REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CABANATUAN CITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 5.
EARTHQUAKE DESCRIPTORS

SUBMITTED BY:
EUCASION, KIM NEIL A.
BATACAN, ALLYSSA T.
DALUSONG. ANTONIO JR.
DULDULAO, CHRISTIAN T.
MURILLO, REMLEE
LINA, JUSTINE CHRIS T.
RELADOR, JILLIANNE V.
TUAZON, VINCENT
BSCE 5A

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. ROSEL G. VERDADERO
 CHAPTER 5. EARTHQUAKE DESCRIPTORS

o EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE

What is Earthquake Magnitude?

It is a measure of earthquake size and is determined from the logarithm of the maximum
displacement or amplitude of the earthquake signal as seen on the seismogram, with a correction for
the distance between the focus and the seismometer

How to measure Earthquake Magnitude?

 Surface wave magnitude (Ms) - The surface wave magnitude scale is one of the magnitude
scales used in seismology to describe the size of an earthquake. It is based on measurements in
Rayleigh surface waves that travel primarily along the uppermost layers of the Earth.
 Body wave magnitude (Mb) - is calculated from the body waves (P, PP, S) and are usually used
at larger distance from the earthquake epicenter (P-wave attenuation is less than surface waves,
with distance). It can be used for any earthquake of any depth.
 Moment magnitude (Mw) is considered the best scale to use for larger earthquakes as the Ms
saturates at about magnitude 8. Moment magnitude is measured over the broad range of
frequencies present in the earthquake wave spectrum rather than the single frequency sample
that the other magnitude scales use.

o SEISMIC MOMENT
 A quantity which is used to measure the strength of earthquake.
 Calculation of seismic moment:

 no modern equipments - calculated by the area of the fault and the displacement which is
caused in tectonic plates.

 modern era - seismograms are used to record the seismic moments

 The need of seismic moment arises when seismic magnitudes are calculated then they become
saturated for large earthquakes more than a limit such as when we measure the size of
earthquake using Richter Scale.

Value of seismic moment

  Defined as,
𝐌𝐎 = 𝛍 × 𝐀 × 𝐃
 Here, μ is the strength of rocks, A is the fractured area, and d is the displacement occurred due
to fault.
 The unit of seismic moment is Newton-meter.

Example:

For the largest events in northern Sumatra (the Mw 9.3 event on 26 December 2004) the rupture area
can be 1200 km long by 100 km deep with a slip length of up to 15 m.

Given: Solution:
L = 1200 km Seismic moment (Mo) = μ* A * D
d = 15 meters Mo = 6.11N/m[(1200x103m)(100x103m)(15m)]
W = 100 km Mo = 1.1x1023 N•m
μ = 6.11 N/m

o SEISMIC ENERGY

Another way to measure the size of an earthquake is to compute how much energy it released. The
amount of energy radiated by an earthquake is a measure of the potential for damage to man-made
structures. An earthquake releases energy at many frequencies, and in order to compute an accurate
value, you have to include all frequencies of shaking for the entire event.

In the Gutenberg-Richter formulation, an energy is constrained once magnitude is known through

log ES = a + b M where a and b are constants. For surface-wave magnitude (Ms), the Gutenberg-Richter
formula takes the form

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐄𝐬 = 𝟒. 𝟖 + 𝟏. 𝟓𝐌𝐬

where Es is in units of Joules (J). In the normal usage of Equation, an energy is derived after an Ms is
computed. However, it is now recognized that for very large earthquakes or very deep earthquakes, the
single frequency used to compute Ms is not necessarily
representative of the dimensions of the earthquake and,
therefore, might not be representative of the radiated energy.
Since radiated energy can now be computed directly, it is an
independent parameter from which a unique magnitude can
be defined. In Figure, the radiated energies for a set of 378
global shallow earthquakes from Choy and Boatwright (1995)
are plotted against their magnitudes, Ms. The Gutenberg-
Richter relationship is plotted as a dashed line in Figure.
Assuming a b-value of 1.5, the least-squares regression fit
between the actual energies and magnitude is

log Es = 4.4 + 1.5Ms

which is plotted as the solid line in Figure. The a-value of 4.4 indicates that on average the original
Gutenberg-Richter formula overestimates the radiated energy by a factor of two. To define energy
magnitude, Me, we replace Ms with Me in Equation:

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐄𝐬 = 𝟒. 𝟒 + 𝟏. 𝟓𝐌𝐞

The Richter Scale is often misunderstood by individuals. In most cases, this is a result of having
little or no understanding of the logarithmic nature of the scale. For example, what does a difference in
magnitude of 1 make in the released energy? If we consider two earthquakes, one of magnitude M1 and
another of magnitude M1 + 1, we get log E1 = 4.4 + 1.5M1 and log E2 = 4.4 + 1.5M1 + 1.5. Thus,

log E2 − log E1 = 1.5

E2
log ( ) = 1.5
E1

E2
= 101.5 = 31.623
E1

𝐄𝟐 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟔𝟐𝟑𝐄𝟏

We can therefore see that an increase in 1 of the magnitude of an earthquake results in an

earthquake 31.623 times as strong.

The following table gives the released energies of earthquakes of magitudes 1 up to 9 in

increments of 0.5. This table illustrates the exponential growth of the power of an earthquake.

COMPUTATION:
Magnitude 2.0

log Es = 4.4 + 1.5(2)

log Es = 7.4

Es = 107.4

Es = 25,118,864 J

Magnitude 3.0

log Es = 4.4 + 1.5(3)

log Es = 8.9

Es = 108.9

Es = 794,328,235 J
o CENTROID MOMENT TENSOR (CMT)

Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) is a reliable method for calculating moment tensors.

 Seismic Moment is a measure of the size of an earthquake based on the area of fault rupture, the
average amount of slip, and the force that was required to overcome the friction sticking the rocks
together that were offset by faulting. Seismic moment can also be calculated from the
amplitude spectra of seismic waves.
 Moment Tensor is a mathematical representation of the movement on a fault during an
earthquake, comprising of nine generalized couples, or nine sets of two vectors. The tensor depends
of the source strength and fault orientation.

The nine generalized couples of the seismic moment tensor. Modified after Aki and Richards
(1980).

The moment tensor solution is typically displayed graphically using a so-called beachball
diagram. The pattern of energy radiated during an earthquake with a single direction of motion on a
single fault plane may be modelled as a double couple, which is described mathematically as a special
case of a second order tensor (similar to those for stress and strain) known as the moment tensor.
 Graphical representation ("beachball plot")

The data for an earthquake is plotted using a lower-hemisphere stereographic projection. The
azimuth and take-off angle are used to plot the position of an individual seismic record. The take-off
angle is the angle from the vertical of a seismic ray as it emerges from the earthquake focus. These
angles are calculated from a standard set of tables that describe the relationship between the take-off
angle and the distance between the focus and the observing station. By convention, filled symbols are
used to plot data from stations where the P-wave first motion recorded was up (a compressive wave),
hollow symbols for down (a tensional wave), with dots for stations with arrivals too weak to get a sense
of motion. If there are sufficient observations, one may draw two well-constrained orthogonal great
circles that divide the compressive from the tensional observations and these are the nodal planes.
Global Moment Tensor

o EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE

How Are Earthquake Magnitudes Measured?

The Richter Scale

The first widely-used method, the Richter scale, was developed by Charles F. Richter in 1934. It
used a formula based on amplitude of the largest wave recorded on a specific type of seismometer and
the distance between the earthquake and the seismometer. That scale was specific to California
earthquakes; other scales, based on wave amplitudes and total earthquake duration, were developed
for use in other situations and they were designed to be consistent with Richter’s scale.

Earthquake Magnitude Scale

Magnitude Earthquake effects Estimated Number

2.5 or less (minor) Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph. 900,000

2.5 to 5.4 (Light) Often felt, but only causes minor damage. 30,000

5.5 to 6.0 (Moderate) Slight damage to buildings and other structures. 500

6.1 to 6.9 (Strong) May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas. 100

7.0 to 7.9 (Major) Serious damage 20

8.0 or greater (Great) Can totally destroy communities near the epicenter. One every 5-10 years
The Moment Magnitude Scale

Unfortunately, many scales, such as the Richter scale, do not provide accurate estimates for
large magnitude earthquakes. Today the moment magnitude scale, abbreviated MW, is preferred
because it works over a wider range of earthquake sizes and is applicable globally. The moment
magnitude scale is based on the total moment release of the earthquake. Moment is a product of the
distance a fault moved and the force required to move it. It is derived from modeling recordings of the
earthquake at multiple stations. Moment magnitude estimates are about the same as Richter
magnitudes for small to large earthquakes. But only the moment magnitude scale is capable of
measuring M8 (read ‘magnitude 8’) and greater events accurately

Magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale (base 10). What this means is that for each whole
number you go up on the magnitude scale, the amplitude of the ground motion recorded by a
seismograph goes up ten times. Using this scale, a magnitude 5 earthquake would result in ten times the
level of ground shaking as a magnitude 4 earthquake (and 32 times as much energy would be released).
To give you an idea how these numbers can add up, think of it in terms of the energy released by
explosives: a magnitude 1 seismic wave releases as much energy as blowing up 6 ounces of TNT. A
magnitude 8 earthquake releases as much energy as detonating 6 million tons of TNT. Pretty impressive,
huh? Fortunately, most of the earthquakes that occur each year are magnitude 2.5 or less, too small to
be felt by most people.

Magnitude scales can be used to desribe earthquakes so small that they are expressed in
negative numbers. The scale also has no upper limit, so it can describe earthquakes of unimaginable and
(so far) unexperienced intensity, such as magnitude 10.0 and beyond

Some things that affect the amount of damage that occurs are:

 the building designs,

 the distance from the epicenter,
 and the type of surface material (rock or dirt) the buildings rest on.
 Different building designs hold up differently in an earthquake and the further you are from the
earthquake; the less damage you'll usually see. Whether a building is built on solid rock or sand makes a
big difference in how much damage it takes. Solid rock usually shakes less than sand, so a building built
on top of solid rock shouldn't be as damaged as it might if it was sitting on a sandy lot.

o EARTHQUAKE FAULTING

Faulting Geometry

Faulting is a complex process and the variety of faults that exists is large. We will consider a
simplified but general fault classification based on the geometry of faulting, which we describe by
specifying three angular measurements: dip, strike, and slip.

Faults and Forces

The style of faulting is an indicator of rock deformation and reflects the type of forces pushing or
pulling on the region.

The style of faulting that is a reflection of the relative size of the different forces - in particular is
the relative size of the vertical to the horizontal forces. There are three cases to consider, the vertical
force can be the smallest, the largest, or the intermediate (neither smallest or largest). If the vertical
force is the largest, we get normal faulting, if it is the smallest, we get reverse faulting. When the vertical
force is the intermediate force, we get strike-slip faulting.

Normal faulting is indicative of a region that is

stretching, and on the continents, normal faulting
usually occurs in regions with relatively high elevation
such as plateaus.

Reverse faulting reflects compressive forces

squeezing a region and they are common in uplifting
mountain ranges and along the coast of many regions
bordering the Pacific Ocean. The largest earthquakes
are generally low-angle (shallow dipping) reverse
faults associated with "subduction" plate boundaries.
 Strike-slip faulting indicates neither
extension nor compression, but identifies regions
where rocks are sliding past each other. The San
Andreas fault system is a famous example of strike-
slip deformation - part of coastal California is sliding
to the northwest relative to the rest of North
America - Los Angeles is slowly moving towards San
Francisco.

As you might expect, the distribution of faulting styles is not random, but varies systematically
across Earth and was one of the most important observations in constructing the plate tectonic model
which explains so much of what we observe happening in the shallow part of Earth.

o FORESHOCK

1. Earthquakes which occur before a main shock near the area in which the main shock occurs

2. occur from minutes to days or even longer before the main shock

3. important for earthquake prediction

4. Not all main shocks have foreshock.

Worldwide, the probability that an earthquake will be followed within 3 days by a large earthquake
nearby is somewhere just over 6%. This means that there is about a 94% chance that any earthquake
will NOT be a foreshock. In California, about half of the biggest earthquakes were preceded by
foreshocks; the other half were not. At this time, we cannot tell whether or not an earthquake is a
foreshock until something larger happens after it.

Example: 2002 Sumatra Earthquake (7.3) is believed to be the foreshock of the 2004 Indian Ocean
earthquake (9.1 to 9.3), west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
 Some great earthquakes (M>8.0) show no foreshock activity at all, such as the M8.6 1950 India -
China earthquake.

The increase in foreshock activity is difficult to quantify for individual earthquakes but becomes
apparent when combining the results of many different events. From such combined observations, the
increase before the main shock is observed to be of inverse power law type. This may either indicate
that foreshocks cause stress changes resulting in the main shock or that the increase is related to a
general increase in stress in the region.

In the Philippines, the 1976 August 17 Moro Gulf Earthquake

Analysis of seismic records for August 1976 prior to August 17 of the same year showed that
there were six events recorded that had epicenters in the same area as the main shock and could be
considered as foreshocks of the Moro Gulf earthquake. Also, about a month before that, two quakes
were reportedly felt in Zamboanga City that also had epicenters near the area of the main shock. These
two events were not recorded at the PAGASA Observatory in Quezon City nor in any of its field stations.
This brings to eight the total number of foreshocks, three of which are felt events with intensities
ranging from I to IV. (Stratta et.al., 1977).

o AFTERSHOCKS AND SWARMS

Part of living with earthquakes is living with aftershocks. Earthquakes come in clusters. In any
earthquake cluster, the largest one is called the mainshock; anything before it is a foreshock, and
anything after it is an aftershock.

Aftershocks are earthquakes that follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence. They are
smaller than the mainshock and within 1-2 rupture lengths distance from the mainshock. Aftershocks
can continue over a period of weeks, months, or years. In general, the larger the mainshock, the larger
and more numerous the aftershocks, and the longer they will continue. As a general rule, aftershocks
represent readjustments in the vicinity of a fault that slipped at the time of the mainshock. The
frequency of these aftershocks decreases with time. If an aftershock is larger than the first earthquake,
then we call it the mainshock and the previous earthquakes in a sequence become foreshocks.
 The first principal earthquake of a series is much more severe than the aftershocks. In general,
the number of aftershocks per day decreases with time. The aftershock frequency is roughly inversely
proportional to the time since the occurrence of the largest earthquake of the series.

Plot of number of aftershocks in region of mainshock.

• Earthquakes that follow the main shock

• Can continue over a period of weeks, months, or

years

• In general, the larger the mainshock, the larger and

more numerous the aftershocks

• Occurs within an “aftershock zone” or within one

rupture length of the mainshock rupture surface

• Represent minor readjustments along the portion of a fault that slipped at the time of the
mainshock

o EARTHQUAKE SWARMS

In so-called 'earthquake swarms', numerous earthquakes occur locally over an extended period
without a clear sequence of foreshocks, main quakes and aftershocks. They are therefore nothing
extraordinary. Swarms usually end after a few days or months. Only seldom does the strength and
number of earthquakes increase over time or do occur single, damaging events. How an earthquake
swarm develops over time is just as difficult to predict as earthquakes are in general.

 Many earthquake swarms occur in regions with complex contiguous fracture systems. The
theory is that they are related to the movement of fluid gases and liquids in the Earth’s crust.
Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often occur in swarms, though swarms also have
been observed in many non-volcanic regions.

 Traditional earthquakes feature a main event,

followed by a series of aftershocks however
Swarms occur when many earthquakes take
place over several weeks or months, with no
clear sequence.

Graphical representation of an earthquake swarm and a

typical earthquake sequence. It should be noted that, in a
typical sequence, foreshocks do not occur in every case
Examples:

 Between February and April 2008 a swarm of 1,000 small magnitude quakes in the United
States, referred to as the 2008 Reno earthquakes began in February and ended in November.
 During the 2011–12 El Hierro eruption. From July 2011 until October 2011, hundreds of small
earthquakes were measured. The accumulated energy released by the swarm increased
dramatically on 28 September.[3] The swarm was due to the movement of magma beneath the
island, and on 9 October indications of a submarine volcanic eruption were detected.
 In 2017, the Philippine province of Batangas experienced an earthquake swarm with magnitudes
between 5 and 6. The quake was felt in varying intensities in surrounding areas and as far as
Manila’s financial district of Makati. The movement was felt in varying intensities in about 40
towns in Batangas, Laguna, Cavite and Quezon and in metropolitan Manila. Nearly 800 small
aftershocks were reported but they were too weak to trigger a tsunami.

o SEISMIC INTENSITY

The intensity is a number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the severity of an earthquake in
terms of its effects on the earth's surface and on humans and their structures. Several scales exist, but
the ones most commonly used in the United States are the Modified Mercalli scale and the Rossi-Forel
scale.

Seismic intensity scales categorize the intensity or severity of ground shaking (quaking) at a given
location, such as resulting from an earthquake. They are distinguished from seismic magnitude scales,
which measure the magnitude or overall strength of an earthquake, which may, or perhaps not, cause
perceptible shaking.

Intensity scales are based on the observed effects of the shaking, such as the degree to which
people or animals were alarmed, and the extent and severity of damage to different kinds of structures
or natural features. The maximal intensity observed, and the extent of the area where shaking was felt
(see isosiesmal map, below), can be used to estimate the
location and magnitude of the source earthquake; this is
especially useful for historical earthquakes where there is
no instrumental record.

Isoseismal map for the 1968 Illinois earthquake, showing

the extent of different levels of shaking. The irregularity of
areas is due to ground conditions and the underlying
geology.

The first simple classification of earthquake intensity was devised by Domenico Pignataro in the
1780s. However, the first recognisable intensity scale in the modern sense of the word was drawn up by
P.N.G. Egen in 1828; it was ahead of its time. The first widely adopted intensity scale, the Rossi–Forel
scale, was introduced in the late 19th century. Since then numerous intensity scales have been
developed and are used in different parts of the world.

The Rossi–Forel scale was one of the first seismic scales to reflect earthquake intensities.
Developed by Michele Stefano Conte de Rossi of Italy and François-Alphonse Forel of Switzerland in the
late 19th century, it was used for about two decades until the introduction of the Mercalli intensity
scale in 1902.

The Rossi–Forel scale and/or its modifications is still in use in some countries, such as the Philippines.

Scale

The 1873 version of the Rossi–Forel scale had 10 intensity levels:

 I. Microseismic tremor. Recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs of the same model,

but not by several seismographs of different kinds. The shock felt by an experienced observer.

 II. Extremely feeble tremor. Recorded by several seismographs of different kinds. Felt by a small
number of persons at rest.

 III. Feeble tremor. Felt by several persons at rest. Strong enough for the direction or duration to be
appreciable.

 IV. Slight tremor. Felt by persons in motion. Disturbance of movable objects, doors, windows,
cracking of ceilings.

 V. Moderate tremor. Felt generally by everyone. Disturbance of furniture, ringing of some bells.

 VI. Strong tremor. General awakening of those asleep. General ringing of bells. Oscillation of
chandeliers, stopping of clocks, visible agitation of trees and shrubs. Some startled persons leaving
their dwellings.
 VII. Very strong tremor. Overthrow of movable objects, fall of plaster, ringing of church bells.
General panic. Moderate to heavy damage buildings.

 VIII. Damaging tremor. Fall of chimneys. Cracks in the walls of buildings.

 IX. Devastating tremor. Partial or total destruction of buildings.

 X. Extremely high intensity tremor. Great disaster, ruins, disturbance of the strata, fissures in the
ground, rock falls from mountains.

PHILIPPINES INTENSITY SCALE

The PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS) is a seismic scale used and developed by
the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHILVOLCS) to measure the intensity of an
earthquake. The PEIS was adopted in the Philippines in 1996 replacing the Rossi-Forel scale.

PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Equi. to other

Intensity seismic scales

Description
Scale Modified
Shindo
Mercalli

Scarcely  Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly.

I I 0
perceptible  Still water in containers oscillates slowly.

 Felt by few individuals at rest indoors.

II Slightly felt  Hanging objects swing slightly. II 1
 Still water in containers oscillates noticeably.

 Felt by many people indoors, especially in upper

floors.
III Weak  Hanging objects swing moderately. III 2
 Still water in containers oscillates moderately.
 Feels like a light truck passing by.

 Felt generally by people indoors and by some people

outdoors.
Moderately  Hanging objects swing considerably.
IV IV 2–3
strong  Motorcars may rock slightly.
 Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed.
 Water in containers oscillates strongly.
  A rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.
 Feels like a heavy truck passing by.

 Felt by most people indoors and outdoors.

 A strong shaking and rocking is felt throughout
building.
 Hanging objects swing violently.
V Strong V 3
 Small, light, and unstable objects may fall or overturn.
 Liquids spill from filled open containers.
 Vehicles rock noticeably.
 Leaves and twigs of trees shake.

 Furniture and other heavy objects are displaced.

 Wall plaster may crack.
 People may lose balance.
 Small church bells may ring.
 If on the road, it may feel like driving with flat tires.
VI Very Strong  Very old or poorly built houses and man-made VI
structures are slightly damaged though well-built
structures are not affected.
 Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to
mountainous areas and escarpments.
 Trees shake . 4

 Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple.

 Difficulty standing on upper floors.
 Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerable
damage.
 Some well-built structures are slightly damaged.
VII Destructive VII
 Some cracks may appear on dikes, fishponds, road
surface, or concrete hollow block walls.
 Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides
are observed.
 Trees shake noticeably.

 People will find it difficult to even stand outdoors.

 Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged.
Very  Concrete dikes and the foundations of bridges are
VIII VIII, IX 5–6
Destructive destroyed by ground settling or toppling.
 Railway tracks are bent or broken.
 Utility posts, towers, and monuments may tilt or
 topple.
 Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted, or
broken.
 Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause manmade
structures to sink, tilt, or topple.
 Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in
mountainous and hilly areas.
 Boulders are thrown out from their positions
particularly near the epicenter.
 Fissures and faults rupture.
 Trees shake violently.
 Water splashes over dikes or the banks of rivers.

 People are forced to the ground.

 Most buildings are totally damaged.
 Bridges and elevated concrete structures are toppled
or destroyed.
 Numerous utility posts, towers, and monuments are
tilted, toppled, or broken.
 Sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken.
IX Devastating  Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreadings X, XI
and sandboils are widespread.
 The ground is distorted into undulations.
 Trees are shaken very violently with some toppled or
7
broken.
 Boulders are commonly thrown out.
 River water splashes violently or slops over dikes and
banks.

 Many trees are toppled, broken, and uprooted.

 Practically all man-made structures are destroyed.
 Massive landslides and liquefaction, large-scale
Completely
X subsidence and the uplifting of land forms and many XII
Devastating
ground fissures are observed.
 Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in
large lakes occur.
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http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/education/faqs/faq15.html

https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=magnitude

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https://www.britannica.com/science/earthquake-geology/Shallow-intermediate-and-deep-
foci#ref837466

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_intensity_scales

https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=intensity

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHIVOLCS_Earthquake_Intensity_Scale