RESEARCH

 In-Text Citation and Referencing styles

 Citation/in-text citation – shows the authors being referred to within the main body of
the paper.
 Bibliography or References – shows the authors being referred to at the end of the
paper.
Two most common Referencing Style

 MLA (Modern Language Association)

 APA (American Psychological Association)

ASPECT APA SYSTEM MLA SYSTEM

Writing the author’s name
Writing the title of the reading
material
Writing the copyright date
Full surname first, followed
Full surname first, then
by full first name, and
followed by initials of first and
optional initial of the middle
middle name
name
Italicized title with only the
Underline or Italicized title
beginning word capitalized
with all content words
(exception: capital for every
capitalized
proper noun)
Written after the author’s Written after the publisher’s
name name

Example:
APA system

 Floro, J.A. (2016). The Cold Virus. Quezon City: GB Press.

MLA system

 Decena, Fely G. Globalization. (Quezon CIty: GB Press. 2016)

Why acknowledge the sources?

 To show gratefulness to the owners

 To justify credibility of your study/ validity/ reliability
Ethical Standards in Literature-Review writing

 Due to the advent of the modern technology, it’s easy to collect data and t;s also very
tempting.
 To use the copy-and-paste technique of obtaining ideas for your research paper. This is
a dishonest way of reviewing and writing related literature.
 Acknowledge the owners by putting quotation marks around copied words from books or
articles. Otherwise, it is gross plagiarism.
 Note that there are software to detect plagiarism from online sources.
 Proper citation and referencing is our way of freeing yourself from plagiarism and of
avoiding people from casting doubts on your honesty and integrity as a researcher.
  Categories of Hypotheses
1. Null Hypothesis – states the absence of the relationship between and independent and
dependent variables.
Example:
“ There is no relationship between nervous breakdown and heart problem.”
“ If I put half a pack of Mentos into a 2-liter diet coke bottle, there will be no reaction or
explosion.”
2. Alternative Hypothesis – states that there is statistical significance between two
variables.
Example:
“ Nervous breakdown is closely related to heart problem.”
“ If I put half a pack of Mentos into a 2-liter diet coke bottle, there will be a big
reaction/explosion.”
Types of alternative hypothesis
1. Simple hypothesis – there is the existence of the relationship between two variables
Ex. “Smoking leads to cancer” ; “The higher ratio of unemployment leads to crime”
2. Complex Hypothesis – there are more than two dependent and independent variables
involved
Ex. “Smoking and other drugs leads to cancer, tension, chest infections, etc.”
3. Attributive Hypothesis – states that a behavior exists; can be measured; can be
distinguished from other similar behaviors.
Ex. “Most of the population is ready to visit Disneyland.”
4. Associative Hypothesis – states that a relationship exists between two behaviors;
knowing the amount or kind of one behavior helps you to predict the amount or kind of
the other behavior.
Ex. “People who live closer to Disneyland are more opt to visit Disneyland.”
5. Casual Hypothesis – states that the differences in the amount or kind of one behavior
causes differences in the amount or kind of the other behavior.
Ex. “Anxiety leads to poor performance on tests.”
6. Theory-driven Hypothesis – based on existing theory to explain the relationship of the
variables and the effects of one variable on the other variables.
 7. Data-driven Hypothesis – based on the findings of the previous research studies.
8. Directional Hypothesis – states the relationship of two variables as well as of the
direction of the two variables.
Ex. “There will be a positive relationship between extra coaching and academic achievement.”
9. Non-directional Hypothesis – states the relationship of variables, but do not state the
direction of the variables.
Ex. “The academic performance of high school students is related to their participation in
extracurricular activities.”
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
 If the Percent Distribution is missing: Freq. Distribution / Sample Size ×100 = PD
 If the Freq. Distribution is missing: Sample Size x Percent Distribution = FD
 If the Sample Size is missing: Use Trial and Error