below: is that weed seed banks decides the emergent weeds
Table 1: General Critical period of crop weed population, and therefore, seed banks must be
competition for different important crops grown managed at low densities to reduce the potential
in India34 & 35 build-up of high weed populations.
Critical
Crops
Period (DAS)* 7. Integrated Weed Management (IWM)
A. Cereals IWM is a science-based decision-making process
Rice (Direct Seeded) 15-45 that coordinates the use of environmental
Rice (Transplanted) 30-45 information, weed biology and ecology, and all
Wheat 30-45 available technologies to control weeds by the most
Maize 15-45 economical means, while posing the least possible
Sorghum 15-45 risk to people and the environment. Effective IWM
Pearl millet 30-45 combines preventive, cultural, mechanical,
B. Pulses biological and chemical weed control methods in an
Pigeon pea 15-60 effective, economical and ecological manner.
Green gram Weed management must aim at reducing the weed
15-30
population to a level at which weeds occurrence has
Black gram 15-30
no effect on farmers’ economic and ecological
Cowpea 15-30
interests. By using different appropriate
Chickpea 30-60 management practices against weeds, farmers have
Peas 30-45 more options for controlling weeds, thereby
Lentil 30-60 reducing the possibility of escapes and weed
C. Oilseeds adaptation to any single weed management tactic.
Soybean 20-45 7.1 Preventive:
Groundnut 40-60 Weed prevention includes the measures to deny
Sunflower 30-45 entry and establishment of new weeds in area. It
Castor 30-60 includes (a) use of weed- free crop seeds , (b) seed
Safflower 15-45 certification (c) avoid contamination manure pits
Sesamum 15-45 (d) prevent movement of weeds with other farm
Rapeseed-mustard 15-40 sources (e) by weed laws and (f) by quarantine
Linseed 20-45 laws.
D. Commercial crops 7.2 Cultural
Sugarcane 30-120 7.2.1 Crop rotations: Crop rotation is an important
Potato 20-40 component of IWM. The choice and sequencing of
Cotton 15-60 crops affects long-term weed population dynamics,
Jute 30-45 and consequently weed management. In traditional
E. Vegetable crops farming, rotations comprised of crops with different
Cauliflower 30-45 life cycles are a key component of weed
Cabbage 30-45 management. Different planting and harvest dates
Okra 15-30 among these crops provide more opportunities for
Tomato 30-45 farmers to prevent either plant establishment or
Onion seed production by weeds.
30-75
7.2.2 Soil Solarization:
Spices
F. Soil Solarization is a very simple technique of
Cumin 20-40 mulching the soil with transparent polyethylene
* DAS= Days after sowing/planting sheet, especially when the soil has high moisture
content during summer so as to trap more solar heat
6. Principles of Weed Management: in the surface soil to raise the soil temperature to
The principles that underline ecologically and the level lethal to soil borne pests including weeds,
economically viable weed management system are: pathogens and nematodes etc. During mulching
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transparent polyethylene sheets should be buried on tillage of the land. Besides, rainy weather will
all the sides. Irrigation treatment should be given by transplant many weed seedlings dislodged during
flooding one day before mulching. It favours the the preparation of the stale seed-beds.
soil heating and increases the mean maximum soil 7.2.5Crop competitiveness: Using high yielding
temperature by about 90C at 5 cm depth and 70C at crop varieties which are more competitive against
10-15 cm depth. Duration of 4-6 weeks of Soil weeds in combination with other methods of weed
Solarization is ideal for achieving the excellent control is one of the most economical approaches to
results for rainy and winter seasons both and attain optimal crop yield.
provides control of Trienthema portulacastrum, 7.2.6 Crop mulching: Covering or mulching the
Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Digera arvensis, soil surface can reduce weed problems by
Echinochloa colonum, Eleusine indica in rainy preventing weed seed germination or by
season and Avena ludoviciana, Phalaris minor, suppressing the growth of emerging weed
Chenopodium album, Rumex dentatus, Fumaria seedlings. Mulches can be made from a number of
parviflora in winter season36. In our country higher materials: a living plant ground cover (e.g.
temperature prevails during the months of May- sugarcane trash), loose particles of organic or
June. Simultaneously, there is very less cropping inorganic matter spread over soil, and sheets of
activities in these months at farmers’ fields which artificial or natural materials laid on the soil
provides a good opportunity for controlling the surface.
weeds, pathogens and nematodes etc. for a longer 7.2.7 Time of sowing: In some crops early sowing
period by soil solarization which is an eco-friendly have the advantage in favour of crop to suppress the
technique. However, soil solarisation should be weeds, (e.g., Wheat) to compete with weeds that
selected on the basis of critical analysis of soil germinate later.
ecosystem as it contains several beneficial 7.2.8 Row spacing: Row width may be reduced in
organisms which may also be affected. some crops so that leaf canopy covers the soil faster
7.2.3 Tillage: Tillage prior to crop establishment and sheds out the weeds. However, closer spacing
serves mainly to prepare a weed free seed bed. It between rows should be balanced with keeping
eliminates established and emerged weeds prior to rows wide enough for hoeing/inter-culture
crop seeding and also moves weed seeds below the operations.
soil surface vertically, resulting in weed seed burial. 7.2.9 Seed rate: Higher seed rate increase the crop
It is suggested that an integrated weed management plant stand and cover the soil early to shed out the
strategy involving summer ploughing and inter-crop weeds within rows, e.g. wheat, soybean etc.
cultivation are essential for effective weed control 7.2.10 Zero tillage: The use of zero tillage would
in direct-sown, flood-prone, lowland rice, in order also reduce the costs of seeding. In rice-wheat
to ensure higher N-use efficiency and crop system, under zero tillage, the time taken between
productivity. rice harvest and wheat sowing is considerably
7.2.4 Stale seed bed: A stale seed-bed is one where shortened and early sowing of wheat after rice
a flush of weeds are destroyed before planting of results in better early crop growth to supress the
any crop. Most weed seeds germinate from top 4 to weeds and increase the wheat yield.
5 cm of surface soil. If a finally prepared seed-bed If weed seed production was minimized during the
is withheld from planting and it contains adequate growing season, weed seedling emergence in no-till
moisture in its top 4 to 5 cm of soil, a flush of would decline across the years compared with tilled
young weed seedlings will grow on it in about a systems as the surface weed seed pool in no-till will
week’s time. These weed seedlings can be depleted more rapidly by emergence and mortality.
destroyed either with shallow non-inverting tillage Burial of weed seeds in soil by tillage favours
implement like, spike-tooth harrow /spring-tooth persistence across time, thus leading to more weed
harrow / corrugated iron land roller / weeder- seedlings in later years. Farmers can get additional
mulcher / sweeps. Depending upon the time benefits from this pattern of weed seedling
available, one or two flushes of weeds can be emergence in no-till systems when it is combined
destroyed in this manner before planting crops in with crop diversity in their rotations.
the stale seed-beds. The main advantage of stale 7.3 Mechanical/Physical:
seed-beds is that crops germinate in weed-free To control the weeds at early stage of crop
environment. Stale seed-beds can be highly establishment hand weeding is being practiced by
effective in controlling weeds in crops planted in a farmers in India since they initiated agriculture. It is
rain-free period with the help of irrigation e.g. most effective eco-friendly weed management
berseem, lucern, potato etc. in India. However, in practice for annual weeds. Hand weeding is
rainy season, an odd shower may make stale seed- ineffective against perennial weeds due to their
beds too compact to plant crops without further regenerative capability. Mechanical management of
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weeds consists of using machines or human made into account while opting biological control of
tools to suppress the weeds at the young stage of weeds.
crops e.g. hand hoeing between rows of wheat, 7.5 Allelopathy:
rotary-hoe / weeder-harrow in maize and soybean, The detrimental effect of natural release of
inter-row cultivation (scuffling) by tractor drawn chemical compound (exudates) of one plant on
implements or bullock drawn cultivator in wider another plant(s) called allelopathy. These
spacing crops like sugarcane etc. To manage the compounds include phenolic acids, coumarins,
perennial weeds in non-crop areas, mower may also terpenoids and flavonoids. These allelopathic
be used to cut down the weeds from soil surface. chemicals inhibits the seed germination or reduce
Repeated mowing of weeds may also be practiced the growth of other plants species. These
to deplete the root reserves of the perennial weeds. compounds are released from the plants as a vapour
7.4 Biological: or leaching from the foliage or exudates from the
The Biological control of weeds comprises the use roots or during decomposition of the plant residues.
of living organisms to attack the specific weed Allelopathy in natural plant communities is a
population to keep it below threshold level without significant factor in maintaining the present balance
significantly affecting desirable plants. It includes among the various plant species. The allelopathy
use of insects, pathogens, nematodes, mites, can be used to manage certain kind of weeds in the
parasitic plants and competing plants. Besides cropping system. e.g., root exudates of Cirsium sp.
these, certain fish carps and snails may also be is deterimental to oat plants in the field; root
employed for the control of aquatic weeds. exudates of Euphorbia spp. is injurious to the flex
Historically, biological control methods have plants. Quack grass rhizome exudates is also
proved best on large infestation of a single weed reported to interfere with the uptake of nutrient by
species in range lands or in water bodies. Some the Maize. Similarly, allelopathic effect of some
outstanding examples of bio-control of weeds are crop plants may explore to manage the certain weed
the use of insect to control Pricklypear, infestations in the field. e.g., isolate 1,3,7-
Opuntia vulgaris (synonym Opuntia monocantha) Trimethylxanthine from Coffeaarabica have been
naturally by cochineal insect (Dactylopius reported to inhibit the germination of Amaranthus
indicus)in 1795 and later Opuntia dillenii by spinosus; and oat reported to have allelopathic
Dactylopius tomantosus (D. punte) after effect on Chenopodium spp.33
1926; Eichhornia crassipes, aquatic weed by weevil 7.6 Flame weeding
(Neochetina bruchi and N. eichhorniae) since 1982, Flame weeding may be used for spot weeding. Gas
control of Salvenia molesta, aquatic weed by weevil presser and ground speed may be used to control
Cyrtobagous salviniaesince 1983-8437 & 38. the heat at which the weeds are killed. Exposure to
Lantana camera, a bushy weed was also reported to heat for about one tenth of the second expands the
be suppressed by tinged bug (Teleonema water in the weeds & bursting of cell walls. In 3-4
scrupulosa) after 1940, however, later this was days weeds become brown and dead. The best
declared unsafe and whole test culture was results are obtained on hot dry days.
destroyed by FRI, Dehradun; limited suppression of 7.7 Chemical herbicide
Siam weed (Chromomolaena odorata) in South Use of chemical herbicide should be opted as a last
India by Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Srilanka resort for management of weeds in the field crops.
strains in rubber plantations. Limited suppression of The herbicides which are recommended by the
Crofton weed (Ageratina adenophora / Eupatorium CIBRC in a particular crop for control of specific
adenophorum / E. glandulosum) by tephrited gall weed species should only be advocated to the
fly (Procecidochares utilis) in Nilgiris (Tamil trainees / farmers. Herbicides are very selective and
Nadu), Darjeeling and Kalimpong areas. Limited their dose, time of application, method of
success for control of Parthenium hysterophorus application, dilution in water, if any etc. should be
weed has been achieved by Chrysomelid beetle adhere as per CIBRC claims for control of
(Zygogramma bicolorata)37. There is also report of particular weed(s) in a particular crop. For the same
suppression of Parthenium weed by more label claims, if many herbicides formulations are
competitive leguminous plant Cassia tora, which is recommended, the low a.i. dose herbicide may be
less harmful than Parthenium. Unfortunately, preferred over higher a.i. dose herbicide. The details
biological weed control has not developed to the of CIBRC registered herbicides formulations
point to make appreciable impact on the production recommended on various crops are available on the
of agronomic crops. CIBRC website www.cibrc.gov.in.
However, the host specificity test and feeding 7.7.1 Herbicide resistance
potential of bio-control agents must also be taken Continuous use of a particular herbicides in a
particular field may led to development of
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Introduction:
The genus Trichogramma and
Trichogrammatoidea are cosmopolitan in
distribution and parasitizing more than 200 species
of Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, Diptera, Hemiptera,
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Majority of
Trichogramma and Trichogrammatoidea are
primary parasitoids eggs of Lepidoptera (Tanwar et
al. 2006). It is important for plant protection
because of its wide spread natural occurrence and
its success as biological control agent by mass
releasing (Lenteren 2003). Since this parasitoid kills
the pest in the egg stage itself before the pest could
cause any damage to the crop and also that it is
quite amenable to mass production in the
laboratories, it has the distinction of being the
highest produced and most utilized biological
control agent in the world.
Trichogrammatidae includes the smallest of
insects, ranging in size from 0.2 to 1.5 mm
(Nagaraja, 1978). Trichogramma are difficult to
identify because they are so small and have
generally uniform morphological characters. Also,
certain physical characteristics such as body color
and the number and length of body hairs can vary
with body size, season, rearing temperature and the
host on which the adult was reared (Nagaraja,
1978).
Taxonomy, Identification and Distribution:
A major advance in the systematics of
Trichogramma was the discovery that
characteristics of male genitalia can be used to
identify species. This is the primary means of
identification today, but body color, wing venation
and features of the antennae serve as supporting
characteristics (Nagaraja & Nagarkatti, 1970;
Viggiani, 1971).
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Females cannot be identified with the same level pretiosum Lepidop
and litan
of confidence, so collections submitted for Riley tera orchar
identification must include males in addition to d crop
physical characteristics; studies of reproductive 5. Trichogramma Egg of Field Cosmopo
compatibility and mode of reproduction also have toidea bactrae Lepidop and litan
been especially valuable in identifying species Nagaraja tera orchar
(Girault, 1915; Pinto, 2006). d crop
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Mass production
Different species and strains of Trichogramma
typically prefer different host eggs and crop habitats
and have different searching abilities and tolerance
to weather conditions. Efficacy is improved by
selecting the most effective and adapted species or
strain for the specific crop / pest situation. In the
laboratory the parasitoids are multiplied on Corcyra
eggs. The eggs laid by the Corcyra moths are
collected and sieved to remove the moth scales etc.
The pure eggs thus obtained are exposed to ultra-
violet light in UV chamber to kill the host embryo
but at the same time permit parasitisation.
Laminar flow
Precautions
Poor quality of mass reared Trichogramma can
result in control failures. The artificial conditions of
mass rearing can select for genetic changes that
reduce the effectiveness of the Trichogramma in the
field. Such rearing conditions include rearing
multiple generations on unnatural host eggs, the
absence of plants, crowding and interference, rapid
generation time, and failure to rejuvenate genetic
stock. Except for obvious problems such as lack of
adult emergence or wing deformities, growers and
pest consultants cannot detect poor quality
Trichogramma prior to release. Commercial
suppliers are responsible for maintaining desirable
Figs.___. Corcyra rearing cage outer view and Inner characteristics necessary for good performance in
view the field. Production colonies should be periodically
replaced with individuals from a stock culture
The egg cards are placed into polythene bags of maintained on the natural or target host. Suppliers
suitable size and the nucleus card of Trichogramma also should assess the per cent host egg
are introduced in it. The easiest way to accomplish parasitization, adult emergence, and the sex ratio of
this is to place a piece of ‘Tricho egg card’ emerged adults to be sure they are within
containing parasitized eggs that are ready to yield acceptable standards. Standards for established
the adults and to hold them in subdued light for 2 to cultures on Corcyra are 95±5 per cent egg
3 days. parasitization, 90±5 per cent adult emergence, and a
sex ratio of 1 to 1.5 females per male.
Field release: The parasitoids are released in the
pharate stage or when few adults begin to emerge
from the host egg during the evening hours. The
cards are cut into bits neatly along the grids with
least damage to the eggs and stapled beneath the
foliage in the upper canopy level. To maximize the
field parasitization it is recommended to release the
parasitoids is as many locations as possible.
Recently scientists are beginning to advocate the
release of cards @ 1/5m row length.
The emerging parasites readily parasitize the Maintenance of history sheet
fresh eggs. The parasitoid - host ratio is adjusted Accurate information is needed on the history of
accordingly to 1:6 get effective parasitism. individual basins.
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The following information is furnished. 3. Preparation of Corcyra eggs:
1. Date of egg infestation The primary source of Corcyra eggs is reputed
2. Date of preparation of feed laboratories, commercial producers for bulk
3. Source of egg preparation. If it is intended to begin the production
4. Expected date of adult emergence with nucleus colony, the adult moths can be
5. Daily collection of moths collected from warehouses where the food materials
6. Problems encountered with the basin during are stored.
production a. The eggs used for building up the colony of
Corcyra have to be free from contaminants like the
Production of Host: moth scales and broken limbs and not exposed to
Corcyra cephalonica commonly called as rice meal UV light.
moth or rice moth is a pest of stored foods, b. The collections of overnight laid eggs are
viz.,cereals, cereal products, oilseeds, pulses, dried measured volumetrically to ascertain the number of
fruits, nuts and spices. Many of the natural enemies trays that can be infested with eggs. A cc of eggs is
mass-bred in the laboratory for use in field against known to contain approximately 16000 – 18000
crop pests are dependent on either egg or larval eggs.
stages of Corcyra due to the simple reason that it is 4. Infestation of medium with eggs
easier and cheaper to produce natural enemies on The overall production scheme involves initial
different stages of Corcyra than on their original infestation of the medium with Corcyra eggs in
hosts. desired quantities. This is accomplished by
sprinkling the freely flowing eggs on the surface of
Procedure the medium in individual basins. Per basin 0.5 cc
1. Preparation of rearing basins eggs of Corcyra is infested. The basins are carefully
The basins used for Corcyra multiplication are transferred to the racks.
thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with 5. Handling the trays during larval development
formaldehyde. Whenever the trays are emptied after The larvae that hatch out in 3-4 days begin to feed
a cycle of rearing, they have to be cleaned the fortified joar medium. At this stage, light
preferably to 2 per cent formaldehyde and returned webbings are noticed on the surface. As the larvae
to storage until further use. On reuse the cleaning grow up they move down. During this period the
steps are repeated. larvae are allowed to grow undisturbed in the trays.
2. Preparation of Jowar medium for Corcyra: Handling of adults: The adults begin to emerge
a. The required quantities of jowar grains are in 28-30 days after infestation of the eggs. The
coarsely milled and broken into 2-3 pieces in a adults can be seen on the inside the cage. They are
milling machine. The broken grains are heat either aspirated with mechanical moth collector or
sterilized at 100oC for 1 hour to eliminate the collected with specimen tubes. The whole operation
residual population of stored product insects viz., is carried out in a tent of mosquito net. This
Rhyzopertha dominica, Sitotroga cerealella, prevents the large-scale escape of the moths, which
Tribolium castaneum and fungal contaminants. if uncontrolled can migrate to the storage area and
Upon sterilization the grains are cooled under fan in spoil the grains stored by laying eggs. Workers
a clean area. The grains are then transferred to involved in the collection of moths should wear
basins @ 2.5 kg/basin. face moths continuously to avoid inhalation of
b. Groundnut kernel in required quantity is broken scales. The moths collected are transferred to the
using a pounding machine or a mechanical blender oviposition drum @ 1000 pairs per drum at a time.
(domestic mixer). Then 100 g of the broken kernel The oviposition drums of size 30 x 20 cm are made
is transferred to each basin and the contents are of plastic. The drums rest on tripod frames with
hand mixed thoroughly. legs of height 5cm. The bottoms of the drums are
c. Dry yeast (Bakers) and wettable sulfur is provided with wire meshes that enable collection of
added @ 5g/ basin and the contents are mixed eggs. The walls of the drums have two vents
thoroughly. A spray of 10 ml of 0.01-0.05% (ventilation holes) opposed to each other. The vents
streptomycin sulfate and mixing of the contents are again covered with wire mesh. The lids of the
follows this. This medium is used for rearing drums have handles besides slots for introducing
Corcyra larvae. the moths and adult feed. The oviposition drums
d. The number of basins required for egg filled in a day are maintained for four to seven
infestation is calculated and the medium is prepared successive days for egg collection after which are
accordingly. emptied and cleaned for next cycle of use.
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The adults are provided feed containing honey
solution. The adult feed is prepared by mixing 50 Introduction:
ml honey with 50 ml water. The feed is stored in Bracon hebetor is a common gregarious ecto –
refrigerator and used as and when required. Piece of larval parasitoid. There appears to be two strains of
cotton wool tied with a thread is soaked in the the parasitoid, one attacking field pests and the
solution and inserted into the drum through the slot other stored product pests.
at the top. From a basin, moths can be collected Among the hosts recorded are Corcyra
upto 90 days after which the number of moths cephalanica, Dichocracis punctiferalis, Eublemma
emerging dwindles down and keeping the basins is olivacea, Hellula undalis, Ostriniaicius kashmirica,
not economical for the producer. Helicoverpa armigera and Opisina arenosella of
Handling of eggs: The moths lay the eggs in which the O. arenosella is the important host.
large numbers loosely. The scales and broken limbs Parasitism is observed throughout the year, it
are also found in larger quantities along with the ranged from 26.2 to 26.7% during the peak period
eggs. They cause potential hazard to the workers of O. arenosella infestation.
after years of working in Corcyra laboratory. To Kingdom: Animalia
minimize the risk of scales freely floating in the air, Class: Insecta
the oviposition drums are placed on sheets of filter Order: Hymenoptera
paper in enamel trays which trap effectively the Family: Braconidae
scales. Sets of several oviposition drums are kept in S Specie Host Crop Distribution
ventilated place near an exhaust fan to enable the N s
workers comfort. Daily morning the oviposition 1. Mostly Field Cosmopolita
drums are lifted up and the wire-mesh bottoms are larval and n
cleaned gently with a shoe brush so that the eggs parasitoids orchar
hebetor
and remnants of scales and limbs settled on the Bracon of d crop
mesh are collected along with those on the filter lapidopter
paper. The collections are cleaned by gently rolling a
the eggs on filter paper to another container. Then
they are passed to sieves in series and finally clean Production procedure:
eggs are collected. The eggs are quantified in B. hebetor is reared on C. cephalonica at wide
measuring cylinders and used for building up the ranging temperature and fluctuating relative
stocks and natural enemy production. About 100 humidity.
pairs of adults produce 1.5 cc of eggs in 4 days Pairs sorted out from freshly emerged brood are
laying period inside the oviposition drums. From caged in specimen tubes (8 x 2.5 cm). Under
each basin an average of 2500 moths are collected. laboratory conditions it is easy to rear.
Hence from each basin 18.00 – 20.00 cc of eggs can Fifth instar caterpillars of C. cephalonica of similar
be obtained in 90 days. size are provided for oviposition and the parasitized
larva removed daily from the tubes and maintained
Reference separately.
Girault, A.A. (1915) Australian Hymenoptera The parasitoids are fed with 50% honey
Chalcidoidea I. Second supplement. Memoirs of provided as tiny droplets on wax-coated paper
the Queensland Museum. 3:142-153 strips.
Viggiani, G. (1971). The significance of the male B. hebetor completes its total developmental
genitalia in the Trichogrammatidae (Hym., period in 7-12 days. The egg, larval and pupal
Chalcidoidea). Proceedings, XIII International period are completed in 1-2, 2-4 and 3-7 days
Congress of Entomology, Moscow 1:313-314. respectively.
Pinto, J.D. (2006). A review of the New World The females start laying eggs 2-5 days after
genera of Trichogrammatidae (Hymenoptera). emergence on partially paralyzed host caterpillars.
Journal of Hymenoptera Research. 15(1):49-51. The paralyzed larvae (not receiving the eggs) die
Tanwar, R.K., Bambawale, O.M. and Singh, within 3-5 days. Female parasitoids feed on host’s
Surender Kumar and Singh, Amerika (2006). A haemolymph.
Handbook on Trichogramma: production and The eggs are laid singly or in groups of two to
field release. National Centre for Integrated Pest eight. A female is capable of laying 229 eggs (142-
Management, New Delhi–12. 345) on 14-32 host caterpillars during its life span
of 20-63 days, the daily average being 2-27, and
Mass production of Bracon hebetor
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laid maximum number of eggs during the first ten 1. Larval Field Andhra
days of oviposition period. ectoparasitoi and Pradesh;
A single host larva supports the development of d of the orchar Karnataka;
11 eggs and 9 larvae of the parasitoid. The coconut d crop Kerala;
nephantidis
preoviposition period is 3 days, oviposition period black-headed Tamil
Goniozus
22-55 days and post oviposition period 1-8 days. caterpillar, Nadu etc.
The fertile female lives for 20-63 days. B. hebetor Opisina
complete its developmental period on larvae of arenosella
Corcyra cephalonica in 8.6 (7-10) days.
Oviposition period lasts for 13 (5-22) days. The Production procedure:
mean fecundity is 72 (13 – 148). Females live for The parasitoid is multiplied on Corcyra
24-53 days. Egg viability is 92% and adult cephalonica larvae in diffused light. A pair of
emergence 81%. Male to female ratio is 5:1. parasitoid is introduced in tube (7.5 x 2.5 cm).
The adults are provided honey in the form of small
Precautions: droplets on wax coated paper. After a pre-
To avoid wastage, the surplus parasitoids could oviposition period of six days one healthy last instar
be stored in the cocoon stage for one month in the larva is provided in a vial.
refrigerator. The larvae parasitized and containing eggs of G.
The coccons are kept in a clear plastic jar (19x9 nephantidis are removed regularly from the vials till
cm) for emergence and provided with raisins as the death of the female. Such larvae are kept in
food. accordion type strips of paper in plastic boxes
Segregate the mite (Pediculoides ventricosus) which are covered by muslin cloth.
infested cultures of the host insect immediately. Considering the fecundity as 20-50, the female
is capable of parasitizing 6-7 larvae in three
Mass production of Goniozus nephantidis oviposition spells each separated by 4-5 days.
The life cycle of the parasitoid is completed in
Introduction 10-14 days (incubation 24-36 hrs, larval feeding 36-
Goniozus nephantidis is the most widely used 48 hrs, prepupal stage 48-60 hrs and cocoon period
parasitoid of Opisina arenosella. It is a sturdy 48 to 56 hrs + resting adult inside the cocoon 108-
gregarious larval or prepupal ectoparasitoid. 128 hrs).
The female practices maternal care of eggs and
larvae. The host larvae are parasitized and the Mass production of Chelonus blackburni
parasitoid even feeds on host body fluid.
The parasitoid is also capable of suppressing the Introduction
population by merely stinging and paralyzing 1st – Chelonus blackburni is introduced from Hawaii.
2nd instar larvae. G. nephantidis is the most A parthenogenetic egg-larval parasitoid, C.
common and effective parasitoid of late instars blackburnii has a fairly wide host range but in India
caterpillars of O. arenosella in several parts of the the common meal moth Corcyra cephalonica and
country. potato tuber moth Phthorimaea operculella have
The parasitoid is being mass multiplied and often been used for multiplication of this parasitoid.
released in Karnataka, Kerala and several other Kingdom: Animalia
states. Class: Insecta
Kingdom: Animalia Order: Hymenoptera
Class: Insecta Family: Braconidae
Order: Hymenoptera S specie Host Crop Distribution
Family: Bethylidae N s
2. Mostly egg Field Cosmopolita
S Specie Host Crop Distributio larval and n
blackburni
N s n parasitoids orchar
Chelonus
of d crop
Lepidopter
a
Production procedure
A set of 100, 0-24 hr old eggs of Corcyra (not
exposed to UV) are pasted to 5 x 5 cm card. This
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card containing eggs is exposed to 30 C.
blackburnii adults in a 1.5 l container.
The plastic container has windows with plastic
mesh for aeration. Two cotton swabs, one soaked in
10% honey solution and the other in drinking water
are also placed inside from the side opening which
is closed tightly with a cloth covered cotton plug.
The egg card after exposing to C. blackburnii for 24
hrs is removed and placed on 500 g sterilized Pearl
millet medium. In 30 days time, adults start
emerging from the cocoons formed in the Pearl
millet medium after completing development on
Corcyra larvae. The adults live for 25 days and their
fecundity is about 400 eggs.
Introduction
Trichoderma viridae besides other species of the
genus, is an omnipresent saprophytic fungus. Its Trichoderma viridae colonies on dead wood and
colonization in rhizosphere of crop plants renders other organic matter
long time protection against diseases, improved
growth of plants besides imparting resistance. Such Biology of biological control agents
species as T. harzianum, T. hamatum, T. lignorum Trichoderma viridae form hyaline, branched and
and their biotypes have the most biological and septate hyphae with profuse conidiophores and
commercial importance. Trichoderma biofungicides conidial formation. Conidiospores are ovoid to
are highly effective against the powdery mildew, round spores, green in colour.
the grey and the white rot, the mildew and other
diseases. Active components of biopesticides made
from this fungus are their spores, mycelium and
metabolites. Trichoderma is able to suppress more
than 60 species of pathogens (Pythium, Botritis,
Phoma, Sclerotinia, Fusarium, Ascochyta,
Alternaria, etc.) on different plants (cucumbers,
tomatoes, cabbages, peppers, various ornamentals,
cereals and grain legume crops).
Taxonomy, Identification and distribution
Kingdom: Fungi
Class: Sordariomycetes
Order: Hypocreales
Family: Hypocreaceae
Genus: Trichoderma
Species: viridae
Trichoderma viridae is widely distributed in the
world and found in substantial numbers in nearly all
agricultural soils and in other environments such as
decaying wood, etc.
Conidiophores and conidiospores under microscope
Among their other activities, they grow
tropically toward hyphae of other fungi, coil about
them in a lectin-mediated reaction, and degrade cell
walls of the target fungi. This process
(mycoparastitism) limits growth and activity of
plant pathogenic fungi. Mycoparasites produce cell
wall-degrading enzymes, which allow them to bore
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holes into other fungi and extract nutrients for their Production on broken maize, sorghum or
own growth. In the process of development finger millets
Trichoderma synthesizes a lot of antibiotics
(gliotoxin, viridine, trichodermin, etc.). Material required
Mass production of biological control agent Sorghum/ Maize broken grains, distilled water,
Production on PDA hot air drier, autoclavable bags/ conical flasks,
autoclave, D-Glucose/ Jaggery, Yeast extract,
Materials required Cotton plugs, Streptocyclin, inoculation needle,
Potato 200 gm muslin cloth, grinder, talcum Powder, carboxy
Carboxy Methyl Cellulose 5 gm/kg methyl cellulose
Distilled Water 1 litre
Streptocyclin 03.5 gm Procedure
Agar-Agar 20 gm 1) Take 100 gm broken maize/sorgum grain, wash
D-glucose 20 gm with distilled water properly and keep in hot air
drier for 15 min.
Method 2) Transfer the grains from drier to autoclavable
1) Take 200gm healthy Potato, wash with distilled polybag/conical flask
water, cut it into slice and keep in a beaker 3) Add 100ml distilled water, 1gm D-
2) Add 400 ml distilled water and boil it for 45 min. glucose/Jaggery and 0.5gm Yeast extract
till starch oozes out from potato slices 4) Mix the content by proper shaking and plug the
3) Filter the content through fine muslin cloth and mouth with cotton plug and tie with thread
save the effluents 5) Autoclave the polybag/conical flask for 15-20
4) Add 20 gm Agar-Agar, 20 gm D-glucose and minute at 15psi
heat it till Agar-Agar solubilizes 6) After Autoclaving, remove the polybag/conical
5) Make the required volume 1 litre by adding flask and allow the content to cool
distilled water 7) Add 0.01gm streptocyclin solution and shake
6) Transfer the content in a conical flask and close 8) Under LAFC, perform Inoculation of
the mouth with cotton plug, wrap the mouth with Trichoderma culture by using sterile inoculation
Aluminium foil and tie with thread needle
7) Autoclave it for 15 min at 15psi 9) Plug the mouth with cotton and tie with thread
8) After completion of Autoclaving process, and keep the inoculated polybag/conical flask
remove the conical flask and allow it to cool inside incubator/at room temp for 6-7 days.
9) Add 0.5gm Streptocyclin per litre of media and 10) After full growth of mycelia, remove the
mix it properly material in a plastic tray , spread with spreader and
10) Transfer the media into test tube/Petri Dishes cover with thin black muslin cloth and allow it to
under Laminar Air Flow Chamber shade dry for 5-6 days
11) When media get solidified, use sterile 11) After complete drying, grind the Trichoderma
inoculation needle and under spirit lamp inside material to powder using grinder
LAFC 12) Prepare the 1000 Gm ready to use formulation
12) Take the Trichoderma culture from mother as below:
stocks with sterile inoculation needle and inoculate Trichoderma material 100gm + Talcum Powder
it into fresh PDA media 900gm + Carboxy methyl cellulose 5gm
13) Close the mouth and seal the petriplate with
Parafilm
Application
14) Keep
Suspend Trichoderma viride material in
the
sufficient water (500g/100L) to achieve uniform
petriplate
application. Apply at the rate of 100-200 g per
inside
cubic metre (loose) of greenhouse potting mix, soil
Incubator/at
or planting beds. Trichoderma viride can be applied
room
through low pressure watering nozzles such as fan
temperature
nozzles or other watering systems (drip system)
after filtering with filters. Agitate to maintain
suspension. For best effect, treat potting mix several
days before use for seeding or transplants.
Trichoderma viridae colony on PDA
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For bulbs & Ornamentals: Dip bulbs in
Trichoderma viride suspension (100 g/L) prior to Introduction
planting. Beauveria bassiana is a mitosporitic and
aggressive entomopathogenic fungus, attacking a
Dose wide host range of insects at larval or adult stages.
Soil application: 5 kg /ha along with any organic It was the first recorded entomopathogen in world
fertilizer (without pathogenic contaminants). Seed (Bassi 1835). It attacks all stages of insects of all
treatment: @ 4-5 gm per kg of seeds as per standard groups. Some of the pests of economic importance ,
wet treatment. Seedling treatment: @ 100 g/l prior which can be targeted for control through B.
to planting. Bassiana are Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera
It is necessary to incorporate the conidia of spp., Odontotermis spp, Chilo infuscatellus,
Trichoderma every 10–15 days for the control of Ideoscopus spp, Bemisia tabaci, etc. (Bambawale et
the mentioned phytopathogens. al 2005).
Two to three applications in vegetables
ornamentals and 4-5 applications in lawns and Taxonomy, Identification and distribution of
landscape crops are recommended. Applications common species
during early stages of plant growth protect the plant Valid scientific name: Beauveria bassiana
during critical stages of development. (Balsamo) Vuillemin
Kingdom: Fungi
Precaution Class: Sordariomycetes
There are some limitations for the application of Order: Hypocreales
Trichoderma biofungicides. At first they are Family: Clavicipitaceae
preventive only because biofungicides are usually Genus: Beauveria
not able to control the diseases, which have already Species: bassiana
developed. The fungicides containing Trichoderma
are effective at temperatures more than 14°C (the B. Bassiana occurs world wide and has one of
optimal threshold of development is observed at the largest host lists among imperfect fungi. It
24–28°C). Use of the conidial form of the fungicide occurs as a ubiquitous saprophyte in soil
makes the application independent on the (Bambawale et al 2005). The pathogen is of
conditions of relative air humidity. cosmopolitan nature. The hosts include mainly
Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera and
Reference Hymenoptera.
Baby, U.I. 1998. Biocontrol potential of fungicide
resistant mutants of Trichoderma spp. Indian Biology of Beauveria bassiana
Journal of Microbiology 38(3): 165-166.
Biswas, K.K. 1999. Screening of isolates of Beauveria bassiana is an anamorphic fungus
Trichoderma harzianum Rifai for their relative with septate hyaline mycelium. Colonies appear
biocontrol efficacy against Fusarium oxysporum white in cultures or tufts of white mycelium bearing
f.sp. udum and Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. Annals masses of powdery spores. Conidiophores bear
of Plant Protection Sciences 7 (2): 125-130. conidia in acropetal succession. The conidiospores
Bora, L.C., Minku, Das., Das, B.C. and Das, M. are tiny, measuring only a few microns. A spore is
2000. Influence of microbial antagonists and soil produced at the tip of the mother cell and the
amendments on bacterial wilt severity and yield growth of the mother cell ceases. A new growing
of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Indian point initiates just below this terminal spore, grows
Journal of Agricultural Sciences 70 (6): 390- past it and a second spore is produced at a higher
392. level. This uses up the new growing point and a
Chakrabarti, D.K., Kumar, R. and Prasad, J. 1998. third growing point is then initiated just below the
Stem rot of Psoralea corylifolia and its second spore. Every time a spore is produced the
biological control. Indian Journal of Agricultural hyphal tip is used up and a new growing point is
Sciences 68 (6) : 333-335. produced. In this way a succession of spores is
produced with the youngest spore at the tip (= i.e
acropetal succession) and the spore head gets longer
and longer. When all the spores are dislodged the
spore-bearing tip of the conidiogenous cell has a zig
Mass production of Beauveria bassiana zag appearance and is referred to as a rachis ( this
107
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
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term is also used for the seed head in wheat when
all the seeds are
gone).
108
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
Holding the liquid mother culture bottle above Bambawale, O.M., Sangale, U.R., Nasim Ahmad &
the flame, remove plug and add 2 drops of Meena, B.L. 2005. Potential of Fungal and
surfactant and 10 drops of antibiotic & shake well Bacterial Pathogens in the Management of Key
Draw 15 ml liquid culture in the sterilized Lepidopteran Pests. In: Integrated Pest
syringe and inject into the bag through cotton plug Management- Principles and Applications
[Care to avoid puncturing of bag] Volume 1: Principles, Eds Amerika Singh, OP
Mix well, spread rice grain within bag and place Sharma & DK Garg. Pp 100-119.
in racks for incubation Bhadauria, Bhanu Pratap, Smita Puri & PK Singh
After 2 weeks incubation, on profuse (2012). Mass Production of Entomopathogenic
sporulation, gently crush the lumps into individual Fungi using Agricultural products. The Bioscan
grains 7(2): 229-232.
Cut open bags from sides, spread the culture Latifian M., Bahar Rad, Majid Amani and Esmaeil
within the bag and allow drying for 4-5 days Rahkhodaei (2013). Mass production of
After complete drying, separate the spores by entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana
sieving (Balsamo) by using agricultural products based
Allow drying on the work bench for about 3 on liquid-solid diphasic method for date palm
days. A good culture with 1 kg rice yields about 40 pest control. International Journal of Agriculture
g dry conidia in two or 3 sievings at weekly and Crop Sciences 5(19): 2337-2341.
intervals. Sieving should be done under hood to
avoid inhalation of spores. Production of the nuclear polyhedrosis virus
Pack the dried spores in laminated aluminium of Helicoverpa armigera
foil and store in freezer compartment of a
refrigerator. Introduction
In India, Helicoverpa armigera is of major
Precaution importance damaging a wide variety of food, fibre,
The fungus has been kwon to cause infection of oilseed, fodder and horticultural crops. The nuclear
nasal passage in human, therefore caution is polyhedrosis virus of H. armigera (HaNPV) is
necessary (Amerika Singh et al 2005). currently used for the management of H. armigera
on chickpea, cotton, pigeon pea, tomato and
Maintenance of quality sunflower. Mass production of Nuclear
Formulations should contain conidia of Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) on commercial scale is
Beauveria bassiana at a concentration of 2.3 x 107 restricted to in vivo procedures in host larvae which
spores per ml or at least 5 x 108 spores per gram. are obtained by
Viability of the spores is determined by culture on Field collection from cotton, pigeon pea and
nutrient agar and counting the colonies formed. chickpea – H. armigera
Efficacy is checked by bioassay with an appropriate Mass culturing in the laboratory in semisynthetic
insect. diet – H. armiger
Some small scale producers use field – collected
Field release larvae for mass production of NPV in spite of
Beauveria bassiana is released as foliar sprays the following constraints.
against borers, whitefly, thrips, aphids, mealybugs Collection of a large number of larvae in
and a range of soft-bodied coleopteran, homopteran optimum stage (late IV / early V instars) is time-
and heteropteran pests. Application rates depend consuming and can be expensive in terms of
upon the crop and the pests to be controlled. labour and transportation costs.
Wild populations of insects may carry disease
Dose
causing organisms like
The normal application rate on commodity crops is
microsporidians,cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus,
750 to 1000 ml of product per hectare, for
stunt virus and fungal pathogens which will
ornamentals under cover or outdoors 24 to 80 ml
affect both virus production and quality.
per 10 litres and on turf and lawns 32 to 96 ml per
Introduction of wild strains of NPV resulting in
100 square metres.
quality control problems.
Reference
Bassi A. (1835). Del mal del segno calcinaccio Transportation of a large number of larvae with
moscardino malattia che affeigge bachi de seta. cannibalistic behaviour will be a difficult task.
1. Teorica. Orcesi, Lodi.
109
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
Parasitized larvae collected from the field will 2. Cook chickpeas in 360ml of water for 10
die prematurely yielding little virus. minutes and then transfer to a mixer.
Rearing of larvae in the natural host plant will 3. Add the agar to the chickpea flour and mix
involve frequent change of food at least once a day 4. The Wesson’s salt mix, methyl paraben, sorbic
during the incubation period of 5-9 days increasing acid and yeast are added together and
the handling time and hence the cost. In order to homogenised for 5 minutes.
reduce the cost, field collected larvae are released 5. After the died has cooled to about 70oC, add the
into semi synthetic diet treated with virus inoculum. vitamin mix, ascorbic acid, carbendazim,
Mass culturing of insects in semi synthetic diet formalin and streptomycin sulphate, and mix the
involves high level of expertise, hygiene and died well for 5 minutes.
cleanliness. 6. While still warm, dispense the diet into the
Composition of semi-synthetic diet for H. armigera rearing vessels, place (preferably) in laminar
flow hood and leave to cool and solidify.
Component Quantity 7. Cover the diet with clingfilm and store in a
Chickpea flour 100g refrigerator until use.
Yeast 30g Production procedure
The NPV of H. armigera is propagated in early
Wesson’s salt mix 07g
fifth instar larvae. The virus is multiplied in a
Methyl Paraben 02g facility away from the host culture laboratory. The
Sorbic acid 01g dose of the inoculum used is 5 x 105 polyhedral
Ascorbic acid 03g occlusion bodies (POB) in 10 ml suspension. The
Agar 13g virus is applied on to the semisynthetic diet (lacking
Vanderzint vit. Solution 08ml formaldehyde) dispensed previously in 5 ml glass
Streptomycin sulphate 40mg vials. A blunt end polished glass rod (6 mm) is used
Carbendazim 675mg to distribute the suspension containing the virus
Formalin 02ml uniformly over the diet surface. Early fifth instar
Water 720ml stage of larvae are released singly into the glass
vials after inoculation and plugged with cotton and
Procedure for larval diet incubated at a constant temperature of 25oC in a
1. Boil agar in 360ml of water, until completely laboratory incubator. When the larvae exhausted the
feed, fresh untreated diet is provided. The larvae are
observed for the
development of
virosis and the
cadavers collected
carefully from
individual bottles
starting from fifth
day. Approximately,
200 cadavers are
collected per sterile
cheese cup (300 ml)
and the contents are
frozen immediately.
Depending upon
need, cadavers are
removed from the
refrigerator and
thawed very rapidly
by agitation in
water.
Processing of NPV
The method of
dissolved. processing of NPV
110
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
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requires greater care to avoid losses during The newly hatched grub is sluggish but becomes
processing. The pellet finally collected is suspended active after 3 to 4 hours. The tiny grub is pale
in distilled water and made up to a known volume, greyish with white lines across the body along intra
which is necessary to calculate the strength of the segmental regions. These white lines become
POB in the purified suspension. prominent after few hours and white wax strands
develop after a day. The grub has four larval instars,
and the larval stage occupies about 20 days. They
Mass production of Cryptolaemus feed on all stages of mealy bugs. Duration of first,
montrouzieri Mulsant second, third and fourth instar grubs are 3-4, 4, 4-5-
7-8 days respectively. Grownup grubs are entirely
Introduction: covered with white wax strands. When the grub is
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant was disturbed, it exudes a yellow fluid from the dorsal
introduced into India in 1898 by Newport from surface of the body for defensive purpose. The
Australia mainly for the control of C. viridis, but prepupal period is 2 to 4 days when it suspends
has established on many species of mealybugs and feeding activities.
scales. It has been successfully used for the control The pupal period varies from 7 to 9 days.
of guava mealybugs, F. virgata, guava green shield The adult spends about one day in the pupal case
scale, Chloropulvinaria psidii (Maskell), grapevine before it emerges. It is covered with a white powder
mealybug, M. hirsutus, coffee mealybug, like substance for a day. The male could be
Planoeoeeus citri (Risso), etc. distinguished from the female by the colouration of
first pair of legs. The first pair of legs in the case of
male is brown and the latter two pairs being black,
Taxonomy, Identification and distribution of
whereas in the female all the three pairs are black.
common species Male to female ratio is 1 : 1. Adults are also known
Kingdom: Animalia
to attack and feed the mealy bugs. Longevity of
Class: Insecta
adults ranges from 50 to 60 days and the fecundity
Order: Coleoptera
is about 200-220 eggs.
Family: Coccinellidae
SN specie Host Crop Distributi
Mass production of Cryptolaemus
s on
1. Mealy Citrus, Widely
montrouzieri Mulsant:
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Maintenance of quality:
Sufficient food should be provided to the
predators. A temperature of 22 to 25°C and a
relative humidity of 70 to 80 % are optimal and
should be maintained. Absence of live product
contaminants, maintenance of purity and viability
of C. montrouzieri are of great importance in order
to maintain the quality. Breeding with field
collected wild population after every third
generation is advisable. Sex ratio of 1:1 to be
maintained during release.
Transport:
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is supplied as adults
packed per 25 or 500 pieces in plastic tubes with
filter paper as carrier. If necessary, they can be
stored for a short while at a temperature of 10-15°C Biology of Host (Maconellicoccus hirsutus):
and RH >85% The grapevine mealy bugs occur throughout the
year on grapevine. The bugs are found the leaves,
Field release: shoots, nodes, bunch and loose bark in the vine.
Before releasing in the field in the endemic The adult females are pinkish and covered with a
areas, moderate to severely infested plants are mealy coat. The fecundity per adult is 350-500
marked. The plant trunks are ringed one foot away eggs. The orange coloured eggs hatch in 5-10 days
with a band of 5% diazinon granules 24 hrs before and the crawlers migrate and settle on places that
support their food requirement. The crawlers
112
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
become sedentary as they advance in age. The burlap used are sterilized using common bleach.
multiplication rate of the bugs is higher in summer Used pumpkin fruits with symptoms of mould
months and life cycle gets prolonged during cooler invasion are disposed of immediately. The cages
months. are to be set up in ant proof conditions. The culture
should be free from parasitoid infestation.
Host production:
Material required: Maintenance of quality:
Large sized cages, stainless steel stands, red Culture should be a pure one, free from live
pumpkins, wax, carbendazim, burlap, camel hair product contaminants, parasitoids, diseases, etc.
brush, etc.
Maintenance of history sheet:
The following information is furnished.
Procedure:
1. Date of infestation with mealybug.
Colony establishment 2. Scientific name of the species.
The colonies of the mealy bugs are established
3. Source of mealy bug.
from field collection initially. Guava plantations,
4. Different developmental periods.
vineyards, croton plants, citrus and pomegranate
5. Problems encountered with the culture
gardens are good reservoirs of the mealy bug
during production.
populations. From them a primary colony under
quarantine is established separately in the lab
utilizing the quarantine facility. During this period
the colony is purified to obtain mealy bug
population free of attacks by parasitoids and
scavenging ants.
Culture maintenance
The mealy bugs are cultured on pumpkin (red)
in the laboratory. It is very difficult to maintain the
colony on the natural host plants. The selection of
pumpkin is critical for successful development of
mealy bugs. Fleshy pumpkins with intact peduncle
and deep ridges and furrows of weight 2.5 kg
devoid of wounds and mouldy patches are used for
multiplication of the bugs. The pumpkins are
soaked in carbendazim 0.5% for 1 min. and shade
dried. The cut ends and wounds are plugged with
molten wax. Along the furrows burlap is provided
to facilitate settling of the crawlers. The pumpkins
are placed in large sized cages over stainless steel
stands. The cages are set up in ant proof conditions
as the mealy bugs secrete honey dews which attract
ants invariably.
Ovisacs of healthy adults are collected and
placed on fresh pumpkin in the laboratory Reference:
individually. From them, the eggs are allowed to Leppla, N.C, Bloem, K. A. and Luck, R.F.2002.
hatch and multiply. The crawlers move along the Quality control for mass-reared arthropods.
burlap and settle. In a month time, the mealy bugs Proceedings of the Eighth and Ninth Workshops
begin to smother the entire surface of the pumpkin. of the IOBC Working Group on Quality Control
From this stock, subsequent colonies are of Mass-Reared Arthropods.pp 171.
established. When the colony is in active growth National repository of natural enemies of crop pests
period with breeding females, the ovisacs are and weeds. Final technical report (01-04-1997 to
collected with the help of camel hair brush and 31-03-2000). Project Directorate of Biological
transferred to fresh pumpkins prepared as above. Control (Indian Council of Agricultural
Research) Hebbal, Bellary road, Bangalore- 560
024.
Precaution:
During the mass production care is taken to Sahayaraj,K. 2004. Indian insect predators in
avoid fungal invasion. The cages, steel ware and biological control. Daya pullishing house.
113
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
1123/74. Devaram Park, Tri Nagar, Delhi- 3.
areca nut,
Schonherr
circumdat
Coconut,
Diaspine
southern
110035.
pepper,
coffee,
scales
black
Salih, M, Atlihan,R. and Karaca,I.2006. The life
India
etc.
table of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant
C.
us
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) after different
storage periods. Journal of Food, Agriculture &
Environment. 4 (1): 282-287. Biology of Chilocorus nigrita (Fabricious):
Singh, S.P.1995. Technology for Production of Length 3.2-4.0 mm; width 2.9-3.9 mm. Form
Natural Enemies. Project Directorate of subrounded, almost hemispherical and strongly
Biological Control., Post Bag No. 2491. H.A. convex. Head dull orange yellow. Pronotum dark
Farm Post, Bangalore-560024 (India). pitchy brown to black in middle, paler on sides,
http://www.biobest.be anterolateral flaps orange yellow. Elytra black,
http://www.nbaii.res.in shiny, with fine punctations. Ventral side including
http://www.tnau.ac.in/ legs and inner margins of elytral epipleura orange
yellow to yellowish brown, outer margins of
epipleura pitchy brown to black. Male genitalia and
Mass production of Chilocorus nigrita
female spermatheca as illustrated. Larva greyish,
(Fabricious) oval in outline with numerous spiny, branched
protuberances on dorsal side.
Introduction: Studies on biology of Chilocorus nigrita (Fab.)
Chilocorus nigrita (Fabricius) is a voracious revealed that total developmental period of C.
predator of many immobile or slow-moving nigrita was shortest (26.13 days) on Melanaspis
Homoptera, especially diaspine scales like glomerata (Green) when compared with Aspidiotus
sugarcane scale, Melanaspis glomerata (Green), destructor (Sign.) and Hemiberlesia lataniae
California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), (Signoret). The fecundity and longevity of C.
Green shield scale, Chloropulvinaria psidii, nigrita were found to be comparatively high with
coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor and maximum suitability index (2.638) when reared on
coffee green scale, Coccus viridis (Green) and also M. glomerata. Adults of C. nigrita was voracious
aphids, aleyrodids, psyllids, pseudococcids, than grub stage and each adult required 1195.65 ±
margarodids, coccids, etc. (Samways, 1984). This 23.01, 1183.33 ± 52.04, 1095 ± 67.27 number of M.
predator is encountered naturally in several glomerata, A. destructor and H. lataniae while a
ecosystems where diaspine scales are abundant. It is total of 244.41 ± 4.89, 228.73 ± 6.52 and 219.73 ±
native to the Indian subcontinent and has been 3.26 number of scale insects were consumed by
introduced into USA for the biological control of grub in its all four stages, respectively. Old grubs
Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) on citrus, into consumed more scales than the young grubs.
Mauritius and Hawaii for Aspidiotus destructor
Signoret on coconut and for other scale insects in
Mass production of Chilocorus nigrita:
several other countries.
Material required:
Taxonomy, Identification and distribution of
Cages, Honey-agar diet, plastic plates, cotton pads,
common species
sugarcane setts inoculated with scale insects, etc.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Insecta
Procedure:
Order: Coleoptera
The predator can be multiplied on several diaspine
Family: Coccinellidae
scales (Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), Hemiberlesia
SN species Host Crop Distribution lataniae (Signoret) and others. But is easily
1.
s nigrita
nut,
Chilocoru
multiplied on M. glomerata.
coconut,a
in India
distribute
(Fabricio
mango,
pepper,
insects,
Widely
brinjal,
aphids,
black
Scale
cane,
dreca
etc.
us)
Lakshadw
subindicu
Coconut,
Diaspine
southern
Islands,
pepper,
coffee,
scales
India,
etc.
etc.
eep
114
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
sugar agar solution starts boiling honey solution is The egg containing pads in hard card board
added and the mixture boiled for about half a boxes or adults packed in plastic tubes with filter
minute. The hot adult diet is removed from the fire paper as carrier are readily transported to the
and small drops arranged on plastic plates or hard release site.
board or thick cards. On solidifying the diet is
offered to the beetles. Field release:
The first beetles start emerging from the The pads are placed or distributed throughout
multiplication cage in about 30 days time and the the sugarcane field by locating the heavily infested
beetles continue to emerge for about a week. The focal points within the field. The hatching grubs
adults are collected daily and the days collection start feeding on the scale insects present in the
kept in separate cages, 100 beetles each (A) where vicinity and generation of the beetle develops in the
breeding of progenies has to continue, and 1000 sugarcane field. The beetles of the second
beetles (B) each from where eggs are obtained for generation which have developed in the sugarcane
field release. The beetles start egg laying within 5 field disperse to feed on the population of the scale
to 11 days. For field release (B) the eggs are insect in the area.
obtained on cotton wool cut into squares, about 4
cm x 4 cm and laid over the feeding sites. The Dose:
females readily oviposit on such pads. In endemic areas 100 spots per hectare are
Thirty five 4 cm x 4 cm pads of the cotton are selected and at each spot 10 pads containing eggs
placed in each egg obtaining adult beetle cage (B) are placed over the scale infested canes. In areas
containing 1000 adults each and the pads with eggs where adult beetle release is preferred, release 1500
removed every day. Each pad contains about 40 beetles of C. nigrita and /or Pharoscymnus horni
eggs (usually more). Weise per hectare at the first appearance of the pest.
This beetle can also be cultured on Latania In Citrus: Ten adults / tree.
Scale, Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) on
pumpkins. Maintenance of history sheet:
The following information is furnished.
Precaution: 1. No. of adults released per cage.
Only 24 hr old eggs should be dispatched, so 2. Date of release.
that by the time the shipment reaches the 3. Different developmental periods.
destination the eggs tend to hatch thus precluding 4. Expected date of adult emergence.
egg parasitism in the field. 5. Collection of adults.
The procedure adopted for producing C. nigrita 6. Problems encountered with the culture
could also be used for producing Pharoscymnus during production.
horni Weise, Sticholotis madagassa and Rhizobius
(Lindorus) lopthanthae (Blaisdell) and other similar Biology of Host (Melanaspis glomerata (Gree)
beetles feeding on diaspine scale insects. Many (Diaspididae: Hemiptera):
diaspine scales can also be multiplied on pumpkins. The adult female is soft bodied, small, disc like,
The larvae of certain coccinellid beetles particularly eyeless and degenerated. Males are winged and
of R. lophanthae tend to develop cannibalism in the short lived. The scales (protective covering) of
absence of suitable stage and sufficient number of males are usually oval and oblong whereas in case
the hosts (these conditions normally do not develop of females it is round and circular. Females are
in commercial production units where the ovoviviparous and never come out from her scale
production assembly is geared to give a definite covering.
turn out to meet the demand of the farmers). Adult males after coming out from under surface
Maintenance of quality: of the scale begin to move on the internodes in
Sufficient food should be provided to the search of the female. After copulation female
predators. Absence of live product contaminants, produces nymphs. Female is ovoviviparous and
maintenance of purity and viability of the species produces about 400 nymphs during her life time.
are of great importance in order to maintain the The nymphs that hatch out inside body come out
quality. Breeding with field collected wild through the genital aperture of the female. The
population after every third generation is advisable. young tiny yellowish nymph which comes out from
Strict maintenance of hygienic condition. beneath the mother scale crawls on cane surface
and settle down on one of the internodes. Nymphs
Transport: insert its proboscis into the plant tissues and suck
115
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
the cell sap. Once it settles down never moves from The initial culture of M. glomerata collected
that spot. Nymph secretes a protective covering from the field should be freed from all natural
(scale) around it-self inside which metamorphosis enemies. The sets used for producing should be
occurs and adults are formed. The pest remains disinfected and waxed before use. The shriveled
active almost throughout the year and under South- sets if any should be discarded. Only highly
Indian conditions 4- 9 overlapping generations are susceptible cane varieties should be used to produce
completed in a year. The males complete their life healthy scale insects in required quantity.
cycle in about 20-25 days whereas the females take
about 40-45 days for the same purpose. Maintenance of quality:
Culture should be a pure one, free from live
Host production: product contaminants, parasitoids, diseases, etc.
Material required:
Sugarcane setts, formalin, Benlate, paraffin wax, Maintenance of history sheet:
plastic trays, piece of mosquito net, black cloth, The following information is furnished.
cement pots, cages, iron frames. 1. Date of infestation with scale insect.
Procedure: 2. Scientific name of the species.
M. glomerata is ovoviviparous in reproduction. 3. Source of scale insect.
Six to eight month old healthy canes without any 4. Different developmental periods.
fissures and with undamaged buds of susceptible 5. Problems encountered with the culture
varieties like Co671, Co4133 and Co740 are during production.
selected for culturing the scale insect. The cane
pieces are cut into 40-45 cm pieces bearing three Reference:
internodes each. The sets are surface sterilized with Leppla, N.C, Bloem, K. A. and Luck, R.F.2002.
formalin and 2% Benlate, shade dried and the cut Quality control for mass-reared arthropods.
ends dipped in moulten paraffin wax to prevent Proceedings of the Eighth and Ninth Workshops
fungal infection and drying. The sets are arranged of the IOBC Working Group on Quality Control
in plastic trays (30X40X6.5 cm) the inner sides of of Mass-Reared Arthropods.pp 171.
which are painted black or in breeding cages 0.3 sq Murali B. R.K. and Suresh K. 2006. Comparative
meter. The initial culture of the host insect is started biology and predatory potential of black beetle,
by bringing cane scrapings bearing full grown Chilocorus nigrita (Fab.) on three scale insects.
scales from heavily infested fields. The scrapings Journal of Entomological Research. 30(2): 159
are places over a piece of mosquito net helping – 164.
them spread over prepared cane pieces horizontally. National repository of natural enemies of crop pests
The trays are covered with a black cloth and and weeds. Final technical report (01-04-1997 to
fastened with a string. Similarly the cages are 31-03-2000). Project Directorate of Biological
covered with black cloth to obtain better setting and Control (Indian Council of Agricultural
good culture by creating dark conditions. After 48 Research) Hebbal, Bellary road, Bangalore- 560
hrs, the sets are rotated to ensure uniform 024.
infestation. Once pure culture is established, the Sahayaraj,K. 2004. Indian insect predators in
subsequent infestation is obtained by placing the biological control. Daya pullishing house.
freshly prepared canes in close contact with well 1123/74. Devaram Park, Tri Nagar, Delhi-
infested canes. After 72 hrs they are planted by 110035.
removing the wax from one side in sterilized moist Samways, M.1. 1984. Biology and economic value
sand in cages or in cement pots 62X62X30 cm of the scale predator Chilocorus nigritus (F.).
containing jungle soil. The planted sets are covered (Coccinellidae). Biocontrol News and
with polyvinyl cages 20 cm in height and 15 cm in Information. 4: 91-105.
diameter and covered with lid on which window is Singh, S.P.1995. Technology for Production of
cut and fixed with net to provide aeration. Natural Enemies. Project Directorate of
The inoculated cane sets are placed in specially Biological Control., Post Bag No. 2491. H.A.
designed iron frames (45X35X20 cm) containing Farm Post, Bangalore-560024 (India).
5X5 cm squares and sterilized water. The water in http://www.ipcnet.org/n/bpd/scaleInsects/scaleInsec
the tray is changed once in two days. ts_control.htm
http://www.nbaii.res.in
Precaution: http://tnau.ac.in
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com
116
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
Class: Insecta
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
coccivora Ayyar
Scale cotton, guava, distribut
insects, mango, ed
aphids, mulberry, through
Scymnus
whitefly, teak, citrus, out
mites, etc. grapevine, India.
etc.
2. Mealybugs, brinjal, Widely
aphids, cotton, guava, distribut
mites, mango, ed
brunnescens
midges, mulberry, through
white fly, teak, citrus, out
etc. grapevine, India.
etc.
3. Mealybugs, brinjal, Widely
nubilus Mulsant
aphids, cotton, guava, distribut
mites, mango, ed
midges, mulberry, through
white fly, teak, citrus, out
etc. grapevine, India.
etc.
4. Aphids, brinjal, Widely
latemaculatus M
Species of Scymnus are well known in tropical Mealybug. cotton, guava, distribut
areas as predators of scale insects, mealybugs, mango, ed
aphids and other soft-bodied arthropods. Scymnus mulberry, through
species occur widely in tropical areas and have teak, citrus, out
been used in many classical biological control grapevine, India.
programmes. According to CABI BIOCAT etc.
database, more than 50 species of this genus have
been introduced in various countries to control 27 Biology of Scymnus coccivora Aiyar
species of homopteran pests belonging to 6 Length 1.70-1.90 mm, width 1.20-1.30 mm.
families, mainly Pseudococcidae (48.1%), Form elongate oval, moderately convex. Ground
Diaspididae (14.8%), Aldegidae (14.8%), colour pale golden yellow to yellowish brown, with
Aleyrodidae (11.1%), Aphididae (7.4 %) and dark purplish brown markings on elytra. Elytra with
Coccidae (3.7%). Scymnus spp. have been used an hour glass-shaped longitudinal marking in basal
most successfully in biological programmes against half, which sometimes appears as two distinct
mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) and woolly aphids markings; two small circular spots present in
(Adelgidae). posterior half; elytral pattern variable, sometimes
with only posterior spots present or uniformly
Taxonomy, Identification and distribution of yellowish brown, completely devoid of markings.
common species Antenna 11-segmented. Prosternal intercoxal
Kingdom: Animalia process with a pair of carinae, broader towards
117
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
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posterior. Postcoxal line complete and semicircular, parasitoid, ringing the trunks leaving one foot away
area adjacent to postcoxal line smooth. Male with a band of 5% diazinon granules before release
genitalia (Figs. 4-6) as illustrated. Larva with dorsal of parasitoid should be adopted.
surface covered with white waxy filaments.
The duration of life stages was shorter during Maintenance of quality:
summer (15.65 days in April) and longer during Sufficient food should be provided to the
winter (26.52 days in December). The male to predators. Culture should be a pure one. Absence of
female ratio of beetle population was 1:0.95. Each live product contaminants, maintenance of purity
female S. coccivora laid 84.7 eggs on an average and viability of the species are of great importance
when reared on grape mealybug, Maconellicoccus in order to maintain the quality. Breeding with field
hirsutus Green. The percentage hatchability of the collected wild population after every third
eggs was 89.86. The longevity of male and female generation is advisable. Maintain strict hygienic
beetles, respectively was 61.7 and 66.8 days when conditions.
fed on grape mealybug. The adults were the
potential feeders of mealybug eggs when compared Transport:
with the grubs. Adult consumed 864.4 eggs, S. coccivora is supplied as adults packed per
whereas larval consumption was 314.2 eggs during certain number in plastic tubes with filter paper as
the life time. Preference for feeding was evident carrier.
with M. hirsutus followed by Ferrisia
virgata and Plunococcus spp. The egg, grub, Field release:
prepupal and pupal stages occupy 4.13 – 4.20, 9.15 Two releases of Scymnus coccivora @ 10 grubs
– 11.75, 1.25 – 1.40, 5.25 – 5.60 days respectively per infested tree at monthly interval for suppressing
when the coccinellid is reared on different stages of the population of mealy bugs in fruit trees.
M. hirsutus. The predatory grub consume 307.7
eggs or 62.2 nymphs or 6.55 adult females of M. Dose:
hirsutus in confinement. Release predatory lady bird beetles Scymnus
coccivora @ 250 adult beetles/ac, or 10 S.
Mass production of Scymnus coccivora: coccivora beetles per tree or 600-2500 per hectare
are released.
Material required:
Rearing cages, Red pumpkins, mealy bugs, Maintenance of history sheet:
motorised aspirator. The following information is furnished.
1. No. of adults released per cage.
Procedure: 2. Date of release.
S. coccivora is multiplied on the ripe pumpkins 3. Different developmental periods.
infested by Planococcus citris as described under 4. Expected date of adult emergence.
P.citri. The 15 – 20 day old mealy bugs are exposed 5. Collection of adults.
to adult beetles. The beetles distribute their eggs 6. Problems encountered with the culture
singly or occasionally more than one egg is laid at a during production.
place. The eggs laid hatch in 4-5 days. The larval
and pupal development is completed in 10 and 7
days respectively. The first adult emerges in 20
days time. Adult S. coccivora are harvested with a
motorised aspirator within 4-7 weeks after initial
oviposition. The beetles emerging daily are caged,
allowed to mate and pass their preoviposition
period. The beetles are then either field relased or Biology of Host (Planococcus citri):
used for continuation of culture. Eggs are deposited as white cottony masses
called ovisacs giving the appearance of cotton
Precaution: spread. The glossy, light yellow eggs are oval and
All due precautions should be taken to avoid approximately 0.3 mm long. A female can lay from
scarcity of food for the grubs to avoid cannibalism 300 to 600 eggs in her life period, which are
by grubs. All the pumpkins showing sign of rotting deposited in groups of 5 to 20. Depending on the
should be properly incinerated. Apart from the season, egg hatch may occur after 6 - 10 days or
precautions required for handling pumpkins and the several weeks. First instar female and male nymphs
118
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
are called crawlers. The nymphs take 6 to 10 weeks pumpkin by dipping in a solution of 0.1% Benlate
to reach maturity. The nymphs are yellow, oval- or Bavistin to kill all the fungal rot pathogens.
shaped with red eyes, and covered with white waxy A sequence of pumpkin infestation cycle by mealy
particles. Female nymphs have four instars. Males bugs has to be maintained to ensure availability of
differ greatly; they have three instars and a pre- right stage of mealy bugs for exposing to the
pupal stage. It is only the males that can produce a predators and parasitoids.
cottony-appearing cocoon and pupate. Adult size
ranges in length from 3 mm (females) to 4.5 mm Maintenance of quality:
(males). The females are wingless, white to light Culture should be a pure one, free from live
brown in color, with brown legs and antennae. The product contaminants, parasitoids, diseases, etc.
body of adult females is coated with white wax and
bears a characteristic faint gray stripe along their Maintenance of history sheet:
dorsal side. Females can live for up to 29 days The following information is furnished.
depending on the host plant. Mealybugs remain 1. Date of infestation with mealybug.
motile throughout their life cycle, with the 2. Scientific name of the species.
exception of the male pupa. 3. Source of mealy bug.
4. Different developmental periods.
Host production: 5. Problems encountered with the culture
Material required: during production.
Wooden cage, white cloth or with nylon mesh,
plastic ring, red pumpkin.
Procedure:
P.citri is produced on ripe pumpkins. The
pumpkins are selected with ridges and groves with
a small stalk which makes the handling easy. The
pumpkins are thoroughly washed with tap water to
remove dust particles. The pumpkins are then
dipped in 0.1% (one gm/litre) solution of Benlate or
Bavistin to kill all the fungal rot pathogens. The
injured pumpkins are discarded or the wounds are Reference:
plugged with hot paraffin wax.
Leppla, N.C, Bloem, K. A. and Luck, R.F.2002.
Once the pumpkins get completely dried under
Quality control for mass-reared arthropods.
shade. Each pumpkin is infested with P.citri Proceedings of the Eighth and Ninth Workshops
crawlers (1st instar mealy bugs) maintained in
of the IOBC Working Group on Quality Control
infestation room (in case the crawlers are not
of Mass-Reared Arthropods.pp 171.
available, ovisacs of the mealy bug are placed over National repository of natural enemies of crop pests
the pumpkin the crawlers emerging form ovisacs
and weeds. Final technical report (01-04-1997 to
then settle on pumpkin). Each of the infested 31-03-2000). Project Directorate of Biological
pumpkin is placed in 30 cm3 wooden cage all sides
Control (Indian Council of Agricultural
of which are covered by white cloth or with nylon
Research) Hebbal, Bellary road, Bangalore- 560
mesh. The cage has several variations but the one 024.
with slanting top and fixed with a slanting glass top
Sahayaraj,K. 2004. Indian insect predators in
and front sleeve has become quite popular. The biological control. Daya pullishing house.
pumpkin in the cage is kept from the front door
1123/74. Devaram Park, Tri Nagar, Delhi-
opening on a round plastic ring. Such pumpkins are
110035.
covered with mealy bugs in 15 days and the mealy Singh, S.P.1995. Technology for Production of
bugs mature in another 12-15 days time.
Natural Enemies. Project Directorate of
Biological Control., Post Bag No. 2491. H.A.
Precaution: Farm Post, Bangalore-560024 (India).
Only the best quality of pumpkins should be
http://ecoport.org/
selected for mealy bug rearing programme. Any
http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/
pumpkin showing signs of rotting should be
http://www.nbaii.res.in
discarded immediately. Surface sterilize the
119
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
Mass production of Anthocorid bugs instar being passed in 3-6 days. The adult males for
4-45 and female for 6-61 days. Each female is
Introduction: capable of producing about 150 eggs.
Anthocorid bugs, particularly many species of
the genus Orius (Heteroptera, Anthocoridae) are Mass production of Anthocorid bugs:
important beneficial insects for various agro
systems feeding primarily upon thrips, aphids, Material required:
leafhoppers, psyllids, spider mites, eggs and young Breeding cage, polystyrene wool, condensed
larvae of several crop pests. milk, water.
Cardiastethus pygmaeus Poppius, C.
affinis Poppius and C. exiguus Poppius are key Procedure:
predators of coconut leaf caterpillars Opisina Orius spp. Are reared in a specially designed
arenosella Walker and Xylocoris (Arrostelus) cage which is made by converting a plastic playing
flavipes (Reuter) is associated with pest of stored card box into a breeding cage. Windows are cut on
grains/commodities. the top and bottom are replaced by plastic net to
ensure proper aeration. On one lateral side a small
Taxonomy, Identification and distribution of window is cut which is replaced by a removable
common species feeding pad. On the opposite side a similar window
Kingdom: Animalia is cut and replaced by removable polystyrene wool.
Class: Insecta Once the cage are ready, twenty pairs of Orius spp.
Order: Hemiptera are introduced by removing one of the lateral
Family: Anthocoridae. opening. The food is provided (one part of water
mixed with two parts of the condensed milk) on the
S species Host Crop Distribut lateral pad. The eggs are laid on the polystyrenes
N ion pad which is replaced daily with a fresh pad. The
1. Orius thrips, Sunflo Widely food also replaced daily and once in a week the
tantillus mites, wer, distribut entire assembly is changed and replaced by a fresh
(Motschul Helicoverp cotton, ed in sterilized unit. A number of such units are set for
sky) a chillies, India. rearing the required numbers of bugs. The cages are
armigera, marigol further stacked in a cage where a temperature of 25-
etc d, etc. 26°C and relative humidity of 70-80% is
2. Cardiastet Opisina coconut Widely maintained. The predatory bugs could also be
hus arenosella distribut reared on Corcyra eggs.
exiguous ed in
Poppius India. Precaution:
3. Affinis Opisina coconut Widely Among the precautions, the regular collection of
Poppius arenosella distribut bug eggs will avoid cannibalism and observance of
ed in strict hygienic conditions will prevent the attack of
India. moulds.
4. pygmaeus Opisina coconut Widely
Poppius arenosella distribut Maintenance of quality:
ed in Check the quality of the culture. If the fecundity
India. is reduced, rear at least the stock culture on Corcyra
5. Xylocoris Ephestia Stored Widely eggs or Spodoptera eggs to bring back the original
flavipes kuehniella, grains distribut productivity. Sufficient food should be offered to
(Reuter) Oryzaephil ed in the predators. Maintain strict hygienic condition.
us spp., India. Breeding with field collected wild population of the
Tribolium same species after every third generation is
castaneum, advisable.
etc.
Transport:
Bugs are packed in plastic containers provided
Biology of Anthocorid bugs:
with sufficient Corcyra eggs and corrugated paper
In most species the eggs hatch in 4-7 days and
sheet.
there are 5-6 nymphal instars, the duration for each
120
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
Field release Singh, S.P.1995. Technology for Production of
Anthocorid bugs have gained prominence Natural Enemies. Project Directorate of
recently. Their conservation and application in Biological Control., Post Bag No. 2491. H.A.
cotton ecosystem will be big boost in protection Farm Post, Bangalore-560024 (India).
technology for bollworms, aphids, thrips and mites Thomas, J. M. G., Shirk P. D. and Shapiro, J. P.
on cotton and thrips , mites, lepidopterans 2012. Mass rearing of a tropical minute pirate
particularly Helicoverpa armigera on sunflower. bug, Orius pumilio (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae).
Cardiastethus exiguus can be utilized against Florida Entomologist. 95(1):202-204.
coconut black-headed caterpillar, Opisina http://www.nbaii.res.in
arenosella Walker, along with C. affinis Poppius,
which it closely resembles.
Dose:
The dosage of release is being refined but
coinciding the release of 50,000 bugs in 100 spots
with initiation of flowering in cotton and 2 bugs per
sunflower head will give effective suppression.
In case of Cardiastethus exiguus Poppius three to
six releases of 50 adults or nymphs per palm at
weekly intervals are recommended with the first
release coinciding with egg laying by O. arenosella.
Reference:
Leppla, N.C, Bloem, K. A. and Luck, R.F.2002.
Quality control for mass-reared arthropods. Orius (Dimorphella) tantillus (Motschulsky)
Proceedings of the Eighth and Ninth Workshops
of the IOBC Working Group on Quality Control
of Mass-Reared Arthropods.pp 171.
Manley, G. V. 1976. Immature Stages and Biology
of Orius tantillus Hemiptera Heteroptera
Anthocoridae Inhabiting Rice Fields In West
Malaysia. Entomological News. 87(3&4):103-
109.
National repository of natural enemies of crop pests Cardiastethus exiguus Poppius
and weeds. Final technical report (01-04-1997 to
31-03-2000). Project Directorate of Biological
Control (Indian Council of Agricultural
Research) Hebbal, Bellary road, Bangalore- 560
024.
Sahayaraj,K. 2004. Indian insect predators in
biological control. Daya pullishing house.
1123/74. Devaram Park, Tri Nagar, Delhi-
110035.
Cardiastethus pygmaeus
121
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
Maintenance of quality:
Check the quality of the culture. Check for the
fecundity of the species. Sufficient food should be
offered to the predators. Maintain strict hygienic
condition. Breeding with field collected wild Rhynocoris marginatus
population of the same species after every third
generation is advisable.
Transport:
Packed in plastic containers provided with
sufficient larval cards.
Field release:
R.fuscipes & R. longifrons have been Isyndus heros (Fabricius)
successfully utilized in cotton in India. R.
marginatus and R. fuscipes have been successfully
utilized in groundnut in India. Coranus sp. could be
released for the suppression of H. armigera
infesting pulses. Coranus sp. And Harpactor
costalis could be released in tobacco ecosystem for
the suppression of H. armigera and other pests.
About to hatch eggs of these predators pasted on
Irantha armipes (Stål) Acanthaspis sp.
cards could be uniformly distributed in endemic
areas and nymphal instars may be released under
Biology of Host (Corcyra cephalonica):
the foliage with the help of small wet paintbrushes.
The eggs are oval and measure 0.5 x 0.3 mm.
The white surface is sculptured and has a short
Dose:
nipple-like process at one end. The larvae are
20000 nymphal instars per hectare. 50000 eggs
generally creamish – white except for the head
per hectare.
capsule and the prothoracic tergite, which are
brown. There are well-developed prolegs on
Maintenance of history sheet:
abdominal segments 3-6 and 10. A fully matured
The following information is furnished.
larva measures 15 mm. The last-instar larva spins a
Date of preparation of larval cards. closely woven, very tough, double-layered cocoon
Date of hatching. in which it develops into a dark-brown pupa. The
Date of moulting of each instar. anterior portion of the cocoon has a line of
Number of generations. weakness through which the adult emerges. The
Problems encountered with the basin during adults are small. The hind-wings are pale-buff, and
production the fore-wings are mid-brown or greyish-brown
with thin vague lines of darker brown colour along
the wing veins. The males are smaller than the
females.
Sexual activity usually begins shortly after adult
emergence. There is a pre-oviposition period of
about 2 days. Egg-laying mainly occurs during the
night. The greatest numbers are laid on the second
and third days after emergence, although
Rhynocoris fuscipes Rhynocoris longifrons oviposition may continue throughout life. Eggs take
about 2-3 days to hatch. Optimum conditions for
larval development of C. cephalonica are 30 –
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Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
32.50C and 70 per cent RH, at which, the period b) Groundnut kernel in required quantity is broken
from egg hatch to adult emergence is only 26-27 using a pounding machine or a mechanical
days. There is considerable variation in the number blender (domestic mixer). Then 100 g of the
of larval instars; however, males generally have 7 broken kernel is transferred to each basin and
and females have 8. The last-instar larvae pupate the contents are hand mixed thoroughly.
within the food. The adults emerge through the c) Dry yeast (Bakers) and wettable sulfur is added
anterior end of the cocoon, where there is a line of @ 5g/ basin and the contents are mixed
weakness. The sex ratio is 1:1. The adult moth is thoroughly. A spray of 10 ml of 0.01-0.05%
nocturnal and is most active at nightfall. streptomycin sulfate and mixing of the contents
follows this. This medium is used for
Host production: rearing Corcyra larvae.
Material required: d) The number of basins required for egg
infestation is calculated and the medium is
Absorbent cotton Storage racks prepared accordingly.
Blotting paper Streptomycin sulphate Preparation of Corcyra eggs
The primary source of Corcyra eggs is reputed
Broken Pearl millet grain Rubber band
laboratories, commercial producers for bulk
Camel hair brush Measuring cylinder preparation. If it is intended to begin the production
Enamel Tray Oven with nucleus colony, the adult moths can be
Honey Home milling machine collected from warehouses where the food materials
Markin cloth Sieves are stored.
Mosquito net Formaldehyde 40% a) The eggs used for building up the colony
Moth aspirator Filter paper of Corcyra have to be free from contaminants
(collector) like the moth scales and broken limbs and not
Oviposition drums Moth scale egg separator exposed to UV light.
b) The collections of overnight laid eggs are
Plastic basin Face masks
measured volumetrically to ascertain the number
Shoe brush Storing drums of trays that can be infested with eggs. A cc of
Soap Ground nut kernel eggs is known to contain approximately 16000 –
Specimen tube Sulphur (WP) 18000 eggs.
Yeast Coarse weighing balance
Infestation of medium with eggs
Procedure: The overall production scheme involves initial
Preparation of rearing basins infestation of the Pearl millet medium with Corcyra
The basins (16” dia) used eggs in desired quantities. This is accomplished by
for Corcyra multiplication are thoroughly cleaned sprinkling the freely flowing eggs on the surface of
with 0.5% detergent wash and rinsing in tap water the medium in individual basins. Per basin 0.5 cc
followed by wiping with dry, clean – used towel eggs of Corcyra is infested. The basins are then
and shade drying. Whenever the trays are emptied covered with clean markin cloth and held tightly
after a cycle of rearing, they have to be cleaned with rubber fasteners. The basins are carefully
preferably to 2 per cent formaldehyde and returned transferred to the racks.
to storage until further use. On reuse the cleaning
steps are repeated. Handling the trays during larval development
The larvae that hatch out in 3-4 days begin to
Preparation of bajra medium for Corcyra feed the fortified Bajra medium. At this stage, light
a) The required quantities of bajra grains are webbings are noticed on the surface. As the larvae
coarsely milled and broken into 2-3 pieces in a grow up they move down. During this period the
milling machine. The broken grains are heat larvae are allowed to grow undisturbed in the trays.
sterilized at 1000C for 1 hour to eliminate the
residual population of stored product insects viz., Handling of adults
Rhizopertha dominica, Sitotroga The adults begin to emerge in 28-30 days after
cerealella, Tribolium castaneum and fungal infestation of the eggs. The adults can be seen on
contaminants. Upon sterilization the grains are the inner side of the markin cloth. They are either
cooled under fan in a clean area. The grains are aspirated with mechanical moth collector or
then transferred to plastic basins @ 2.5 kg/basin. collected with specimen tubes. The whole operation
124
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
is carried out in a tent of mosquito net. This About 100 pairs of adults produce 1.5 cc of eggs in
prevents the large-scale escape of the moths, which 4 days laying period inside the oviposition drums.
if uncontrolled can migrate to the storage area and From each basin an average of 2500 moths are
spoil the grains stored by laying eggs. Workers collected. Hence from each basin 18.00 – 20.00 cc
involved in the collection of moths should wear of eggs can be obtained in 90 days.
face moths continuously to avoid inhalation of
scales. The moths collected are transferred to the Precaution:
oviposition drum @ 1000 pairs per drum at a time. Bacterial diseasemay affect the Corcyra culture.
The oviposition drums of size 30 x 20 cm are made To control this, Streptomycin sulphate is added to
of galvanized iron. The drums rest on tripod frames the crushed graind at the rate of 0.2 gm/kg and
with legs of height 5cm. The bottoms of the drums mixed thoroughly. Occationally the mite Pyemotes
are provided with wire meshes that enable ventricosus (Newport) may contaminate the culture
collection of eggs. The walls of the drums have two and affect egg-laying and larval development. If
vents (ventilation holes) opposed to each other. The mites are observed, thye racks, cages, boxes etc.
vents are again covered with wire mesh. The lids of should be disinfected with formalin and placed in
the drums have handles besides slots for the sun for six hours. Boxes containing developing
introducing the moths and adult feed. The larvae should be dusted with sulphur so that a thin
oviposition drums filled in a day are maintained for layer of sulphur is present over the grains. If
four to seven successive days for egg collection infestation is severe, it may be necessary to treat
after which are emptied and cleaned for next cycle with the acaricide dicofol (Kelthane). For this,
of use. muslin sheets are dipped in a 0.05% solution of
The adults are provided feed containing honey dicifol and air dried for a couple of hours. These
solution. The adult feed is prepared by mixing 50 sheets are spread over the grains in boxes. Mites
ml honey with 50 ml water and 5 capsules of coming in contact with the treated cloth are killed
vitamin E (Evion). The feed is stored in refrigerator rapidly. Bracon hebetor Say must be kept away
and used as and when required. Piece of cotton from infesting the culture of C. cephalonica.
wool tied with a thread is soaked in the solution and
inserted into the drum through the slot at the top. Maintenance of quality: Accurate information is
From a basin, moths can be collected upto 90 days needed on the history of individual basins.
after which the number of moths emerging
dwindles down and keeping the basins is not Maintenance of history sheet:
economical for the producer. The following information is furnished.
1. Date of egg infestation
Handling of eggs 2. Date of preparation of feed
The moths lay the eggs in large numbers 3. Source of egg
loosely. The scales and broken limbs are also found 4. Expected date of adult emergence
in larger quantities along with the eggs. They cause 5. Daily collection of moths
potential hazard to the workers after years of 6. Problems encountered with the basin during
working in Corcyra laboratory. To minimize the production
risk of scales freely floating in the air, the
oviposition drums are placed on sheets of filter Reference:
paper in enamel trays which trap effectively the Leppla, N.C, Bloem, K. A. and Luck, R.F.2002.
scales. Sets of several oviposition drums are kept in Quality control for mass-reared arthropods.
ventilated place near an exhaust fan to enable the Proceedings of the Eighth and Ninth Workshops
workers comfort. Daily morning the oviposition of the IOBC Working Group on Quality Control
drums are lifted up and the wire-mesh bottoms are of Mass-Reared Arthropods.pp 171.
cleaned gently with a shoe brush so that the eggs National repository of natural enemies of crop pests
and remnants of scales and limbs settled on the and weeds. Final technical report (01-04-1997 to
mesh are collected along with those on the filter 31-03-2000). Project Directorate of Biological
paper. The collections are cleaned by gently rolling Control (Indian Council of Agricultural
the eggs on filter paper to another container. Then Research) Hebbal, Bellary road, Bangalore- 560
they are passed to sieves in series and finally clean 024.
eggs are collected. The eggs are quantified in Sahayaraj K. 2002. Small scale laboratory rearing
measuring cylinders and used for building up the of a reduviid predator, Rhynocoris marginatus
stocks and natural enemy production. Fab. (hemiptera: reduviidae) on corcyra
125
Standard Operating Procedures for Integrated Pest Management
CBG-IPM: Laboratory Manual
cephalonica Stainton larvae by larval card bodied Tobacco
method. Journal of Central European insects ,
Agriculture. 3 (2): 137-147. and oilseeds,
Sahayaraj, K. and Martin P. 2003. Assessment of lepidopt fruit
Rhynocoris marginatus (Fab.) (Hemiptera: erous crops,
Reduviidae) as augmented control in groundnut pests. plantatio
pests. Journal of Central European Agriculture n crops,
(online), 4 (2): 104-110. etc.
Sahayaraj,K. 2004. Indian insect predators in 2. Mallada Generali Cotton, Widely
biological control. Daya pullishing house. boninensis st pulses, distribut
1123/74. Devaram Park, Tri Nagar, Delhi- (Okamoto) predator vegetabl ed in
110035. of soft es, India
Singh, S.P.1995. Technology for Production of bodied tobacco,
Natural Enemies. Project Directorate of insects oilseeds,
Biological Control., Post Bag No. 2491. H.A. and fruit
Farm Post, Bangalore-560024 (India). lepidopt crops,
http://www.nbaii.res.in erous plantatio
pests. n
Mass production of Chrysopid predetors crops,et
c.
Introduction: 3. C. Generali Cotton, Widely
In India, 65 species of chrysopids belonging to crassinervis st pulses, distribut
21 genera have been recorded from various crop Esben- predator vegetabl ed in
ecosystems. Some species are distributed widely Peterson of soft es, India
and are important natural enemies for aphids and bodied tobacco,
other soft bodied insects. Amongst them, the green insects oilseeds,
lacewing Chrysoperla carnea is the most common. and fruit
C. carnea is now used extensively all over the lepidopt crops,
country. It is being mass produced primarily on the erous plantatio
eggs of rice grain moth, Corcyra cephalonica in pests. n
India. crops,et
It is being mass released in the field for the c.
control of aphids, white flies, mealy bugs and eggs
and young larvae of lepidepteron pests. The Biology of Chrysoperla carnea:
Chrysoperla predetors may be used on cotton, Chrysoperla are generally green in colour,
groundnut, pulses, vegetables, ornamentals and varying in length from 1.0-1.3 cm. The pre-
several other crops. They also feed on the eggs and oviposition period lasts 3 to 7 days. Adults start
freshly hatched larvae of Helicoverpa armigera and laying eggs from 5th day onwards and peak egg-
such other caterpillar pests. They are capable of laying period is between 9 and 23 days after
bringing down the population of the pest emergence. The male longevity is 30-35 days.
drastically. For mass production of chrysoperla, an Adult female lay eggs of 600-800 eggs/female on
efficient rearing technique is required. an average. The eggs are stalked and green in
colour. The eggs are laid singly or in clusters. Egg
Taxonomy, Identification and distribution of stage lasts 3-4 days. The larva has 3 instars and
common species after 8-10 days it will form cocoons. Adult emerges
Kingdom: Animalia in 5-7 days from cocoons.
Class: Insecta
Order: Neuroptera Mass production of Chrysoperla carnea:
Family: Chrysopidae Material required:
S species Host Crop Distribu Facilities like rearing room (6 x 6 m), slotted
N tion angle iron racks, work tables, plastic louvers 60 x
1. Chrysoperla Generali Cotton, Widely 22 cms with 2.5 cm cubical cells, acrylic sheets to
carnea st pulses, distribut cover the louvers, glass vials, adult oviposition
predator vegetabl ed in cages (45 x 30 x 30 cms), plastic louvers, plastic
of soft es, India containers, scissors and brushes, cotton wool, tissue
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paper, sponge, fructose, protinex, honey, yeast, the cocoons, pale green coloured adults with
castor pollen etc. are required for the mass rearing transparent lace like wings emerge in 9-10 days.
of chrysopids.
Individual rearing of grubs
Procedure: In the first step of larval rearing, 120 three day
In mass production, the adults are fed on various old chrysopid eggs are mixed with 0.75 ml
types of diets. The larvae are either reared in plastic of Corcyra eggs (the embryo of Corcyra eggs are
tubes or empty injection vials or in groups in large inactivated by keeping them at 2 feet distance from
containers or in individual cells. The most common 15 watt ultraviolet tube light for 45 minutes) in a
method for the production of chrysopids is detailed plastic container (27x18x6 cms). On hatching, the
below. larvae start feeding. On 3rd day the larvae are
The adults are collected daily and transferred to transferred to 2.5 cm cubical cells of plastic louvers
pneumatic glass troughs or G.I. round troughs (30 @ one per cell. Each louver can hold 192 larvae.
cm x 12 cm). Before allowing the adults, the rearing Corcyra eggs are provided in all the cells of each
troughs are wrapped inside with black sheet which louver by sprinkling through the modified salt
act as egg receiving card. About 250 adults (60% shaker. Feeding is provided in two doses. First
females) are allowed into each trough and covered feeding of 1.5 ml Corcyra eggs for 100 larvae and
with white nylon or georgette cloth secured by second feeding of 2 ml for 100 larvae with a gap of
rubber band. On the cloth outside three bits of foam 3-4 days is done. Total quantity of Corcyra eggs
sponge (2 sq.in) dripped in water is kept. Besides an required for rearing 100 chrysopid larvae is 4.25
artificial protein rich diet is provided in semisolid ml. The louvers are secured on one side by orgami
paste form in three spots on the cloth outside. This or brown paper sheet and after transfer of larvae
diet consists of one part of yeast, fructose, honey, covered with acrylic sheet and clamped. Orgami or
Proteinex R and water in the ratio 1:1:1:1. The brown paper is used for facilitating pupation and
adults lay eggs on the black sheet. The adults are clear visibility of eggs. The louvers are stacked in
collected daily and allowed into fresh rearing racks. One 2m x 1m x 45 cms angle iron rack can
troughs with fresh food. From the old troughs, the hold 100 louvers containing 19,200larvae.
black paper sheets along with Chrysopa eggs are Cocoons are collected after 24 hours of formation
removed. (when they get hardened) by removing orgami or
paper from one side. The cocoons are placed in
Storage and destalking of eggs adult oviposition cages for emergence (Adults are
The brown paper sheet kept inside the adult sometimes allowed to emerge in louvers and
rearing troughs contain large number of eggs each released on glass window panes from where they
laid on a stalk or pedicel. As such the sheets are are collected using suction pumps).
stored at 10oC in B.O.D. incubator or refrigerator
for about 21 days. When the eggs are required for Precaution:
culturing or for field release the egg sheets are kept Chrysopid eggs should be packed in plastic jars
at room temperature for a day and the eggs during with Corcyra eggs, paper strips should be provided
this period turn brown and hatch on 3 days later. to minimize contact and cannibalism between
The first larvae are either taken for culture or for Chrysopid larvae in case larvae emerge during
recycling or for field release. transit
Release should be made in early hours in the
Group rearing of grubs morning to allow larvae to settle on crop canopy.
It is done in GI round basins (28 cm dia) @ 250 Chrysopid larvae should be released in
larvae/basin, covered with markin cloth. The eggs recommended numbers on crop, but on fruit crops,
of Corcyra cephalonica is given as feeding material release should be made on infested plants/trees
for the larvae in the laboratory. For rearing only.
500 Chrysopa larvae the total quantity of Corcyra Do not use pesticides in the field where
eggs required is 22 cc @ 5 cc/feeding for five predators are released. In case need arises use
feedings in alternate days. The Chrysopa larvae selective/safer pesticides and maintain a waiting
pupate into round white coloured silken cocoons in period of atleast 10-15 days before making the
10 days. The cocoons are collected with fine brush release.
and transferred into 1 lit plastic containers with Do not release chrysopids in egg stage as they
wire mesh window for emergence of adults. From may get parasitized in the field by egg parasitoids
or may be eaten by other predators.
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Mallada boninensis and M. astur larvae carry trash Aphid Aphis sp. season with an interval
on their body. Do not disturb this trash, the of 15 days.
disturbance could injure the larvae. Groundnut Chrysoperla carnea @
Aphid Aphis craccivora 50,000/ ha 1st instar
Maintenance of quality: larvae twice during the
Check the quality of the produce (each lot). If season with an interval
the fecundity is reduced, rear at least the stock of 15 days
culture on aphids to bring back the original Fruit crops Chrysoperla carnea or
productivity. Sufficient food should be provided to Aphids Mallada boninensis @
the predators. Absence of live product Other soft bodied insects 10-20 larvae per
contaminants, maintenance of purity and viability infested tree depending
of Chrysopids are of great importance in order to on the pest population.
maintain the quality. Breeding with field collected
wild population after every third generation is Maintenance of history sheet:
advisable. The following information is furnished:
1. Date of egg collection.
Transport: 2. Date of hatching.
Chrysopid eggs should be packed in plastic jars 3. Date of pupation.
with Corcyra eggs, paper strips should be provided 4. Expected date of adult emergence.
to minimize contact and cannibalism between 5. Date of collection of adults.
chrysopid larvae in case larvae emerge during 6. Problems encountered with the culture
transit. during production.
Field release:
Normally, chrysopids are recommended for use
against different crop pests @ 50,000 or 1,00,000
1st instar larvae/hectare, 4-6 larvae/plant or 10-20
larvae/fruit plant are released. Depending on the
situation, two releases are recommended. They are
released on the plants along with saw dust, or
dropped from the corrugated paper strips.
Dose:
Crop/Pest Species/ Numbers
released
Cotton
Old world bollworm Mallada boninensis or
Helicoverpa Chrysoperla carnea @
(=Heliothis) armigera 50,000/ha twice during
Spotted/spiny boll the season with a gap of
worms Earias spp. 15 days. Biology of Host (Corcyra cephalonica):
Pink bollworm The eggs are oval and measure 0.5 x 0.3 mm.
Pecticophora The white surface is sculptured and has a short
gossypiella nipple-like process at one end. The larvae are
Whitefly Bemista tabaci generally creamish – white except for the head
Aphid Aphis gossypii capsule and the prothoracic tergite, which are
Tobacco Chrysoperla carnea / brown. There are well-developed prolegs on
Aphid Myzus persicae Apertochrysa abdominal segments 3-6 and 10. A fully matured
Tobacco caterpillar crassinervis @ 50,000/ larva measures 15 mm. The last-instar larva spins a
Spodoptera litura ha or 6 larvae per plant closely woven, very tough, double-layered cocoon
Whitefly Bemisia tabaci twice during the season in which it develops into a dark-brown pupa. The
with an interval of 15 anterior portion of the cocoon has a line of
days. weakness through which the adult emerges. The
adults are small. The hind-wings are pale-buff, and
Sunflower Chrysoperla carnea @
the fore-wings are mid-brown or greyish-brown
Head borer Helicoverpa 50,000/ ha 1st instar
with thin vague lines of darker brown colour along
armigera larvae twice during the
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the wing veins. The males are smaller than the a) The required quantities of bajra grains are
females. coarsely milled and broken into 2-3 pieces in a
Sexual activity usually begins shortly after adult milling machine. The broken grains are heat
emergence. There is a pre-oviposition period of sterilized at 1000C for 1 hour to eliminate the
about 2 days. Egg-laying mainly occurs during the residual population of stored product insects viz.,
night. The greatest numbers are laid on the second Rhizopertha dominica, Sitotroga
and third days after emergence, although cerealella, Tribolium castaneum and fungal
oviposition may continue throughout life. Eggs take contaminants. Upon sterilization the grains are
about 2-3 days to hatch. Optimum conditions for cooled under fan in a clean area. The grains are
larval development of C. cephalonica are 30 – then transferred to plastic basins @ 2.5 kg/basin.
32.50C and 70 per cent RH, at which, the period b) Groundnut kernel in required quantity is broken
from egg hatch to adult emergence is only 26-27 using a pounding machine or a mechanical
days. There is considerable variation in the number blender (domestic mixer). Then 100 g of the
of larval instars; however, males generally have 7 broken kernel is transferred to each basin and
and females have 8. The last-instar larvae pupate the contents are hand mixed thoroughly.
within the food. The adults emerge through the c) Dry yeast (Bakers) and wettable sulfur is added
anterior end of the cocoon, where there is a line of @ 5g/ basin and the contents are mixed
weakness. The sex ratio is 1:1. The adult moth is thoroughly. A spray of 10 ml of 0.01-0.05%
nocturnal and is most active at nightfall. streptomycin sulfate and mixing of the contents
follows this. This medium is used for
rearing Corcyra larvae.
Host production: d) The number of basins required for egg
Material required: infestation is calculated and the medium is
Absorbent cotton Storage racks prepared accordingly.
Blotting paper Streptomycin sulphate
Broken Pearl millet grain Rubber band Preparation of Corcyra eggs
The primary source of Corcyra eggs is reputed
Camel hair brush Measuring cylinder
laboratories, commercial producers for bulk
Enamel Tray Oven preparation. If it is intended to begin the production
Honey Home milling machine with nucleus colony, the adult moths can be
Markin cloth Sieves collected from warehouses where the food materials
Mosquito net Formaldehyde 40% are stored.
Moth aspirator Filter paper The eggs used for building up the colony
(collector) of Corcyra have to be free from contaminants
Oviposition drums Moth scale egg separator like the moth scales and broken limbs and not
Plastic basin Face masks exposed to UV light.
Shoe brush Storing drums The collections of overnight laid eggs are
Soap Ground nut kernel measured volumetrically to ascertain the number
of trays that can be infested with eggs. A cc of
Specimen tube Sulphur (WP)
eggs is known to contain approximately 16000 –
Yeast Coarse weighing balance 18000 eggs.
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The larvae that hatch out in 3-4 days begin to ventilated place near an exhaust fan to enable the
feed the fortified Bajra medium. At this stage, light workers comfort. Daily morning the oviposition
webbings are noticed on the surface. As the larvae drums are lifted up and the wire-mesh bottoms are
grow up they move down. During this period the cleaned gently with a shoe brush so that the eggs
larvae are allowed to grow undisturbed in the trays. and remnants of scales and limbs settled on the
mesh are collected along with those on the filter
Handling of adults paper. The collections are cleaned by gently rolling
The adults begin to emerge in 28-30 days after the eggs on filter paper to another container. Then
infestation of the eggs. The adults can be seen on they are passed to sieves in series and finally clean
the inner side of the markin cloth. They are either eggs are collected. The eggs are quantified in
aspirated with mechanical moth collector or measuring cylinders and used for building up the
collected with specimen tubes. The whole operation stocks and natural enemy production.
is carried out in a tent of mosquito net. This About 100 pairs of adults produce 1.5 cc of eggs in
prevents the large-scale escape of the moths, which 4 days laying period inside the oviposition drums.
if uncontrolled can migrate to the storage area and From each basin an average of 2500 moths are
spoil the grains stored by laying eggs. Workers collected. Hence from each basin 18.00 – 20.00 cc
involved in the collection of moths should wear of eggs can be obtained in 90 days.
face moths continuously to avoid inhalation of
scales. The moths collected are transferred to the Precaution:
oviposition drum @ 1000 pairs per drum at a time. Bacterial diseasemay affect the Corcyra culture.
The oviposition drums of size 30 x 20 cm are made To control this, Streptomycin sulphate is added to
of galvanized iron. The drums rest on tripod frames the crushed graind at the rate of 0.2 gm/kg and
with legs of height 5cm. The bottoms of the drums mixed thoroughly. Occationally the mite Pyemotes
are provided with wire meshes that enable ventricosus (Newport) may contaminate the culture
collection of eggs. The walls of the drums have two and affect egg-laying and larval development. If
vents (ventilation holes) opposed to each other. The mites are observed, thye racks, cages, boxes etc.
vents are again covered with wire mesh. The lids of should be disinfected with formalin and placed in
the drums have handles besides slots for the sun for six hours. Boxes containing developing
introducing the moths and adult feed. The larvae should be dusted with sulphur so that a thin
oviposition drums filled in a day are maintained for layer of sulphur is present over the grains. If
four to seven successive days for egg collection infestation is severe, it may be necessary to treat
after which are emptied and cleaned for next cycle with the acaricide dicofol (Kelthane). For this,
of use. muslin sheets are dipped in a 0.05% solution of
The adults are provided feed containing honey dicifol and air dried for a couple of hours. These
solution. The adult feed is prepared by mixing 50 sheets are spread over the grains in boxes. Mites
ml honey with 50 ml water and 5 capsules of coming in contact with the treated cloth are killed
vitamin E (Evion). The feed is stored in refrigerator rapidly. Bracon hebetor Say must be kept away
and used as and when required. Piece of cotton from infesting the culture of C. cephalonica.
wool tied with a thread is soaked in the solution and
inserted into the drum through the slot at the top. Maintenance of quality: Accurate information is
From a basin, moths can be collected upto 90 days needed on the history of individual basins.
after which the number of moths emerging
dwindles down and keeping the basins is not Maintenance of history sheet:
economical for the producer. The following information is furnished.
1. Date of egg infestation
Handling of eggs 2. Date of preparation of feed
The moths lay the eggs in large numbers 3. Source of egg
loosely. The scales and broken limbs are also found 4. Expected date of adult emergence
in larger quantities along with the eggs. They cause 5. Daily collection of moths
potential hazard to the workers after years of 6. Problems encountered with the basin during
working in Corcyra laboratory. To minimize the production
risk of scales freely floating in the air, the
oviposition drums are placed on sheets of filter Reference:
paper in enamel trays which trap effectively the Leppla, N.C, Bloem, K. A. and Luck, R.F.2002.
scales. Sets of several oviposition drums are kept in Quality control for mass-reared arthropods.
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Proceedings of the Eighth and Ninth Workshops
of the IOBC Working Group on Quality Control
of Mass-Reared Arthropods.pp 171.
National repository of natural enemies of crop pests
and weeds. Final technical report (01-04-1997 to
31-03-2000). Project Directorate of Biological
Control (Indian Council of Agricultural
Research) Hebbal, Bellary road, Bangalore- 560
024.
Sahayaraj,K. 2004. Indian insect predators in
biological control. Daya pullishing house.
1123/74. Devaram Park, Tri Nagar, Delhi-
110035.
Sattar, M and Abro, G. H. 2011. Mass Rearing of
Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera:
Chrysopidae) Adults for Integrated Pest
Management Programmes. Pakistan J. Zool.,
43(3): 483-487.
Singh, S.P.1995. Technology for Production of
Natural Enemies. Project Directorate of
Biological Control., Post Bag No. 2491. H.A.
Farm Post, Bangalore-560024 (India).
http://www.nbaii.res.in
http://www.tnau.ac.in/
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