MoldSteelHandbook PDF

A Finkl & Sons Co
Mold Steel Handbook
®
A Finkl & Sons Co
Mold Steel Handbook
By Nick Cerwin
Director, Technical Services
A. Finkl & Sons Co.
A. Finkl & Sons Co.

One Finkl Plaza
(2011 N. Southport Ave.)
Chicago, IL 60614-4079
773/975-2510
Fax: 773/348-5347
sales@finkl.com
www.finkl.com
Price: $20
Printed on recycled papers using soy-based inks.
© 1999 A. Finkl & Sons Co.
PDF 3/99
F I N K L M O L D S T E E L H A N D B O O K
Contents Electric Arc Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
The Oxidizing Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Removing Nonmetallic Inclusions,
The Refining Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Importance of Oxide Removal
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 for Moldmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Vacuum Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Chapter 1 Vacuum Degassing
Steel Grades for Plastics Molding . . . . . . . . .4 and Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Grade Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 The VAD System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Defining Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Desulfurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Residual Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 Sulfur and Mold Polishability . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Measuring the Effect of the Chemistry Sulfide Shape Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
on Heat Treatment: Balancing the Sulfur Content . . . . . . . . . . . .30
The Ideal Diameter (DI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Two Views of Steel Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . .31
Certified Test Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Remelting (ESR and VAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Mold Steel Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
As-cast Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Chapter 2
The Steel Making Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Forge Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Wide Die Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
(Recovering the Iron from Iron Ore) Wrought Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Grain Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
The BOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Ingot Upsetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
A Word on Steel Scrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Forged to Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
F I N K L M O L D S T E E L H A N D B O O K F I N K L M O L D S T E E L H A N D B O O K
Heat Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 Tempering and Stress Relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 “Color Matching” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Measuring Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Double Tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Indentation Methods of Measurement . . .43
Rebound Methods of Measurement . . . . . .44 Chapter 3
Precision of Hardness Testing . . . . . . . . . . .45 Moldmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Comparing Results from Different Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Hardness Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Grade of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Hardness Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Steel Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
One Caveat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Cutting Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Full Anneal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 EDM (Electro-Discharge Machining) . . . .64
Isothermal Anneal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Subcritical Anneal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 Appropriate Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Normalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 Complete Removal of Previous Surface . .68
Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 Process Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Surface vs Interior Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 High Quality Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Ideal Diameter (DI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Quench Severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Texturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Quench Severity: Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Manual blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Quench Severity: Oil and Polymer . . . . . . .55 Re-etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Quench Severity: Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Chrome and Nickel Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Hardening of the Mold Need for a Good Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
After Machining the Impression . . . . . . . . .57 Hydrogen Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Stress Relieving After Plating . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Illustrations
Stripping of Plated Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Carburizing and Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Summary of Properties for Grade Selection . . .19
Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 Electric Arc Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Comparative Hardnesses of Inclusions . . . . . .25
Chapter 4 Vacuum Arc Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Service Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88 Solidification Front (Dendrites) . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Clamping Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88 VAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Overloads and Strength of the Mold Steel . .89 Upset Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Tensile Strength, Yield Strength and Wide Die Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Brinell Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 Grain Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Molding Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 Narrow Die Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Stress Raisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 Hardness Testing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Fatigue Strength of Mold Steel . . . . . . . . . . .91 Heat Treat Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Mold Flexing under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 DIs of Common Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Thermal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Relative Quench Severities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Mold Steel Expansion Due to Temperature . .92 Machinability vs Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Thermal Conductivity of Mold Steel . . . . .92 Tool Life vs Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Thermal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94 EDM Recast Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
In Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 Polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Welding Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Profile of Weld Deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Chromium Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Hydrogen Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Chromium Stripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Introduction In short, selecting mold steel is a decision made early in
the moldmaking process that has a strong influence on
the process and on the ultimate performance of the
mold. Chapter 1 provides some information on the char-
acteristics of each of the various grades of mold steel
offered by A. Finkl & Sons Company, and is hopefully a
This handbook is intended as an aid to those involved in useful guide in the mold steel selection process. Chapter
specifying, building or using molds for plastics. As with 2 offers insight into steelmaking to provide a more basic
all areas of modern manufacturing, the plastics-mold- understanding of the fundamental character of steel and
ing industry is characterized by a convergence of many the inherent properties that both afflict and aid the
scientific disciplines, and for those involved in the plas- efforts of the moldmakers and molders. Chapter 3
tics industry, the focus is largely polymer science. addresses the processes associated with moldmaking and
However, since molds for plastics are generally made of the influence that metallurgy has on them. This hand-
metal, some design, manufacturing, operational and book is essentially metallurgy for the nonmetallurgist
maintenance decisions obviously must involve metal- involved in the plastics industry.
lurgical issues.
A brief word about what this book is not: It is not a
This handbook addresses metallurgical issues from a handbook on how to actually polish or texture or do any
plastics industry perspective in an attempt to bridge the of the many processes required to transform a block of
chasm that seems to naturally develop between the fields steel into a functioning, production mold. We recognize
of metals and plastics. Choosing a particular alloy and and respect the accumulated experience of those
heat-treated hardness for a mold, for example, establish- engaged in these complicated processes and respectfully
es important properties such as wear resistance, crack defer to the experts in those highly specialized fields.
resistance, weldability, polishability, and machinability.
This same choice also influences the response to sec-
ondary mold-building processes such as flame harden-
ing, texturing, nitriding, and plating. Making informed
choices at the outset with regard to all of the relevant
steel characteristics helps to avoid surprises that can
derail a promised delivery date and add unplanned costs.
2 F I N K L M O L D S T E E L H A N D B O O K F I N K L M O L D S T E E L H A N D B O O K 3
Chapter 1 listed grade is a patented chemistry with a copyrighted
name, and there is no equivalent industry designation.
Steel Grades for Plastics Molding Defining Elements

Some elements are necessary components in a particular
grade of steel and normally must be present in the steel
This chapter provides an overview of steel grades com- composition within certain specified ranges. These may
monly used in the manufacture of molds and associ- be viewed as the defining elements for that grade of steel.
ated tooling for the plastics industry. A brief summary
of the properties and appropriate applications is pro- Residual Elements
vided for each of the listed grades of mold steel. Some elements are present, usually in minor levels, only
because they cannot be totally eliminated by normal
Grade Designations steelmaking practices. They “flow through” to the fin-
References to alloy compositions of steel are usually ished product from their presence in some of the raw
made by a type of shorthand notation such as P20, H13, materials (iron ore, recycled scrap steel or other furnace
etc. Such designators are convenient because the actu- additions such as alloys and slag-making ingredients).
al definition of an alloy may involve a detailed list of Depending upon known or suspected effects on the per-
eight or more chemical elements that comprise the formance of the steel in certain applications, the level of
unique mix for a particular grade of steel. Some grade any residuals may or may not be restricted. If their pres-
designators were originally established by manufactur- ence is considered to be inconsequential to the end use
ing associations such as the American Iron and Steel of the steel, there may be a loose, if any, specified maxi-
Institute (AISI) and Society of Automotive Engineers mum for those elements. Alternatively, if a residual ele-
(SAE) and are in general usage throughout industry. ment is considered to be deleterious to the end use, a
Other designators may be specific to a particular indus- strict maximum content may be imposed.
try or copyrighted names by a particular manufacturer.
Some elements can have a changing classification
The listed grades use the Finkl designation but also par- depending upon the grade of steel. Nickel, for example,
enthetically show AISI/SAE designators where an equiv- is not a specified element for AISI P20 mold steel and is
alent chemical composition exists. In some cases the therefore regarded as a residual element in that grade.
In grade AISI 4340, however, nickel is a key alloy and
must fall within the prescribed limits for that grade Certified Test Report
(1.65 to 2.00%). The chemical analyses reported by steelmakers are
obtained by extracting small samples while the steel is
The elements phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S) in most still liquid. The samples are quickly cooled to a solid and
grades of steel are also residuals but are viewed as undesir- sent to the laboratory. The rapid cooling possible with
able impurities and are restricted by specifying a maxi- the small sample promotes chemical homogeneity for a
mum content. For example, regular quality, electric fur- true average composition. If samples are cut from
nace steel has a specified maximum content for P and S of mold blocks, the chemical analyses obtained may
.025%. An exception is when phosphorous or sulfur is differ from the certified test values because of the
intentionally added for improving machinability. In this segregation of certain elements that occurs dur-
case they are not in a strict sense residuals, and the content ing the prolonged solidification times character-
may be specified either by elevated “aim” values or strict istic of large commercial ingots. It is not unusual to
ranges. obtain analyses in localized areas of a solid block of steel
that differ by ±10% relative to certified values or values
Greater detail on chemical compositions with respect to obtained from other locations in the block. Each ele-
ranges and restrictions is available through various ment has different segregation characteristics that must
industry associations such as AISI, SAE, the American be considered when comparing product check analyses
Society for Metals (ASM) and similar organizations. from a solid block to melt analyses used on test reports.
Measuring the Effect of the Chemistry on Heat Mold Steel Grades

Treatment: The Ideal Diameter (DI) In the following listed grade compositions, a single
The number appearing under the heading of DI in the value is given for each element in weight percent,
chemistry listing is not a chemical element, but refers to a whether it is a residual or desirable element. If it is a
characteristic of steel called the Ideal Diameter. This is a residual for that grade, the element is shown at a typical
number that reflects the cumulative effect of all the con- level and denoted with the suffix “r.” The elements spec-
stituent alloys on the heat-treating response of a particular ified by ranges are given as single, midrange values. In
grade of steel. It indicates the depth of hardening that is this way the compositions shown are very close to the
associated with each grade of steel and is a concept dis- compositions actually shipped to customers.
cussed more fully in Chapter 2 under Heat Treating.
Finkl Grade Mold Die® Finkl Grade Mold Die Lens Quality®
(AISI P20, Vacuum Arc Degassed [VAD]) (P20 Premium, Vacuum Arc Remelted [VAR])
C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI
.32 .80 .010r .015r .45 .45r 1.80 .50 – 13.0 .32 .80 .010r .002r .45 .45r 1.80 .50 - 13.0
Grade P20 is the standard grade of mold steel for This premium version of P20 is produced by the VAR
the plastics industry and has been for a long method of melting. The additional step of VAR after the
time. It is generally supplied in a surface hardness of normal Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) and degassing
277/311 Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), or in process produces very high quality steel. The VAR process
Rockwell scale 29/33 HRC. This chemistry and heat- is explained in more detail in Chapter 2. It provides steel
treated condition has proven to be an effective combina- that is extremely clean and very fine grained to provide
tion for a wide variety of plastic-molding applications. excellent polishability and uniform texturing response.
It offers durability in service and good machinability, Premium quality, remelted P20 is recommended
weldability and polishability for the moldmaker. whenever the mold is to be used in clear, lens-type
application or where achieving the best possible
There are occasional requests for a slightly higher hard- surface finish is imperative. In theory, the VAR melt-
ness of approximately 321/352 BHN (34/38 HRC). The ing technique can be applied to any grade of steel but
higher hardness version of P20 is called (not illog- availability of grades will follow commercial demand.
ically) P20 Hi-Hard. It is the same chemistry as The processing of VAR steel involves added costs that are
regular P20, with the higher hardness achieved by reflected in a higher price for the steel. However, the
employing a lower tempering temperature during assurance of meeting the most stringent surface require-
heat treatment. The higher hardness improves wear, ments without the time and expense of heroic efforts
dent and scratch resistance and polishability but lowers (repolishing and repolishing some more, plating, etc.) to
other important attributes of the steel like machinability reach an acceptable surface is usually sufficient to justi-
and weldability. Decisions to change the hardness of P20 fy the higher price.
or any grade of steel, therefore, should be undertaken
only after considering all ramifications. The extreme cleanliness of this grade includes a very low
sulfur content that could increase the machining difficulty.
It is advisable to evaluate the effect of such low sulfur levels
on machining costs before committing to a large project.
Finkl Grade LR™ AISI 4140 or 4150
C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI
.50 .85 .010r .015r .25 0.90 1.15 .50 - 12.4 .40/.50 .85 .010r .015r .25 .45r 0.95 .20 - 5.5/6.1
The essential feature of this grade of steel is the These are relatively low alloy grades with limited capaci-
increased carbon content that permits higher hardness ty for through-hardening. This characteristic does not
to be easily achieved without employing significantly favor good polishability. Grades 4140 or 4150 are
lower tempering temperatures. Normal hardness for commonly used for the mold half that produces the
stock LR material is approximately 40 HRC (375 BHN). less critical side of a molded part (“nonshow” or
This is achieved at the same tempering temperature that backside) or for holder blocks or other applica-
produces 30 HRC in P20 steel (about 1100º F). Grade tions where polishability is not a critical require-
LR is appropriate where higher hardness, 40 HRC ment. Readily available and often preferred in resulfur-
or more, is necessary for a particular molding ized versions (e.g., Finkl grade HB, a resulfurized 4150)
application. This composition may be marketed in because of the improved machinability that may be used
some cases as a variety of P20 having higher hardness to advantage when making noncritical mold surfaces.
and more wear-resistant characteristics. It is mislead- Sometimes these grades are used for short-run, noncriti-
ing, however, if P20 in the title causes incorrect assump- cal surface molds because of the lower initial cost and bet-
tions about the character of the steel. Weldability and ter machinability over the more highly alloyed and more
machinability, for example, are very different for this stringently inspected P20.
grade of steel compared to a true P20 composition. This
is because of the significantly higher carbon content Finkl Grade HB® (AISI 4150 Resulfurized)
(.50%C vs. .32%C for P20) and higher hardness (40 HRC C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI
vs. 30 HRC) of this grade that makes it less tolerant of .50 1.15 .010r .08 .30 .45r .65 .15 - 5.6
welding stresses. This grade is more likely to exhibit
cracking when employing the usual and all too com- The primary reason for selecting this grade is the improved
mon welding shortcuts (no pre- and postweld heating). machinability provided by the higher sulfur content.
Machinability is enhanced by a factor of three or more.
The compromise accepted is a high concentration of sul-
fide inclusions in the steel that degrades polishability.
HB is a resulfurized grade 4150 that is a good Finkl DC® (AISI H13) / DC-Xtra VAR™ (AISI H13 VAR)
choice where improved machinability can have a C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI
significant impact on machining time and costs .38 .30 .010r .002r 1.00 .45r 5.25 1.35 1.00 51.3*
*The DI calculation for this composition requires an extrapolation beyond
and good polishability is not a requirement. established hardenability factors, but it is still useful to as a rough guide to
Another characteristic of HB, or any resulfurized steel, is show the potent hardenability of this grade.
reduced corrosion resistance. Higher sulfur steel cor-
rodes more readily than lower sulfur steel. For high sul- This alloy is rich in the strong carbide formers chromi-
fur steel, it is good practice to carefully control, or limit, um, molybdenum and vanadium. The combined effect
the polishing effort. This may be difficult advice to fol- of a dispersion of hard carbide particles together with the
low because the sulfides appear as angel-hair scratches overall hardness of the steel determines the wear resis-
that lure the polisher into more aggressive polishing. tance. Grade DC is formulated with the goal of
Overpolishing, however, only accentuates the hairline achieving a very high degree of abrasion (wear)
scratches that are actually sulfide stringers. resistance. Heat treated to a high hardness (40+ HRC),
it is appropriate for use in molding glass-impregnated
Finkl Grade WF-XTRA® resins or for components experiencing sliding motion
C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI that leads to worn parts. Because of the chromium level
.42 .75 .010r .010r .45 .80 2.50 1.00 .03 33.3 (5%), this grade has better corrosion resistance than P20
(1.8% Cr) but less corrosion resistance than 420 stainless
Grade WF is designed to provide deep-hardening and (12% Cr).
good wear characteristics for large mold blocks. With
a DI that is nearly three times the value of standard P20, Grade DC (or any H13 type steel) is difficult to
there is a far greater ability to carry the surface hardness weld without strict adherence to pre- and postweld
through to the center of large mold blocks. The slightly thermal procedures. Welding without proper pre- and
higher carbon content compared to P20 permits high hard- postheating runs a high risk of developing cracks adja-
ness (40+ HRC) to be achieved with high tempering tem- cent to the weld, i.e., in the heat affected zone (HAZ).
peratures that promote good fracture toughness and ductil-
ity. As with any grade of steel with higher alloy and carbon, Because of the high alloy content and tendency toward
welding should be performed with proper preheat and post- coarse carbides, this grade (like grade 420) benefits sig-
weld stress relieving to minimize the risk of cracking. nificantly from remelting (VAR or ESR). When produced
by VAR, the grade is commonly called H13 Premium (soft) condition and afterwards hardened by heat-
(“DC-Xtra VAR” in Finkl’s product family). ing in a vacuum furnace (to avoid oxidizing the
machined surface), followed by accelerated cooling
It should be noted that the word “premium” does not with a blast of nitrogen or argon gas (again avoid-
have a strict technical meaning. Bargain-priced “pre- ing exposure to oxygen). This method of cooling is far
mium” steel should be questioned and verified as being less severe than water but is still sufficient to harden this
remelted product rather than being designated as pre- steel because of the high alloy content.
mium for some other reason. Grade HPQ (VAR
processed DC) is recommended whenever high The 420 stainless steel sold by Finkl is modified from the
quality surface finishes are imperative. standard chemistry to include .45% molybdenum that
improves the hot-strength and wear characteristics of
Stainless Grades 420M, 420M Premium Quality, the steel. Further, and perhaps more importantly, the
420MB™ Mold Base presence of molybdenum protects the chromium by
C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI preferentially forming molybdenum carbides. This is
.35 .50 .010r .005r .35 .45r 13.00 .45 - 52.7* important for protecting the stainless character of 420
*The DI calculation for this composition requires an extrapolation
beyond established hardenability factors, but it is still useful to as a because any chromium that combines with carbon is
rough guide to show the potent hardenability of this grade. lost to the role of corrosion protection. Although it
seems there is ample chromium to avoid any serious loss
Grade 420M contains over 12% chromium (com- in corrosion properties, the fact is that the carbon in this
pared to the nominal 1.8% in P20) for greatly grade tends to concentrate at grain boundaries and
improved corrosion resistance. This may be a cru- reduce corrosion protection in this critical area by form-
cial consideration in humid climates or where corrosive, ing chrome carbides. This phenomenon is called stain-
chlorinated plastics are being molded. Another advan- less “sensitization,” i.e., loss of corrosion protection at
tage to this grade is that the higher carbon content (for grain boundaries. The Finkl modification of the
a stainless steel) permits a higher heat-treated hardness standard 420 stainless steel by the addition of
(40+ HRC) for outstanding wear resistance. molybdenum guards against corrosion sensitiza-
tion and maintains the full anti-corrosion char-
The high hardenability of this grade qualifies it as air acter of the steel.
hardenable. Grade 420M and other air hardening
grades are frequently machined in the annealed
This grade is generally preferred in remelted quality (VAR smaller molds scheduled for high-volume production.
or ESR) to further enhance the polishing response for high Like 420 and H13, this high alloy grade has high hard-
quality molds. The VAR process used to produce the enability and requires strict adherence to proper welding
H13 premium grade more uniformly distributes procedures for successful welds.
chromium and other alloys to improve polishing
and texturing response and to minimize problems Finkl RA40™ (Age-Hardening Steel)
encountered during milling and drilling attribut- C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Cu Al DI
able to hard spots associated with alloy-rich areas. .15 1.50 .010r .10 0.30 3.00 .25r 1.00 1.00 *
The VAR processed 420M is designated as 420 Premium *The conventional DI calculation is not applicable to this grade of steel.
Quality in the Finkl product line.
This steel is, by conventional metallurgy, an oddity. It
In cases where machinability is a priority, the 420M may softens with quenching and hardens with tempering
be ordered in a resulfurized version (designated as (called aging in this case). This is exactly the opposite
420MB). This version contains .080% S for improved of conventional steels that harden with quenching and
machinability but at some loss in polishability due to soften with tempering. Because of this unusual charac-
the high sulfur. A typical application for the resulfurized teristic, the hardened HAZ that results around welded
version is a mold base. It should be noted, however, that areas in conventional steels is avoided. Grade RA40
the higher sulfur level in 420F slightly degrades the avoids the surface blending problems that nor-
stainless qualities and polishability of the steel. mally develop when polishing mold surfaces con-
taining welds. The lower hardness of the HAZ of
Finkl Grade DRX™ (AISI S7) welded RA40 closely matches the base hardness of
C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V DI approximately 40 HRC so that color matching
.50 .70 .010r .015r .30 .45r 3.25 1.40 - 46.8 and blending of welds is easily achievable, even
A grade that is rich in the carbide formers chromium, without pre- and postweld heating.
molybdenum and vanadium for outstanding wear resis-
tance. It is usually heat-treated to a hardness of 40 HRC With regard to polishing, it should be noticed that this
or higher. DRX is especially suitable for molding- grade is resulfurized, which may cause problems on
machine parts such as slides that experience high highly polished surfaces. Contrary to the polishing lim-
frictional wear. There is some use of this grade for itations that might be expected from high sulfur steel,
however, users of this grade generally report good pol- selection. The lower sulfur content of this grade
ishability. Because of the high sulfur level, this grade decreases machinability compared to RA40, but it may
has excellent machinability, even at a hardness of be machined at lower hardness to compensate for this
approximately 40 HRC. characteristic and hardened to 40+ HRC by the ageing
process with little or no distortion, upon completion of
RA40 is made exclusively by the remelting process (VAR) machining. The ageing process consists of heating and
that limits ingot size. VAR furnaces typically restrict holding for a short time at temperatures of approxi-
product (mold block) weight to about 15,000 pounds. mately 900º F to 1150º F. Exact procedures can be dis-
Check with your steel supplier for size availability. cussed with the steel supplier.
The high aluminum content in this grade makes it espe- Summary of Properties for Grade Selection
cially suitable for the surface hardening treatment of Grade Textur- Nitrid- Machin- Weld- Polish- Carburi- Flame-
Nitriding. Surface hardness exceeding 70 HRC is achiev- of Steel ing ing ability ability ability zing hardening
able with any of the normal gas, salt-bath or ion (plas- 1045 G P VG G F G G
ma) nitriding processes. 4140 G P VG G F G G
HB P P E F P G G
Finkl Mar-X™ (Age-hardening Stainless Steel) Mold Die G F G F G G VG
C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo Cu DI DC F VG F P G G E
.04r .40r .025r .003r .45 4.75 15.00 .05r 3.25 * 420M F VG F P VG G E
*The conventional DI calculation is not applicable to this grade of steel. RA40 F E E E F G P
This is an age-hardening steel with exceptionally good Mar-X E VG G E E G P
corrosion resistance. The chromium content of 15%

E = Excellent VG = Very Good G = Good F = Fair P = Poor
places it in the stainless steel category. It is produced
Resulfurized version of 420M (420MB) = excellent machinability
exclusively by the Vacuum Arc Remelting process to pro-
VAR processed P20 (Mold Die Lens Quality), DX-Xtra VAR, 420M
vide the cleanest possible steel, and most uniform distri- Premium Quality = excellent polishability and excellent texturing
bution of alloys. Molds that require a diamond fin-
ish and may be subjected to corrosive environ-
ments such as high humidity areas or chloride
molding compounds will benefit from this alloy
Chapter 2 Melting
The BOF
The modern successor to the Open Hearth is the Basic
The Steel Making Process Oxygen Furnace. The BOF uses a measured quantity of
oxygen to burn excess carbon and some impurities from
the molten metal by introducing a measured quantity of
The detailed path of iron ore to steel is an interesting one oxygen into the BOF. At just the right point when the
that easily fills an entire academic curriculum, but obvi- oxygen has burned away the desired amount of carbon
ously is beyond the scope of this handbook. Texts offering and certain impurities, alloys are added to produce the
far more detail such as the excellent “The Making, desired chemistry, and the steel is “tapped” (poured)
Shaping and Treating of Steel” are available through into a ladle. Some limited, additional refinement may
ASM or The Iron and Steel Society (ISS) of the American be performed in the ladle, but the steel is then “teemed”
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers (AIME). (poured) into a mold.
Smelting (Recovering the Iron from Iron Ore) Most steel, today, is teemed into continuous cast (bottom-
The recovery of iron (Fe) from iron ore (Fe2O3 or Fe3O4) less) molds that produce a constant stream of a semi-fin-
starts in the Blast Furnace where the iron is separated ished form called a slab or a billet. The stream of product
from the oxygen by heating in the presence of carbon is cut to manageable lengths, and the billet or slab is sub-
that is in the form known as “coke.” sequently shaped by a rolling mill to the final bar or sheet
product (respectively). Steel production by the BOF is a
Fe2O3 (iron ore) + 3C (coke) high-rate method (about 250 tons in a half-hour, or less).
2 Fe + 3 CO (carbon monoxide) An important point is that the only source of heat for the
BOF is the oxidation (burning) of carbon and other ele-
The iron at this stage is called cast iron and contains ments that results in a residue of some oxides (nonmetal-
approximately 4% carbon. This carbon level is far high- lic inclusions) in the final product. The bar and sheet
er than the range for commercial steels that is normal- product from the BOF is lower alloy and usually employed
ly less than 1% (.32% for P20). The cast iron (simply in less critical applications. At the end of the life cycle for
called “hot metal” while still molten) continues on the such products, they become scrap and an appropriate
path to steel with further processing in a Basic Oxygen charge material for the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF).
Furnace (the “BOF”).
A Word on Steel Scrap Electric Arc Melting
From the perspective that scrap is product that has The Oxidizing Period
reached the end of useful life, the term “scrap” has a The EAF converts steel scrap, the charge material for the
negative connotation. From a positive viewpoint, how- EAF, into a liquid pool of metal. This occurs at approx-
ever, steel scrap is steel that has already undergone one imately 2750º F, but can vary by 100º F or more, depend-
refining step from the iron ore and is now a more puri- ing upon the actual chemical composition of the scrap
fied raw material. After serving in mostly noncritical steel. Since a typical furnace may contain over 75 tons
applications, the steel is now ready for the next level of of metal, the total heat requirement to convert the solid
refinement in the EAF to continue on the path to higher scrap to liquid steel is tremendous. Even though the
quality steel. Virtually all steel used for plastic molds is capacities of electrical transformers for arc furnaces are
produced by the method of the EAF. measured in megawatts rather than kilowatts, an auxil-
iary source of heat is useful to help the process along.
This heat source is usually the introduction of high
Electric Arc Furnace purity oxygen into the furnace through an injection
lance that generates heat from oxidizing some of the
elements present in the molten bath.
Fe + O (oxygen) FeO (iron oxide) + Heat
Si (silicon) + 2O SiO2 (silicon oxide) + Heat
Mn (manganese) + 2O MnO2 (manganese oxide) + Heat
4Al (aluminum) + 6O 2 Al203
(aluminum oxide or alumina) + Heat
A by-product of this supplemental heat source is a disper-

sion of oxides such as SiO2, etc., as shown in the above
exothermic oxidation reactions, throughout the melt.
Oxides are undesirable impurities in the steel, but they are
an unavoidable consequence of this stage of melting that
is called the oxidizing period. In addition to being a sup-
plemental source of heat, certain impurities, such as
phosphorous, are targeted and removed by the oxidation Importance of Oxide Removal for Moldmaking
process. All the oxides, since they are lighter than the Removal of oxides that develop during certain stages of
molten steel, tend to float to the surface, where they can the melting process is important to the performance of
be skimmed away. Before the steel is cast into the molds some mold and moldmaking processes. A higher con-
for solidification into ingots, however, as many oxides as centration of oxides in the steel adversely affects
possible must be removed if the goal is to make high machinability by exposing the cutting tool to particles
quality steel. having extremely high hardness. Aluminum oxide
(Al2O3), for example, has a hardness of approximately
Removing Nonmetallic Inclusions, 170 HRC! The overall frequency of oxides in the steel
The Refining Period affects machinability, and the larger particles of such
The slag containing the heavier concentration of oxides oxides may be visible on highly polished mold surfaces.
from the oxidizing period is skimmed, or flushed, from It is beneficial, therefore, to have the oxide content as
the furnace, and additions are made to form a fresh, sec- low as possible for plastic molds to improve machinabil-
ond slag. The new slag “grabs” remaining impurities ity and to yield acceptable polished surfaces whenever
from the molten bath as they float to the surface (this SPI Class 1 finishes are required.
step is the basis for the steelmaking term “double slag
process”). The advantage of the EAF over the BOF in
making clean steel arises at this stage with the capabili- Comparative Hardnesses of Inclusions
ty to heat solely with electricity at this critical stage to
avoid generating any further oxides. Supplemental heat 170
HRC
from oxidation is unnecessary at this stage because the 130
heat demands are reduced from actually melting the HRC
steel to simply offsetting the natural radiative and con- 100
HRC
vective heat losses from the furnace. Electrical heating
at this stage is a clean method of heating that counter-
acts the cooling effect of any final alloy additions and 30
stabilizes the molten bath at the desired temperature as HRC
the final composition is adjusted.
P20 Al2O3 SiO2 MnO
Vacuum Degassing processing limitation may be overcome by employing
Nearly all steel used for plastic molding undergoes an methods that heat the steel after tapping from the EAF.
additional refining step called vacuum degassing. This One approach to this problem provides a heating station
step removes most of the remaining dissolved oxygen adjacent to the vacuum degassing station. By shuttling
from the steel that would eventually react to form oxides the ladle back and forth between the two stations, the
as the steel cooled. When the molten steel is exposed to a steel can be alternately degassed and heated without the
vacuum, a strong driving force is created for the reaction: concern over the onset of solidification.
C (carbon) + O CO The VAD System

The system employed at A. Finkl & Sons Co. is unique in
CO, since it is a gas, is bubbled from the steel and the ability to heat and vacuum treat at the same
removed through the vacuum system. The resulting
steel is significantly lower in residual oxygen and this
ultimately minimizes formation of the undesirable solid
oxide particles such as Al2O3 and SiO2 that adversely Vacuum Arc Degassing
affect machinability and polishability.
Electrodes
Vacuum Degassing and Temperature Control
Vacuum degassing systems are separate facilities from Vacuum
the EAF, but they rely upon the heat developed in the EAF Arcs
for their processing. If steel is scheduled for degassing, Slag Layer
the temperature in the EAF is raised slightly higher than
normal just prior to pouring the steel into the ladle (tap- Molten Steel
ping the “heat”). This added temperature provides the Argon Gas
heat necessary for processing the steel in the degassing Bubbles
facility. Because the temperature of the steel must Argon Input
remain above a certain minimum value to perform the
next step, teeming (pouring) into ingot molds, the dura-
tion of the vacuum cycle is necessarily limited. This
station while under vacuum. Designed by C. W. Finkl, This reaction is promoted in the absence of oxygen.
there are now over 40 units in worldwide use. Termed Otherwise, CaO (calcium oxide) is the preferred reaction
Vacuum Arc Degassing, it permits degassing of the steel for the calcium.
for whatever time is deemed necessary to accomplish the
desired metallurgical effects. Additionally, an inert gas The heating capability in the VAD permits an extended
(argon) is introduced through porous plugs in the bot- vacuum cycle that allows it to be more than just a
tom of the ladle for stirring the steel throughout the degasser; it is now a highly efficient desulfurizer as well.
degassing cycle. This improves the effectiveness of the Sulfur contents in steel of 0.003% or less, once virtually
degassing process and assists in the flotation of impurities impossible to achieve, are now easily reached. Further,
to the slag to provide extraordinarily clean steel. minor alloying additions intended to fine tune the met-
allurgical properties of the steel can be made at this late
Desulfurization stage without concern for uncompensated temperature
A secondary benefit deriving from the extended vacuum losses.
treatment is removal of another troublesome impurity
in steel: sulfur. This impurity is present in iron ores to Sulfur and Mold Polishability
varying degrees, depending upon the quality of the ore The appeal of lower sulfur steel is primarily to a molder
and is carried through the many refining processes until who may require a very high quality surface for his prod-
conditions are right for removal. The best conditions for uct. If sulfides are present in steel in heavier concentra-
removing sulfur occur during the final stages of the tions (such as in resulfurized grades of steel), an SPI
extended vacuum period. The molten steel during this Class 1 surface may reveal the heavier sulfides as “angel
stage has extremely low oxygen content that favors a hair” scratches in the steel. These “scratches” are really
chemical reaction between the sulfur remaining in the elongated sulfides that are aligned in the grain-flow
steel and calcium that is available to the system either direction (normally the lengthwise direction of the
from the slag or from calcium added as injected calci- block) and cannot be removed with further polishing.
um wire. So while sulfur is not a gas, the conditions cre-
ated by degassing promote sulfur removal. Sulfide Shape Control
In some applications it may be beneficial to control the
Ca (calcium) + S (sulfur) CaS (calcium sulfide) extent to which sulfides elongate during the rolling or
forging process. This can be achieved to some extent by
controlling the chemical composition of the sulfides Two Views of Steel Cleanliness
that form during ingot solidification. By injecting cal- Whether a certain impurity level in the steel (nonmetal-
cium in the ladle just prior to teeming the steel, the lic inclusion content) is acceptable to a moldmaker or
manganese sulfide that normally forms is chemically texturer depends upon the effect that the nonmetallic
modified and holds a more globular shape during the inclusions have on the mold surface. One might think
rolling or forging process. This procedure falls into the that the effect on the surface is exactly correlated with
general category of “Ladle Metallurgy” that enables the total inclusion content, but this is not necessarily so.
steelmakers to practice an improved level of steel refine- To explain, it is useful to consider the concept of clean-
ment. Such facilities are termed “Ladle Metallurgy liness of the steel from two perspectives:
Furnaces,” or LMFs.
• From the steelmakers perspective, cleanliness is the
volume fraction of sulfur and other impurities in the
Balancing the Sulfur Content
molten steel at the time it is teemed into the ingot
Sulfur in steel has both good and bad aspects. For exam-
mold.
ple, the mold texturing process can accentuate sulfide
• From the molder’s or moldmaker’s perspective, clean-
locations, producing nonuniform results. This is true
liness is measured by the extent to which impurities
whether or not the sulfides are calcium treated for shape
appear on the surface of the mold.
control. For this reason, establishing an acceptable sul-
fur content in mold steel is a compromise between the
One would reasonably think that these two measures are
molder, the texturer if involved, and the moldmakers.
exactly related, but in actuality they are not for the fol-
Moldmakers may desire higher sulfur for better machin-
lowing reasons:
ability, while the texturer or molder may prefer lower sul-
fur for better etching or polishing, respectively. The • As the process of solidification proceeds in the ingot
greatest portion of commercial P20 is normally supplied mold, impurities like oxides and sulfides (and even
at approximately .015% sulfur content. This is a certain alloys) that are uniformly distributed in the
midrange value that lies between the low-end .003% sul- liquid metal are rejected by the solidifying metal to a
fur maximum for high polishability steel and the nor- degree that depends upon particle size and type of
mal commercial maximum of .025%. It provides a com- alloy. These alloys and impurities are pushed into the
bination of good machinability and polishability that is remaining liquid metal as the solidification front pro-
suitable for the vast majority of mold applications. ceeds, naturally, from outside in. This creates a con-
dition in the solidified ingot known as segregation.
• Larger ingots have slower solidification rates that Remelting (ESR and VAR)
allow more time for agglomeration of impurities to The natural solidification process for large forging
occur as they accumulate at the advancing solidifica- ingots takes eight hours for a 45-inch diameter forging
tion front. Ingot size, therefore, is strongly correlated ingot weighing 42,000 pounds, to over twenty-four
with both the size and distribution of inclusions and hours for a 100-inch diameter ingot weighing 200,000
the apparent cleanliness of the steel. pounds. Extended solidification time, typical of large
forging ingots, accentuates the segregation that normal-
Result: Mold blocks produced from large ingots have ly occurs in conventionally cast steel. If the solidifica-
inclusions that are larger and more noticeable than the tion process could be accelerated, the degree of segrega-
smaller, more finely dispersed inclusions of a small tion could be reduced. This, in fact, is accomplished
ingot, even if poured from the same molten metal. through a process known as remelting.
The remelting process is known either as Electro-Slag

Remelting or Vacuum Arc Remelting, depending upon
Solidification Front (Dendrites)
whether a slag cover or a vacuum container, respectively,
is used to protect the remelted metal from atmospheric
oxidation. In both methods, the conventionally cast
ingot is suspended vertically and progressively remelted
(much like a large welding rod) from bottom to top. The
Dendrite Core
falling droplets continuously feed a copper, water-cooled
mold for approximately 18 to 24 hours, depending upon
Interdendritic Region ingot size and electrical power used, until the conven-
tionally cast ingot is totally consumed. The new ingot,
solidified progressively from the bottom up, is the remelt-
Dendrite Core ed ingot that exhibits marked improvements in the qual-
ity of the steel. From the standpoint of the moldmaker,
LIQUID MUSHY ZONE SOLID
the very fine grain size of remelted steel, homogeneous
distribution of alloys and the superfine dispersion of any
Heat Flow
remaining nonmetallic inclusions greatly enhance pol-
ishability and texturing uniformity.
potential for producing superclean, superdegassed, high
VAR quality steel.
The appeal of an ESR is largely to facilities with limited

To Vacuum Vacuum ladle-desulfurizing capability that must rely upon the
Pump
remelting process to achieve extra low sulfur. The disad-
Original vantage of this system is that the benefits of a second
Ingot degassing are lost and the presence of a slag in the system
at this stage opens the possibility for slag contamination.
Remelted Cooling
Ingot Water
(outlet) While conventionally cast, degassed ingots are sometimes
Copper
successfully used for SPI Class 1 mold surfaces, remelted
Mold steel (especially VAR) is recommended when it is impera-
Cooling Water
tive that the very best surface finish is produced.
(inlet)
Forging
As-cast Steel
It is logical to ask if liquid steel could be poured directly
The remelting system at A. Finkl & Sons Co. is a VAR. into a mold that is conveniently shaped like the mold
Because steel for conventional ingots produced at Finkl block that a customer has ordered. After all, the cast-to-
is processed through the VAD, as described earlier, it is shape ingot would be virtually ready to ship without any
possible to achieve very low sulfur contents of .003% or need to reheat and reshape with a forging press, right?
less. Without the need, therefore, to desulfurize during That, in fact, is done to produce some blocks of steel that
the remelting process, the presence of a calcium-rich are used for molds, and they are called castings. This
desulfurizing slag of an ESR is unnecessary. Avoiding seems so simple, why are not all molds made this way?
the use of a slag in the system during this critical remelt- The principal reason is that as-cast metals, especially
ing period avoids the possibility of any slag entrainment larger sizes typical of commercial molds, have varying
and enables the use of a second, deep-vacuum treat- degrees of porosity that occur as a natural consequence
ment. These two considerations, together, offer increased of the solidification process.
Porosity develops in solidifying metal because of the Forge Reduction
general principle that things expand when heated and By reheating a solidified ingot to approximately 2250°F,
contract when cooled. Since an ingot of any cast shape called the hot-working temperature (for steel), it can be
cools from outside to inside, the outside dimension “squeezed” between two dies to collapse any internal
becomes fixed, and subsequent shrinkage must neces- voids. This process is called forging. To utilize the con-
sarily result in interior voids. This is addressed with tribution to quality that forging offers, the ingot must be
some measure of success by maintaining a molten reser- considerably larger than the mold block that is to be
voir that feeds the interior shrinkage. In an ingot, this forged from it. The ingot size to final mold block size is
is called a hot top, and in a casting it is called a riser. sometimes expressed as a ratio called the “forge reduc-
While this tactic leaves a condition of minimal, micro- tion.” This is the starting cross section of the ingot divid-
sized porosity in the product, even this is unacceptable ed by the finished cross section of the mold block and
for most plastic molding applications. should be a minimum of about 3:1 to achieve mean-
ingful benefits from the forging process.
Upset Forging
Wide Die Forging
In addition to the forge reduction, the effectiveness of
the forging process is also determined, in part, by the
size of the forging press. It is possible, within limits, to
forge large mold blocks with small presses. This can be
accomplished by using narrow forging dies that reduce
the hydraulic force required to deform the steel. The dis-
advantage of this method is that it loses effective com-
pressive force at deeper locations in larger cross sections.
Thus, although this technique may provide the required
3:1 forge reduction, there will be, nevertheless, a loss of
forge quality in the deep interior of the finished forging.
Simply stated, the forge reduction, by itself, is no guar-
antee of forge quality and may actually be misleading as
a measure of hot-working.
Finkl’s 6000 ton press.
Wide Die Forging Narrow Die Forging
Large Contact Area Metal Flow Small Contact Area Metal Flow
Deep Penetration Pattern Shallow Penetration Pattern
Bulging Effect
Hot-working penetrates
to center of section.
Steel microstructure is “Fish Tail” Effect
hot-worked and refined Hot-working does not
throughout entire cross penetrate to center
section. of section.
Grain Flow
To effectively forge the deep interior of a large mold
block, the width of the forging die must be equal to or
greater than the thickness of the block being forged.
This requirement, in addition to the forge reduction,
demands that a press of adequate size be used if a fully
forged block is to be achieved. Since molds can be very
large at times and the associated cavities very deep, it is
essential to forge such blocks with the widest possible
dies to provide the best possible steel structure through-
Grain flow resulting from forging. out the entire mold block.
Wrought Microstructure Ingot Upsetting
In addition to collapsing ingot solidification voids, One of the advantages of forging over rolling as a
another benefit of forging is the changing of the method of hot working is the ability to stand an ingot
microstructure of steel from a cast to a “wrought” con- upright and compress it to about half the original
dition. This refers to the change that occurs from hot height. The value of this capability, called upsetting, is to
working of steel, by forging or rolling, that refines the add more hot-working to an ingot before reaching the
coarse crystalline grain structure of an ingot to the fine final shape. The bulging, shortened ingot has a forging
crystalline structure that improves certain properties in reduction of about 2:1 before being rotated and forged
the steel. This refining effect is beneficial to such prop- back to the original ingot shape. Since all hot-working
erties as polishability and weldability and is therefore a is additive, a 4:1 forge reduction is effected upon return
desirable condition for moldmakers. of the upset ingot to the original ingot shape, and this is
added to the further reduction necessary to reach the
Grain Flow final mold block shape. Where a minimally beneficial
Whenever steel is forged, it is “plastically” deformed in a forge reduction, for example, of only 1.5:1 is possible for
way that decreases the cross section and increases the a large mold block when forged directly from the largest
length. Both the grains in the steel and any impurities available ingot, the upsetting operation would permit a
in the steel deform in concert with the overall shape cumulative total of 5.5:1 forge reduction in such cases.
change imparted by the forging operation. While the This is a respectable forge reduction that is achievable
distorted grains are capable, with heating, of recrystal- only by having presses of sufficient capacity to upset-
lizing (or reshaping themselves) back to a less distorted forge ingots.
shape, nonmetallic inclusions cannot do so and remain
in a permanently distorted configuration. The net effect Forged to Shape
of the elongated inclusions is to produce the effect in The simple rectangular shape of most mold blocks
steel described as “grain flow.” While polishing and tex- requires only that flat dies be employed in the forging
turing are not usually affected by grain flow, there may process. The use of flat dies is called open die forging.
be instances in texturing or on highly polished surfaces Using dies having the actual shape of the forged product
where it may be noticeable. In this case, extra low sul- machined into the dies is called closed die forging.
fur steel or ultraclean VAR or ESR steels should be used Shapes such as gears, wrenches, connecting rods, etc.,
to minimize grain-flow effects. are forged in this way. It is possible, however, with some
creative manipulation during open die forging to impart The plastics industry has established a steel composition
some degree of shape apart from a simple rectangle. called P20 that is usually heat treated to approximately
This capability is sometimes employed to forge a U- 300 BHN as the de facto standard for molds. This com-
shaped mold block that is used for large, automotive fas- bination of steel composition and hardness has a good
cia molds. The advantages of this practice are many: balance of properties that are important to both molders
and moldmakers and is used for probably 90% of the
• A grain flow that follows the eventual contour of the steel employed for plastics molding. Occasionally, or
mold impression. This improves the uniformity of perhaps increasingly, mold steels are being requested
polishing on the wraparound surface. that depart from standard P20. The role of alloy com-
• Additional forge work for improved microstructure position is addressed in Chapter 1 of this book. The role
and closure of any potentially troublesome porosity. of heat treatment is addressed in this section, but first
• Improved heat treatment due to more uniform dis- requires an explanation of some heat-treating terms.
tances between the quenched and final mold surfaces.
• Less machining to reach the final shape. Hardness
The definition of hardness that has the most meaning
For all of the above reasons, this product has become for molders is that it is a measure of the resistance to
popular for wraparound, automotive fascia molds. scratching, indenting and general wear. The higher the
hardness, the greater the resistance to these forms of sur-
Heat Treating face problems.
One of the great values of steel as an engineering mate-
rial is the capability of heat treating any given alloy Measuring Hardness
composition to a wide range of physical properties. In Indentation Methods of Measurement
this way, the engineer is given a great deal of latitude Hardness is most commonly measured by controlled
with regard to matching a grade of steel to his particu- indentation techniques such as the Brinell and Rockwell
lar requirements. He simply specifies some key parame- methods. Each of these hardness-measuring techniques
ters to describe the engineering properties needed and is discussed in more detail in a brochure available from
consults with the steel supplier to define a steel grade A. Finkl & Sons Co. entitled “Measuring Steel Hardness”
and method of heat treatment to comply with his engi- (see the back cover of this book for contact information).
neering specification. In both of these methods, the indentation produced by a
Hardness Testing Techniques rebound velocity is noted. The softer the steel, the more
“cushion” effect on the impacter, and the lower is the
Device Depth of Indention Dwell rebound velocity after impact. The quotient of the
Penetration* Force Time rebound and approach velocities determines a value that
Standard 0.013 in. 3000 kg 10 - 15 sec. is convertible to the more familiar Rockwell or Brinell
Brinell values. One such device is a Scleroscope. On this device
Rockwell “C” 0.005 in. 150 kg 2 sec. the impacter is contained inside a calibrated glass tube
“Bounce” 0.001 in. 0.1 kg 0.001 sec.
so that the rebound, from a fixed drop-height, can be
systems noted. This method limits the testing to the vertical
Hardness testing systems vary widely in how they measure
direction. An updated version of this method uses a
steel hardness. Compare the “industrial” indenting force of spring-accelerated impacter and electronic sensing head
the Brinell system to that of the Rockwell and rebound systems. to measure the approach and rebound velocities. The
device can be used in any orientation, and the detected
certain-shaped indenter with a prescribed force is accu- hardness is conveniently presented on an LCD readout.
rately measured and converted to a numerical value for
reference. The normal range of hardness values encoun- Precision of Hardness Testing
tered in mold steels is approximately 24 to 46 on the Hardness is not an absolute property of steel, and there
Rockwell “C” scale (usually denoted as HRC, or some- are no national standards for this property. Only the
times as HRc, or just Rc), or 248 to 429 BHN (sometimes Brinell method uses the units of force, length and time
denoted as HB) on the Brinell scale. While slightly softer in a way that allows calibration to standards that are
or harder conditions are possible, they would not be com- traceable to the National Institute of Standards and
mon conditions in most plastics molding applications. Technology (NIST). Other methods such as Rockwell
and rebound testing use commercially available hard-
Tables giving the approximate relationship between ness reference standards for calibration. The assigned
Brinell and Rockwell values are widely available. values for these reference standards are established
under highly controlled conditions, but nevertheless are
Rebound Methods of Measurement only consensus values, not national standards. They are
Another method of hardness testing is the rebound typically supplied with a tolerance of ±1 HRC.
method. This uses a mass, called an impacter, that is
accelerated toward the surface to be tested, and the
Recognizing that the tolerances associated with merging method to different degrees and must be addressed when
three units of force, length and time in the Brinell method comparing results between methods. A decarburized
and the typical tolerance of commercially supplied hard- layer of steel to a depth of .001 inch is virtually inconse-
ness reference standards, a precision of ±3% is perfectly quential to the Brinell test but may represent all of the
reasonable for either method. Allowing for the worst sce- metal read by the rebound method. This would certain-
nario, that two well-maintained machines are calibrated ly produce dramatically different results.
at opposite extremes of permissible tolerance ranges, two
readings could differ by nearly two Rockwell points or Hardness Uniformity
nearly twenty Brinell points when testing the same sam- The hardness of steel can vary on a microscale that is
ple! It is not unreasonable to experience industrial envi- only measurable by microhardness testing devices such
ronments and layman techniques that produce consider- as the Knoop or Vickers methods that are conducted with
ably greater hardness variability in actual practice. the aid of a microscope. The effect of microhardness
Attributing too much relevance to these real world varia- variation on moldmaking processes such as polishing
tions can frequently lead to acrimonious disputes. and texturing has not been well researched but may play
a role in polishability and texturing response.
Comparing Results from Different Hardness
Testing Methods Variations on a larger scale as measured by Brinell or
Hardness of steel is a response to a testing technique that Rockwell methods can occur between surface and inte-
involves displacement of metal (distortion from the rior locations and to some extent, over various locations
indenter or impacter) and this displacement can change on the outside of a block. The variations in hardness
in subtle ways, depending upon the shape and force from surface to center are discussed later in this chapter
behind the indenter. A Brinell test that uses 3000 kg of under the topics of DI and Quench Severity. As the thick-
indenting force to push a 10mm ball to a depth of ness of a mold block increases in relationship to the DI
approximately .015 inch (at 300 BHN) may give differ- of the chosen alloy, the greater will be the disparity in
ent results, for example, from a rebound method. Not hardness between surface and interior locations.
only is there a difference in the volume of metal sam-
pled, but there is also a difference in the degree to which One Caveat:
each of the methods is influenced by testing conditions. Another definition of hardness that molders and mold-
An oily film, a work-hardened layer from machining makers should understand is that hardness is a measure
operations, decarburization, etc., can affect each test of the internal state of stress of the steel. A higher hard-
ness means a higher internal state of stress that has an Annealing
adverse effect on weldability, fracture toughness, dimen- The primary purpose of annealing is to soften the steel.
sional stability and machinability. So while a higher “Soft” for P20 and most other steels is approximately
hardness steel is appealing to a molder because of the 248 BHN (24 HRC) or less. Annealing of steel can be
belief that it may provide a more durable mold, changes accomplished in any of the following ways:
to the specified hardness should be undertaken only after
considering the effect on all the properties of the mold • Full Anneal: The steel is heated above a temperature
block. In most cases, a higher hardness is achieved sim- called the critical temperature (about 1380°F for
ply by lowering the tempering temperature. Higher hard- most common steels) where steel changes from the
ness, in some instances, may create more favorable con- room-temperature atomic arrangement (ferrite) to
ditions for cracking, and from this standpoint make the the high-temperature arrangement (austenite). By
mold less durable. Changes to specified hardness, there- slowly cooling steel from the high (austenitic) tem-
fore, should be discussed with the steel supplier to gain perature by progressively reducing the furnace tem-
insight into possible unintended side effects. perature, the steel transforms back to ferrite at a rate
that usually results in a hardness of 248 BHN or less.
• Isothermal Anneal: A variation on the full anneal
where the steel is cooled from the austenitic tempera-
ture by simply placing the steel in a furnace with the
set-point at a preselected, fixed temperature (typically
about 1200°F) that is just under the transformation
temperature. This, in many cases, produces a suffi-
ciently retarded cooling rate to effect an annealed con-
dition.
In either of the above methods, the cooling rates required

for successful annealing are sufficiently slow that the fur-
naces use burners to provide occasional heat input. In
some cases, however, a well-insulated cover alone may be
adequate to provide a sufficiently slow cooling rate to
produce an acceptable, annealed hardness.
Heat Treat Cycles Normalizing
The purpose of normalizing is principally to effect a
change in the grain structure of the steel to improve the
uniformity of size and shape of the grains. This may be
Normalize important for some steel properties such as formability
and fracture toughness. Normalizing is performed by
Air Cool Austintize
heating the steel to a high temperature (usually about
Quench 1750°F, 950°C) and cooling in still air (sometimes
Temper Stress called floor cooling). If a manufactured blast of air is
Relief
used to accelerate the cooling, it is technically an air-
quench rather than a normalizing treatment. With a
normalizing treatment, P20 hardens to approximately
Hours 255 BHN or a little harder, depending upon the size of
the block. It is usually advisable to follow normalizing
with a tempering treatment to reduce any residual,
transformational stresses that may have resulted from
• Subcritical Anneal: The steel is heated to a temper- the cooling cycle, especially for high hardenability steels
ature that is kept below the critical transformation like P20.
temperature. It is essentially a tempering process
conducted at approximately 1300°F (705°C) and Quenching
held for an extended time to achieve the softening Quenching is performed to harden the steel and is
effect. The hardness achieved is usually a little high- achieved by rapidly cooling from an austenitic (red hot)
er compared to a full anneal but still usually around temperature. The level of carbon and alloy in the steel
248 BHN. There is a difference in the steel combined with the cooling rate determines the as-
microstructure between a full anneal and subcritical quenched hardness. The actual cooling rate depends
anneal that may be relevant for some metal-forming upon the size of the block (more technically, the surface-
processes. to-volume ratio of the block) and the type of quench
medium used. With regard to block size, smaller blocks
cool more quickly than larger blocks and develop a ature differential, termed a thermal gradient. Once a
higher as-quenched hardness. With regard to the gradient is established, the magnitude of the gradient
quench medium, water is a more effective coolant than and the natural conductivity of the steel govern the rate
oil (or a water-polymer solution serving as a nonflam- of heat flow from the interior. The result is that the inte-
mable oil substitute) and either is more effective than a rior cools more slowly than the surface and results in an
blast of air. interior that is lower in hardness and has a different
microstructure than the surface. The size of the block,
Steel is rarely used in the as-quenched condition. the chemistry of the steel, and severity of the quenching
Although high hardness is appealing from the stand- process determine the extent of the difference, if any,
point of wear resistance, it leaves the steel in a brittle between the surface and center of the block.
condition that is likely to produce catastrophic fracture
under the slightest thermal or mechanical shock. For Ideal Diameter (DI)
this reason, a tempering process nearly always follows The Ideal Diameter is a measure of the hardenability
the quenching operation. Tempering reduces the as- (not hardness) of the steel. Hardenability is the ability to
quenched hardness and increases the toughness and harden even with a slower cooling rate from the austen-
ductility of the steel, making it more appropriate for typ- itizing temperature, i.e., with a less severe quench. If a
ical engineering applications. (See Tempering and large mold block has sufficient hardenability, the interi-
Stress Relieving later in this chapter.) or will be about the same hardness as the surface despite
experiencing a slower cooling rate. In other words, a
Surface vs Interior Hardness mold block will have good through-hardening charac-
The rate of cooling during the quenching process (the teristics if it has a DI equal to, or greater than, the thick-
severity of quench) has a major influence on the degree ness of the block. The DI for each mold steel grade is
of hardness achieved. Less severe quenching results in a shown in Chapter 1 along with the chemistry.
lower as-quenched hardness. This fact has conse-
quences for molders. When a mold block is immersed in A numerical value for the hardenability of a grade of
water to start the quenching process, the surface tem- steel can be calculated by entering the percentage of
perature drops immediately but the interior lags behind. each alloy present into an experimentally determined
Heat does not flow from the interior of the block until formula. The resulting number from the formula (the
the surface temperature drops and establishes a temper- DI) is the largest diameter of a bar, expressed in inches,
DIs of Common Grades Quench Severity
Quench Severity: Water
DI Water is an extremely effective cooling medium and can
Mold Die 13.0 achieve about 90% of a theoretically perfect (ideal)
Mold Die Lens Quality 13.0 quench. This can be improved to about 95% of a theo-
LR 12.4 retically perfect quench by adding salt to the water to
4140 or 4150 5.5/6.1 create a brine quench. For only a 5% improvement,
HB (AISI 4150 Resulfurized) 5.6 however, the complications involving corrosion of
WF-XTRA 33.3 equipment and health issues are generally not worth the
DC and DC-Xtra VAR (AISI H13/H13 VAR) 51.3 benefits, and brine quenches are not widely used.
420M, 420 Premium Quality and 420MB 52.7
Finkl Grade DRX (AISI S7) 46.8 Quench Severity: Oil and Polymer
There are situations where it may be useful to reduce the
made from that grade of steel that will still harden quench severity. In this case the quenchant may be
through to the center – more technically, develop at least changed to another liquid that has lower cooling power
50% martensite in the center – if given a perfect (very than water. Oil, for example, has a lower capacity for
fast) quench. Mold blocks, being rectangular, may use absorbing heat and a higher viscosity than water that
the thickness as a rough approximation for assessing the makes it slower to carry the heat away from the
through-hardening potential of a particular block. To quenched surface. These two factors lower the effective-
have good through-hardening, the DI of the grade being ness of oil quenching to only about 60% of the theoreti-
quenched should be equal to or greater than the actual cal ideal (compared to 90% of ideal for water). Use of
heat-treated thickness of the block. (For example, a oil, however, presents health and safety issues in the
mold block 12 inches thick should be made from a steel form of harmful vapors and fire hazards. For this rea-
with a DI of at least 12, such as a P20, if the hardness son, most heat treaters desiring a quench medium hav-
and microstructure in the center is expected to be like ing the characteristics of oil are actually using a “poly-
that developed on the surface.) Mold blocks with a mer,” i.e., water with a polymer additive that simulates
thickness exceeding the DI of the chemistry can be the quenching speed of oil yet avoids the health and
expected to have a drop in hardness from the surface to safety issues posed by using oil.
interior locations.
Relative Quench Severities In general, the best properties in steel are produced with
0.9 the highest achievable quench severity. This yields the
0.9 highest possible as-quenched hardness that must be fol-
0.8 lowed by the highest possible tempering temperature for
0.7
any given hardness. This combination produces the
toughest, most ductile properties in steel.
0.6 0.54
0.5 Hardening of the Mold

0.4 After Machining the Impression
0.3
Because of the surface contours on a machined mold,
imbalanced stresses develop during quenching that could
0.2 0.1
easily cause cracking if quenched in water, or even oil. In
0.1 this case, an air-hardening alloy such as H13 could be
Water Oil Air heat treated after machining, because a mildly stressful
blast of air is still adequate to harden the steel. This is a
common practice with H13 and other air-hardenable
Quench Severity: Air steels. Heating the machined mold is usually performed
Air is the least severe, or slowest, of the quench media. in a vacuum furnace to protect the possibly finish-
Compared to water, it is only about 10% as effective. machined surface from oxidizing while at the high
This is a gentle process that is generally employed when- (austenitizing) temperature. When ready for quenching,
ever a machined mold must be quenched. a blast of nitrogen or argon gas is used to effect a mild
cooling rate (compared to water or oil quenching). The
The comparison of various quench media assumes cooling rate can be increased slightly by boosting the
equivalent levels of agitation during quenching. pressure of the gas to more than one atmosphere (referred
to as a bar because normal atmospheric pressure as mea-
More vigorous agitation during quenching can improve sured by a barometer is 14.7 psi). Furnaces may use
values slightly for any quench medium, and no agita- increased pressures of 2 bar (29.4 psi), 3 bar (44.1 psi),
tion can decrease these values. etc., to increase the quench severity.
Tempering and Stress Relieving “Color Matching”
The purpose of both of these processes is to relieve stress- Stress relieving at or slightly above the tempering tem-
es in the steel, and the thermal cycles used may actual- perature, e.g., for color matching of welds, actually
ly be indistinguishable from one another. When the becomes a tempering operation that causes a hardness
purpose of the thermal treatment is specifically intended drop in the base metal of approximately one Rockwell
to lower the hardness, it is termed tempering. Exactly the point for each 10°F increment above the previous tem-
same cycle used on a piece that had previously been pering temperature. Though sacrificing a little in mold
tempered at a higher temperature does not have any hardness, this process achieves maximum hardness
appreciable effect on the hardness and is usually regard- blending between the mold and the HAZ of a weld. This
ed as a stress relieving cycle. is essential for minimizing visibility of a welded area on
a polished surface.
Tempering is practically always performed after quench-
ing and usually after normalizing as well. The as- Double Tempering
quenched condition of steel is not generally suited for For some high alloy steels, or for very large mold blocks,
most engineering applications. The as-quenched condi- it may be advisable to perform a second tempering oper-
tion, depending upon carbon and alloy composition, is ation. This practice of double tempering addresses
brittle and crack prone, and must be tempered to bring small percentages of steel that, for certain grades or
some toughness and ductility to the steel, even at the sizes, experience delayed transformations that could
expense of losing some desirable hardness. escape tempering during the first cycle. For this reason,
quenching and then double tempering is an appropriate
The correct balance of hardness and ductility for a par- practice in some cases to achieve maximum tempered
ticular application is designated by the engineer and uniformity. For some types of high-alloy tool steel, a
achieved with the tempering temperature designated by third tempering may be employed for the same reasons.
the metallurgist. For water-quenched P20, the temper-
ing temperature is approximately 1100°F but may be
somewhat lower when the mold block is oil or polymer
quenched.
Chapter 3 is offered for machining and the same tool life is desired,
the cutting speed must be adjusted:
Moldmaking For constant cutter life:

V = M x V0
Where V = new cutting speed in surface feet per second
M = relative machinability rating
V0 = normally employed cutting speed
If M for the new steel is an unknown, it can be deter-

mined from the above formula by noting the new cut-
ting speed that produces the same tool life as the com-
parison steel. As with many endeavors, this is easier said
than done. Tool life is highly variable and sufficient
data must be generated to draw statistically meaningful
conclusions. For published tool steel machinability rat-
ings, it is common to make the comparison to a plain
Machining (no alloy) 1% carbon tool steel (AISI W1) in the annealed
Grade of Steel condition (maximum 248 BHN).
The response of a grade of steel to cutting operations is
termed machinability. From a qualitative viewpoint, this Steel Cleanliness
term refers to the ease of metal removal and the quality Quantifying the relationship between cleanliness of the
of the finished surface. From a quantitative viewpoint, steel and machinability is difficult, because while some
machinability can be defined by the relationship nonmetallic inclusions are detrimental to machinabili-
between tool life and cutting speeds. Quantitatively, ty, others are actually beneficial. In the detrimental cat-
good machinability means that good tool life can be egory are the oxides such as Al2O3 and SiO2 that are
maintained with a high rate of metal removal. Metal extremely abrasive to the tool tip. Their precise effect,
removal is essentially depth and speed of cut. Whenever however, is difficult to quantify. Differences are some-
a new grade of steel with a known machinability rating times easily noted, however, between broad categories of
Machinability vs Hardness Tool Life vs Cutting Speed
2Mo 2.8
2.6 Taylor's Equation
M = Ho x T = C 1/n
Relative Machinability, M
2.4
RelativeTool Life
1.75
2.2 V
H 2To
1.50 T = Tool Life
x = Experimentally 1.8
Determined 1.6 V = Cutting Speed
Mo n, C = Constants
Constant 1.4
.75 1.2
To
.50 0.8
0.6 x = 1.5
x = 1.5 n = 0.2
.25 0.4
0.2
High speed tooling
0 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Ho 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 0 .2Vo .4Vo .6Vo .8Vo Vo 1.2Vo 1.4Vo 1.6Vo 1.8Vo 2.0Vo
Relative Hardness, H Relative Cutting Speed
cleanliness that are produced from nondegassed, vacu- By adding a lot of sulfur to steel (from about 10 to 100
um degassed and remelted grades of steel. times the normal level) to create resulfurized grades, the
machinability can be dramatically improved. These
Sulfur, for example, in the form of manganese sulfide in grades are usually referred to as free-machining steels
the steel improves machinability. It does so first, because and are denoted by a suffix to the standard designation
it is a relatively soft inclusion and does not abrade the that may be an “F” or an “S.” Because sulfur is an
tool tip. Second, it provides interruptions in the steel impurity, these grades are not generally applied to appli-
matrix that allows the cut metal to fall away from the cations that require high polishability.
tool tip. This is relevant because the heat that develops
locally around the tool tip is permitted a faster escape for Hardness
a cooler running tool. Without an ingredient in the steel The hardness of the steel also affects machinability and
that allows chip breakage to occur, the chip curls and can be quantified using the experimentally determined
“hugs” the tool tip and interferes with heat dissipation. relationship:
Hotter running cutting tools are marginally softer and
more prone to wear.
M = (H0 /H)x EDM (Electro-Discharge Machining)
Where M = relative machinability rating The EDM process relies upon the generation of a high
H0= original hardness temperature electrical sparking to melt the steel in a
H = new hardness localized area and a fluid to flush away the momentar-
X = an experimentally determined exponent that
ily molten metal. The high temperatures employed in
depends upon the characteristics of the
cutting tool, usually about 1.5. this process cause significant metallurgical changes in
the EDM’d surface. A portion of the melted metal that is
Though actual effects can vary between mold shops, the created at the point of an electrical spark may not get
effect of steel hardness can influence machining time, completely flushed away and may remain on the surface
tool wear and hence profitability for the moldmaker. As as recast layer, normally about 0.002 or 0.003 inches
a rough guideline, there is about a 1% loss in machin- deep. This condition is present on all EDM surfaces and
ability for each Brinell point increase in hardness. the depth of the recast layer varies according to the fin-
ishing amperage used and the effectiveness of the flush-
Cutting Speed ing process. Both a high finishing amperage and areas
The faster cutting is performed, the more work per unit partially shielded from the full flushing action of the
of time, the more heat generated, and the more wear dielectric fluid (such as inside corners with sharp radii,
should be expected on a cutting tool. One relationship deep recesses, etc.) will develop a heavier than normal
used to quantify the process is the Taylor equation: recast layer. This layer is altered from the base metal in
two important ways: (1) the hardness has been changed
T = (C/V)1/n
Where T = tool life
to that of an as-quenched steel at about 60 HRC and (2)
V = cutting speed the microstructure has been transformed to untempered
n, C = experimentally determined constants martensite. These changes are a concern for mold
builders for a number of reasons:
Empirical values for the n-value are approximately 0.2
for high-speed cutters and 0.4 for carbide cutters. The C- • The recast layer is characterized by extensive
value is determined by using current shop values and micro-cracks that serve as fatigue crack initiation
used as a constant for new cutting speeds. Increases or sites under molding pressures.
decreases in cutter speeds of 20% to 40% can have dra- • As an untempered martensite at about 60 HRc, the
matic effects on tool life and consequential impacts on recast layer resists efforts to effectively bench away
mold-building costs. any degraded surface.
EDM Recast Layer
abrade according to experience developed with normal-
ly hardened surfaces.
Polishing
Conceptually, the polishing of a mold is a simple process
that entails using successively finer abrasives until the
desired surface is achieved. In practice, it is a process
that challenges human endurance and discipline to
adhere to a strict progression of abrasives and estab-
lished procedures, however tempting cost or time short-
cuts may be. Following are the essential elements for
producing acceptable mold surfaces.
Appropriate Steel
For SPI B or coarser surfaces, i.e., non-diamond finish-
es, EAF vacuum degassed steel is the norm for plastic
• The recast layer textures very differently than the molds. Typical grades for molds include P20, 420 stain-
base metal and must be removed before texturing less (especially when corrosion resistance is important)
to avoid noticeably different texturing results in and H13 (which provides a high degree of abrasion
areas containing residual recast layer. resistance).
While some of these effects can be minimized by finish- For SPI A surfaces, particularly those requiring the use
ing with very low EDM amperage, the most effective way of 6-micron diamond paste or better, EAF vacuum
to avoid complications presented by an EDM layer is to degassed steel will often produce acceptable finishes, but
remove it entirely. This is best accomplished by reduc- it cannot be guaranteed. It is advisable for high quality
ing the hardness of the recast layer prior to benching surfaces (3 micron) to use remelted (VAR) steel to insure
with a post-EDM stress-relieving cycle performed near the desired mirror finish. Commonly preferred grades
the tempering temperature. The softened layer will then include Finkl Mold Die Lens Quality (VAR refined P20),
420 Premium Quality, Mar-X, and DC-Xtra VAR (H13
premium quality).
Higher hardness steel (32 HRC or higher) is generally
regarded as having better polishability. In part, this may Polishing
be due to better scratch resistance from the occasional
contaminant particles that find their way into the final
polishing stage.
Complete Removal of Previous Surface

As polishing proceeds to progressively finer grits, it is
imperative to remove all traces of the surface from the
previous grit. Most polishers change the polishing direc-
tion between steps by 45º to 90º to facilitate recognition
of any residual abrasion marks from the prior, coarser
grit. Premature progression to the next grit may leave
abrasion marks that are too deep to be effectively
removed by successively finer grits. In such cases, the
surface features, having the look of a micro-knurled Some surface conditions are especially difficult to
condition because of the cross-polishing technique, are remove completely. Corrosion, for example, on the sur-
smoothed but remain as micro “bumps” on the mold face of steel should not be taken lightly, especially in the
surface. Depending upon the size of the bumps, they later stages of polishing. The corrosion process attacks
may depart sufficiently from flatness to noticeably the steel more vigorously in certain preferred sites and
degrade the quality of a reflected image. When this hap- leaves an irregular pattern to the depth of the corrosion
pens, the condition may sometimes be referred to as pits. Even light corrosion may leave pits as deep as .010”
“orange peel.” It should be noted, however, that the or more. Polishing to remove only the obvious rust con-
term “orange peel” seems to be a nonspecific term used dition leaves the deepest portion of the pits to degrade
to describe generally degraded image reflections that the quality of the surface finish.
may stem from different causes. Early transition to pro-
gressive grits, i.e., incomplete removal of the prior sur- EDM surfaces can be sources of polishing problems if not
face, is one source of orange peel. completely removed because of the “cratering” that char-
acterizes an EDM surface, leaving residual craters of vary-
ing depth. Because of the fact that such surfaces may be ing. Lower hardness steel is more prone to develop this
extremely hard, the deeper craters are difficult to remove condition.
with normal benching techniques. Like corrosion, the
deeper pits may escape notice until the final polishing is Welding
performed. The only means of correction is reverting to Virtually all steels are weldable with proper procedures.
sufficiently coarse grit to get below the deepest of the pits. Low carbon steels (less than 0.30% carbon), having no
alloy, are generally considered to be field weldable. This
Process Cleanliness means that a successful weld can usually be achieved
Any carryover of coarse grit from an earlier polishing stage without the need for special thermal treatments before
obviously will affect surface quality. To the extent possible, or after welding. In addition to carbon and alloy level,
clothing, tools and the general environment must be care- another factor that affects weldability is the rigidity of
fully controlled (cleaned, changed) to avoid inadvertent the piece being welded. Smaller pieces of softer metal
carryover. In addition to scratching, a coarse particle may can yield or flex to alleviate some welding stresses.
imbed in the surface and present the appearance of a non- Large mold blocks, particularly at higher hardness, are
metallic inclusion or pit. more prone to weld cracking because of their inability to
flex or yield to accommodate residual stresses developed
High Quality Consumables in welding.
Diamond paste, for example, can be purchased with dif-
ferent concentrations of diamond abrasive. Though sell- Cracking is always a risk in welding high hardenability
ing for less, the pastes with lower diamond content may steel. As the carbon and alloy levels in steel increase,
tend to smear or burnish the mold surface rather than welding can only be undertaken safely if it is performed
performing a definite abrasive action. Visible smearing in conjunction with a pre- and post-weld thermal treat-
or burnished areas are actually localized areas of ment. Various equations provide guidance for determin-
deformed (cold-worked) metal that work harden and ing whether thermal treatment is required. These for-
alter the polishing response. This is another source of mulas consider the alloy and carbon content in a calcu-
orange peel. In this case it would be attributable to over- lation that yields a value called the “carbon equivalent.”
polishing. This type of orange peel can only be correct- An example of such an equation follows.
ed by reverting to a sufficiently coarse grit to remove the
work-hardened layer, followed by less vigorous polish Carbon Equivalent (CE) = %C + %Mn/6 + %Ni/15 +
%Cr/5 + %Mo/4 + %V/5 + Cu/15
es are additive to any residual stresses, and the combi-
elding Technique
Welding Technique nation may exceed the fatigue strength of the steel.
Electric Arc Welding Rod
A heating procedure to avoid excessive residual stresses
in weldments is as follows:
1)Preheat to 800°F (425°C).
Caution: Some plastic molds are very large and have
intricate contours that make the mold especially sus-
Molten Metal
F 2800°F +
ceptible to thermal shock. Heating in such cases must
be undertaken gradually. The following procedures
moderate the rate of heat input to the mold and lower
Heat Flow
the risk of cracking from thermal stresses:
Block Intermediate 800°F (425°C)

Values of CE for some mold steels: Thickness Temp & Time Hold Time
Steel Grade CE Under 12 inches 400°F (205°C) 1 hour 2 hours
1045 0.55 12 to 24 inches 400°F (205°C) 2 hours 4 hours
4140 0.75 Over 24 inches 400°F (205°C) 4 hours 8 hours
P20 0.97
An intermediate hold is necessary to avoid excessive
Preheating and postheating are advisable when CE ≥ differences in temperature between the exterior and
.40. interior of the block. Ignoring an intermediate
holding period, especially for larger molds,
These formulas suggest that virtually all the grades of could cause thermal stresses sufficient to
steel commonly used by moldmakers should receive pre- crack the block. These stresses are created as the
and postweld heating to minimize the risk of cracking. exterior expands while the interior, still unheated, is
Welding without pre- and postheating may be simply pulled along. The resulting burst occurs in the
successful, but this shortcut creates residual interior and may go undetected until continued slow
stresses that may precipitate weld cracking growth under residual or service stresses propagates it
on a delayed basis. Thermal or mechanical stress- to the surface.
2)Perform welding while maintaining 400°F (205°C)
minimum temperature. Profile of Weld Deposit
The type of welding rod should be determined with
the welding rod supplier according to the purpose of Fusion Weld Metal
Zone Deposit
the weld:
• A weld metal of ductile alloy is the appropriate
choice for simply joining two pieces of metal with
minimal risk of cracking.
• A weld metal that produces a hard a deposit is
appropriate for wear surfaces or surfaces intended Unaffected Base Heat Affected
to be wear enhanced (hard facing). Metal (Die Steel) Zone
• A weld metal of the same or similar composition to
the base metal is chosen when blending is the pri-
mary consideration. encapsulating, the weld. This area reaches a temper-
ature that is basically the same as that used by the
Recharge into the furnace for reheating, if necessary, to heat treater for quench hardening the steel (approxi-
maintain 400°F (205°C) minimum temperature that mately 1600°F, 870°C). For high hardenability steels,
should be maintained during welding. as mold steels are, the cooling rate need not be very
high in the HAZ to harden the steel to 50 HRC or
Charge into furnace for postweld treatment upon more. If this area remained at high hardness, the
completion of welding and before dropping below HAZ would be brittle and highly prone to cracking.
300°F (approx. 150°C). The solution is to temper the entire mold block with
the aim of blending the metallurgical properties in
3)Perform postweld heating. the HAZ to match those in the rest of the block. The
This step is intended to temper an area adjacent to the procedure is explained below:
weld, the HAZ, that undergoes a hardening process as
a result of the heat from the welding. The HAZ is not
actually part of the weld metal deposit or fusion zone
of the weld, but is an area a short distance from, but
Temperature Time Comment approximation of the effect of tempering above the pre-
Tempering 1/2 hour per inch Used when no effect viously employed tempering temperature.
Temperature* of thickness is desired on block
-50°F hardness
Texturing
Tempering 1/2 hour per inch Used to achieve Texturing is corrosion – controlled corrosion, but none-
Temperature* of thickness maximum hardness theless it is corrosion. Once this is understood, many of
blending (as for the problems associated with texturing can be appreciat-
color matching)
ed. Minor differences in chemical analysis, heat treated
*The tempering temperature refers to the temperature used condition of the steel, presence of inclusions and
to establish the existing hardness of the block. At times, a microsegregation of alloys all have an influence on the
block may have been previously double tempered. In this way the metal corrodes, i.e., textures. Disturbed
case, the higher of the two temperatures is the one used to metal on the mold surface to be textured such
establish the hardness of the block and is the tempering tem-
perature in the above table. The original tempering tempera-
as EDM layers, welded areas, cold-worked
ture must be obtained from the mold steel supplier. metal from machining operations and even
invisible oxide layers can significantly effect
In general, water quenched P20 should be tempered at the texturing process. In fact, it is a testimony to
approximately 1100°F. Oil or polymer quenched P20 the scientific expertise and artistic talent of the texturing
may be considerably lower, perhaps 1000°F or less. companies that they can control this process to achieve
Grades other than P20, and other hardness levels, may the aesthetically pleasing results that they do.
vary considerably in tempering temperatures, and it is
necessary to obtain this value from the supplier or heat Details such as the grade of steel selected for texturing,
treater. surface preparation in terms of final polishing grit, draft
angles designed to insure proper part release, and
Postweld temperature treatments exceeding the temper- mapped welding areas should all be discussed with the
ing temperature will soften the block by approximately texturer. Whenever possible, steel from the same source
1 HRC for every 10°F over. The precise effect is governed and even from the same heat (batch) and bar of steel
by additional factors such as time at temperature and should be used to promote uniform results on molds with
exact chemical composition, and prior thermal history multiple components. Steel obtained from different
of the steel. But the 1HRC/10°F formula is a useful melting sources may exhibit distinctly different texturing
responses, even though they are the same grade of steel.
A common problem encountered on textured molds is a These alloys escape the general tendency for segregation
condition referred to as streaking. It is caused by segre- and are not usually the cause of texturing problems.
gation of alloys and impurities in the steel that cause
nonuniform texturing response. Manual blending
Texturers can address the complications of microdiffer-
Alloys are added to steel to achieve certain desired met- ences in steel by designing acids and techniques that
allurgical qualities for the steel, but nonetheless have address these issues with some degree of success. In many
different characteristics than iron atoms and are there- cases, however, differential etching must be addressed by
fore perceived by the developing iron crystal as impuri- manual blending. The success of this process depends
ties. As the iron atoms transition from the liquid state, upon the individual talents of artisans using specialized
having a chaotic arrangement of atoms, to the rigidly tools to manually scribe the desired etch pattern into
organized solid structure of a crystalline lattice, any under-etched areas of the mold. In fact, manual blending
atoms with significantly different lattice parameters is such a routine operation in the texturing process that
from the iron are rejected and pushed ahead of the solid- the talent level in this critical area probably is a major fac-
ification front into the remaining liquid. Certain ele- tor in the commercial success of any texturing operation.
ments in steel like carbon, manganese, and chromium
and small impurity particles like manganese sulfides Re-etching
and various oxides are especially prone to segregation. In the event that a textured surface has to be removed by
These constituents ultimately assume a distribution in abrasive means (re-stoning), it should be realized that
the steel that reflects the solidification pattern with some the corrosion effect of the texturing process extends well
areas that are enriched (positive segregation) and other below the apparent depth of the surface contours. The
areas that are depleted (negative segregation). This con- nature of the acid attack in the texturing process results
dition happens to various degrees in all steels and is one in corrosion pits that can extend to two to three times or
reason for uneven etching response. Alloy rich areas more below the depth of the surface contours. Removing
simply etch differently than alloy lean areas. the surface only to the depth of the visible texturing
leaves a heavy concentration of what appear to be pits in
Some ingredients like nickel and molybdenum are suffi- the steel. These are actually the deepest pits of the cor-
ciently similar to iron to be uniformly incorporated into rosion attack from the texturing process.
the iron lattice during the solidification of the ingot.
Chrome and Nickel Plating diately prior to the plating process. In the event that any
Chrome plating is used either for the hard, abrasion objectionable conditions arise on the plated surface, there
resistant surface (approximately 70 HRC) that it pro- will be some basis for establishing whether the plating or
vides, or the corrosion resistance offered by a surface of the steel substrate is the source of the problem.
nearly pure chromium. Because the chromium plate is
hard and brittle, it is normal to have microcracks in the Hydrogen Embrittlement
plating. For this reason, nickel plating may occasion- A side effect of any plating process is the deposition of
ally be applied under the chromium as an added barri- hydrogen atoms on the surface of the steel along with
er to corrosion. Nickel is softer (approximately 45 HRC) the plated metal. This occurs as a result of the plating
and less susceptible to cracking. The softer plating of solution that contains both metallic ions and hydrogen
nickel is sometimes used to hide minor surface imper- ions (Cr+++ and H+, for example ). With the conver-
fections by hand working the applied nickel in a strate- sion of the hydrogen ion to an atom by taking an elec-
gic way to hide some imperfections. tron from the plating current, the hydrogen assumes an
Need for a Good Surface

One might imagine that a plating process would cover Chromium Plating
any flaws on the surface of the steel and make them less 0.9
noticeable. Exactly the opposite is true. The electrolyt- 0.9
ic plating process used to deposit chromium accentuates 0.8 Cr +++ Cr +++
imperfections rather than hides them. Whenever a plat- Cr +++
0.7
ing process is planned for a mold, it should start with a 0.54
surface that has been polished basically to the desired 0.6
level of the postplated surface. Therefore, we recommend 0.5

Plating
following the steel selection guidelines under the 0.4
Polishing section in this chapter when selecting a steel Mold Surface
0.3
for chrome plating. e-
Fe
e-
Since improperly applied chrome or nickel plating can 0.2
result in conditions that may be objectionable to the 0.1

molder, it is advisable to inspect the mold surface imme-
atomic form that can diffuse into the steel. The diffu- ened condition exists that could result in cracking of the
sion occurs preferentially along grain boundaries, weak- mold. For this reason, a diffusion cycle is sometimes rec-
ens the steel intergranularly (hydrogen embrittlement), ommended immediately following the plating process. It
and may be responsible for mold cracking under service involves simply heating to approximately 375 °F (190°C)
pressures. Once the plating process is completed, the and holding for about four hours to promote hydrogen
driving force for hydrogen infusion into the steel is also escape through the higher diffusion rates that occur at
stopped and a diffusion reversal occurs, eventually elevated temperatures.
allowing the accumulated hydrogen to escape and
return to safer levels. Stripping of Plated Surfaces
Occasionally, plating must be removed (stripped) from
Stress Relieving After Plating the mold. The process employed is essentially a reversal
If strong thermal or mechanical stresses are applied to the of the electron flow employed in the plating process.
mold while high hydrogen levels are still present, a weak- This may either be done by actually reversing the cur-
Hydrogen Embrittlement Chromium Stripping
Cr +++ Cr +++
H+ Cr +++ Cr +++
Fe +++
H Cr Cr H Cr H Cr
H Mold Surface H Mold Surface

H
H e- e-
e- e-
rent while the mold is immersed in the plating bath or temperatures offering faster diffusion rates and a deeper
by immersing the mold in a caustic bath. The advan- case depth. Typical case depths are approximately 0.030
tage of the caustic solution is the lower, natural-voltage inches but can be made to be more or less depending
stripping current that is less likely to affect the substrate. upon anticipated service conditions. It should be noted
Any time chrome plating is removed, however, there is that heating to a carburizing temperature erases any
the potential for also removing some of the substrate. prior heat treated condition in the steel, and the new
Like the corrosion process, the chrome stripping process properties in the steel are established by the cooling rate
is not uniform in the effect on the surface and may leave from that temperature. Some tempering normally fol-
scattered sites of deeper pits in the original surface, par- lows the hardening process, but the tempering tempera-
ticularly if the current reversal method is used. ture is usually kept very low, around 400°F (205°C), to
keep the surface near peak hardness. Carburized cases
Pits resulting from stripping are, to the unaided eye, vir- are generally in the range of 50 to 60 HRC.
tually indistinguishable from indigenous pits in the
steel. The only valid way, at this stage, to evaluate the Nitriding is performed in the temperature region of
quality of the steel is to cut a sample to permit polishing approximately 950°F to 1050°F (510°C to 565°C). As
of metal situated well below the affected surface (per- long as the tempering temperature employed on the
haps as much as 1/8 inch). steel to establish the base hardness is higher than the
nitriding temperature, the base hardness will not be
Carburizing and Nitriding affected. Temperatures higher than the tempering tem-
These processes chemically alter the steel on the surface to perature will lower the base hardness by approximately
depths that are typically in the range of about .010 to .030 1 HRC for each 10°F over. Nitriding can be achieved by
inch. In either carburizing or nitriding, the mold is heat- heating in a gaseous environment, a nitriding salt bath,
ed and the selected surface is exposed to an environment and ion implantation. Slight differences may result in
high in concentration of the desired reactive element, i.e., the nature of the case, and it is advisable to discuss this
carbon or nitrogen. The goal in both cases is to create sur- with the technical department of the nitriding source.
faces having a higher concentration of hard particles, car- Nitrided cases are typically about .010 inch deep with a
bides or nitrides, to improve abrasion (wear) resistance. hardness of about 70 HRC.
Carburizing is performed at temperatures in the region

of 1600°F to 1800°F (870°C to 980°C), with higher
Flame Hardening
This is a surface hardening process that is achieved in a
selected area by localized heating followed immediately
with an induced, fast cooling rate (quenching) to hard-
en the steel. Mold edges, for example, can be heated
with a torch to about 1600°F (870°C) and upon cooling
will produce approximately 50 HRC hardness. This
process is risky due to the thermal and transformational
stresses developed during the localized heating and
rapid cooling. It is not unusual to have many micro-
cracks in the hardened region. If the underlying metal
(substrate) is ductile and has good fracture toughness,
these are not usually a problem. In areas of high tensile
stress, however, some microcracks could propagate into
the substrate to create a serious condition. Successful
flame hardening requires considerable expertise.
Chapter 4 occur on the mold. The danger lies in misalignment
that redistributes the clamping force to a smaller area,
usually only for a brief period, until the forces self-align
Service Stresses the mold.
Overloads and Strength of the Mold Steel

Service stresses may be divided into three broad cate- The possibility of any misalignment causing a perma-
gories: (1) clamping or mold closure forces; (2) cavity nent deformation increases as the applied load is
molding pressures; (3) thermal stresses from the cyclical focused on a smaller area, i.e., as the misalignment in-
heating and cooling during the molding process (and creases. If the clamping force comes to bear on a small
possibly a fourth category called Oops!). None of these area of the mold land, the load may be imbalanced to
sources of stress (except maybe the Oops!) should cause the extent that the actual load-bearing area experiences
any damage to the steel under normal operating condi- a stress that exceeds the yield strength of the steel, and a
tions. Occasionally, however, conditions can arise to permanent deformation occurs.
damage a mold. Some problem conditions are consid-
ered in this chapter. Tensile Strength, Yield Strength and Brinell Hardness
The yield strength of the steel varies a little in relation to
Clamping Forces the tensile strength but may be approximated by taking
The clamping force is intended primarily to counteract 80% of the tensile strength. This may pose a problem
the separating force developed within the cavity during because the tensile strength, per se, is not usually known
the molding process. An inadequate clamping force per- for the mold steel at hand. The hardness of the steel,
mits leakage from the mold that results in flash forma- however, may be known or even measured with a
tion on the product at the parting line. portable device (caution: refer to the Finkl brochure
“Measuring Steel Hardness” for more information on
The mold land bears the full load of the clamping force hardness-testing techniques) and used to determine the
until the hydraulic separating force of the injection tensile strength in psi by multiplying the BHN by 500.
process unloads a portion of it. Generally, molds are
designed with a conservative safety factor that distributes It should be cautioned that the operative Brinell value
the clamping force over a generous land area. In this may be somewhat lower than the value obtained and
case, no permanent bending or distortion is likely to certified on the surface of the original mold block (see
DI section in Chapter 2). For a through-hardened P20 Fatigue Strength of Mold Steel
mold at 300 BHN, the yield strength is approximately Another stress level that is important in determining the
120,000 psi (80% of 300/2). For carbon steel such as performance of the mold is the fatigue strength of the
1045, or lightly alloyed steel such as 4140, the yield steel. This critical value is approximately one half of the
strength may be in the area of only 80,000 psi, even with tensile strength of the steel. Applied stresses exceeding
a hardness of 300 BHN on the original block surface. this value will result in a crack (fatigue crack) after
some finite number of cycles. The higher the stress over
Molding Forces the fatigue strength of the steel, the fewer cycles before
Cavity pressures for thermoplastics are generally in the cracking occurs. It is possible for a relatively low-pres-
area of a few thousand psi and in extreme cases may be as sure mold to develop a fatigue-crack failure after only a
high as 15,000 psi or more. These stresses are not of a level few thousand cycles if a part-design incorporates a sharp
to normally cause problems, but the actual stresses on the radius, perhaps of 0.030 inch or less.
mold surface can vary according to local geometry.
Mold Flexing under Load
Stress Raisers Mold flexure may also be a consideration where
Where a mold design incorporates a sharp radius, the extremely tight dimensional tolerances are a molded-
local stresses are increased by a factor that depends upon part requirement. The steel flexes with applied stress
the actual radius, and is called a stress raiser effect. For a according to the following formula:
radius less than 1/8 inch, the stress operating in the bot-
tom of the radius may be magnified by a factor of ten or s=Ee
more. For low-pressure operations, this may not be a fac- Where s = stress (applied force/supporting area)
tor, but for high-pressure operations, small radii can obvi- E = Young’s Modulus (elastic modulus)
ously be a determining factor in the life of the mold. = 30,000,000 psi
e = strain (length increase/original length)
If the localized stress exceeds the tensile strength of the
steel, an immediate crack will occur. If the stress is For example, a 9,000-pound load supported by a two
lower, but over the yield strength of the steel, a perma- square-inch cross section will cause a strain (an increase
nent “set” will occur that distorts the designed dimen- of length) of e = s/E = [9000/2]/30,000,000 = .00015
sions of the mold. inches per inch of starting length, i.e., a 12-inch dimen-
sion would elongate to 12.0018 inch (12 x 1.00015). For
a plastic mold, the load in this example would be the the temperature of the steel. For steels normally
cavity pressure times the vector sum of pressures in the employed for plastics molding, the total published vari-
direction of concern, and the supporting cross-sectional ations are only about ±10 relative percent and the value
area normal to the selected pressure vector. This flexure is of 6.6 x 10-6 inches/inch/°F is a good value for P20 steel.
an elastic deformation that returns to the original shape This value increases slightly at higher temperatures to
upon removal of the applied stress. The value for the elas- approximately 7.0x10-6 inches/inch/°F (12.7 x 10-6 cm/
tic modulus – 30,000,000 psi – does not change with steel cm/°C) at 400°F (205°C), and 7.5x10-6 inches/inch/°F
hardness. The amount of flexing is the same for high (12.7 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C) at 750°F (400°C).
hardness and low hardness steel. The difference is that low
hardness steel will reach the elastic limit sooner than high For example, if a 4.000-inch-long cavity in P20 steel is
hardness steel and take a permanent set (i.e., not return heated from room temperature to 250°F, the new length
completely to the original dimension). is 4.004 inches:
Thermal Forces L = 4.000 inches + 4.000 inches x 6 x

Mold Steel Expansion Due to Temperature 10-6 inches/inch/°F x (250°F - 70°F)
The change in linear dimension of mold steel with = 4.000 + 0.004
changing temperature is governed by the following for- = 4.004 inches
mula:
Thermal Conductivity of Mold Steel
L = L0 + L0 x e x (T - T0) The measure of heat conducted across a given area for a
Where L = length at elevated temperature certain distance for some temperature difference, in a
L0 = original length certain period of time is called the thermal conductivity
e = coefficient of thermal expansion of the steel. For calculations, standard units are applied
= 6.6 x 10-6 inches/inch/°F to each of these variables: area is defined as a square
(11.9 x 10-6 cm/cm/°C) foot, distance is specified as one inch, temperature dif-
T = elevated temperature ference is 1°F, the time period is one hour and the quan-
T0 = original temperature
tity of heat is expressed as a BTU (British Thermal Unit).
In these units the conductivity of P20 mold steel is 202
The coefficient of thermal expansion varies slightly
(BTU/hour) inch/ft2/°F, and this is the coefficient of
depending upon the investigator, the grade of steel and
thermal conductivity in the following formula:
Q = k x A x (T2 – T1)/d This condition arises, for example, in a plastic mold
Where Q = Heat flow in BTU/hr between a heated mold surface and water cooling lines.
k = 202 (BTU/hr) inch/ft2/°F The magnitude of the developed thermal stress depends
(29 [Joules/sec]m/m2/°C)
upon the gradient of the temperature difference, i.e.,
A = area of interest
temperature difference together with the distance over
T2 = higher temperature
T1 = lower temperature
which the difference occurs. Using the thermal expan-
d = distance between T2 and T1 sion formula, the unconstrained heated dimensional
change of the surface and the cooled surface of the
This formula is useful for envisioning the controlling waterline can be algebraically combined to establish a
factors in heat flow but in actuality the process is far too total dimensional change. This value can be used as e in
complex for manual calculation. The temperature dif- the formula “s = E e” to calculate the resulting thermal
ference, for example, is nonlinear over any practical dis- stress (s) for the case where the two volumes of metal are
tance, and T2 - T1 are constantly changing, so that it is immediately adjacent.
necessary to employ computerized techniques of finite
element analysis. For the example of a 200°F difference in temperature
between a cooling line and the mold surface, the result-
Thermal Stress ing stress would be as shown:
As long as steel is free to expand and contract in accor-
s=Ee
dance with rising and lowering temperatures, there are
Where e = 200°F x (6.6 x 10-6 inches/inch/°F)
no thermal stresses. Thermal stresses arise whenever = 1.32 x 10-3 inches/inch
constraints to the natural expansion and contraction E = 30,000,000 psi
occur during heating and cooling, and this occurs
whenever temperature differences within a given volume Hence s = 39,600 psi
of metal create conflicting responses. The volume of
metal at higher temperature attempts to expand but is This value is higher than actuality, because the calcula-
constrained by adjacent, unheated metal that attempts tion is for a simplistic model of immediately adjacent vol-
to remain unchanged. umes of metal with a temperature difference of 200°F. In
actuality, the calculation is far more complex because the
temperature variation occurs gradually over some dis-
tance, and each finite volume of metal along the path In Conclusion
from cooling line to mold surface shares in supporting Plastics molding and moldmaking are challenging
this stress in an interactive way. The problem is further endeavors that demand a thorough understanding of
complicated by the fact that the temperature variation is underlying principles. Though metals, steel in particu-
nonlinear. To obtain reasonably accurate results, com- lar, occupy important roles in the plastics molding
puter techniques of finite element analysis must be used. industry, the science of metallurgy is not the core disci-
The crudely calculated value of 39,000 psi, however, serves pline and generally receives light treatment in most
to demonstrate the magnitude and severity of stresses that plastics handbooks. This handbook attempts to address
can develop in molds from thermal gradients. Placing metallurgical issues in a way that is relevant and under-
water lines close to the mold surface to accelerate heating standable to nonmetallurgists engaged in the plastics
and/or cooling effects can generate thermal stresses that industry. To the extent that this handbook has succeed-
may approach this value. ed can only be gauged by the target audience.
Comments regarding lack of clarity, incorrect state-
Careful consideration must be given to thermal stresses ments, errors, omissions and general critiques are wel-
to avoid early onset of fatigue cracks. Though the ther- comed and encouraged, and may be communicated to
mal stresses in themselves are not generally sufficient to the writer through the following media:
initiate a crack, they are additive to mechanical stresses
that, together, can dramatically shorten mold life. Postal: Nick Cerwin
Director of Technical Services
2011 N. Southport Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60614
Telephone: 773-975-2179
Fax: 773-348-5347
Internet: http://www.finkl.com
via webmaster
E-mail: nickc@finkl.com
Hardness Conversion
Brinell* Tensile Shore

Rock- Strength Scleroscope
Temper Indentation Hardness well in 1000 psi
Diameter Number “C” (approx.) Standard RCF**
2.35 682 62 341 84 90

2.40 653 60 329 81 87
2.45 627 59 323 79 85
2.50 601 58 309 77 82
2.55 578 56 297 75 80
2.60 555 55 285 73 78
2.65 534 54 274 71 77
XH† 2.70 514 52 263 70 75
2.75 495 51 253 68 74
2.80 477 50 243 66 72
H 2.85 461 48 235 65 71
1
2.90
2.95
3.00
444
429
415
47
46
44
225
217
210
63
61
59
69
68
67
IBC
3.05 401 43 202 58 65
3.10 388 42 195 56
2 3.15 375 40 188 54
3.20 363 39 182 52
3.25 352 38 176 51
3.30 341 37 170 50
3 3.35 331 36 166 48
3.40 321 34 160 47
3.45 311 33 155 46
3.50 302 32 150 45
4 3.55 293 31 145 43
3.60 285 30 141 42
3.65 277 29 137 41
3.70 269 28 133 40
3.75 262 27 129 39
3.80 255 25 126 38
3.85 248 24 122 37
3.90 241 (23) 118 36
3.95 235 (22) 115 35
4.00 229 (20) 111 34
4.05 223 (19) 108
4.10 217 (18) 105 33
4.15 212 (16) 102
4.20 207 (15) 100 32
*10mm Carbide Ball—3000 kg Load

**Interpolated from A427
†Special application with Finkl approval only.
Values in ( ) are beyond normal range and are given for information only.
A Finkl & Sons Co
A Finkl & Sons Co
One Finkl Plaza
(2011 N. Southport Ave.)
Chicago, IL 60614-4079
www.finkl.com Mold Steel Handbook
sales@finkl.com FC
Phone: 773/975-2510
Toll-free: 800/621-1460
Fax: 773/348-5347
CLEVELAND
Phone: 330/630-9601
Toll-free: 800/461-3436
Fax: 330/630-9693
DETROIT
Phone: 810/756-3777
Toll-free: 800/367-4720
Fax: 810/757-3048
LOS ANGELES
Phone: 562/861-2266
Toll-free: 800/248-0551
Fax: 562/923-6922
MINNEAPOLIS
Phone: 612/724-8967
Toll-free: 888/724-8967
Fax: 612/724-8968
ST. LOUIS Accredited by
the Dutch Council
for Certification
Phone: 314/521-1414
Toll-free: 888/521-1414
Fax: 314/521-1245 ISO Certified Since 1993

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A Finkl & Sons Co

Mold Steel Handbook

Mold Steel Handbook

A. Finkl & Sons Co.

Steel Grades for Plastics Molding Defining Elements

Measuring the Effect of the Chemistry on Heat Mold Steel Grades

This is an age-hardening steel with exceptionally good Mar-X E VG G E E G P

corrosion resistance. The chromium content of 15%

A by-product of this supplemental heat source is a disper-

C (carbon) + O CO The VAD System

The remelting process is known either as Electro-Slag

The appeal of an ESR is largely to facilities with limited

In either of the above methods, the cooling rates required

0.5 Hardening of the Mold

Moldmaking For constant cutter life:

If M for the new steel is an unknown, it can be deter-

Relative Hardness, H Relative Cutting Speed

Complete Removal of Previous Surface

Block Intermediate 800°F (425°C)

Need for a Good Surface

level of the postplated surface. Therefore, we recommend 0.5

result in conditions that may be objectionable to the 0.1

Hydrogen Embrittlement Chromium Stripping

H Mold Surface H Mold Surface

Carburizing is performed at temperatures in the region

Overloads and Strength of the Mold Steel

Thermal Forces L = 4.000 inches + 4.000 inches x 6 x

Brinell* Tensile Shore

2.35 682 62 341 84 90

*10mm Carbide Ball—3000 kg Load

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