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PRE-HISTORIC INDIA
• The fossils of the early human being have not been found in India. Recent reported artifacts from Bori
in Maharashtra suggest the appearance of human beings in India around 1.4 million years ago.
• The archaeological remains that are found in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this
period include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements used by pre-historic people.

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OR
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• The technique of radio-carbon dating is commonly used for dating of the prehistoric period. It is based
on measuring the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time.
• Another dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the number of tree rings in wood. By
counting the number of tree rings in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at.
• By this study the past of humankind has been divided into three broad categories viz. Prehistoric,
protohistoric and historic.
• Prehistoric period belongs to the time before the emergence of writing and the historic period to the time
following it.
• The prehistoric period is divided into three ages, namely the stone, bronze and iron ages. These ages,
besides being technological stages, also have economic and social implications.
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• In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age),
Neolithic (New Stone Age) and the Metal Age.
• The suffix lithic indicates that technology in these periods was primarily based on stone.
• Economically the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods represent the hunting-gathering stage while the Neolithic
represents the stage of food production, i.e. plant cultivation and animal husbandry.
PALEOLITHIC OR OLD STONE AGE (5,00,000 B.C. - 10,000 B.C.)
• In India, the Palaeolithic Age developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age and was spread
• In practically all parts of India except the alluvial parts of Ganga and Indus.
• Food gathering and hunting were the main occupations of the people of this phase. They had no knowledge
of agriculture, fire or pottery of any material.
• Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and lived in cave and rock
shelters.

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• They mainly used hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, scrapers and burin.
• Their tools were made of hard rock called 'quartzite'.
OR
• Hence Paleolithic men are also called 'Quartzite Men'.
• Homo sapiens first appeared in the last phase of Paleolithic age.
• The Paleolithic Age in India has been divided into three phases according to the nature of stone tools used
by the people and also according to the nature of change in the climate - Early or lower Paleolithic, Middle
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Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic.

a) The Early Paleolithic Age covers the greater part of the Ice Age. Its characteristic tools are hand
axes, cleavers and choppers. Such tools have been found in Soan and Sohan river valley (now in
Pakistan) and in the Belan Valley in the Mirzapur district of UP. In this period climate became less
humid.
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b) Middle Paleolithic Phase is characterized by the use of stone tools made of flakes mainly scrapers,
borers and blade like tools. The sites are found in the valleys of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra
rivers. During this phase, Pithecanthropus or Homo erectus evolved.
c) In the Upper Paleolithic Phase, the climate became warm and less humid. This stage is marked by
burins and scrapers. Such tools have been found in AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bhopal and Chhota
Nagpur plateau.
• The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian subcontinent and are generally
located near water sources.
• In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers.
Therefore, these people are called as hunter-gatherers.
• The hunting of large animals would have required the combined effort of a group of people with large
stone axes. Their way of life became modified with the passage of time since they made attempts to
domesticate animals, make crude pots and grow some plants.
• A few Old Stone Age paintings have also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh and other
places. The period before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.
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• Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are:

a) The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India;
b) The Siwalik hills on the north India;
c) Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh;
d) Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley;
e) Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh; and
f) Attirampakkam near Chennai.
• At Chopani-Mando in the Belan valley of the Vindhyas and the middle part of the Narmada valley a
sequence of occupation from all the three stages of the Paleolithic to Neolithic stage have been found in
sequence. Chopani Mando is an important site where fossil animal bones have been found.
• The Son and the adjacent Belan valley (Mirzapur, UP) provide a sequence of artifacts from lower Paleolithic

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to Neolithic.
MESOLITHIC OR MIDDLE STONE AGE (10,000 B.C. - 6000 B.C.)
•

•
OR
The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000
B.C. to 6000 B.C. and was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age.
Various Mesolithic sites are found in the Chhotanagpur region, Central India and also south of the Krishna
River.
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• Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some
places of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often
not more than five centimeters in size. These characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are known as
Microliths-pointed, cresconic blades, scrapers, etc, all made of stone.
GS

• The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic
activities of Mesolithic people. The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.
• However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.
The use of bow and arrow also began during this period.
• Also, there began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals,
horticulture and primitive cultivation started.
• The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plain cultivation. Animal bones are found in these sites
and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich.
• Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practiced.
NEOLITHIC AGE (6000 BC - 1000 B.C.)
• A remarkable progress is noticed in human civilization in the Neolithic Age. In the world context, the New
Stone Age began in 9000 B.C.
• The only Neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent attributed to 7000 B.C. lies in Mehrgarh, which
is situated in Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan.
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• In India, Neolithic Age is not earlier than 6000 BC and at some places in South and Eastern India; it is
as late as 1000 B.C.
• These include the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and in several places
of the Deccan.
• The important Neolithic sites are:
a) Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K (famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyard in house),
b) Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalakota in Karnataka, Paiyampatti in Tamil Nadu,
c) Piklihal and Hallur in AP,
d) Garo hills in Meghalaya,
e) Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar (known for remarkable bone tools),
f) Amri, Kotdiji, etc.
• Koldihawa in UP revealed a threefold cultural sequence: Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age.
•

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The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are the practice of agriculture, domestication of
animals, polishing of stone tools and the manufacturing of pottery.
OR
• The cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village communities based
on sedentary life.
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• There was a great improvement in technology of making tools and other equipments used by man.
• Stone tools were now polished and theses polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting
and cutting trees.
• Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
• Neolithic people knew about making fire and making pottery, first by hand and then by potters wheel.
They also painted and decorated their pottery.
• Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food grains.
• Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead.
• There was also improvement in agriculture. Wheat, barley, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas
at different points of time.
• Neolithic sites in Allahabad district are noted for the cultivation of rice in the sixth millennium B.C.
Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.

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• Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport.
•
CHALCOLITHIC OR METAL AGE
•
OR
The people of Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.

The end of the Neolithic Period saw the use of metals of which copper was the first and a culture based
on the use of stone and copper arrived.
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• Such a culture is called Chalcolithic which means the stone-copper phase.
• The new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an important development in
human civilization.
• But the use of stone tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to be essential items.
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• People began to travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores which led to a network of Chalcolithic
cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India.
• Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys.
• Gold was probably one of the earliest discoveries, but it served as a material for ornaments only.
• Important sites of this phase are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, MP, etc.
• In South India the river valleys of the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled
by farming communities during this period. Although they were not using metals in the beginning of the
Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and bronze artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C.
• Several bronze and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were found at Paiyampalli in
Tamil Nadu.
• The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and red pottery was most popular.
• These people were not acquainted with burnt bricks and generally lived in thatched houses.
• It was a village economy.
• The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas.
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• The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials.
• Megalith means Large Stone.
• The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found in South India.
• Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra
Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.

• Black and red pottery, iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were found in the burial
pits.
PRE-HISTORIC ART
Although man struggled for his survival in the Paleolithic era, the artistic attitude made him develop several
rock cut paintings in the walls of the caves. By piecing together the information deduced from these cave
drawings, scholars were able to construct the history of the Paleolithic man.

• Remnants of rock paintings are found in the rock shelters located in Bhimbetka near Bhopal.

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• Several other sites are situated in several districts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Bihar.
OR
• The paintings were carved in the walls of caves with a sharp weapon.
• The paintings mainly consist of man's struggle for survival. Hunting scenes pre-dominate.

• Paintings have 3 motifs- MAN, ANIMAL and GEOMETRIC PATTERN.

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• Green and red colour paintings are found in Bhimbetka caves.

• Community dancers provide a common theme.
• Some of the pictures like women and children depict a kind of family life.
GS

Major breakthrough in the artistic development took place in chalcolithic period when man started using
pottery in his daily life. We find painted pottery with various designs in different areas. The vividness and
vitality of earlier periods disappear in this new type of painting. They used many colures such as white, yellow,
orange, red, green, black etc.
New developments:
• Brushes were made of plant fibre.
• Paints were made by crushing rocks. They got red from hematite, white from limestone etc.
• They engraved on rocks as a part of the rituals they perform at birth, at death, at coming of age and at
the time of marriage.
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• They also painted individual animal with a good pictorial quality which implies the mastery of painting
skill compared to previous era.
The pre-historic paintings help us to know about the life style of man at that time, his food, his daily activities
and above all, his mind-the way he thought.
OCP, BRW, PGW AND NBP WARE CULTURES
• The Chalcolithic people were the first to use painted pottery. More than a hundred sites in the Ganga-
Yamuna region have yielded a type of pottery known as Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) and these sites
are described as belonging to the OCP culture.
• The OCP culture is succeeded by Black and Red Ware (BRW) and Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures,
which are characterized by diagnostic pottery types.
• In North India, there is a distinct concentration of PGW sites in Haryana and the Upper Ganga Valley.
• Iron makes its appearance in the PGW culture, and in the ensuing phase, known as the Northern Black

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Polished Ware (NBP) culture.
a) Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP)
•

•
OR
The OCP culture flourished between 2000 BC and 1500 BC in a long stretch of area from Mayapur in
the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh to Saipai in Etawah district.
This pottery is one medium grained clay and underfired and has a wash of ochre orange to red in colour
and is inclined to rub off.
SC
• The sites have yielded mainly objects of pottery including jars, flasks, bowls, pots, basins, terracotta
bangles, animal figurines, beads of carnelian and cart wheels stone queens-and pestles. Rice, barley, gram
and kesari were probably grown.
• Study suggests that the OCP pottery was a degenerated form of the late Harappan pottery style.
b) Black and Red Ware (BRW)
GS

• Black and Red Ware (BRW) is sandwiched between OCP and Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
• The characterestic features of BRW are the black colour inside and near the rim on the outside, and red
colour over the rest of the body. This colour combination was produced by inverted firing.
• Though the majority of the potteries are wheel turned, there are some handmade potteries also.
• Made of fine clay, BRW has a fine fabric.
• With thin walls BRW pottery with paintings has also been found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar.
c) Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
• The PGW pottery type is wheel-made and was made of well-levigated clay.
• The colour of the pottery used to be ash grey from outside and the inner walls were painted with deep
chocolate colour.
• Most of the sites found have been located on the river banks.
• Some of the important sites are- Rupar (Punjab), Bhagvanpura (Haryana), Noh (Rajasthan), Alamgirpur,
Achchhatra, Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Jakhera and Mathura.
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d) Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP)

• The NBP ware was characterestic of the urban centres of the Gangetic Plain, and is thought to have
developed from the technique of high-temperature firing used in smelting iron and from the use of
hematite soil locally available.
• The NBP ware is of well levitated clay and has a glossy surface with a thin core. The ware was usually
unpainted.
• It is extensively distributed as a luxury product, and the distribution helps the tracking of exchange and
trade in different parts, of the Indian subcontinent.
• Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are the main regions of NBP ware sites.
• It has been excavated in Ropariin Punjab, Raja-Karnaka-Quila (Haryana), Noh and Jodhpura (northern
Rajasthan), Ahichchhatra, Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, Kaushambi, Sravasti, Vaishali, Patliputra. Sonepur in
Bihar and Chandraketugarh in West Bengal.
The Chalcolithic people made commendable progress in ceramic and metal technology. The painted pottery
was well-made and baked in kilns fired at a temperature range of 500-700°C. In the upper parts of the doab,

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Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) belonging to the time preiod 2100-1800 BC have been found.
OR
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

• The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro
in Sind.
• Both places are now in Pakistan.
• The findings in these two cities brought to light a civilization which was first called the ‘The Indus Valley
Civilization’.
• But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due to the discovery of more and more
sites far away from the Indus valley.

E
• Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’ after the name of its first discovered site.
• An alternative term for the culture is Saraswati-Sindhu Civilization, based on the fact that most of the

• OR
Indus Valley sites have been found at the Halkra-Ghaggar River.
R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921 and R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro
or ‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshal had played a crucial role in both these.
• Harappan Civilization forms part of the proto history of India and belongs to the Bronze Age.
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• Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though the
first two were more numerous.
• According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500 - 1750 BC. Copper, bronze, silver, gold
were known but not iron.
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ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

• The archaeological findings excavated near the Indus Valley revealed the gradual development and four
important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-
Harappan and late Harappan.
• The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan. The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the
northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this stage, the nomadic people
began to lead a settled agricultural life.
• In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. There was a gradual growth
of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during this period.
The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage.
• In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate
town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution.
• In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started. The excavations at Lothal revealed
this stage of evolution. Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a massive brick
wall for flood protection. Lothal remained an emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and
the remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia.
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GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT
• Indus Valley Civilisation was the biggest of the contemporary ancient civilizations of the Nile or Tigris-
Euphratus valleys in the west or the Yellow River Valley in the east.
• It formed a triangle and accounted for about 12,99,600 km with Sutkagendor in Makran coast, Alamgirpur
in Meerut district of U.P., Manda in Jammu and Daimabad forming its western, eastern and northern and
southernmost points, respectively.
• From east to west it is a distance of 1,550 km and from north to south it extends over 1,100 km.
• Major sites in Pakistan of Harappan civilization are Harappa (on Ravi in W Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on
Indus), Chanhu-Daro (on Sindh), etc. In India, major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda (Gujarat),
Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banwali (Hissar), and Alamgirpur (Western UP). Largest and the latest site
discovered in India is Dholavira in Gujarat.

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OR
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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION SITES

So far nearly 1000 sites of nearly, mature and late phases of the Indus Civilization are known in the sub-
continent. But the number of the sites belonging to the mature phase is limited, and of them only half a dozen
like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Chanhu-daro and Banwali can be regarded as cities.
Of these, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa situated at a distance of 483 km and linked together by the river Indus are
most important, both on account of their size and the diversity of the finds, which excavations have revealed.
Mohenjo-daro
• Literally, the ‘mound of the dead’ is situated in Larkana district of Sind on the right bank of the River
Indus. Mohenjo-Daro was first excavated by R.D. Banerjee in 1922.
• This city is also an extreme example of conservatism, as despite having been fl ooded almost nine times,they
never tried to shift to a safer place. Rather, they came back to the original site whenever the water table
receded. Nor did they ever try to build strong embankments to protect themselves from fl oods.

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• The major findings here include a citadel, a college, a multi-pillared Assembly Hall, a public bath (the
Great Bath) and a large granary (inside the citadel) consisting of a podium of square blocks and burnt with
a wooden superstructure.
•
OR
The Great Bath was excavated by Sir John Marshal and regarded as the most important public place
measuring 11.88 metres, 7.01 metres and 2.43 metres deep approachable by two staircases from north and
south; around it was a pillared verandah with dressing rooms. It is an example of beautiful brickwork,
bitumen coated with gypsum in mortar made it water proof. Perhaps it was used for ritual bathing.
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• A piece of woven cotton; bronze dancing girl; seals of three-headed Pashupati Mahadeo; steatite-statuette
of a bearded man supposed to be a priest-king; terracotta figurines of a horse from a superficial level; a
seal and two potshed depicting ships; bronze buffalo and ram, etc. are the major findings here.
• Three cylindrical seals of Mesopotamina type have also been found here.
Harappa
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• It is situated in the Montgomery district of Punjab, now in Pakistan on the left bank of the River Ravi.
• It is perhaps the largest Indus site in magnitude and dimension. The structures of Harappa cover 5 km
in circuit and in the way is one of the largest of its type in the Bronze Age.
• The vast mounds at Harappa were first reported by Charles Masson in 1826, and preliminary excavation
was done by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.
• Major findings include - a granary (outside the citadel) consisting of twelve oblong blocks in an area 800
sq. metres; between the granary and the citadel have also been found a series of circular platforms
probably for the pounding of grain, because wheat and barley have been found in the crevices.
• Little bullock carts and ‘Ekkas’ besides copper or bronze models of carts with seated drivers have also
been found.
• It is the only site, which yields the evidence of coffin burial probably of a foreigner from the west. Rigveda
(Mandal VI) mentions it as ‘Harupiya’ - a battle site ruins.
Kalibangan (Sothi culture)
• It is situated in Ganga Nagar district of northern Rajasthan on the banks of the now dry course of the
Ghaggar River and was first excavated by A. Ghoshin 1953.
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• Here, the massive mud-brick wall around citadel and lower town was supported by corner tower and
‘bastions’.
• Evidence of furrows land (pre-Harappan) and wooden furrow comes from this site only.
• Evidence of fire-altar in houses suggests the practice of fire-cult.
• Copper was known, as is attested by copper bead as well as a cell and few other objectives.
• The existence of wheel conveyance is proved by a cartwheel having a single hub.
• The pottery has six fabrics, all wheel made, as at Kot-Diji, but unlike Amri, where in the lowest levels,
the majority was hand-made.
• The predominant pottery is red or pink with black, or bichrome black white painting.
• Animal sacrifice is suggested by a big public fire-pit altar made of burnt bricks on a platform situated in
the outer city containing bones of cattle. At this site evidence of restricted use of bunt bricks confined
largely to bathrooms, wells and latrines.
• There is no clear-cut evidence of drainage system here.
• Bones of a camel.

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OR
Lothal
• It is situated in Gujarat on Bhogavar River near Gulf of Cambay.
• It was excavated by Prof. S.R. Rao in 1957. It is a small but interesting site.
• It differs from the other sites so far as the houses open on to the main street and there is no citadel
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complex.
• An interesting finding here is an artificial brick dockyard (219×37 meters) connected through the Bhogavar
River with the Gulf of Cambay.
• It is the only place along with Rangpur where rice husk has been found. Terracotta figurines of a horse
are also found here.
GS

• Terracotta model of a ship with a stick-impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging,
which is found here, may suggest sea trade.
• Fire attars have also been found.
• It is the only Indus site, which bears the evidence of joint burial of male and female suggesting the practice
of ‘Sati’.
• A ‘Persian Gulf ’ type of seal has been found here.
• The site is also known for bead-makers factory.
Chaunhudaro
• It is situated in Sind on the lefts plains of the Indus about 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro.
• It has no citadel.
• The site is most famous for bead-makers factory.
• The site was a major centre for craft production - seal, shell bead and bangle manufacturing shops.
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• Other findings include a small pot, probably an inkpot; evidence of mustard; foot prints of a dog chasing
those of a cat across one wet surface of some brickwork; copper or bronze models of carts with seated
drivers etc.
Kot-Diji
• It is situated at a distance of 100 miles north-east of Amri on the left bank of the Indus and was
excavated in and after 1955 by the Pakistan Archaeological department.
• There are indications at various points that the early settlement was subject to floods and that stones were
piled up as a protection against their action.
• The material culture included a chart-blade industry with some serrated blades, and other blades reportedly
bearing ‘sickle glass’.
• It is not clear whether there were any objects of copper but a fragment of a bronze bangle is reported.
• The pottery was of a distinctive character, which was decorated to have developed from bands of

E
brownish paint.
• An interesting motif appears to have developed from bands of loops and wavy lines into the well-known

• OR
fish-scale pattern, which later appears on Harappan pottery.
With the exception of writing and long stone blades, the Kot-Dijians had everything that Harappans were
known for.
• At Kot-Diji the foundations of the fortification wall and houses are of stone.
SC
• There is plenty of evidence to show that Kot-Diji was destroyed of fire.
Amri
• It is situated in Sind west of the River Indus and was excavated under the direction of N.G. Majumdar
in 1929 and later by a French team directed by J.M. Casal.
GS

• Here, fragments of copper and bronze, a chart blade industry, wheel thrown pottery showing a wide variety
of painted motifs, mainly geometric, in both plain and polychrome styles have been found.
• From this site, comes a beautiful painted humped Indian bull.
Surkotada
• It is a coastal site and is situated at the head of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
• It was first excavated by J. Joshi in 1964.
• Here, both citadel and lower town is fortified - the two being connected by an intercommunicating gate.
• The most important finding here are the bones of horse (2000 BC).
Sulkagendor
• It is on the Makran coast where Sir Aurel Stein dug some trial trenches.
• There is existence of a great fortification around the Harappan outpost here.
• The citadel here was fortified in rubble stone instead of bricks.
• Perhaps the site was a trading port.
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Banwali
• It is situated in Hissar district of Haryana on the bank of the now dry course of river Sarasvati.
• It was first excavated in 1974 by R.S. Bisht.
• A good quantity of barley has been found here.
• The sites like Kalibangan also show pre-Harappan and Harappan phases.
Ropar
• It is situated in the district of the same name in Punjab on the bank of river Sutlej and was first excavated
by Y.D. Sharma in 1953.
• Both Harappan and post-Harappan phase have been noticed here.
Rangpur
• It is situated in Jhalwar district of Gujarat near Ahmedabad and was excavated by M.S. Vats in 1931.

E
• All three phases of Harappan culture i.e. pre-Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan have been found here.
• The most important finding here are rice husks.
OR
• No seal or image of Mother Goddess has been found here.
Alamgirpur
• It is situated in Meerut district of U.P. and represents the last phase i.e. of post-Harappan culture.
SC

Ali Murad
• It is situated in Sind and has yielded a massive stone fort.
Dholavira
• It is situated in Gujarat and seems to be a big site but is not much excavated.
GS

DECLINE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Traces of general decline in civic standard are noticed towards the last phase of Indus Civilization. Town
planning was abandoned and public buildings fell in ruin. Water supply system fell in disrepair. Kiln entered
city limits. Dilapidated bricks were roused. Script degenerated. Weights and measures and seals disappeared.
External and internal trade declined. Some exotic tools and pottery found in the upper levels indicate foreign
intrusion in the north. Several causes have been given for the decline.
• There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the decline of the Harappan culture. Various
theories have been postulated.
• Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive
exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the Harappan cities.
• According to some scholars the final blow was delivered by the invasion of Aryans.
• The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled
together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners.
• The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become
masters of this region.
Notes

14
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HARAPPAN CULTURE
The emergence of Indus valley civilization, also known as harappan civilization marks the first period of
urbanization in ancient India. It is well known for the spectacular planning and specialized craft which are not
available in any of the contemporary civilizations of the world. Although we find trade relation between
Mesopotamian civilization, there is no similarity in the life style and structure of the civilization of Harappa
with the Mesopotamian civilization.
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
Town Planning

E
• The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system
- that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into
several rectangular blocks.
•
OR
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick.
Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the
common people.
• The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings
SC
are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture.
• Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street
drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
• The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth
and 8 feet depth. Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There are side rooms for changing clothes.
The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and
GS

an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It must have served as a ritual bathing site.
• The largest building in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But in
the citadel of Harappa there were six granaries.
Notes

15
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Society
• An important characteristic of the Indus Civilization was its urban life.
• The civic life was highly developed.
• The society mainly consisted of middle classes.
• Perhaps there existed a fairly stratified social structure.
• There was a clear cut division of labour based on specialization of work which is evidenced by the
presence of craftsmen, sculptures, jewelers, scribes, merchants, traders, transporters, carpenters, potters,
herdsmen, priests, slaves, peasants, administrators and the ruling elite.
• The presence of warrior caste is uncertain.
• Marked Class inequality is testified by two-roomed barracks or workman’s quarters found in both Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro.
• There were diversions such as dice or hunting with wild animals. But dice playing seems to be most
important with them.
•

E
The young played with marbles, rattles and toys. The bull with a mobile head, and the monkey going up
and down a string show ingenuity.
OR
• On a potsherd from Harappa is found a person wearing a ‘dhoti’. Shawl as an upper garment is suggested
by the well-known steatite statuette from Mohenjo-daro, supposed to be of a priest.
• The occurrence of needles and buttons prove that at least some items of dresses might have been stitched.
SC

Polity
• Uniformity in material culture visible in such features as town planning, trade and commerce, weights and
measures, etc. suggests a centralized political control.
• Again the presence of great granaries on the citadel mounds and the citadels themselves point towards
the presence of a political authority.
GS

• Possibly, Harappa was ruled by a class of Merchants.

Agriculture
• The extensive use of burnt-bricks, for the firing of which plenty of wood was needed, and the frequent
depiction of flora and fauna on the seals suggest a good rainfall.
• Wheat and barley were the main food-crops besides, rais, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), palm
date, banana, etc.
• The evidence of culivation of rice comes from Lothal and Rangpur only.
• No canal or channel irrigation but ‘gabarbands’ or reservoirs have been found. Furrow marks have been
discovered only at Kalibangan.
• It seems seeds were sown on flood plains in November and reaped in April.
• Perhaps stone stickles were used for harvesting.
• Despite being a pre-field cultivation, it had a surplus production.
• Wheat and barley were the staple food and to the dietary were added fish, fowl, mutton, beef and pork.
Notes

16
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• Harappans were the first to discover cotton and grew it for textiles - a crop unknown in those times in Egypt.
• Because cotton was first produced in this area the Greeks called it ‘Sindon’, which is derived from Sindh.
• They domesticated animals on large scale.
• Besides cats and dogs, oxen, buffaloes, goats, ship, pigs, and probably elephants were also domesticated.
• Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in grave at Ropar have been discovered. The evidence
regarding horse and camel is inconclusive.
Economy, Trade and Commerce
• Economy was mainly agrarian but heavily supported by trade and commerce.
• Both internal and external trade was much brisk.
• There was no metallic money.

E
• Medium of exchange was barter system.
• The seals seem to be of merchandise importance.
•
•
•
Trade was undertaken both by land and sea route.
OR
Ships and carts with solid wheel were chief means of transportation.
Uniformity in weights and measures and in material culture suggest trade within the Indus empire.
SC
• The Indus people did not possess the necessary raw materials for the commodities they produced.
• In return for finished goods like ivory, carnelian beads, shell goods, cotton fabrics, and possibly foodgrains
and spices, they procured metals from the neighbouring areas.
The Indus people imported
Copper - from Baluchistan, Rajasthan (Khetri), Afghanistan and Persia.
GS

Tin - from Bengal and Afghanistan

Silver - from Rajasthan (Ajmer), South India, Persia and Afghanistan
Lapis Lazuli - from Badakshan and Afghanistan
Turquise - from Kashmir and Persia
Gold - from Karnataka (Kolar) and Afghanistan
Amethyst - from Mahrashtra
Jadeite - from Tibet or Central Asia
Conch shell - from Saurashtra and the Deccan
Agate, Chalcedonies & - from Saurashtra and Western India
Charnellian
Lead - from South India
Funchsite - from Karnataka (north Mysore)
Notes

17
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• Overseas trade and outside contact is proved by almost two dozen Indus seals found from Mesopotamian
cities of Ur, Umma, Kish, Lagash, Susa, Tell Asmar and three cylindrical seals of Mesopotamian type
from Mohenjo-daro.
• This trade was atleast partly sea-borne is proved by the discovery of the ‘dock yard’ at Lothal.
• Imports could have been matched by exports as revealed by bales of cloth from Umma bearing the
imprint of an Indus seal.
• Etched beads and bone inlays of the Indus Valley have also been discovered at Tell Asmar.
• The Mesopotamian literature records its trade relations from about 2350 B.C. onwards with Meluha
(identified with Indus region) and two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan
(Makran).
• The Sargon of Akkad (2300 B.C.) had an official interpreter of the Meluhan language, as is recorded some
Mesopotamian literature.
• There are material evidence at Tape Yahya and Sahar-i-Sokhta of overland trade route to Mesopotamia
through Iran.
•

E
A Harappan colony has been discovered at Shertughai (in north-east Afghanistan) not from the Lapis
OR
Lazuli mines of Badakshan.
Dress and ornaments
• People used garments of cotton and wool. Cotton fabric was in common use, such as, shawls, dhoti, skirts,
clock, loin cloth, etc. men wore dhoti and shawl.
SC

• Bronze and ivory needles and buttons suggest use of tailored dress.
• Women wore knee length skirt, and their headdress had a plait tied with a bow at the end.
• The bronze-dancing girl has braided hair.
• Womenfolk also used collyrium, face-paint, comb, oval shaped bronze mirrors, perfumes, etc. and bedecked
themselves with ornaments like necklaces, bracelets, finger-rings, armlets, earrings, girdles, bangles, nose-
GS

studs, anklets made of a variety of metals and precious stones.

• Men’s hairstyle was marked by hair parted in middle and tied with a fillet and hair gathered in a bun.
Moustache was shaved off within a short period but beard was kept.
Notes

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Script
• The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered.
• The number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants.
• The script was mostly written from right to left. In a few long seals the boustrophedon method - writing
in the reverse direction in alternative lines - was adopted.
• The mystery of the Harappan script still exists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan
script will throw much light on this culture.

E
OR
SC

Arts
• The Harappan sculpture
revealed a high degree of
GS

workmanship.
• Figures of men and women,
animals and birds made of
terracotta and the carvings on
the seals show the degree of
proficiency attained by the
sculptor.
• The figure of a dancing girl from
Mohenjodaro made of bronze
is remarkable for its
workmanship. Its right hand
rests on the hip, while the left
arm, covered with bangles,
hangs loosely in a relaxed
posture.
• Two stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and the other of a dancer are
also specimens of their sculpture.
Notes

19
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• The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were
painted with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs consisted
of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces
figures of fish or peacock are also found.
Seals
• These were made generally of softstone called ‘steatite’ and usually of 2-3cm oblong on which carving
was done with burin wind coated with alkali and treated further with heating to obtain lustrous finish.
• These seals have been found in large numbers (about 2500).
• These show Harappan creativity - excellent calligraphy with realistic human and animal motifs, particularly
that of bull (unicorn); on the reverse side is a perforated knob.
• Perhaps these seals acted as token of merchants and also had some cult significance, because seals from
religious legends have been found on them.
• Shell-inlaying important centres were Chanhudaro and Balakot and were used for making beads, bracelets

E
and decorative inlays.
Religious Life
OR
• From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans.
• The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three
faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a
different direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The animal surrounding proto-Shiva might have been
SC

worshipped.
• The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines.
• In later times, Linga worship was prevalent.
• Many trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorn was also
worshipped.
GS

• However, no temple has been found, though idolatry was practicedNaga-cult (cobra worship) was practiced.
• Practice of fire cult evidenced from Lothal and Kalibangan may suggest ritual sacrifice.
• Swastika was a sign of good luck. Portrayal of crocodiles on some seals may symbolize river god.
• The elaborate bathing arrangement at the city of Mohenjodaro suggest that religious purification by bath
formed a feature of the Indus Valley people.
• Primitive animism i.e. worship of spirits and belief in the ‘other world’ is shown by the fact that with the
dead were entered a large number of pits and toilet objects such as mirror, antimony rod and mother of
pearl shells.
• Amulets and charmers found in large number suggest superstition and belief in demons and ghosts. Lastly,
it may be surmised that the Harappan religion was the lineal progenitor of Hinduism.
Weapons
• Axes, spears, daggers, bows and arrows and short swords made usually of copper and bronze and almost
offensive in character might have been used either in self-defence against wild animals or in warfare.
Notes

20
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Utensils
• Bronze and copper objects for domestic use included knife-blades, saws, sickles, chisels, fishhooks, pines,
tweezers and a variety of pots.
• The Indus people lived in full-fledged Bronze Age, although chert blades continued to supplement the tool-
repertoire.
Weights & Measures
• The use of weights (in a binary system) and measures (as shown by a scale found at Lothal) proves that
the Indus people knew arithmetic.
• Cubical weights of charts were commonly used.
• For smaller weights binary system in progression was used like 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 going up to 160 and
decimal ratio in progression was used for larger weights, viz. 320, 640, 1600, 3200, 5400, 8000 and 12800.
• A terracotta-graduated scale is found in Kalibangan.

E
• A scale of ivory shell have a ‘foot; of 13.0 to 13.2 inches and cubit of 20.3 to 20.8 inches.
•

•
gms having a ratio of 16 to standard unit of weight.
Plumb bobs and angle measures of shell were used.
OR
Unit weights value was 0.8750 gm and largest weight was 10970 gms; the most prolific weight was 13.68

Burial Methods
SC
• The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar
throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans.
• Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro.
• The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with ashes, bones and charcoal may, however,
suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus Valley culture the latter method was generally
GS

practiced.
• The dead bodies were placed in the north-south direction.
• At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.
• Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa.
• The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons.
Notes

21
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VEDIC AGE
• The Vedic civilization is named after the Vedas, especially the Rig Veda, which is the earliest specimen
of the Indo-European language and the chief source of information on the history of this period.
• The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the modern
Indian states of Haryana and Punjab.
• Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic plains.
• They were mainly a cattle-keeping people, and were mainly in search of pastures.
• By 6th century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta.
• This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C is divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period

E
(1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C).
OR
• Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans, however, largely
accepted view is the Central Asian Theory given by Max Muller.
• It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
• The holy book of Iran 'Zend Avesta' indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran.
SC

• A section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC and first settled
in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rigveda were composed.
• The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit, which belonged to the Indo-European group of languages.
EARLY VEDIC AGE OR RIGVEDIC AGE (1500 - 1000 B.C.)
Area of Settlement
GS
Notes

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• The geographical area covered by the early Aryans is indicated from certain allusions in the Rigveda,
which seems to have been limited to an area extending from Afghanistan to the Gangetic valley.
• The former region was occupied by the Aryans is from the mention of rivers like the Kubha (Kabul), the
Suvastu, situated north of Kabul.
• The Sindhu , identical with the Indus, is the river par excellence of the Rigvedic Aryans and is repeatedly
mentioned, so also are its five tributaries - the Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipasa
(Beas) and the Sutudri (Sutlej).
• Similarly, Dirsadvati (Chantang) is named, but the Sarasvati, now lost in the sands of Rajasthan, was first
of the Rigvedic river as its banks witnessed the development of Vedic rituals and cult of sacrifices.
• The Yamuna is twice mentioned and the Ganga only once.
• They knew the Himalayas as one of its peak 'Mujavat' - a source of some plant and probably in Kashmir,
is directly mentioned.

E
• They knew nothing about the Vindhyas and were not familiar with the sea.
Rig-Vedic Name Modern Name
Sindhu
Vitase
OR Indus
Jhelum
Askini Chenab
SC
Purushni Ravi
Vipas Beas
Sutudri Satluj
Gumal Gomati
GS

Krumu Kurram
Drishdvati Ghagghar
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD
Political Organisation
• The basic unit of political organization was kula or family and Kulapa was the head of the family.
• Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama.
• Villages were headed by Gramini who used to represent village in Sabha and Samiti.
• A group of villages constituted a larger unit called Visu. It was headed by Vishayapati.
• The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
• There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and
Purus.
• The head of the kingdom was called as Rajan or king. He was the leader in battle and protector of tribe.
• The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary.
Notes

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• However, the Rajan was a kind of chief, and he did not exercise unlimited power, for he had to reckon
administration with the tribal councils like Sabha, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata.
• There were two popular bodies (tribal organizations) called the Sabha and Samiti. The former was a
council of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people.
• Even women attended Sabha and Vidhata.
• The king was assisted by a number of officers of which Purohita was the most important.
• The Rigveda did not mention any officer for administering justice.
• Spies were employed to keep an eye on unsocial activities such as theft and burglary.
• The titles of the officials do not indicate their administration of territory. However, some officers seem
to have been attached to territories. They enjoyed authority in the pasture grounds and settled villages.
• The officer of pasture ground was called 'prajapati'', who led the heads of the families called 'kulapas' or
the heads of the fighting horses called 'gramanis' to battle.

E
• In the beginning, the gramani was just the head of a small tribal fighting unit. But when the unit settled,
the gramani became the head of the village and in course of time he became identical with Prajapati.
OR
• The king did not maintain any regular army but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military
functions were performed by different tribal groups called vratas, grama, gaha, sradha, etc.
• By and large, the military system was strong. The military technique of the early Aryans was much
advanced. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses.
• There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute (Bali) of
SC

his subjects and the booty won in battle.

Social Life
• The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal.
• The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known as grahapathi.
GS

• Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are few instances of polyandry, levirate and
widow-marriage.
• Polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families. There was no child marriage and the practice
of sati was absent.
• The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development.
• There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies.
• Aryans were fond of food, dresses, soma and sura.
• Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton and wool.
• A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women.
• Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles
of food.
Notes

24
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• The staple crop was 'yava', which meant barley.

• Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by religion. Sura was purely secular and more
potent, and was diapproved by the priestly poets.
• Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite pastimes.
• The Aryans loved music, and played the flute, lute and harp. There are references to singing and dancing,
and to dancing girls.
• People also delighted in gambling.
• As they settled among the dark aboriginals, the Aryans seem to have laid greater stress than before on
purity of blood, and class divisions hardened, to exclude those dasas who had found a place in the Aryan
society, and those Aryans who had intermarried with the dasas and adopted their ways.
• Gradually, the tribal society got divided into three groups warriors, priests and commoners. Later, the
fourth division called dasas or shudra was also added.

E
• The fourth division appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period because it is mentioned for the first
time in the tenth book of the Rig Veda.
•
•
OR
The term varna was used for color, the Aryans being fair and the dasas being dark.
The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the Later Vedic Period.
Economic Condition
SC
• The Aryans came to India as semi-nomadic people with a mixed pastoral and agricultural economy, in
which cattle-rearing played an important role.
• Cattle formed their most valued possessions and chief form of their wealth.
• The cow was in fact a sort of currency and values were reckoned in heads of cattle. Importance of the
cow can-be measured from the fact that many early linguistic expressions were associated with cattle.
GS

• Word for battle came to be known as 'gavishth' , literally, a search for cows.
• Those who lived in the same cowshed came to belong to the same 'gotra', which later indicated a common
ancestor.
• The daughter was known as 'duhitri', milker of the cow.
• The cow is described in one or two places in Rigveda as `aghnya', not to be killed; but this may imply
only its economic importance.
• It was not yet held sacred. This indicates that cow was the most important form of wealth.
• Whenever gifts were made to priests, it was in terms of cows and never in terms of measurement of land.
• Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time.
• Of the other animals reared by the Aryans, the horse was the most important of them.
• The horse was essential for movement, to speed in war and it drew the chariots.
• Among other domestic animals, the early Aryans knew the goat and sheep which provided wool, their
chief textile.
Notes

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• Of the wild animal, lion was known earlier than tiger. The elephant was look upon with curiosity.
• Since domesticated animals seem to have been tended by common herdsmen, it has been suggested that
they were under the common ownership of the members of the tribe.
• With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation.
• There were artisans like carpenters, weavers, cobblers, potters, etc.

• Carpentry was an important profession and the availability of wood from the forests cleared made the
profession profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs.
• Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron.
• Their bronze smiths were highly skilled, and produced tools and weapons much superior to those of
Harappan culture.
• Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were
active in making ornaments.

E
• The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use.
OR
• Trade was another important economic activity and rivers served as important means of transport. Trade
was conducted on barter system.
• In the later times, gold coins called nishka, Krishnal and Satmana were used as media of exchange in
large transactions.
SC

• Possibly they lived in some kind of fortified mud settlements. At a site in Haryana (Bhagwanpura), a
thirteen-room mud house has been discovered, which might have been a house for a large extended family
or for a tribal chief.
Rig Vedic Mythology
• The earliest religious ideas of the Aryans were those of a primitive animism where the focus was around
GS

them, which they could not control or understand, were invested with divinity and were personified as
male or female gods.
• The Vedic Aryans were primarily worshippers of nature.
• The early gods of the Aryans, like those of the Greeks, were atmospheric gods and predominantly male.
There was no fixed order of seniority among the gods.

• In the traditional classification of gods, there has been a three-fold division.

(1) Terrestrial Gods in which Prithvi, Brihasapati, Agni and rivers are important.
(2) Intermediate or Madhyamsthana gods in which Indra, Prajanya and Rudra are prominent.
(3) Celestial or Dyusthana gods, among which Varuna, Usha, Surya, Savitri and Vishnu are important.
• Among these gods, Indra was the god of strength, foremost in battle, always ready to demolish dragons
and demons. He has been called 'Pirrandar' or 'breaker of ports.' He is also the god of rain and thunder.
Rowdy and amoral, Indra is described as fond of feasting and drinking. The largest number of hymns,
250 in number, were addressed to Indra.
Notes

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• To Agni, 200 vedic hyms were addressed. He dominated the domestic hearth and marriages were solemnised
in the presence of fire. Fire was the purest of the five elements and was held in particular esteem. Fire
also acted as a kind of intermediary between the gods on the one hand and the people on the other. The
oblations offered to Agni were supposed to be carried in the form of smoke to the sky and thus transmitted
to the gods.
• Varuna, the upholder of cosmic order, personified waters. Whatever happened in this world was thought
to be the reflection of his desires. Of all the Aryan gods, Varuna was ethically the highest. Varuna was
so pure and holy that performances of sacrifice would ensure his disfavour. He abhorred sin or that which
was not conformable to 'rita.'
• Surya (sun), Savitri (god to whom the famous gayatri mantra is addressed) and Pushan (guardian of roads,
herdsmen and straying cattle) were the principal solar deities.
• Sonra was originally a plant from which a patent drink was produced which was consumed only at
sacrifices and which caused the most invigorating effects. The god Sonia was identified with this intoxicating
juice.

E
• Yama was the god of death and held a prominent place.
• Rudra was a remote god, dwelling in mountains and generally an object of fear. But he was the guardian

•
•
of healing herbs.
Tvastri was the Vedic vulcan god. OR
Aryanyani was the guardian of forests and Vayu, the wind-god.
SC
• Besides this, the cosmos, was also personified by large variety of celestial beings.
• Some female gods like Ushas and Aditi are also mentioned, but they are far less important than the male gods.
• Ushas was the goddess of appearance of dawn and Aditi was the mother of all the gods. Demi-gods were
Gandharvas, Maruts and Vishvedevas.
• The dominant mode of worshipping gods was through the recitation of prayers and offering of sacrifices.
GS

Prayers were of more importance during this period and were made both collectively and individually. Originally,
every tribe or clan had a special god and prayers were offered in chorus by members of the whole tribe.
• There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period.
• God's favour could also be won through sacrifices. A number of domestic and public sacrifices are
mentioned in the Rigveda.
• Agni and Indra were invited to partake of sacrifices made by the whole tribe (Jana).
• Offerings of vegetables, barley, etc. were made to gods.
• In Rigvedic times, the process was not accompanied by any ritual or sacrificial formulae. Magical power
of the words was considered not so important as it came to be in later Vedic times.
• Real development of a sacrificial cult took place in the second phase of Aryan expansion in India.
• Motive for worship was mainly for material gains such as praja (children), pasu (cattle), food, wealth,
health, and for ending miseries of existence not spirtual uplift.
• The number of hymns attributed to different Vedic gods are, Indra: 250; Agni: 200; Soma: 120; Varuna:
12; Surya: 10; Pushan: 08; Vishnu: 06; Rudra: 03; Mitra: 01.
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LATER VEDIC PERIOD/

PAINTED GREY WARE PHASE (1000-600 B.C.)
• The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period.
• The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains.
• Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important development
during this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
• Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning.
• After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence.
• The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India - Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa

E
(central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India).
OR
SC
GS

• Great changes took place in the religious, social, economic and political conditions of the people during
the period when the later Samhitas - Sama, Yajur and Athrva and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads
were composed, extending from 1000 B.C. to 600 B.C.
• This age is also known as PGW iron-phase as in the same period and same area, digging and exploration
have brought people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey pottery and also used iron
weapons. Atranjikhera, Hatinapur, Noh, Batesar, Alamgirpur some of the later Vedic sites excavated so
far.
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Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age

Kingdom Location
Gandhar Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab
Kekaya On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom
Uttar Madra Kashmir
Eastern Madra Near Kangra
Southern Madra Near Amritsar
Kushinagar Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh
Panchal Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern UttarPradesh
Kashi Modern Varanasi

E
Koshal Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPANSION
•
•
OR
The later Vedic works show a wider knowledge of Indian geography, than is, found in the Rigveda.
They mention the 'two seas' - the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.
• Several Himalayan peaks are also mentioned.
SC
• The Vindhya mountains are indirectly referred to the text and archaeology, shows that the Aryans expanded
from Punjab over the whose of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga - Yamuna doab and even
to the borders of Bengal in the east.
• They imposed themselves on the copper using people whose tools and weapons have been found in 18
hoards spread over this area and are assigned to the period 1700-1000 B.C. Their old Aryan home in the
GS

Punjab seems to have been forgotten and references to it in later Vedic texts are rare.
• The Aryans cleared the land mainly by means of fire. In a passage of the Satapatha Brahmana it is told
how Agni moved eastward, burning the earth till it reached the river Sadanira, the modern Gandak, where
he stopped.
• Burning may have been supplemented by the use of the iron axe for cutting the forests in some areas
towards the end of the Vedic period when this metal is referred to in literature as Shyama Ayas (dark or
black metal).
• Excavations at Atrajikhera (U.P.) indicate the advent of iron in western U.P. as early as 1000 B.C.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD
Society
• Family continued to remain as the basis of social structure but the power of the patriarch increased, who
could even disinherit his son.
• Right of primogeniture got stronger with time.
• Male ancestor worship began to be practiced and the position of women started to decline. They could
not attend the Sabha and were excluded from inheritance right.
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29
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• A reference to self-immolation by the widow at the death of her husband is found, and the origin of the
later practice of Sati may be traced to this period. But it is certain that this practice did not prevail on
any considerable scale.
• But early marriage of girls had not yet become customary, and here and there they were allowed to attend
lectures by Gurus and learning the Vedas.
• Gargi Vachaknavi is said to have attended a discussion of the sage Yajnavalkya and even to have embarrassed
him by her searching questions.
• Settled life led to a further crystallization of the fourfold division of society.
• Brahmanas claimed both social and political privileges.
• With the emergence of caste system certain social norms developed.
• Marriage between the members of the same Gotra was not permitted.
• This applied especially to Brahmanas, who were by now divided into exogamous Gotra group.

E
• The institution of Gotra which literally means the 'cow-pen' or the place where cattle belonging to the
whole clan are kept, appeared during this age.
OR
• The term 'Gotra' first appears in Atharvaveda with the meaning of 'a clan'. Later it came to signify descent
from a common ancestor. Gotra was primarily a Brahmanical institution adopted rather half-heartedly by
other twice-born classes and hardly affecting the lower orders.
• All Brahmanas were believed to have descended from one of the Rishis or legendary seers after whom
SC

the gotras were named. They were eight in number - Vasishtha, Bhrigu, Gautama, Bhardwaj, Attri,
Vishvamitra, Agastya and Kashyapa.
• Marriage monogamy remained the general rule. Eight types of marriages are listed for the first time
• Brahma - It was marriage of a duly dowered girl to the man of the same varna with Vedic rites in the
presence of Agni.
GS

– Daiva - In this marriage the girl is given by her father to the sacrificial priest in lieu of his fees.
– Prajapati - In this marriage the father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding bride-price.
– Arsa - In this type of marriage the father of the girl takes a token bride-price of a cow and a bull.
– Asura - It is marriage by purchase.
– Gandharva - It was marriage by mutual consent and elopement. A special form of it was the
Swayamvara or self - choice.
– Rakshasa - It is marriage by capture, practiced especially by the warrior class.
– Paisacha - It is the seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk; hence it can harldy
be called a marriage.
• Of these eight forms, only first four were generally approved and permissible to the Brahmanas.
• Members of the higher Varnas could marry Shudra women. But marriage between men of the lower orders
and women of the higher classes was discountenanced.
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• Marriage of a man in his own Varna or below his Varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the
sacred texts.
• Marriage of a women in lower than her own Varna which was called Pratiloma was frowned upon and not
sanctioned by the sacred texts.
• The idea of Ashrams also developed. The earliest clear reference to the four Ashrams or four stages of
life, viz., that of Brahmachari or student, Grihastha or householder, Vanaprastha or hermit and Sanyasi or
ascetic who completely renounced the worldy life is found in the Jabala Upanishad.
• The Chandogaya Upanishad clearly refers to the first three Ashrams. But after completing the first stage,
one was free to pursue any of the latter three.
Polity
• The material and social developments of the later vedic age were amply reflected in the contemporary
political system.

E
• Kingship was no longer tribal. Its territorial character came to be established.
• In a passage of the Atharvaveda the Rashtra (territory) is said to have been held by the king and made

• OR
firm by the king Varuna, and the gods Brihaspati, Indra and Agni.
The expression like 'kingdom for ten generations' suggests strengthening of hereditary succession of the
king with increasing royal power.
• The territorial aspect of kingship is clear from a text, which enumerates ten forms of government prevalent
SC
in different parts of the country.
• Unlike the earlier period, kings did not rule over nomadic tribes moving from one place to another but
over territories. Now the wars were fought not for cows but for territories.
• Formation of wider territory based kingdoms increased the royal power. Sabha and Samiti lost its importance
and Vidatha completely disappeared.
GS

• The king's influence was strengthened by the rituals like Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Vajepeya, etc.
• On account of the assured income from the taxes, the king could appoint many officers.
• There was beginning of a faint administrative offices like 12 Ratnins (jewel-bearers), whose houses the
king visited at the time of coronation in order to offer oblations to the appropriate deity there.
• A rudimentary taxation system began with 'Sangrhitri' as treasurer of taxes and 'Bhagaduha' as tax
collector.
• But even during this period, the king did not posses a standing army and tribal units were mustered in
times of war.
• Several kingdoms came to be established. In the Kuru-Panchala region (Delhi-Meerut area), the Kurus
ruled from Hastinapur where excavations have revealed settlements belonging to the period 1000-700 B.C.
To the east of the Ganga - Yamuna confluence, there existed the kingdom of Kosala.
• East of the Kosala was the kingdom of Kashi in the Banaras region. Another kingdom was Videha.
• Its kings bore the title Janaka, which is mentioned more than once in the later Vedic literature. South of
Videha on the southern side of the Ganga was the kingdom of Magadha, then of little importance.
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Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period

Purohita Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa
Senani Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
Jivagribha Police Officer
Spasas/Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers
Gramani Head of the village
Kulapati Head of the family
Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha Revenue collector
Sangrahitri Treasurer

E
Mahishi Chief Queen
OR
Suta Charioteer and court minstrel
Govikartana Keeper of games and forests
Palagala Messenger
Kshatri Chamberlain
SC

Akshavapa Accountant
Sthapati Chief Justice
Economy
• Simultaneously with the transition from pastoral to agricultural economy there seems to have arisen
GS

several new arts and crafts.

• With the discovery of iron, though very few agriculture tools made of iron have been found, agriculture
became the chief means of livelihood, but largely remained primitive.
• People continued to produce barley, but, rice and wheat became their chief crop.
• Rice was called 'Vrihi' and its use was recommended in rituals.
• The term for wheat was 'Godhume'.
• Plough became large and heavy and sometimes required as many as 24 oxen to draw it. Manure was
known.
• The rise of new arts and crafts may have led to rudimentary commodity production and trade.
• In this period the Vaishyas engaged in trade. Reference to moneylending first occurs in the Shatapatha
Brahmana, which describes a userer as 'Kusidin', though definite evidence of the use of money is wanting.
• The term Niska occurring in contemporary literature has often been taken to mean a coin. But so far no
actual specimens of the coins of the Vedic period have come to light.
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• Bali, Sulka, Bhaga were the main heads of taxation to be paid to the king.
• Knowledge of metals advanced. In addition to gold and Ayas (probably he Rigveda, there is mention of
tin, lead, silver and iron.
• From around 1000 B.C. onwards iron was in Western Uttar Pradesh.
• However, the largest numbers of iron tools have been found from Atranjikhera, Noh, Batesar, Hastinapur,
etc.
• Most of the iron tools were weapons and only a few of them were agricultural tools.
• The term 'Nagara' used in later Vedic texts may indicate the faint beginning of towns towards the end of
the period.
• People lived in mud-brick houses or wattle - and - daub houses erected on wooden poles.
• The later Vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery - black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware,
painted grey ware and red ware - the last being most popular with them. However, the most distinctive

E
pottery of the period is known as Painted Gray Ware.
Education
•

•
OR
The list of subjects for study show a wide range of knowledge embracing not only Vedas, Itihas (history)
Puranas and grammar, but also astronomy, military sciences, dialectics and knowledge of portents.
The ritual of sacrifice also added to the knowledge of elementary mathematics, which was needed to
establish the positions of the various objects in the sacrificial arena.
SC
• Sulnasutras, which prescribed various kinds of measurements for the construction of sacrificial altars
marks the beginnings of the study of geometry and mathematics.
• Development of character constituted the main aim of the educational system.
Religion
GS

• In the domain of religion, elaborate cult of rituals and sacrifices developed.

• Elaborate sacrificial rites undermined the importance of the Rigvedic gods, some of whom like Indra and
Agni faded into the background.
• Prajapati (the Creator) came to occupy the supreme position.
• The priests became the chief beneficiaries of the sacrifices and consequently gained in power.
• Cattle were slaughtered at sacrifices, often in large numbers. Animal bones with cut marks found in course
of excavations at Atranjikhera are mostly of cattle.
• Public rituals led to the decimation of the cattle wealth, whose importance for the developing agricultural
economy can hardly be overestimated.
• The first reaction to this ritualistic religion and Brahmanical dominance came from Upanishads, which
reflect a wider spirit of inquiry prevalent towards the end of the Vedic period - especially in the land of
the Panchalas and Videhas.
• The Upanishad thought centres round the idea of soul (Atman) and not sacrifice (Yajna).
• It emphasizes the relation between Atma and Brahma. Creation is aid to have grown out of the primeval
desire of the World Soul.
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• In the Upanishads, we find the first clear exposition of belief in the passage of human soul from life to
life. Souls were thought of as being born to happiness or sorrow according to their conduct in the previous
life. From this evolved the theory Karma (action), which preached that the deeds of one life affected the
next. This doctrine sought to provide and explanation of human suffering, and became fundamental to
most later Indian thought.
• With rising royal pretentions and priestly ambitions, there took place a great development in the sacrificial
cult.
• Several new lengthy royal sacrifices developed and instructions for their meticulous performance occupied
much of the later Vedic literature.
• The Rajasuya was the royal consecration supposed to confer supreme power on a king.
• The Vjapeya (drink of strength) sacrifice lasted for seventeen days to a year, and was believed not only
to restore the strength of a middle-aged king but also to raise him from a simple Raja to a Samrat, a
monarch who owed allegiance to none but controlled several kings. This ritual comprised the chariot race,
in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

E
• Most famous and significant of the complex royal sacrifice was the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) which
lasted for three days, although the preparatory ceremonies extended over a year or even two. A specially
consecrated horse was set free to roam at will for a year, escorted by a chosen band of 400 warriors so
OR
that any king trying to capture the animal might be combated. The horse was brought back to the capital
at the end of the year and sacrificed along with 600 bulls. This gave an unquestioned control over an area
in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.
• The other was Vratystoma through which the people of non-Vedic fertility cult like Nishadas and others
SC

who did not follow the Vedic rites were brought in the Vedic fold.
GS
Notes

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VEDIC LITERATURE
The Knowledge about the Aryans in India is known from the various Vedic texts, specially the Rigveda, which
is the earliest specimen of the Indo-European language and the chief source of information on the history of
this period. Vedic literature have been traditionally held sacred, for it is believed to have derived from divine
sources. The Vedas are believed to have been eternal. Various sages, who are known as their authors, said to
have received them directly from god. Transmitted orally from generation to generation, the Vedas were not
committed to writing until very late. The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata: the
early Vedic. (1500-1000 BC) when most of the hymns of the Rigveda were composed; the later Vedic (1000-
600 BC) when the remaining three Vedas and their branches were composed. All the vedic literatures are
together called Shruti and they include apart from the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the

E
Upanishads.

SHRUTI LITERATURE

OR
Vedas- The four Vedas come under the Shruti category and are considered sacred scriptures.
• Rig-Veda is known as the oldest religious text in the world. It is also known as "First testament" of
mankind. Rig-Veda is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collection of hymns by a
SC
number of priestly families. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost
devotion. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hyms, divided into 10 mandals. Six mandals (from 2nd to 7th
mandals) are called Gotra/Vamsha Mandals (Kula Granth). The 1st & 10th mandalas are said to have
been added later. The 10th mandala contains the famous Purushasukta which explains the 4 Varnas-
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya & Shudra. The Hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hetri.
• Saman" means melody and Sam Veda contains the Rythmic compilation of Hymns for Rigveda. It ranks
GS

next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. The Sama Veda (book of chants) had 1549
hymns. All hymns (excluding 75) were taken from the Rig Veda. The Hymns of the Sama Veda were
recited by Udgatri. This Veda is important for Indian music.

• Yajus" means "sacrificial formula" and Yajurveda is the book of sacrificial prayers. It contains the rituals
of the Yajnas. World's oldest prose literature of the Indo-Europeans is contained in Yajurveda. Its hymns
were recited by Adyvaryus. It is divided into parks-Krishna Yajur Veda & Shukla Yajur Veda. In contrast
to the first two which are inverse entirely, this one is in both verse & prose.

• Atharva-Veda is entirely different from the other three Vedas and is chronologtically the last of the four.
Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that
are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures. For a very long time it was not included in the category
of the Vedas.
The Brahmanas are a series of texts that followed the Vedic Samhitas . Each Veda has several Brahmanas
attached to it. These are ritual texts. The sole object of the authors of the Brahmanas was to speculate on and
mystify minute details of Brahmanical sacrifices without explaining them. The Brahmanas throw light on the
socio-political life of the Aryans and form a sort of explanation of their religion, especially sacrifice. They also
contain ritualistic formulae for the respective Vedas and its priests.
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A Brahmanas attached to the Rigveda: Aitareva, Kaushitaki (Composed by Hotri priest)

Brahmanas attached to Samveda: Jaimini, Tanckamasha; Panchavis, Chhandoua (composed by Udgatri priest)
Brahmanas attached to Yajurveda: Satpatha Brahmana (composed by Adhvaryu priest)
Brahmanas attached to Atharvaveda: Gopatha Brahmana
The Aranyakas are forest books that are treaties on mysticism and philosophy and are the concluding portion
of the Brahmanas. They explain the metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. They lay emphasis not on
sacrifice but on meditation. They are in fact opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. Their stress
is on the moral virtues. They form a bridge between the way of works (karma-marga, advocated by the
Brahmanas) and the way of knowledge (fan-marga, advocated by the Upanishads). The Aranyakas are the
concluding portions of the Brahmanas and deal with mysticism and symbolism. It was believed that their
contents were so secret in nature that they would spell danger if taught to the uninitiated. So they were to be
studied in forest, and hence called forest texts (Ararryakas). Some important Aranyakas are Aitereya Aranvaka,
Kaushitaki Aranyaka and Taittiriya Aranyaka.
The Upanishads contain philosophical speculations. They are generally called Vedanta which means the end

E
of Veda. One reason is that they came at the end of the Vedic period or that they were taught at the conclusion
of Vedic instruction. These texts were compiled around 600 BC and criticised the rituals and laid stress on the
OR
value of right belief and knowledge. They emphasised that the knowledge of the self or alma should be
acquired and: the relation of alma with Brahma should be properly understood. Towards the end of the Vedic
period we notice a strong reaction against priestly domination and against cults and rituals, especially in the
land of the Panchalas and the Videha, where around 800 to 500 BC the Upanishads were compiled. These
philosophical texts criticised the rituals and laid stress on the value of right belief and knowledge. They also
SC

condemn the ceremonies and sacrifices. The Upanishads are the main source of Indian philosophy.
There are about 108 Upanishads, of which 10 have attracted worldwide attention as they deal with the
philosophy and theology of the Aryans.
These 10 Upanishads are: Ishopanishat, Kenopanishat, Kathopanishat, Parshnopanishat, Mandukopanishat,
Koushikopanishat, Thaittariyopanishat, Chandogyopanishai and Brihadaranyakopanishat.
GS

Smriti Literature
The Smriti are the auxiliary treatise of the Vedas or their supplementary. It refers to that literature which has
been passed on from one generation to the other. Famous smritis are:
• Manu Smriti (Pre-Gupta period), the oldest smriti text, Commentators: Vishwarupa, Meghatithi, Gobindraj,
Kulluk Bhatt.
• Yajnvalkya Smriti (pre-Gupta period), Commentators: Vishwarupa, Vijnyaneshwar, Aparaka (a king of
Shilahar Dynasty)
• Narad Smriti (Gupta Period),
• Katyayana Smriti (Gupta period).
Manusmriti written by Manu is the oldest of all the Smritis. Manu was the great law-giver in the Aryan period
and his book Manusmriti deals with the laws of inheritance, duties of kiwis and their subjects. As Manu
established a detailed legal system for the Aryans, he is considered the first law-giver of India.
• Vedengas- Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas.
Notes

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a) Shiksha (phonetics) -'Pratishakhya'- the oldest text on phonetics.

b) Kalpa sutras (Rituals)
c) Vyakarana(Grammar) - 'Ashtadyayi' (Panini)-the oldest grammer.
d) Nirukta (Etymology) - 'Nighantu' (Yask)-a collection of difficult vedic words (the oldest dictionary)
e) Chhanda (Metrics) - 'Chhandasutras' (Pingal)-famous text.
f) Jyotisha (Astronomy) - 'Vedanga Jyotisha' (Lagadh Muni)-the oldest jyotisha text.
• Puranas- They are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from creation
to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology,
philosophy, and geography. They are colored with superstitions and also represent a corrupt form of Hindu
Philosophy. 18 major Puranas are there. The Matsya Purana is the oldest Purana text. The other important
Puranas are the Bhagavata, the Vishnu, the Vayu & the Bhrahamnda. They describe genealogies of various
royal dynasties.

E
• Upveda means applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain the subjects of certain
technical works. They are as follows:
a)
b)
c)
OR
Ayurveda: Deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda
Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associated with the Yajurveda
Gandharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associated with the Samaveda
SC
d) Shastrashastra: Deals with military technology and associated with the Atharvaveda.
• Mahakavyas (Epics): There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics):
a) The Ramayana (Valmiki) is known as 'Adi Kavya' (oldest epic of the world). At present, it consists
of 24,000 shlokas i.e. verses (originally 6,000, later-12,000, finally-24,000) in 7 Kandas, i.e., sections.
1st & 7th Kands were latest additions to the Ramayana.
GS

b) The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa) is the longest epics of the world. At present, it consists of 1,00,000
shlokas, i.e., verses (orgininally-8,800- Jay Samhita, later-24,000-Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita/
Bharata, finally-1,00,000-Shatasahastri Samhita/Maha Bharata) in 18 Parvans, i.e, sections, plus the
Harivamsa supplement. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bihshma parva of Mahabharata. Shanti
Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahabarata.
• The Sutras- There are three Sutras:
a. Srouta Sutras deal with Vedic sacrifices;
b. Griha Sutras deal with the duties of a family man;
c. Dhanna Sutras deal with social laws and duties.
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MAHAJANAPADAS
• In the beginning of the 6th century B.C., the northern India consisted of a large number of independent
kingdoms of which some of them had monarchical forms of government, while some others were
republics.
• There was a concentration of monarchies on the Gangetic plain, the republics were scattered on the
foothills of the Himalayas and in northwestern India.
• These republics consisted of either a single tribe such as the Shakyas, Koliyas, Licchavis and Mallas or
a confederacy of tribes such as the Vrijjs and Yadavas.
• In the republics, the power of decision in all matters of state vested with the Public Assembly which was
composed of the tribal representatives or head of families.
• All decisions were taken by a majority vote.

E
OR
• The formations of states and republics in the 6th century B.C. have often been linked to urbanisation.
• The growth of urban centres and towns during this period is referred to as second urbanisation. The first
urbanisation was that of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
• The degrees of urbanisation are reflected in different kinds of towns as they grew out of earlier settlements.
SC

• The genesis of towns was not uniform and this gave them a diverse feature. Some of the towns grew as
political and administrative centres e.g. Hastinapur, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi, Champa and Allicchatra.
There were many others which grew as markets, each catering to a variety of villages usually located
where there was an agricultural surplus that could regularly enter an exchange nexus. The exchange could
be extended to goods from more distant places if the market was on a trade route, such as at Ujjain.
GS

• Towns also grew from being sacred centres where people gathered, as is thought to have been the case with
Vaishali.
• Thus, the concentration of people and the scope for a range of occupations and products were the essential
features responsible for the growth of towns.
STATE FORMATION: REPUBLICS AND MONARCHIES
• The origin of the state or the territorial republics situated in the sub-Himalayan region has been traced to
the reaction against the pattern of life that evolved in the later Vedic period.
• The movement against the Vedic life was aimed at the abolition of the growing class and sex distinctions and
directed against the acceptance of superstitious religious practices which took a heavy toll of cattle stock.
• It was also directed against the hereditary kingship, bolstered up by the Brahmanas.
• In the post-Vedic period the tribal structure disintegrated and a number of monarchical kingdoms appeared
together with ganarajya (republics), which preserved many features of the tribal structure.
• The development of organised states was accompanied by the advancement of material culture, urbanisation
and a rapid spread of new religious ideas.
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• The central feature of the republican government was its seemingly corporate character.
• The actual procedure of government involved the meeting of the representatives of the tribes or the heads
of families in the Public Assembly (Santhagara) of the capital city.
• The assembly was presided over by one of the representatives who took the title of Raja.
• The officers were not hereditary and he was regarded as a chief rather than a king.
• The matter for discussion was placed before the assembly and debated and if a unanimous decision could
not be reached, it was put to the vote.
• But in reality, the assemblies were dominated by the oligarchs.
• The absence of monarchy did not necessarily mean the prevalence of democracy in the true sense of the
term. Members of the assembly belonged mostly to Kshatriya caste and at least in the case of Lichchavis
it is known that non-Kshatriyas had no place in it. This means that republican system in essence was
oligarchical.

E
• The administration was in the hands of officials such as the assistants to the chief, the treasurer (bhandagarika),
the commander of the forces (senapati).
•

•
same case, one after another in the Lichhavis republic.
OR
Judicial procedure was extremely elaborate, there were many courts in a hierarchical order for trying the

The republics were less opposed to individualistic and independent opinion than the monarchies and were
ready to tolerate unorthodox views. It was the republics that produced the two leaders of heterodox sects-
Jainism and Buddhism.
SC

• Brahmanical political theories were not accepted in the republics. The most striking of the non-Brahmin
theories was the Buddhist account of the origin of state, possibly the earliest expression of the theory of
social contract.
• The republics had retained, much more tribal traditions than did the monarchies. In the transition from
tribe to republic, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of government
GS

through an assembly representing tribe.

• In the monarchies, tribal loyalty weakened and gave way to caste loyalties.
• The political expansion of kingdoms over large areas also weakened the popular assemblies. The kings no
longer summoned the sabha and samiti. Since sabha and samiti were essentially tribal institutions, they
decayed and disappeared as tribes disintegrated into varnas and lost their identity.
• With the emergence of large states, such as Magadha and Kosala, it was not possible to hold assemblies,
attended by people from different parts of the empire, because of difficulty of communication.
• Further being tribal, the old assembly could not find place for many non-Vedic people who lived in the
new kingdoms. The divinity of the king with its corollary of power of the priests and of Vedic rituals
further reduced the status of the popular assemblies. The changed circumstances were thus not congenial
for the continuance of the old assemblies. Instead, in this period, there was a small body, parishad,
consisting exclusively of Brahmanas.
• The monarchies were concentrated in the Ganges plain which was a more fertile area.
• The two systems, republican and monarchical were not mutually exclusive and a change from one to other
was not unheard of. Kamboja, for instance, changed from a monarchy to a republic. But this was less
common in the Ganges plain where the monarchy was the predominant pattern.
Notes

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• The decline of tribal culture, in combination with a growing dependence on an agrarian economy stimulated
the growth of monarchies.

• An aura was created around the king by invoking various gods at the conservation ceremony to endow
him with their respective qualities.

• In the rituals, he was sometimes also represented as a god. The Rajasitya sacrifice conferred supreme
power on him. The Asvamedha sacrifice meant an unquestioned control over an area in which the royal
horse ran uninterrupted. In the Vajapeya sacrifice, a chariot race was organised in which the royal chariot
was made to win the race against his kinsmen. All these rituals impressed the people resulting in increasing
power and prestige of the king.

• The rising monarchy derived strength from taxation, which became common during this period. Settled
life and stable agriculture led to the production of considerable surplus and this could be collected by king
in the form of taxes.

• In the Shatpatha Brahmana, the king has been described as devourer of the people, because he lived on
the taxes collected from them.

E
The taxes were probably deposited with an officer called sangrihitri.
OR
• Later Vedic texts also mention an officer called bhagdugha in regard to taxation.

• On account of an assured income from taxation, the king appointed many officers and the administrative
system became very elaborate. There were 12 Ratnini (jewel- bearers), who were probably the high
functionaries. The list included the chief priest, the commander and the royal treasurer.
SC

• From this period, the widespread use of iron in eastern UP and western Bihar facilatated the formation
of large territorial states.

• The new agricultural tools enabled the peasants to produce far more foodgrains than they required for
consumption.
GS

• These material advantages naturally enabled the people to stick to their land and also to expand at the
cost of the neighbouring areas.

• People began owing strong allegiance to the janapada or the territory to which they belonged and not to
the jana or tribe to which they belonged.

• The lynchpin of the janapada was the ruling clan, after which it was named, and this in turn ensured some
linguistic and cultural commonality.

• The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen
Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala,
Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja.

• The Jain texts also contain references to the existence of sixteen kingdoms.

• In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got
eliminated.

• Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms - Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.
Notes

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16 MAHAJANAPADAS
The 16 mahajanapadas of that period as listed in Buddhist Pali Canon were:
1. Magadha kingdom (South Bihar) - The first capital was Rajagriha and the later capital was Pataliputra.
Brihadrata is claimed to be the founder of the Magadha kingdom.
2. Anga and Vanga kingdoms (East Bihar) - The capital was Champa. It was a prosperous business centre.
The kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into Magadha.
3. Malla kingdom (Gorakhpur region) - The capital was Kushinagar. It was the seat of many other smaller
kingdoms. Their main religion was Buddhism. The Malla kingdom was later merged into the Magadha
kingdom.
4. Chedi kingdom (Yamuna and Narmada belt) - The capital was Tisvathirati. One of the families from this
kingdom later merged into the Kalinga kingdom from this royal family.
5. Vatsa kingdom (Allahabad) - The capital was Kausambi. The most important ruler of this kingdom was

E
King Udayan.
6. Kashi kingdom (Benaras) - The capital was Varanasi. Though many battles were fought against the Kosala

7.
OR
kingdom, eventually Kashi was merged with the Kosala kingdom. Dhritarashtra once ruled over the Kashi
and Anga kingdoms.
Kos kingdom (Ayodhya) - Though its capital was Sravtsti which is identical with Sahet-Mahet but
Ayodhya was an important town in Kosala. It was merged in the Magadha by the Magadha ruler,
Ajatashatru. Kosala also included the tribal republican territory of Sakyas of Kapilvastu.
SC
8 Vajji kingdom (North Bihar) - Vajji was the seat of a united republic of eight smaller kingdom of which
Lichchavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also members. The Lichchavis kingdom had its capital at Vaishali.
It was a prosperous kingdom north of Bihar, but was later merged with the Magadha kingdom. The
Videhas kingdom had its capital at Mithila. Its most important ruler was King Janaka. This kingdom too
was merged with the Magadh a kingdom.
9. Kuru (Thaneswar, Meerut and present day Delhi) - The capital city was Indraprastha. It was an important
GS

kingdom during the Vedic era and was friendly with the kingdoms of the Bhoja and Panchala.
10. Panchala kingdom (Uttar Pradesh) - Its capital was at Kampila. Earlier a monarch state, it later became
an independent republic. Kanauj was an important town in this kingdom.
11. Matsya kingdom (Jaipur) - Its capital was Viratanagar. The Matsya kingdom got its independence from
the Chedi kingdom (ruled by King Sahaja) under the leadership of Virat Raja.
12. Surasena kingdom (Mathura) - Its capital was at Mathura and its most famous ruler was Avantiputra.
13. Assaka kingdom (Godavari) - Its capital was at Pertaii and Brahamdatta was its most important ruler.
14. Gandharva kingdom (Peshawar and Rawalpindi) - Its capital Taxila was important as a trade and education
centre (Ancient Taxila university) during the later Vedic age. Its ruler King Pukkusati was defeated by the
Magadha ruler Bindusara.
15. Kamboj kingdom (North-east Kashmir) - Its capital was Rajapure. Hajara was an important trade and
commerce centre of this kingdom.
16. Avanti kingdom.(Malwa) - Avanti was divided into two parts north and south. The northern part had its
capital at Ujjain and the southern part had its capital at Mahismati. It was the most vulnerable of all the
mahajanapadas and was ruled by many kingdoms before being finally merged into the Magadha kingdom.
Notes

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E
OR
Taxila University
• Taxila university is the oldest university and was probably the first organised educational centre of
SC

ancient India.
• It is not clear who actually founded this university, although it was funded by almost all the great kings
and rulers of the ancient past.
• It was a centre of learning for logic, religion, medicine, mathematics, astrology, the Vedas, warfare and
primitive science. Taxila, which was earlier the capital of the Gandhara Kingdom, allowed students
GS

from all parts of India to be enrolled and education was free for all.
• Only Chandalas were not allowed to study in this university.
• Scholars like Nagarjuna. Panini, Chanakya, Prasanajit, Jeevka (son of Bimbisara) all came to this
place to study before they became important personalities in Indian history.
• Even foreign rulers accepted its importance and many of them took scholars from this university to
their nations.
• Alexander took some scholars from Taxila to Greece.
• In 500 BC, the Hun ruler, Toramana, attacked and demolished the university campus. During that
time, most of the records were burnt or destroyed.
Notes

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MAGADHA
• Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous.
• It became the nerve centre of political activity in north India.
• Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages. These. Its geographical
and strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage due
to which it rose to imperial greatness.
• The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets.
Its location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to its wealth.

E
• Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha.
• During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.
Factors for the Rise of Magadha
1.
OR
The close vicinity and control over richest deposits of copper and iron ore rendered better weapons and
instruments.
SC
2. Favourable geographical location enabled it to control the whole lower Gangetic plain.
3. Its rich alluvial soil provided a strong agricultural base. The fertility enabled the peasants to produce
considerable surplus which could be mopped by the rulers in the form of taxes.
4. The thick forests beyond Gaya in South Bihar supplied timber for building and elephants for the army.
It was Magadha which first used elephants on large scale in wars.
GS

5. The two capitals of Magadha, Rajgriha and Pataliputra were situated at very strategic points. Rajgriha was
surrounded by a group of five hills and it was rendered impregnable. Pataliputra was situated at the
confluence of the Ganges, the Gandak and the Son, and therefore formed a water-fort or jaldurga.
• Some historians maintain that it was the introduction of iron implements which enabled the people to
clear the jungle and reclaim the fertile land of the eastern Gangetic plains and led finally to the rise of
the powerful Maha Janapadas.
• But hitherto there is no archeological evidence to clearly support this thesis of economic change as the
main reason for the rise of Magadha.
• Iron, however, did play an important role during this period, as it was used mostly for making weapons
and Magadha may have had strategic advantage due to its access to the iron ore deposits in Chota Nagpur
and its better armament.
• Magadha’s first great campaign was directed against Anga, its neighbour, which was equally close to those
iron ore deposits and perhaps controlled the trade routes through which iron would reach northern India.
In this way, Magadha eliminated a dangerous competitor at the very beginning of its imperial career.
• All these factors account for the expansion and stability of Magadha, which gradually swallowed all other
contemporary states.
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• Initially, Magadha appeared to be rather badly placed on the trade-route but after Bimbisara, it got some
foothold in Kasi by contracting a marriage alliance with the kingdom of Kosala and annexed Arya, the
position was radically changed. Thus, the internal trade of Magadha was linked with the foreign trade
which became even more lucrative. This factor gave a boost to trade and thus, helped in its rise.
Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)
• Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty.
• He consolidated his position by matrimonial alliances.
• His first matrimonial alliance was with the ruling family of Kosala. He married Kosaladevi, sister of
Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as dowry which yielded large revenue.
• Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Licchavi family of Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance
secured for him the safety of the northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of Magadha
northwards to the borders of Nepal.
• Bimbisara also married Khema of the royal house of Madra in central Punjab.

E
• Bimbisara defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and annexed the kingdom.
• Bimbisara maintained friendly relations with Avanti.
OR
• Bimbisara had also efficiently reorganized the administration of his kingdom.
• Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. However, both
religions claim him as their supporter and devotee.
• Bimbisara made numerous gifts to the Buddhist Sangha.
SC

Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)

• The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests.
• He fought against Kosala and Vaisali.
• He won a great success against a formidable confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali. This war lasted
GS

for about sixteen years. It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the small
village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra).
• He fortified it to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.
• Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion.
• But it is generally believed that in the beginning he was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced
Buddhism.
• He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut.
• According to the Mahavamsa, he constructed several chaityas and viharas. He was also instrumental in
convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of the Buddha.
• The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin.
• He laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the
Ganges and the Son.
• Later it became famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas.
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• Udayin’s successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga. Thus the Haryanka
dynasty came to an end and the Saisunaga dynasty came to power.
Saisunaga Dynasty
• The genealogy and chronology of the Saisunagas are not clear. Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti
which was made part of the Magadhan Empire.
• After Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse.
• His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign the second Buddhist Council was held at
Vaisali. Kalasoka was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynasty.
Nandas
• The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the Nanda dynasty.
• Their conquests went beyond the boundaries of the Gangetic basin and in North India they carved a well-
knit and vast empire.

E
• Mahapadma Nanda uprooted the kshatriya dynasties in north India and assumed the title Ekarat.
•
•
•
OR
The Puranas speak of the extensive conquests made by Mahapadma.
The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas.
Many historians believe that a considerable portion of the Deccan was also under the control of the
Nandas. Therefore, Mahapadma Nanda may be regarded as a great empire builder.
SC
• According to the Buddhist tradition, Mahapadma Nanda ruled about ten years. He was succeeded by his
eight sons, who ruled successively.
• The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda.
• He kept the Magadhan empire intact and possessed a powerful army and enormous wealth.
GS

• The enormous wealth of the Nandas is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet
Mamulanar. The flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda dominions and the general prosperity of the
country must have brought to the royal treasury enormous revenue.
• The oppressive way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people. Taking advantage of
this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule.
• It was during this time that Alexander invaded India.
Notes

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SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN

THE 6TH CENTURY BC AND ONWARDS
(PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD)
The pre-Mauryan period saw an economy which was evolving continuously. It saw a further development over
the Vedic phase and many features of the Vedic period were replaced by others.
Agriculture
• Cattle rearing was no longer the primary occupation, agriculture having taken its place in many areas.
• The Large lands were divided into cultivable plots and allotted family wise.
• The plot was cultivated with the help of its members supplemented by that of agricultural labourers.
• Land was also owned in common by the village or a tribal chief who hired labourers to work on it.

E
• Titles were fenced and irrigation channels dug collectively by peasant families under the supervision of
the village headman.
OR
• Rice was the staple cereal produced in eastern UP and Bihar in this period.
• Pali texts refer to various types of paddy and paddy plants. Large scale paddy transplantation began in
the age of the Buddha.
• In addition, the peasants also produced barley, pulses, millets, cotton and sugarcane.
SC

• Agriculture made great advances because of the use of the iron ploughshare and the immense fertility of
the alluvium soil in the area between Allahabad and Rajmahal.
• Iron played, a crucial role in opening the rain-fed forests, hard soil area of the middle Ganga basin to
clearance, cultivation and settlement. Iron ore was obtained from Singhbhum and Mauryashar.
• Agricultural lands were mostly outside the village settlements, while all the people were nucleated in the
GS

village. This type of settlement first appeared in the age of the Buddha.
Village Economy
• The Pali texts speak of three types of villages.
• The first included the typical village inhabited by various castes and communities. Its number seem to
have been the largest and it was headed by a village headman called Bhojaka.
• The second type was a suburban village, which served as a market for other villages and linked the towns
with the country side.
• The third category consisted of a border villages situated on the limits of the countryside which merged
into forests. People living in these villages were mainly fowlers and hunters and led a backward life.
• A strong rural base was necessary for the beginning of urbanisation and crafts and command.
• Princes, priests, artisans, traders, administrators military personnel and numerous others could not live in
towns unless taxes, tributes and lithes were available in sufficient measure to support the non-agriculturists
living in towns had to be by agriculturists living in villages.
• In return, artisans and traders living in towns made tools, cloth, etc. available to rural folk.
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Urbanisation
• This period saw the second urbanisation in India, which, was a new important factor in the life of people.
• Towns had come into existence as centres of industry and trade.
• The NBP phase marked the beginning of urbanisation.
• NBP is a pottery of a very shining and glossy type, made of very fine fabric and served as the table-ware
of rich people. In association with this pottery, are found iron implements, especially those made for craft
and agricultural use.
• The use of burnt bricks and ringwells appeared in the middle of the NBP phase, in the third century BC.
• Some towns such as Sravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Ayodhya, Kausambi and Kasi were of substantial
importance to the economy of Ganges plain.
• Others such as Vaishali, Ujjain, Taxila and Bharukachchha (Broash) had a wider economic reach.

E
• Towns had grown from what had been villages those which had specialised in particular crafts, and trading
centres.
•

•
of finished articles.
OR
Specialised craftsmen tended to congregate because it facilitated carriage of raw materials and the distribution

The concentration of artisans in a town brought them within easier reach of the traders and of the
markets.
SC
Trade
• In many towns such as Kausambi, Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilvastu, Pataliputra and others, signs of habitation
and mud-structures belonging to the NBP phase have been found.
• Wooden palisades have been found in Patna.
• Some of these towns were also fortified and mostly made of mud-brick and wood.
GS

• Material remains of towns are unimpressive, but together with other material remains indicate great
increase in population.
• Though many towns were seats of government, they eventually turned out to be markets and thus,
dominated by artisans and merchants.
• Both artisans and merchants were organised into guilds under their respective headman. There were 18
guilds of artisans.
• Each guild inhabited a particular section of the town.
• Members of a guild lived and worked together and generally had such a close-knit relationship that they
came to be regarded as a sub-caste.
• In most cases, the sons followed the same profession as the father.
• The guild at this stage was not the highly developed mercantile system which it was to become later.
• The products of crafts were carried over long distance by merchants.
• All the important cities were situated on the river banks and trade-routes and connected with one another.
Notes

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• Sravasti was linked with both Kausambi and Varanasi.

• Traders also crossed the Ganga near Patna and went to Rajgir.
• The introduction of a monetary system considerably facilitated trade.
• The terms nishka and satamana in the Vedic texts are taken to be the name of coins, but coins actually
found are not earlier than the 6th BC.
• Coins made of metal appear first in the age of Gautama Buddha.
• There were made of silver and copper and were punch-marked.
• The earliest hoards have been found in eastern UP and Magadha, although some have been found at
Taxila.
• In the pre-Mauryan period, an advanced food-producing economy spread over middle Gangetic plains and
the beginning of urban economy in this area.
• This economy provided subsistence to both farmers and non-farmers, which made possible tax collection

E
and thus, maintenance of a standing army.
• These created conditions for the formation of terrritorial states.
OR
Social Conditions
• By the pre-Mauryan period, the tribal community had been clearly divided into four classes Brahamins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.
• The Dharmasutras laid down the duties of each of the four varnas and the civil and criminal law came
SC

to be based on the varna division.

• The higher the varna, the purer it was and the higher was the order of moral conduct expected by law.
• All kinds of disabilities were imposed on the Sudras.
• They were deprived of religious and legal rights and relegated to the lowest position in society.
GS

• Crimes committed by them were punished more severely.

• The law givers emphasised the fiction that Sudras were born from the feet of the creator.
• Members of higher varnas shunned their company and avoided food touched by them.
• Sudras were specifically asked to serve the twice born as slave, artisan and agricultural labourer. Even
Jainisms and Buddhism did not make any substantial change in the position of the Sudras.
• The civil and criminal law of the period was regulated by caste.
• Laws were administered by royal agents who inflicted ready punishments such as scourging, beheading etc.
• In many cases, punishment for criminal offences was governed by the idea of revenge.
• Brahmanical law books recommended that the crimes committed by Sudras against Brahmanas and others
should be punished severely. On the other hand, the crimes committed against the Sudras were punished
lightly.
• The Brahmanical texts also did not ignore the customs of those non-Vedic tribal groups who were
gradually absorbed into the Brahmanical social order.
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• Some or these indigenous tribals were given fictitious social origins and they were allowed to be governed
by their own customs.
• The legal and judicial system which originated in this period was largely an important weapon of authority
in the hands of the ruling class.
System of Administration
• Monarchy was the dominant form of government during this period.
• Kingship had by now become a hereditary phenomenon with a preference for rulers of the Khatriya caste.
• This preference remained theoretical, since kings of all the four castes are known to have ruled, according
to political expediency.
• The divine nature of kingship was an established idea, which was reinforced from time to time by means
of elaborate ritual sacrifices which the king initiated.

E
• After the coronation, he began the year long royal consecration (rajasvya) which invested him with
divinity. Other importants sacrifice was the Ashwamedha.
•

•
OR
The Jatakas tell of oppressive kings and their chief priests being expelled by the people and the new kings
were installed. But occasions of expulsion were as rare as those of election.
The king enjoyed the highest official status and special protection of his person and property.
• The post-Vedic period saw the earliest appearance of the royal advisers or ministers and the king ruled with
SC
their help.
• Higher officials were called Mahamatras and they performed various functions such as those of the
minister (mantrim), commander (senattayaka), judge, chief accountant and head of the royal harem.
• A class of officers called Ayuktas also performed similar functions in some of the states.
• Varsakara of Magadha and Dirghacharayam of Kosala are known to have been effective ministers with
GS

great political influence.

• High officers and ministers were largely recruited from the priestly class of the Brahmanas. Generally, they
do not seem to have belonged to the clan of the king.
• In the countryside, local administration was entrusted to the headman, whose office grew out of the
leadership of the tribal leadership. They were called gramanis which means the leader of the grartia or a
tribal military wit.
• As life became sedentary and plough cultivation well-established, tribal contingents settled down to
agriculture.
• The gramani was, therefore, transformed into a village headman in pre-Mauryan times.
• The village headman was known by different titles such as gramabhajoka, gramani orsramaka.
• Eighty-six thousand gramikas are said to have been summoned by Bimbisara which shows that headmen
enjoyed considerable importance and had direct links with the king.
• The village headmen assessed and collected the taxes from the villagers and they also maintained law and
order in their locality.
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• Influential Brahmanas and Sethis were paid by the grant of the revenue of villages, though punch-marked
coins made of silver existed. In doing so, the king did not have to obtain the consent of the clan, as was
the case in later Vedic times. But the revenue alone was granted and administrative authority was not
handed over.
• The real and most effective prop of the state administration was the standing army; whose growth was
promoted by socio-economic developments in the age of the Buddha.
• With the decline of tribal life and the corresponding division of society into caste-classes the tribal militia
was naturally replaced by the standing army.
• At the time of Alexander’s invasion, the Nanda ruler of Magadha kept 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry,
200 horse-chariots and about 4000 elephants.
• The chariots were loosing their importance.
• The possession of numerous elephants gave an edge to the Magadha princes.
• The senanavaka occupied a very exalted place in the list of high functionaries.

E
• The development of the standing army was facilitated in most of the mahajanapadas only by a system
of taxation which came to be somewhat firmly established in post-Vedic times.
OR
• Land taxes became the substantial and permanent source of income for the exchequer.
• Bali, which was originally a voluntary tribute, tended to become obligatory.
• New taxes such as bhaga and kara, both unheard of in earlier periods, seem to have become a source of
state income.
SC

• Warriors and priests, i.e., Kshatriyas and the Brahmanas, were exempted from payment of taxes and the
burden fell on the peasants who were mainly vaishyas or grihapatis.
• Artisans and traders also had to pay taxes.
• Artisans were made to work for a day in a month for the king and the traders had to pay customs on the
sale of their commodities.
GS

• The tolls were collected by officers known as Soulkika or Sulkadhyaksha.

• The bali was collected by the officers called Balisadhakas.
• Two types of officers, tundiyas and alcasiyas are described in the Jataka stories as collecting taxes from
the people, either by beating or and binding them or by dispossessing them of their earnings.
• Jatakas also speak of cases in which peasants left the country of the king in order to escape the oppressive
burden of taxes.
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BUDDHISM
Gautam Buddha founded Buddhism and is known as Supreme Buddha. He was born in Lumbini, a little
principality of Kapilvastu in modern day Nepal.
Buddhahood or Buddhatva is the state of perfect enlightment attained by a Buddha. This refers to the universal
and innate property of absolute wisdom.
Symbols of 5 great events of Buddha’s Life:
• Buddha’s Birth: Lotus & Bull.
• The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana): Horse.

E
• Enlightment (Nirvana): Bodhi Tree.
•
•
First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan): Wheel.
Death (Parinirvana): Stupa.
Four Noble Truths:
OR
Four noble truths were taught by Buddha in Dhammachakraparivartan. They are the core teachings of Buddhism.
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• Sorrow: The world is full of sorrow and everything from birth to death brings sorrows in life.
• Cause of Sorrow: The cause of sorrows is desire. It is the un-fulfillment of human desires which leads
him to the vicious cycle of births and rebirths.
• Prevention of Sorrow: It is possible to prevent sorrow. Man can get rid of sorrow by triumphing over the
GS

desires.
• The path of Prevention of Sorrow: Man can avoid sorrow by avoiding extremes of life and following
middle path or Madhyam Patipada. The life of moderation and self control along with pursuance of 8
fold path is essential to prevent the sorrow.
The Eightfold Path of Buddhism:
They are also called the Middle Path and is the system of following these eight divisions of the path to achieve
spiritual enlightenment and cease suffering:
• Right understanding: Understanding that the Four Noble Truths are noble and true.
• Right thought: Determining and resolving to practice Buddhist faith.
• Right speech: Avoiding slander, gossip, lying, and all forms of untrue and abusive speech.
• Right conduct: Adhering to the idea of nonviolence (ahimsa), as well as refraining from any form of
stealing or sexual impropriety.
• Right means of making a living: Not slaughtering animals or working at jobs that force you to violate
others.
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• Right mental attitude or effort: Avoiding negative thoughts and emotions, such as anger and jealousy.
• Right mindfulness: Having a clear sense of one’s mental state and bodily health and feelings.
• Right concentration: Using meditation to reach the highest level of enlightenment.
Buddhist Literature:
• Tripitaka: Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional term used for various Buddhist scriptures. It is known
as pali Canon in English. The three pitakas are Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Sutta Pitaka: It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to Buddha and his close companions.
This also deals with the first Buddhist council which was held shortly after Buddha’s death, dated by the
majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk
Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir.
• Vinaya Pitaka: The subject matter of Vinay Pitaka is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. It can also
be called as Book of Discipline.
• Abhidhammapitaka: It deals with the philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism appearing in the suttas.

E
However, it does not contain the systematic philosophical treatises. There are 7 works of Abhidhamma
Pitaka which most scholars agree that don’t represent the words of Buddha himself.
OR
Some terminologies associated with Buddhism
• Nirvana: The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirely different from the Hinduism. Buddhism denied the
concept of Moksha, however it defines Nirvana has to getting rid of Cycle of Death and birth. It is achieved
in the lifetime itself and not after death. To achieve nirvana one should follow moral code of Conduct.
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• Jatakas: Jatakas are very much close to folklore literature and they contain the tales of previous births
of Buddha in poems. The Jataka have also ben mentioned in the Khuddaka Nikaya. There are 547 poems.
• Buddha Charita: Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa and was compiled in
second century BC. Dharmaraksa who is known to have translated many works of Buddhism in Chinese,
translated this work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly deals with Buddha’s Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a
Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran” which deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.
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• Bodhi Vamsa: Bodhi Vamsa is a mix Sanskrit Pali text which was composed by Upatissa under the rule
of Mahinda IV of Sri Lanka in 10th century AD. It describes the arrival of branch of Bodhi tree in Sri
Lanka and many other things which mentioned in Mahavamsa.
• Hinayana:
a) Hînayâna is the orthodox, conservative schools of Buddhism
b) Don’t believe in Idol Worship and try to attain individual salvation through self discipline and
meditation.
c) Asoka Patronized Hinayana
d) Pali the language of masses was use by the Hinayana scholars.
e) It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma.
• Mahayana:
a) Mahayana Buddhism, also known as the Great Vehicle, is the form of Buddhism prominent in North
Asia, including China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, and Japan. 
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b) This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in Idol Worship.
c) Fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based on the possibility of universal liberation
from suffering for all beings (hence the “Great Vehicle”) and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
embodying Buddha Nature.
d) It allows salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Amitâbha Buddha by having
faith and devoting oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha. This sect believes in Mantras.
e) The main Mahayana sects include Pure Land, Zen, and Vajrayana (or Tantric) Buddhism. 
Hinayana Mahayana
1) Gauthama Buddha was like a teacher. 1) Gauthama Buddha was considered as God.
2) They used symbols for worship. 2) They worshipped Buddha in image form.
Ex: footprints, flower etc.
3) Merit and de-merit was dependent on 3) They believed that merit can be strengthened

E
previous birth. through re-birth.
4) Merit cannot be transferred from one 4) Merit can be transferred from one person to

•
person to another person.
5) Very few rulers patronaged hinayana.
Vajrayana Buddhism
OR
anotherBy conductiong pious acts.
5) Many rulers patronaged Mahayana.
SC
a) The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to China, Mongolia, and Tibet.
b) Vajrayana Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in
Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.
• Zen Buddhism
a) Zen Buddhism pronounced Chan in Chinese, seon in Korean or Zen in Japanese (derived from the
GS

Sanskrit term dhyana, meaning “meditation”) is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China,
Korea and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.
b) Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on
direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.
c) Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the
penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.
• Bodhisattva: A Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment. Anyone who has a spontaneous
wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very popular subject in Buddhist
art. A bodhisattva is bound to enlightment and refers to all who are destined to become Buddhas in this
life or another life. There are celestial bodhisattvas which are manifestations of Gautam Buddha.
• Buddhist Shrines: Astamahasthanas: These are 8 great holy places. They are as follows:
a) Lumbini: Birth of Buddha.
b) Bodhgaya: Enlightment of Buddha.
c) Sarnath: First sermon or Dhammachakraparivartan.
d) Kushinagar: Death or mahaparinirvana.
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Along with them, Sravasti, Sankasya, Rajgir and Vaishali are known as Astamahasthanas.
• Religious places:
a) Amaravati
b) Nagarjunkonda
c) Ajanta Caves
d) Angkor Wat (Cambodia)
e) Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya
f) Borobudur (Indonesia)
g) Bamyan Caves (Afghanistan)
h) Ellora Caves
Royal Patronage to Buddhism

E
Emperor Asoka Maurya, Kanishka, ruler of Magadha emperor Bimbisara from India and Countries like Laos,
Cambodia, Tibet, Thailand, some parts of China, Japan and Malaysia gave royal patronage to Buddhism.
OR
SC
GS
Notes

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JAINISM
A Jain is a follower of Jina. A Jina is a victor or Conqueror. The Jains are followers of certain ascetics who
obtained omniscience and who preached a doctrine which promises a super mundane bliss of eternal salvation.
Jainism originated centuries before Buddhism, but revived by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar of Jainism.
Tirthankara:
A Tirtha is a religious pilgrim place. A Tirthankara is a founder of a Tirtha. He achieves the enlightment and
then shows the path to others. A Tirthankar achieves Moksha or liberation at the end of his human life. There
are 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism. The first Tirthankara was Rishabhdev and Last 24th Tirthankara was Mahavira.

E
Mahavira:
Kundagrama where Mahavira was born is located in Muzaffarpur Bihar.

of Mahavira was Vardhamacharitra by Asaga.

3 jewels of Jainism:
OR
The most notable text about Mahavira is Kalpasutra by Acharya Bhadrabahu I. The first Sanskrit biography

1. Right faith
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2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct
The principles of Jainism as preached by Mahavir-
1. Rejected the authority of Vedas & Vedic rituals
GS

2. Did not believe in the existence of god.

3. Believed in karma & the transmigration of soul.
4. Lead great infancies on equality
Around 300 century B.C Jainism was divided into 2 parts:
1. Shwetambara:
Svetambara (white-clad) is a term describing its ascetics practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart
from the Digambara (sky-clad) Jainas, whose ascetic practitioners go naked. Svetambara, unlike Digambaras,
do not believe that ascetics must practice nudity.
Svetambaras also believe that women are able to obtain moksha. They maintain that the 19th Tirthankara,
Mallinath, was a woman.
The Svetambara tradition follows the lineage of Acharya Sthulibhadra Suri. The Kalpa Sutra mentions some
of the lineages in ancient times. The Svetambara monastic orders are branches of the Vrahada Order, which
was founded in 937 AD. The most prominent among the classical orders today are the Kharatara (founded
1024 AD), the Tapa (founded 1228 AD) and the Tristutik.
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2. Digambaras:
It is one of the two main sects of Jainism. The Digambar sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the Jain
Agama compiled by Sthulabhadra. They believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty-third teacher after
Gandhar Gautama, knowledge of only one Anga was there.
According to Digambar tradition, Mahavir, the last Jain tirthankara, never married. He renounced the world
at the age of thirty after taking permission of his parents. The Digambara believe that after attaining
enlightenment, Mahavira was free from human activities like hunger, thirst, and sleep. Monks in the Digambar
tradition do not wear any clothes. They carry only a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers and a water
gourd.
One of the most important scholar-monks of Digambara tradition was Acharya Kundakunda. He authored
Prakrit texts such as Samayasar and Pravachansar. Samantabhadra and Siddhasena Divakara were other important
monks of this tradition.
Jaina Council:
First Council was held at Patliputra by Suthabhandra in the beginning of 3rd century BC & resulted in the

E
compilation of 12 Angas.
Second council was held at Vallabhi in the 5th century BC under the leadership of Devardhi kashmashravan
OR
& resulted in the final compilation of 12 Angas & 12 Upangas.
Royal Patrons of Jainism:
Asoka’s Grandson Samprati King Kharvela of Orissa: set up jain rock cut cave. Gangs, Kadambs, Chalukyas,
Rastrakutas had patronized Jainism. King Amoghavarsha of Rastrakuta dynasty became a Jain Monk. He
SC

wrote Ratnamalika. The Chalukyan period rock cut caves at badami and aihole have the figures of Jain
Tirthankaras. Samatabhadra in Kanchi preached this religion. The Dilwara Jain temples at Mount Abu were
built by Chalukya Dynasty kings between 11 to 13th century.
Jain Literature:
It is called Jain Agamas. They are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira’s teachings. There are in all
GS

45 texts. 12 Angas, 12 Upanga Agams, 6 Chedasutras, 4 Mulasutras, 10 Prakirnaka sutras and 2 Culikasutras
comprise of Jain literature.
Ahimsa is the fundamental principle of Jainism. Most Jains are vegetarians and this practice shows their faith
in the principle of Ahimsa. Apart from that there are 5 Mahavratas:
• Non-violence (Ahimsa).
• Truth (Satya).
• Non-stealing (Asteya).
• Chastity (Brahmacharya).
• Non-possession (Aparigraha).
Sallekhana  It means extreme fast to death. Chandragupta Maurya attain salvation through this process only
in Karnataka.
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PERSIAN AND ALEXANDER

Persian Invantion
Cyrus (558 - 530 B.C)
• Cyrus the Great was the greatest conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire.
• He was the first conqueror who led an expedition and entered into India.
• He captured the Gandhara region.
• All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus river submitted to him and paid tribute.

E
• His son Cambyses had no time to pay attention towards India.
Darius I (522 - 486 B.C.)
• OR
Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and
Sindh.
• This region became the 20th Satrapy of his empire.
SC
• It was the most fertile and populous province of the Achaemenian Empire.
• Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore the Indus.
Xerxes (465-456 B.C.)
• Xerxes utilized his Indian province to strengthen his position.
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• He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight his opponents. But they retreated after Xerxes
faced a defeat in Greece.
• After this failure, the Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy in India.
• However, the Indian province was still under their control.
• Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander in 330 B.C.
Effects of the Persian Invasion
• The Persian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of Indo-Iranian commerce.
• It also prepared the ground for Alexander’s invasion.
• The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of Iranian writing became popular in north-western India and some
of Asoka’s edicts were written in that script.
• The influence of Persian art can be seen on the art of the Mauryas, particularly the monolithic pillars of
Asoka and the sculptures found on them. The very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording used
in the edicts are traced to Iranian influence.
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Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)

Political Condition on the eve of Alexander’s Invasion
• On the eve of Alexander’s invasion, there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern India.
• The leading kings were Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled the region between
the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab.
• There were many republican states like Nysa.
• The northwestern India remained the most disunited part of India and the rulers were fighting with one
another.
• They never came together against common enemy.
Causes of the Invasion
• Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death of his father Philip in 334 B.C.

E
• He conquered the whole of Persia by defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C.
• He also aimed at further conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the lost Persian Satrapy of India.
OR
• The writings of Greek authors like Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander.
• Moreover, his interest in geographical enquiry and love of natural history urged him to undertake an
invasion of India.
• He believed that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the sea, according the
SC

geographical knowledge of his period. So, he thought that by conquering India, he would also conquer the
eastern boundary of the world.
Battle of Hydaspes
• In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months in fighting with
the tribes.
GS

• He crossed the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats.
• He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila.
• From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit, but Porus refused and decided to fight against
Alexander.
• Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum).
• As there were heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it.
• After a few days, he crossed the river and the famous battle of Hydaspes was fought on the plains of
Karri.
• Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle.
• Alexander was impressed by the courage and heroism of this Indian prince, treated him generously and
reinstated him on his throne.
• Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local tribes.
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• He wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley, but he could not do so because
his soldiers refused to fight.
• Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired and they wanted to return home and Alexander could
not persuade them and therefore decided to return.
• Alexander made arrangements to look after his conquered territories in India and divided the whole
territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under his governors. H
• is retreat began in October 326 B.C. Many republican tribes attacked his army.
• On his way he reached Babylon where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.
Effects of Alexander’s invasion
• The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it encouraged political unification of north India
under the Mauryas.
• The system of small independent states came to an end.

E
• Alexander’s invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between India and Greece.
•

•
India and West Asia.
OR
The routes opened by him and his naval explorations increased the existing facilities for trade between

His authority in the Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of Mauryan Empire
under Chandragupta Maurya.
SC
GS
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MAURYAN EMPIRE
• The foundation of the Mauryan Empire opens a new era in the history of India and for the first time, the
political unity was achieved in India.
• The history writing has also become clear from this period due to accuracy in chronology and sources.
Besides plenty of indigenous and foreign literary sources, a number of epigraphical records are also
available to write the history of this period.

Literary Sources
A. Kautilya’s Arthasastra
• Arthasastra in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya

E
was also called ‘Indian Machiavelli’.
• The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered by R. ShamaSastri in 1904.
OR
– The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters but it can be divided into three parts: the first
deals with the king and his council and the departments of government;
– The second with civil and criminal law; and
– The third with diplomacy and war. It is the most important literary source for the history of the
SC

Mauryas.
B. Visakadatta’sMudrarakshasa
• The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit.
• Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of
GS

Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.

• It also gives a picture of the socio-economic condition under the Mauryas.
C. Megasthenes’ Indica
• Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
• Megasthenesbook Indica has survived only in fragments. Yet, Indica gives details about the Mauryan
administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of Pataliputra and also the military
organization.
• His picture on contemporary social life is notable.
D. Other Literature
• Apart from these three important works, the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide
information on the Mauryas.
• The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka in spreading
Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
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E. Archaeological Sources
• Among the archaeological sources of the Mauryan period, a considerable amount of numismatic (the
study of coins) evidence, some artifacts from archaeological excavations and art objects are avilable.
• A large number of silver and copper coins which are punch-marked are also available. These appear to
have been in circulation throughout the Mauryan period. These coins provide some knowledge of socio-
economic life of the Mauryan period. For example, Chandragupta was depicted standing with a Greek
queen in one of his coins which reveals friendly relations between Magadha and Greece.
• Remarkable inscriptions of Asoka engraved on rocks and pillars which notwithstanding the ravages of
time have supplied us with authoritative details of inestimable value. Asokan edicts were found not
only in the Indian sub-continent but also in Kandhar in Afghanistan.
• These inscriptions are in the form of 44 royal orders and each royal order has several copies. The
inscriptions were composed in the 2 Prakritlanguage and written in the Brahmi script (written from left
to right) throughout thereafter part of the empire.

E
• In the northwestern part, they appear in the Kharoshti script written from right to left and in Kandhar
in the Greek and Aramaic script.
• These inscriptions were generally placed on highways.
OR
• They throw light on the career of Asoka, his external and domestic policies and the extent of his
empire.
• Cunningham published Corpus . Inscriptions Indicarum in 1879, which is a series of collection of
SC
inscriptions bearing on the history of Maurya, post-Maurya and Gupta times.
• Gimar inscription of Rudradaman (150 AD) also offers some useful inputs into the provincial
administration of Gujarat under the Mauryas.
a) Epigraphy
The study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. It is referred to as ‘Lifeblood of history’.
GS

b) Palaeography
The study of old writings used in inscriptions and other old records is called palaeography.
c) Numismatics
• The study of coins is called numismatics.
• Largest number of punch-marked coins found under the Mauryas.
• Largest number of coins in general found in the Post-Mauryan period.
• Largest number of clay coins found under the Kushanas.
• Largest number of potin and lead coins found under the Satvahanas.
• Largest number of gold coins found under the Guptas.
POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS
Chandragupta Maurya (322 - 298 B.C.)
• Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta is called Sandrocottus by
the Greek scholars.
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• He captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of the

Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda.
• In this task he was assisted by Kautilya, who was
also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta.
• After firmly establishing his power in the Gangetic
valley, he marched to the northwest and subdued
the territories up to the Indus. Then he moved to
central India and occupied the region north of
Narmada river.
• In 305 B.C., he marched against SelukasNiketar,
who was Alexander’s General controlling the
northwestern India. Chandragupta Maurya
defeated him and a treaty was signed. By this
treaty, SelukasNiketar ceded the trans-Indus
territories - namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia

E
- to the Mauryan Empire. He also gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta
made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador.
OR
• Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour
of his son Bindusara. Then he went to SravanaBelgola, near Mysore along with Jain monks led by
Bhadrabhagu and starved himself to death.
Bindusara (298 - 273 B.C.)
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• Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies.

• He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to Mysore. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that
Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between the two seas.
• The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south. The MauryanEmpire
underBindusara extended up to Mysore.
GS

• Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I. Bindusara wrote to
Antiochus I asking for sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. The latter sent all but a sophist because the
Greek law prohibited sending a sophist.
• Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as the governor
of Ujjain.
Asoka the Great (273 - 232 B.C.)
• Asoka acted as Governor of Ujjain and also suppressed a revolt in Taxila during his father Bindusara’s
reign.
• There was an interval of four years between Asoka’s accession to the throne (273 B.C.) and his actual
coronation (269 B.C.). Therefore, it appears from the available evidence that there was a struggle for the
throne after Bindusara’s death.
• The Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured power after killing his
ninety-nine brothers including the his elder brother Susima. The youngest brotherTissa was spared.
• According to Taranatha of Tibet, Asoka killed only six of his brothers.
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• Asoka’s Edict also refers to his brothers acting as officers in his administration.
• The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C.
• Although there is no detail about the cause and course of the war, the effects of the war were described
by Asoka himself in the Rock edict XIII: “A hundred and fifty thousand were killed and many times that
number perished…” After the war he annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan Empire.
• Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence
of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.

E
OR
SC
GS

Approximate Dates of Mourya Dynasty

Emperor Reign start Reign end
Chandragupta Mourya 322 B.C.E 298 B.C.E.
Bindusara 297 B.C.E. 272 B.C.E.
Asoka The Great 273 B.C.E. 232 B.C.E.
Dasaratha 232 B.C.E. 224 B.C.E.
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 Samprati 224 B.C.E. 215 B.C.E.
Salisuka 215 B.C.E. 202 B.C.E.
Devavarman 202 B.C.E. 195 B.C.E.
Satadhanvan 195 B.C.E. 187 B.C.E.
Brihadratha 187 B.C.E. 185 B.C.E.

Extent of Asoka’s EmpireExtent of Asoka’s Empire

• Asoka’s inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms - Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras
as border states. Therefore, these states remained outside the Mauryan Empire.
• According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan Empire. Nepal was also within the
Mauryanempire. The northwestern frontier was already demarcated by Chandragupta Maurya.
Asoka and BuddhismAsoka and Buddhism
• Asoka appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma.
• In 241 B.C., he visited the birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu.
• He also visited other holy places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti and Kusinagara.
• He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted there the
branch of the original Bodhi tree.
• Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen the Sangha.
It was presided over by MoggaliputtaTissa.
Asoka’s DhammaAsoka’s Dhamma
• Although Asoka embraced Buddhism and took efforts to spread Buddhism, his policy of Dhamma was
a still broad concept. It was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and
practiced by the people at large.
• His principles of Dhamma were clearly stated in his Edicts.
• The main features of Asoka’s Dhamma as mentioned in his various Edicts may be summed as follows:
a) Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth, reverence to teachers and good treatment
of relatives.
b) Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding expensive and meaningless ceremonies
and rituals.
c) Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social welfare and maintenance of constant
contact with people through the system of Dhammayatras.
d) Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by government officials.
e) Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to relations and liberality to Brahmins.
f) Tolerance among all the religious sects.
g) Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.
• The concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of Asoka’s Dhamma are identical with the teachings
of Buddha.
• Asoka did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings.
• Asoka’sDhamma signifies a general code of conduct. Asoka wished that his Dhamma should spread
through all social levels.
The rock edicts which talk about dhamma are as follows.
• Major Rock Edict I declares prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday of fest gatherings.
• Major rock edict II relates to certain measures of social welfare which are included in the working of
dhamma. It mentionA medical treatment for men and ‘animals, construction of roads, wells, tree planting
etc.
• Major Rock Edict III declares that liberality towards Brahmanas and Sramanas is a virtue, respect to
mother and father, etc are all good qualities. Asoka refers Major Rock Edict III to anusamyana or ‘tour
of inspection’ which some categories of officials has to undertake one every five years for expounding
dhamma and for official work.
• Major Rock Edict IV is a very important statement of the policy dhamma. The edict comments that due
to the policy of dhamma, the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahmanas and Sramanas, violence,
unseemly behaviours to friends, relatives and others and evils of this kind have been checked. The killing
of animals to a large extent was also stopped.
• Major Rock Edict V refers to the appointment of dhamma-mahamattas for the first time in the twelfth
year of this reign. These special officers were appointed by the king to look after the interests of all sects
and religions and spread the message of dhamma in each nook and corner of the society. The implementaton
of the policy of. dhamma was entrusted in their hinds.
• Major Rock Edict VI is an instruction to dhamma-mahamattas. They are told that they. could bring their
reports to the king at any time, irrespective of whatever activity he may be engaged in. The second part
of the Edict deals with speedy administration and smooth transaction of business.
• Major Rock Edict VII is a plea for toleration amongst all the sects. It appears from the edict that tensions
among the sects were expressed intensely, pciliaps in open antagonism. The plea is part of the overall
strategy to maintain unity.
• Major Rock Edict VIII states that dhammayatras or tours would be undertaken by the emperor. The
earlier practice of the emperor of going out on hunting expeditions was given up. Dhammayatras enabled
the emperor to come into contact with various sections of people in the empire.
• Major Rock Edict IX attacks ceremonies performed after birth, illness, marriage and before setting out
for a journey. A censure is passed against ceremonies observed by wives and mothers. Asoka instead lays
stress on the practice of dhamma and uselessness of ceremonies.
• Major Ro-ck Edict Xtenounces fame and glory and re-asserts the merits of following the policy of
dhamma.
• Major Rock Edict XI is a further explanation of the policy of dhamma. Emphasis is on respect to elders,
abstaining from killing animals, and liberality towards friends.
• Asoka in rock Edict XII and many other edicts prescribes the following codes to be followed:
 (i) Obedience to mother and father, elders teachers and other respectable persons.
(ii) Respect towards teachers.
(iii) Proper treatment towards ascetics, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable,
friends, acquaintances, and companions.
(iv) Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives and the aged
(v) Abstention from killing of living beings.
(vii) Non-injury to all living creatures.
(vii) Spending little and accumulating little wealth.
(viii) Mildness in case of all living creatures.
(ix) Truthfulness.
(x) Attachment to morality.
(xi) Purity of heart.
• Major Rock Edict XII is again an appeal towards toleration among sects. This edict reflects the anxiety
the king felt due to the conflict between sects and carries his plea for harmony.
• Major Rock Edict XIII is of paramount importance in understanding the Asokan policy of dhamma. The
rock edict pleads for conquest by dhamma instead of war. This is a logical culmination of the thorough
processes which began from the first rock edict, and by conquest what is perhaps meant is the adaptation
of the policy of dhamma by a country, rather than its territorial control.
• Asoka was “the greatest of kings” surpassing Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar and other renowned
Emperors of the world.
• According to H.G. Wells “Amidst the tens and thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns
of history, the name of Asoka shines and shines almost alone, a star”.
• Asoka Dhamma is so universal that it appeals to humanity even today.
• He was an example in history for his benevolent administration and also for following the policy of non-
aggression even after his victory in the war. His central ideal was to promote the welfare of humanity.
• Later Mauryas Asoka’s death in 232 B.C. was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two
parts - western and eastern. The western part was ruled by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern part by
Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka.
• Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western part of the empire collapsed. The eastern part was intact under
Samprati successor of Dasaratha.
• The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by PushyamitraSunga.
Foreign RelationsForeign Relations
• The Asokan inscriptions are one of the main sources in this regard which mention contemporary rulers
in other parts of the world.
• The foreign relations of the Mauryas can be divided into distinct phases- the initial phase of the expansion
and the latter phase or the phase of consolidation.
• The initial phase was marked by an aggressive foreign policy and a policy of securing trade routes and
subjugating the Greek settlements in the north and north-west regions.The incorporation of central India
gave them control over Dakshinapatha and brought them into the peninsula. The initial phase of expansion
came to an end after the Kalinga war.
• During the second phase, the emphasis shifted to consolidation and having friendly relations with immediate
neighbours and also with far off countries. Asoka was the main proponent of such a policy and he was
probably influenced by diplomatic requirements. geographical proximity and trade needs.
• In Rock Edict XIII Asoka has referred to five contemporary rulers.
1. Antiyoka (Antiochus II of Syria);
2. Turmaya (Ptolemy II philadelphus of Egypt);
3. Antikini (Antigonas of Macedonia);
4. Maka (Magas of Cyrene), and
5. Aliksudaro (Alexander of Epirus).
• The reference to these rulers is in the context of dhammavijata (victory by dhamma) indicating that
missions were sent to these rulers with the message of dhamma.
• These missions successfully established friendly contact for the Edict mentions that the greatest victory,
i.e., victory.by dhamma had been achieved in these regions.
• The relations of the Mauryas with the powers in the south have been cordial.
• No Asokan inscriptions have been discovered so far in the regions ruled by the Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras
and Satyaputras- the major independent powers in the south.
• Rock Edict XIII mentions about dhammaiVuya in these regions as well.
• Sri Lanka remained another friendly neighbour again due to the policy of dhamma.
History

MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
Central Government
• Indian ‘history entered a new era with the beginning of the Mauryanempire as, for the first time India
attained political unity and administrative uniformity.
• After establishing the empire, the Mauryasorganised a very elaborate system of administration. Megasthenes
has left detailed accounts of the system of government under Chandragupta. His account can be
supplemented by that of Kautilya.
• With the increase in the size and administrative needs of the state from a small tribal state to a territorial
empire, there was a corresponding increase in the powers of the king.
• The king emerged as the supreme head of the state military, judicial, executive and legislative functions.
• The concept of law as the legal expression of socio-economic and political rules, customs was made
subordinate to the concept of royal decree, having an independent validity of its own.
• The existing theories on statecraft and kingship were implemented by Chandragupta into a pattern of
highly centralised administration for the vast empire.
• The other six elements of state, as mentioned in the Arthashastra of Kautilya are, amatya or bureaucracy,
anapada or territory, durga or the fortified capital, kasha or the treasury, danda or the coercive machinery
and mitra or the allied powers.
• The necessity to share the king’s authority was some kind of check on him. Kautilya says that “the king
shall employ minister (mantrin) and also a council of ministers (mantriparishad).” He says “all kinds of
administrative measures are presided by deliberations in a well formed council.”
• Megasthenes also says that the king was assisted by a council whose members were noted for wisdom.

Important Officials in Mauryan Central Administration

• Bhandagaradhikreta Head of the royal treasury
• Cahapaksha-Patalik Head of the account department
• Dandapashika Head of the Police department
• Khadyakpakika Inspector of royal kitchen
• Mahadandanayak Chief Justice
• Mahamahipilapati Controller and executor of elephantry
• Mahanarpati Head of foot soldiers (infantry)
• Mahapratihar An official to maintain the royal palace
• Mahasandivigrahak An official for post-war conciliation
• Mahaswapati Controller or cavalry
• Manabaladhikritas Commander-in-chief
• Ranabhandagarika Inspector for the all-central departments
• Sarvadhyaksha Official to present different guests at king's court
Revenue Department
• Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all revenues of the
empire.
• The revenues came from land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures, license
fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts.
• The land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce.
• The main items of expenditure of the state were related to king and his household, army, government
servants, public works, poor relief, religion, etc.
Army
• The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of Senapati.
• According to Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry, thirty thousand cavalry,
nine thousand elephants and eight thousand chariots.
• The salaries were paid in cash. It seems that the six wings of the armed forces the army, the cavalry, the
elephants, the chariots, the navy and the transport, were each assigned to the care of a separate committee.
• Each wing was under the control of Adyakshas or Superintendents. Megasthenes mentions six boards of
five members each to control the six wings of the military.
Department of Commerce and Industry
• This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady
supply through its officers called Adyakshas.
• It also controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade.
Judicial and Police Departments
• The king was at the head of the judicial administration and constituted the highest appellate court in the
realm.
• In villages and towns, cases were settled by the gramavradha and nagaravyavaharikamahamatra respectively.
• Rajukas were equal to modern district magistrates.
• Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts- - dharmasthiya and kantakashadhana.
• The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was called Dharmathikarin.
• There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas.
• Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were given to the
offenders.
• Torture was employed to extract truth. Police stations were found in all principal centres.
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• Both Kautilya and Asokan Edicts mention about jails and jail officials.
• The DhammaMahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust imprisonment.
• Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s inscriptions.
Census
• The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period.
• The village officials were to number the people along with other details like their caste and occupation.
They were also to count the animals in each house.
• The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to track the movement of population both
foreign and indigenous.
• The data collected were cross checked by the spies.
• The Census appears to be a permanent institution in the Mauryan administration.
Provincial and Local Administration
•

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The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and
Kalinga.
OR
• The provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of royal family and were responsible
for the maintenance of law and order and collection of taxes for the empire.
• The district administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position and functions are similar to
modern collectors. He was assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials.
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• Village administration was in the hands of Gramani and his official superior was called Gopa who was
in charge of ten or fifteen villages.
Province
i. Kumara (Governors, title given to sons of kings).
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ii. Aryaputra (Governors, title given to persons of royal blood, usually king’s ralatives).
District
i. Pradesikes (head of the district, looked after law & order and revenue collection).
ii. Raj juka (looked after rural administration and justice).
Group of Village
i. Sthanika (looked after tax collection).
ii. Gramika (village headman).
• Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of Municipal administration.
• Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to
maintain law and order.
• Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members each to look after the administration of
Pataliputra.
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• These committees looked after:

1. Industries
2. Foreigners
3. Registration of birth and deaths
4. Trade
5. Manufacture and sale of goods
6. Collection of sales tax.

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OR
SC
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MAURYAN ECONOMY
• The Mauryan economy was an expanding economy and the state took a keen interest in consolidating and
promoting its economic gains.
• State not only controlled and coordinated the activities of the peasant manufacturers and traders, but also
directly participated in the production and exchange of different commodities.
• The state, in fact, very strictly regulated the economic activities of the state.
• The economy of northern India during the Mauryan times was predominantly agrarian.
• There were two distinct categories of land:

E
– Rastra land, practically belonging to the cultivator and
– Sita land, settled as well as formed directly under crown supervision.
OR
• Taxes on the former type of land were one Sixth of the harvest.
• In addition water tax was levied.
• The peasants also paid pindakara, which was collected from villages as group.
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• The village folk were required to supply provisions to the royal army, called senabhakta, passing through
their areas.
• Some of the villages were marked for performing drudgery for the state in lieu of taxes.
• Some villages, with pastoral bases, paid taxes in the form of cattle and dairy products.
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• The Mauryan government also provided irrigation facilities to the peasantry.

• The Arthashatra refers to a water tax which was regularly collected wherever the state assisted in providing
irrigation.
• One of Chandragupta’s governers, Pushyagupta was responsible for building a dam across a river near
Girnar in western India, resulting in a famous Sudarshan lake to supply water for irrigation.
• Cattle breeding in the peasant society had become an adjunct of agriculture, but there were still certain
pockets which pursued pastoral economy. Herds were maintained not only by the state but also by wealthy
individuals.
• Fishing and hunting were practiced as a means to livelihood especially by the tribes and the practitioners
of these occupations had to pay one-tenth of their catch to the royal storehouse.
• Asoka stopped the indiscriminate killing of animals and introduced many measures for the welfare of
people who practiced it.
• Under the Mauryas, the most important industry was that of mining and metallurgy and the state had a
monopoly over it and state controlled everything from processing to refining.
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• The major metals mentioned as being under state control included gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, bitumen
and lead.
• The state sold out most of these metals to the traders, the artisans, the gold smiths and the individual
manufacturers.
• But the state had the monopoly to manufacture arms, certain type of implements and ships. The craftsmen
who were employed for this purpose were given wages.
• The state also had a monopoly in the production of salt.
• Some of the other important industries of the period were textile manufacturing, carpentry, pottery, stone-
cutting, lapidary, work in ivory and bone.
• Textile industry had reached a high level of specialisation and we get reference to fine cotton clothes,
woolen blankets and linen dukala fabrics. Mathura, Kalinga, Vanga, Vatsa and Mahisa were important
centres of textile manufacturing.

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OR
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Notes

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MAURYAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

• The Mauryans constituted a notable epoch in the field of art and architecture and broke new ground by
using stone and other durable raw material for architecture and sculpture.
• Some references to large walls at Rajgriha belonging to the 6th century B.C., have been found, but they
are in the nature of an exceptil.
• In the early Buddhist texts, there are many references to different types of buildings of the Mauryan
period but unfortunately none of them has survived. The latest artistic record of the Mauryan period are
the Asokan inscriptions.
• The archeological evidence suggest that in the pre - Mauryan Period, Indian architects worked in wood but
during the Mauryan period they started experimenting with rock-cut architecture.

E
• The remains of the palace at Pataliputra (modern Patna) which were discovered first in 1914-15 and then
again in 1951 are very fragmentary, but they definitely indicate the presence of a lame pillared hall as a
OR
part of a large building complexes.
• The floor and the roof of the hall were made of timber. The round and tapering pillared halls were made
of chunar sandstone.
• The similarities between this palace at Pataliputra and the Achemenian palaces at Persia are too close,
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however, the rise of timber for the construction of floor and roof was totally indigenous tradition.
• Both Magasthenes and FaHsien have praised the beauty of this palace.
• The rock cut architecture and stupa architecture also started with the Mauryans.
• The earliest specimens of the rock cut architecture of the Mauryan period are the three caves found at
Barabar cut out of hard granite. These are Rama Choupara, Sudama, and Visvajhopri.
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• The most important from architectural point of view is Sudama. It has several Chambers. The outer
chamber is rectangular with a vaulted roof while the inner chambers are circular with a hemispherical
domed roof.
• The caves in Nagarjuna hills were carved out on the same pattern. The best among these is the Gopika
cave. All these caves are worked by the typical Mauryan architectural characteristics of a bright polish
shining from their roof as well as walls.
The Architecture of Mauryans included:
Pillars
• The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars.
• Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions engraved on them.
• The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc. All
the capital figures are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated
with stylised lotuses.
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• Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were found at Basarah-Bakhira, LauriyaNandangarh,
Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath.
• The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion Capital is the finest example
of Mauryan sculptural tradition. It is also our national emblem.
The Achemenian pillars are to some extent similar to these pillars but on deep observation major difference
can be found between them such as:
– TheAchemenian pillars are made of separate pieces of stone while the Mauryan Pillars are monolithic.
– Achemenian pillars have a base while the Mauryan pillars have no ground base.
– The symbolism in the Mauryan capital is purely Indian and the lustrous polish is a Mauryanspeciality.
Stupas
• The Buddhist Stupas were built at places where Buddha’s remains were preserved and at the major sites
where important events in Buddha’s life took place.

E
• Stupas were built of huge mounds of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks.
•

•
OR
One was built at his birthplace Lumbini; the second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under the
Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where he gave his first sermon and the fourth at Kushinagar where he
passed away attaining Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty.
Originally the stupa was made of bricks and surrounded by a wooden railing. The existing stupa at Sanchi
encloses the original stupa and has been enlarged and enclosed within the stone railing or balustrade, when
SC
stone was adopted in the place of wood.
GS

Famous stupas Place

BharhutStupa Satna district of Madhya Pradesh,
SanchiStupa Sanchi town of Madhya Pradesh
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Amravati stupa Andhra Pradesh

DhamekStupa (Sarnath) Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
Shanti Stupa Dhaulagiri
Stupa at Nagarjunakonda Andhra Pradesh
Mahabodhi Stupa Bodh Gaya

Rock-cut Architecture
• Ashoka’s reign saw the firm establishment of the rock-cut architecture for the monks to live in.
• These caves also served the purpose of assembly halls. They were built by cutting the hard & refractory
rocks.
• It consisted of Chaitya (prayer hall) and Vihara (monastery)
· The internal walls of the caves were polished so nicaly that they looked like mirrors.

E
• Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves are the two notable hermitages, each consisting of a circular cell with a
hemispherical domed roof attached to a barrel-vaulted ante­room with side entrances.
OR
• The series of rock-cut sanctuaries in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills, near Gaya in Bihar, contain a number
of inscriptions which show that they were donated for the habitation of certain Ajivika ascetics, perhaps
followers of the Jain religion
Sculpture
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• Monumental images of Yaksha, Yakhinis and animals formed the part of sculpture in Mauryan Period.
• Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. Yaksha
refer to the nature-spirits, usually benevolent also known as fertility spirits. A yakshini is the female
counterpart of the male Yaksha.
• These monumental images are mostly in the standing position. One of the distinguishing elements in all
GS

these images is their polished surface. The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks and
physiognomic detail.
• The image has a polished
surface. Terracotta figurines
show a very different
delineation of the body as
compared to the sculptures.
• Another example of
sculpture is The rock cut
sculpture of Elephant in
Dhauli, near Bhubneshwar
in Odisha represents the
fore-part of an elephant
carved over the Edicts of
Aœoka.
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Mauryan art and architecture develops some indigenous character but it cannot be neglected that the Mauryan
period may have been influenced by trade and cultural relations with Iran and the Graeco-Roman world. In
such a situation it was quite natural that the more developed artistic and architectural touching of Iran and the

E
Roman world would have flowed towards India and was absorbed and assimilated by the people. However, the
Mauryan art was a parenthesis in the development of the indigenous art of India.

OR
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POST-MAURYAN INDIA
• With the downfall of the Mauryan Empire, the political disintegration of India set in and in second
century BC the sub-continent divided into a number of political regions, each with its own ambition.
• The northwest India slipped out of the control of the Mauryas and a series of foreign invasions affected
this region.
• Kalinga declared its independence and in the further south, the Satavahanas established their independent
rule.
• The Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic valley and it was soon replaced by the Sunga dynasty.
• For the period immediately succeeding the overthrow of the Mauryas, scraps of information are found in
texts such as the GargiSamhita, the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, the Divyavadana, the Malavikagnimitra of

E
Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana.
SUNGAS
OR
• The founder of the Sunga dynasty was PushyamitraSunga, who was the commander-in-chief under the
Mauryas. He assassinated the last Mauryan ruler and usurped the throne.
• The most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect north India against the invasions of the
Bactrian Greeks from the northwest who advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for some time.
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• Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining the lost territory.

• Pushyamitra also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who invaded north India.
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• Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two asvamedha sacrifices.

• Buddhist sources refer him as a persecutor of Buddhism, but there is enough evidence to show that
Pushyamitrapatronised Buddhist art.
• During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved.
• After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler.
• The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister VasudevaKanva, the founder of
the Kanva dynasty.
• The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magatha was a blank
until the establishment of the Gupta dynasty.
• The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic valley from foreign invasions.
• In the cultural sphere, the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice.

E
• They also promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language.
• It can be assumed that the Sunga rule was a brilliant anticipation of the golden age of the Guptas.

OR
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SATAVAHANAS
• In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryas and
their rule lasted for about 450 years.
• They were also known as the Andhras.
• The Puranas and inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahanas.
• Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra
Satakarni.
• The coins issued by the Satavahanas are also helpful in knowing the economic conditions of that period.
• The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka and was succeeded by Krishna, who extended the

E
kingdom up to Nasik in the west.
• The third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered western Malwa and Berar. He also performed asvamedha
OR
sacrifices.
• The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala
became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit language.
• The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He ruled for a period of 24
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years from 106 to 130 A.D. His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother
Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan and expanded his empire. His
victory over Nagapana, the ruler of Malwa was remarkable. He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave
donations to Buddhists.
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• Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana
power up to the mouth of the Krishna river. He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed.
They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas.
• The last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri Satakarni.
Administration
• Administration under the Satavahanas was much simpler than under the Mauryas.
• Inscriptions refer to ministers who were in charge of various functions. Among other things, they served
as treasury officers and maintained land records. The exact number of ministers is not known.
• These ministers were appointed directly by the king and the post of a minister does not seem to have been
hereditary. They were perhaps paid in money from the revenue collected by the state.
• The state collected taxes both from agriculture and trade.

E
• An important beginning under the Satavahanas in the first century AD was the donation of revenue of
a village to either a Brahmana or the Buddhist sangha, which became much more widespread under the

OR
Gupta rulers.
• The importance of land revenue for the king can be judged from the elaborate procedure that was used
to record donations of land. These donations were first proclaimed in an assembly or nigama-sabha. It was
then written down either on a copper-plate or cloth by an officer or minister and thus, detailed account
of these donations were maintained.
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• The social structure of the Deccan under the Satavahanas shows many features which are different from
those prescribed in the Sanskrit texts such as the Manurmriti.
• Many inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers mention the names of their mothers rather than those of their
fathers, such as Gautamiputra Satakarni or Satakarni, son of Gautami. This is not in keeping with the
Dharmasastras which state that in the approved forms of marriage, the bride acquires the gotra of her
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husband and loses that of the father.

• In the inscriptions the Satavahanas refer to themselves as unique Brahmanas who crushed the pride of the
Kshatriyas (according to the Brahmanical texts it was only the Kshatriyas who had the right to rule).
• The inscriptions are also useful as they record donations by a cross-section of the population and from
this the prosperity of certain sections of the society can be judged.
• Traders and merchants figure prominently as donors, but also important are blacksmiths, gardeners and
fishermen.
• The artisans and craftsmen benefited from the increased long-distance trade.
• The artisans mention their occupations with their names and not their castes.
• Buddhist texts of the period prescribe a somewhat different division of society as compared to the
Brahmanical texts. Here, the distinction was based on work and craft and in most case people were known
by their occupations rather than their castes.
• Another important development of the period was the frequent mention of the yavanas or foreigners as
the donors.
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• The terms yavana originally denoted an Ionian Greek, but around the Christian era it was used
indiscriminately for any foreigner.
• Many of the yavanas adopted Prakrit names and made donations to Buddhist monasteries.
• Women frequently made gifts either on their own or sometimes with their husbands or sons.
• One of the Satavahana queens named Nayanika also performed Vedic sacrifices and made large donations
to the Brahmana and Buddhist monks.
• It is clear from various sources that the society was not governed by rules laid down by the Brahmanical
texts and Buddhist traditions might have had some sway on society.
• Gradually, the influence and membership of the Buddhist sangha increased.
• The Satavahana kings donated large sums of money and land to the Buddhist monasteries and this added
to the wealth of the sangha.
• It is also at this time that references to donations made by Buddhist monks and nuns themselves are
found.

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Economic Condition
OR
• There was a remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants
organized guilds to increase their activities.
• The craft guilds organized by different craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into
existence.
SC

• Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.

• The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity.
• Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan.
• The greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan.
GS

• Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
Cultural Contributions
• The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism and built chaityas and viharas.
• The Satavahanas also made grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks.
• Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
• Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya
sacrifices.
• The Satavahanas also patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an excellent piece
of Prakrit literature.
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FOREIGN INVASIONS FROM NORTHWEST INDIA

Bactrians
• Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian empire in the middle of the third century B.C.
Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them.
• From Taxila, Demetrius sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and Menander for further conquests.
• Appolodotus conquered the Sindh and marched up to Ujjain.
• Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there he made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But
he was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra.

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• Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot). He evinced
much interest in Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was compiled in the Pali

• OR
work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda). He also embraced Buddhism.
A Greek ambassador Heliodorus became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar. The
Greek influence in India lasted for more than a century after the death Menander.
Sakas
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• The Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greek rulers.
• Following the footsteps of the Greeks, the Sakas gradually extended their rule over northwestern India.
• There were two different groups of Sakas the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps
ruling over Maharashtra.
GS

• The founder the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C. was Maues.
• Son and successor of Maueswas Azes I, who was considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era.
• Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians.
The Kushanas
• The Kushanas succeeded the Parthians in the extreme north- west and spread themselves in successive
stages in the regions of northern India.
• The Kushanas are also referred to as Yueh-chis or Tocharians.
• The Kushanasbelonged to one of the five clans’of the Yueh-chi nomadic tribe living in the vicinity of
China.
• The Kushanaswere responsible for ousting the Sakas in Bactria and also the Parthians in the Gandhara
region.
• The Kushanas first consolidated their territories beyond the Indian border on the north- west frontier and
gradually, their authority in India expanded and came to extend to over the lower Indus basin and most
of the Gangetic plain down to Varanasi.
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• Like the Sakas and Pahlawas, the Kushanastoo are mentioned in Epic, Puranic and other lilterature.
• The Kushana rule is particularly significant because under them, civilisations of the Mediterranean world,
Western Asia, Central Asia, China and India got assimilated.
• The coins, inscriptions and other sources provide evidence about two successive dynasties of the Kushanas.
• The first line was started by KujulaKadphises in 45, who is believed to have united the five tribes of the
Yueh-chi and made successful inroads into India, establishing himself in Kabul and Kashmir.
• KujulaKadphises minted different types of coins in copper and one type of his coins has a Roman-style
male bust on it. Kujula
• Kadphises was succeeded by VimaKadphises who introduced a new phase of coinage in India.
• The practice of issuing gold coins by Indian rulers regularly started with VimaKadphises who minted
different types of gold coins which broadly followed the weight system of Roman gold coins.

E
OR
SC
GS
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Kanishka
• The Kadphises rulers were succeeded by Kanishka.
• The relationship between the first two kings (Kadphises) and Kanishka is shrouded in mystery, but it is
for sure that he too was of central Asian origin, although he may not have teen directly related to the first
two kings.
• Kanishka is the most popular Kushana ruler, particularly because of his association with Buddhism. The
Kushanas reached the zenith of their power under Kanishka.
• The accession of Kanishka to the throne has been dated to 78 AD which is popularly known as the Saka
era.
• This period is historically significant for general cultural development in northern India as well as the
intermingling of peoples of different geographical regions.
• The first capital of Kanishka was at Purushapura near modern Peshawar, where he erected a monastery’

E
and a huge stupa. Mathura appears to have been the second capital.
• The successors of Kanishka continued to rule for over a century, but Kushana power gradually declined.
•
•
OR
Some of the rulers used very Indian names such as Vasudeva.
The Kushanaempire in Afghanistan and in the region west of the Indus was superseded in the mid-third
century AD by the Sassanian power which began in Iran.
• Peshwar and Taxila were lost to the Sassanians and the Kushanas were reduced to the position of subordinates
SC
of these rulers.
Kanishka’s Conquests
• At the time of his accession his empire included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and Punjab.
• Subsequently Kanishka conquered Magadha and extended his power as far as Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya.
GS

• According to Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and occupied it.

• Kanishka coins are found in many places like Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and Benares and therefore, he
must have conquered the greater part of the Gangetic plain.
• Kanishka also fought against the Chinese and acquired some territories from them.
• During the first expedition Kanishka was defeated by the Chinese general Pancho. Kanishka undertook a
second expedition in which he was successful and he scored a victory over Panyang, the son of Pancho.
• Kanishka annexed the territories of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan into his empire.
• The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and
from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in the south.
• His capital was Purushapura or modern day Peshawar. Mathura was another important city in his empire
Kanishka and Buddhism
• Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign.
• However, Kanishka’s coins exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. It
reflects the Kanishka’s toleration towards other religions.
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• In the age of Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue. It is different in many respects from
the religion taught by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka. The Buddha came to be worshipped with
flowers, garments, perfumes and lamps. Thus image worship and rituals developed in Mahayana Buddhism.
Kanishka was also a patron of art and Sanskrit literature.
• Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the propagation of the new faith. Buddhist
chaityas and viharas were built in different places.
• Kanishkapatronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna.
• Kanishka also convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and
doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the presidentship of
Vasumitra. About 500 monks attended the Council.
• The Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was
given final shape.
• Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist. He was the author of Buddhacharita.

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• Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka.
• The famous physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by Kanishka.
OR
Trade and Urbanisations
• The process of urbanization which began in the pre-Mauryan period (came to be known as the “second
urbanisation”) got accelerated in the post-Mauryan period.
SC

• The number of cities increased and these now combined with political and commercial functions.
• There was a greater use of brick, both for residential structures as well as for fortifications and public
buildings.
• It is also at this time that imposing religious monuments were built and embellished.
• Similary, trade activities were carried out primarily in essential commodities such as salt, metals, etc. The
GS

early trade routes gained more importance.

• There were many reasons for this increase:
– Firstly, agriculture was now generating enough surplus. It had created such social classes which required
varieties of items that could be acquired only through trade. Agricultural produce was itself now an
item of trade because the majority of people living in cities did not produce their own food.
– Secondly, both Buddhism and Jainism which had a large following by now encouraged the accumulation
and reinvestment of wealth and trade was one of the occupations held in high regard. Hence, a close
relationship between the traders and the Buddhist sangha and Buddhist monastic establishments located
at important points along trade routes is found.
– Thirdly, the expansion of urban centres meant that there was a growing class of qonsumers for subsistence
as well as luxury goods.
• Together with these internal factors there was an increased demand from outside for various Indian goods.
Two major empires that arose at this time were the Roman Empire in the west and the later Han empire
in China.
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• Within the Roman empire there was greater demand for products of the east such as spices, aromatic
woods, etc.
• Similarly the rulers of the later Han empire adopted an encouraging approach towards merchants and this
resulted in an acceleration of contacts between India, Central Asia and China.
• A large number of inscriptions have been found at Buddhist sites all over the country. These inscriptions
record donations and gifts made to the Buddhist sangha but at the same time, they also indicate the
prosperity of certain professions and occupational groups.
• Traders were organised into guilds; others traded with their own money; while still others were only
financiers and provided the money to trade with.
• The terms used for these different type of merchants also varied. A vanik was primarily a general trader,
while a sethi was a financier and a sarthavaha was a leader of a caravan which transported good over long
distances.
• A good indicator of trade transactions is the coinage system. In the Mauryan period, silver punch-marked

E
coins were in use together with uninscribed cast copper coins. In the post-Mauryan period, the variety,
number and types of coins being minted increased rapidly.
•
• OR
Inscriptions were introduced on coins and the technique of minting coins showed great improvement.
The Indo-Greek kings in the north- west introduced a splendid series of portrait-coinage-a type that was
followed in India for several centuries.
• These coins in silver and copper carried bilingual inscriptions, written on one side in the Greek language
SC
and script and on the other in Prakrit and generally in Kharosti script.
• In west India, the coins of the Kshatrapas are important because these show the earliest use of the Saka
era which henceforth, provides a firm basis for dating. Another remarkable coin series of the early
centuries AD is that of the Kushanas.
• In addition to those in copper, the Kushanas minted a large number of gold coins and these depict a
GS

variety of Indian, Greek and Iranian deities.

• This abundance of coin types and coinage systems indicates the extensive use of money.
• Together with the indigenous coins, foreign coins, especially Roman coins also came into the country by
way of trade.
• Very few Roman coins have been found in the north, though imitations of these in clay known as ‘bullae’
occur widely at the excavated sites.
External Trade
• Maritime trade started in India during the Mauryan period and the early links flourished and expanded in
the early centuries of the Christian era.
• One reasons for this was the demand from the two major empires that arose at the beginning of the
Christian era. In the west was the mighty Roman empire while in the east, was the Han empire in China.
Information about the period is thus available in many foreign sources.
• One of the works that tells a great deal about early maritime trade is the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
This Greek text was written by an anonymous sailor in the first century and contains an account of the
ports that he visited during his. travels between the Red Sea and India.
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• The two major ports to which trade goods were sent from the centres of north India were those of
Barbarikon at the mouth of the Indus and Bharuch at the mouth of the Narmada.
• The Indus connected Barbarikon with Punjab and Gandhara. Bharuch or Barygaza as the Greeks called
it was linked to Ujjain, Mathura and the Ganga plains. In the east, Tamluk was an important outlet for
coastal trade with Andhra and Tamil coasts.
• The Periplus tells us that the imports in the north included brocades, coral, frankincense, glass vessels,
money and some wine.
• The Romans were famous for the technological improvements that they made in the manufacture of glass.
As a result, the different varieties of glass objects made by them were highly valued in many countries
including India and China.
• Grankincense, a gum-resin produced by a tree indigenous to Arabia. It was used as an incense and also
for medicinal purposes.
• So far, very few gold and silver Roman coins have been found in north India, although, as you will read
in the next block, a large number of them have been found in peninsular India. This led some scholars

E
to suggest that these imported coins were melted and re-used by the Kushanas and the Kshatrapas to mint
their own currency.
OR
• In exchange for these, the exports from India were spices, precious stones like turquoise, lapis lazuli and
carnelian and Chinese silk and yarn.
• The reason for Chinese silk traded through India rather than being sent directly was the political situation.
The Parthians were powerful rulers along the north- western boundary of the Indian subcontinent. There
was constant hostility between them and the Roman Empire and as a result, overland routes between
SC

China and the west were disrupted. Many of the products from China were hence traded along the land
route to India.
• Information about early contacts between India, central Asia and China is to be found in Chinese histories
written at this time.
• It is generally accepted that together with merchants, Buddhism also spread to central Asia and China
GS

around the first century first century A.D. A series of Buddhist caves were made along the northern route
to central Asia from the first century AD onwards and from the third century AD many Buddhist texts
were translated into Chinese.
• Bactria in the Oxtri valley in north Afghanistan was the main centre for international trade with central
Asia and China. From this city, a route ran through Kapisa and the Kabul valley to the core region of
the Kushanaempire.
• Within the Indian sub-continent, there were two major routes mentioned in the different sources. The
uttarapatha or northern route connected the major centres of the north while the Dakshinapatha linked
the centres of peninsular India.
• The uttarapatha originated at Pushkalavati or modern Charsada and went via Taxila, Mathura, Kausambi
and Varanasi to Pataliputra and from there onwards to Champa and Chandraketugarh. This ancient route
was already in existence under the Mauryas and references to it occur in Greek writings.
• From Mathura, another route branched off westward to Sindh and Awes along this route that horses were
brought to the north.
• Mathura was also connected to Ujjain and the port of Bharuch at the mouth of the Narmada.
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• A third route ran to the river Indus and connected Taxila to Patiala at the mouth of the river.
• The major route followed the channel of the Ganges and there are many references to the transportation
of commodities by boat along the river. This major route was linked to several minor routes, one of them
going past Vaisali and Sravasti to Nepal.
Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule
• The successors of Kanishka ruled for another one hundred and fifty years.
• Huvishka was the son of Kanishka and he kept the empire intact.
• Mathura became an important city under his rule. Like Kanishka he was also a patron of Buddhism.
• The last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushanaempire was very much reduced in his rule.
Most of his inscriptions are found in and around Mathura. Vasudeva wasworshipper of Siva.
• After Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for sometime in northwestern India and later the rule declined
by the rise of the Gupta empire.

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OR
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CULTURE AND ART

CONTRIBUTION OF SUNGAS
• The period saw a flowering of the visual arts, including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and
architectural monuments such as the chaitya hall at Bhaja, the stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great
Stupa at Sanchi.
• Under Shunga patronage, the core of the Great Stupa, thought to date from the era of the Mauryan
emperor Ashoka (273-232 B.C.), was enlarged to its present diameter of 120 feet, covered with a stone
casing, topped with a balcony and umbrella, and encircled with a stone railing.
• Four famous gateways, each about thirty-five feet high, were carved during the first half of the first
century A.D. Decorated with images of auspicious fertility spirits, known as yakshas and yakshis, the

E
gateways also feature narratives depicting moments from the past lives and final existence of Siddhartha
Gautama, the founder of Buddhism.
OR
• Motifs such as wheels, thrones, and footprints are used to symbolize the Buddha, who is not represented
in human form until later.
CONTRIBUTION OF SATVAHANAS
• The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism and built chaityas and viharas. They also made
SC

grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks.

• Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
• Their architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also notable.
• Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya
sacrifices.
GS

Some of the prominent stupas of the period are as follows:

• Bodha Gaya (Bihar): Fifteen kms. from Gaya is the site where Lord Buddha gained 'knowledge' under
bodhi tree and it was here that Asoka constructed a bodhi-manda'.
• Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh): Sanchi is about.4 kms. from Vidisa (Bhilsa) and is perhaps the most
famous stupa site in India. It has three stupas all with gateways around them. But the most famous
Great Stupa was originally made of brick in Asoka's time (around 250 Bc).
During the Sunga period in 150 BC this was on nearly doubled in circumference. The bricks of Asokan
times were replaced by stones, and a `vedika' was also constructed around it. Four gates, one in each
direction, were added to beautify it.
• Bharhut Stupa
This stupa is located 21 kms. south of Satna in Madhya Pradesh but the main stupa structure no longer
exists.
The important features of this stupa structures are: gateways or toranas which are imitations in stone
of wooden gateways; railings spreading out from the gateways.
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They also are imitation, in stone, of post and rail fence, but the stone railings of Bharhut have a heavy
stone border (coping) on top.
Uprights or posts of these railings have carvings of yakshas, yakshinis and other divinities who come
to be associated with Buddhism.
• Amaravati Stupa
It is located 46 kms. from Guntoor and the stupa here was built with white marble.
Though the stupa itself has completely disappeared, its sculptured panels have been preserved in
Madras (now Chennai) and British museums.
The stupa was primarily built was the help of the city-chief and the donations from the public.
This magnificant stupa was 42 m. in diameter and its height was about 29 m.
It contained a circular prayer path which was 10 in. high and was made of stone.

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Vedika pillars had beautiful carvings of garlanded gods, and bodhi-tree, stupa, dharmachakra and the
events from the life of Lord Buddha and stories from the Jatakas.
• Nagarjunakonda Stupa
OR
The Nagarjunakonda stupa was built in a style different from that of north India.
Here two circular walls, one at the hub and the other at the outer end, were joined by spoke- like wall
SC
and the intervening space was filled with mud or small stones or pieces of bricks.
The diameter of the stupa was 30m. and the height was 18m.
The importance of this stupa is because of the beautiful panels which illustrate episodes from the life
of the Buddha.
The most important scenes are: gods praying to Boddhisthva to take birth on the earth; Buddha's entry
GS

into womb in the form of a white elephant; and birth of the Buddha under a flowering, teak tree, etc.
Similarly, a number of stupas have been found in many parts of the country. For example, two stupas
were found in Mathura. In fact, this was a period when stupa architecture developed into particular
styles and the presence of similar features in stupas of various regions suggests the mobility of and
interaction between artisans who built the stupas and beautiful works of art associated with the stupas.
SCULPTURAL ART DURING KUSHAN KINGS
Under the patronage of the Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan kings emerged a distinct style of sculpture,
popularly known as the Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art and Mathura Art.
Gandhara Art
• It was a combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements. Greek and Roman techniques,
modified according to Indian requirements, were employed in fashioning the Gandhara sculpture which
truly represents Indian culture in a Western garb.
• Its area extended from Takshila in India to the Swat Valley in Pakistan and northwards to areas in
Afghanistan.
• The Gandhara sculptors made images of Lord Buddha in the Greco-Roman style. The images of Buddha
resembled Greek God Apollo. It gave more stress to the bodily features and external beauty.
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• In all the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand gestures and this is
a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures are as follows:
a) Abahayamudra : Don't fear
b) Dhyanamudra : meditation
c) Dharmachakramudra: a preaching mudra
d) Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth.
Mathura Art
• Mathura School of art is purely indigenous style. Mathura art developed during post Maurya peiod (mainly
during Shunga period) and reached its peak during the Gupta period (AD 325 to 600).
• The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art production site whereas Sarnathand Kosambi also
emerged as important centres of art production. Spotted red sandstonehas been used in this school.
• Themes in the Mathura Art vary from Buddhist to Brahmanical to sometimes secular. More stress was

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given to the inner beauty and facial emotions rather than bodily gesture.
• Under the Mathura Art images of Vishnu and Shiva, Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite
OR
deities were found.
• In these sculptures, Buddha was depicted as Human and the main theme was Buddha and Bodhisattavas.
Both sitting and standing posture of Buddha's statues were carved out in the Mathura school.
• The art of Mathura also featured sexual imagery.
SC

• The characteristics of the idol of the Buddha are:

(a) Buddha sitting under a Bodhi tree with right hand in Abhaya posture,
(b) Dharma Chakra and Triratna chiselled in palms and at the bottom of the feet, and
(c) Except for one lock, the entire head is shaven.
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The Amravati School of Art

• The Amravati school of Art evolved during Satavahna period.
• This school of art developed at Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna River in modern Andhra Pradesh.
• This school of art had great influence on art in Sri Lanka and South-East Asia as products from here were
carried to those countries.
• It is Completely indigenous in nature
• Lord Buddha is depicted in the form of `Swastika` mark. This has been carved out onthe cushioned seat
over a throne that is situated under the Bodhi tree.
• They used white sandstone to construct the images.
• At a later stage the Amaravati School depicted Buddha in the human form.
• The figures of Amaravati have slim blithe features and are represented in difficult poses and curves.
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Gandhara Mathura Amravati

1. High influence of helenistic 1. Indegenous in nature 1. Indegenous in nature
and greek art features.
2. Grey-sandstone is used. (we 2. Spotted red sandstone 2. White marble
also find images made of
stucco with lime plaster)
3. Mainly Buddhist images are 3. Buddhism, Jainism and hindu 3. Mainly Buddhism
found images are found.
4. Patron- kushana 4. Kushana 4. Shatavahanas
5. Found in north-west india 5. North india. Mainly region of 5. Deccan region near Krishna-
Mathura godavari delta.
6. Spiritual Buddha images. 6. Delighted Buddha and not 6. Mainly depicts stories of jatakas.

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Very stylish with wavy hair, spiritual look
7. Has beard and moustache. 7. No beard and moustache
8. Lean body.
9. Both seated and standing
images are found.
OR
8. Strong muscular feature
9. Most of them are seated.
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10. Eyes are half closed and 10. Eyes are open with small
ears are large Ears.
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GUPTA EMPIRE
• Both Satvahana and Kushan empires came to an end in the middle of the third century A D and on the
ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire, which established its sway over a good part of the former
dominions of both the Kushans and Satavahanas.
• Although the Gupta empire was not as large as the Maurya empire, it kept north India politically united
for more than a century, from 335 to 455 A.D.
• The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar at the end of the third century
A.D.
• Uttar Pradesh seems to have been a more important province for the Guptas than Bihar, because early
Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in that state.

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• The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages. The centre of their operations lay in the fertile land of
Madhyadesa covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They could exploit the iron ores of central India and south
OR
Bihar.
• Further, they took advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which carried on silk trade with
the Eastern Roman empire, also known as the Byzantine empire.
• On account above mentioned favourable factors the Guptas set up their rule over Anuganga (the middle
SC

Gangetic basin), Prayag (modern Allahabad), Saketa (modern Ayodhya) and Magadha.
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Sources
• There source materials to reconstruct the history of the Gupta period include literary, epigraphical and
numismatic sources.
• The Puranas throw light on the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings.
• Contemporary literary works like the Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadatta
provide information regarding the rise of the Guptas.
• The Chinese traveler Fahien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, has left a valuable
account of the social, economic and religious conditions of the Gupta empire.
• Apart from these literary sources, there are inscriptions like the Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription and the
Allahabad Pillar inscription. Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription refers to the achievements of Chandragupta
II.
• The most important source for the reign of Samudragupta is the Allahabad Pillar inscription. It describes

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his personality and achievements. This inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar. It is written in classical
Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It consists of 33 lines composed by Harisena. It describes the circumstances

•
OR
of Samudragupta's accession, his military campaigns in north India and the Deccan, his relationship with
other contemporary rulers, and his accomplishments as a poet and scholar.
The coins issued by Gupta kings contain legends and figures. These coins provide interesting details about
the titles and sacrifices performed by the Gupta monarchs.
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GUPTA EMPIRE CHRONOLOGY
Chandragupta I (320 - 330 A.D.)
• The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta.
• The first important king of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I.
GS

• He married a Lichchhavi princess from Nepal, which strengthened his position.

• The Guptas were possibly vaisyas, and hence marriage in a kshatriya family gave them prestige. Chandragupta
I can be regarded as a ruler of considerable importance because he started the Gupta era in A.D. 319-20,
which marked the date of his accession.
• Later many inscriptions came to be dated in the Gupta era.
Samudragupta (330-380 A.D.)
• Samudragupta called the 'Napoleon of India' by Vincent Smith, was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta
dynasty.
• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta I's son and successor Samudragupta.
• His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron.
• The inscription is engraved at Allahabad on the same pillar as carries an inscription of the peace-loving
Asoka.
• The Allahabad Pillar inscription contains a long list of states, kings and tribes which were conquered and
brought under various degrees of subjugation.
• This list can be divided into four categories.
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– The first one includes the 12 states of Dakshinapaths with the names of their kings, who were captured
and then liberated and reinstated. They were Kosala, Pistapura, Kanchi, Vengi, Erandapalli, Devarashtra,
Avamukta, Dusthalapura, Mahakantara, Kurala, Kothura and Palakka.
– The second one contains the names of the eight kings of Aryavarta who were exterminated.
– The third one consists of the rulers of forest states who were reduced to servitude and the chiefs of the
five pratyantas or border states, and also nine tribal republics, that were forced to pay all kinds of taxes,
obey his orders and come to perform obeisance. The five border states were Samtata (East Bengal), Davaka
(Assam), Kamarupa (Assam), Nepal, and Kartipura (Kashmir). The nine tribal republics were the
Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Sarakinakas, Kavas, and Kharaparikas.
– The fourth one includes the Daivaputra Shahanushahs (Kushanas), Saka Murundas and the dwellers
of Sinhala and all other islands who offered their own person for service to Samudragupta.
• After these military victories, Samudragupta performed the asvamedha sacrifice.
• He issued gold and silver coins with the legend 'restorer of the asvamedha'.

E
• It is because of his military achievements Samudragupta was hailed as 'Indian Napoleon'.
Extent of Samudragupta's Empire
OR
• After these conquests, Samudragupta's rule extended over the upper Gangetic valley, the greater part of
modern U.P., a portion of central India and the south-western part of Bengal.
• Above mentioned territories were directly administered by him.
SC

• In the south there were tributary states.

• The Saka and Kushana principalities on the west and north-west were within the sphere of his influence.
• The kingdoms on the east coast of the Deccan, as far as the Pallava Kingdom, acknowledged his suzerainty.
Estimate of Samudragupta
GS

• Samudragupta's military achievements remain remarkable in the annals of history and was equally great
in his other personal accomplishments.
• The Allahabad Pillar inscription speaks of his magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic
skill and his proficiency in music. It calls him Kaviraja because of his ability in composing verses.
• His image depicting him with Veena is found in the coins issued by him. It is the proof of his proficiency
and interest in music.
• He was also a patron of many poets and scholars, one of whom was Harisena.
• Thus he must be credited with a share in the promotion of Sanskrit literature and learning, characteristic
of his dynasty.
• He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other creeds.
• He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.
• He granted permission to Buddhist king of Cylon, Meghavarman to build a monastry at Bodh Gaya; so,
he was called 'Anukampavav'.
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Chandragupta II (380-415 A.D.)

• Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.

• But according to some scholars, the immediate successor of Samudragupta was Ramagupta, the elder
brother of Chandragupta II, but there is little historical proof for this.

• The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high watermark of the Gupta empire.
• Chandragupta II inherited the military genius of his father and extended the Gupta Empire by a judicious
combination of the policy of diplomacy and warfare.

• Through matrimonial alliances he strengthened his political power. He married Kuberanaga, a Naga princess
of central India.

• He gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage to the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II. The political importance
of this marriage lies in the fact that the Vakatakas occupied a geographically strategic position in the

E
Deccan.

• When the Vatakas prince died, then he was succeeded by his young son. So Prabhavati became the virtual

OR
ruler. As shown by some of her land charters, she managed the affairs of her kingdom with the help of
an official sent by her father Chandragupta. Thus Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vakataka
kingdom in central India. This afforded a great advantage to him.
• Passing through this area Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat, which had been under
SC
the rule of the Sakas for about four centuries by that time.
Conquest of Chandragupta II in Western India
• The greatest of the military achievements of Chandragupta II was his war against the Saka satraps of
western India.

• Rudrasimha III, the last ruler of the Saka satrap was defeated, dethroned and killed. His territories in
GS

western Malwa and the Kathiawar Peninsula were annexed into the Gupta Empire.
• After victory over Rudrasimha III, Chandragupta II performed the horse sacrifice and assumed the title
Sakari, meaning, 'destroyer of Sakas'.
• He also took the title of Vikramaditya.

• As a result of the conquest of western India, the western boundary of the Empire reached to the Arabian
Sea gaining access to Broach, Sopara, Cambay and other sea ports which enabled the Gupta empire to
control trade with the western countries.

• Ujjain became an important commercial city and soon became the alternative capital of the Guptas.
• The fine cotton clothes of Bengal, Indigo from Bihar, silk from Banaras, the scents of the Himalayas and
the sandal and species from the south were brought to the ports without any interference.
• The western traders poured Roman gold into India in return for Indian products.

• The great wealth of the Gupta Empire was manifest in the variety of gold coins issued by Chandragupta
II.
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Other Conquests
• Chandragupta II defeated a confederacy of enemy chiefs in Vanga.
• In the northwest Chandragupta II kingdom extended beyond the Hindukush up to Bactria. He crossed the
river Sindh and conquered Bactria and the Kushanas ruling in this region were subdued by him.
• The Gupta empire extended in the west as far as western Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar.
• In the east, it included even eastern Bengal and in the south the Narmada river formed the boundary.
• The exploits of a king called Chandra are glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed near Qutb Minar in
Delhi. If Chandra is considered to be identical with Chandragupta II, it appears that he established Gupta
authority in north-western India and in a good portion of Bengal.
• Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya, which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in 58 B.C.
as a mark of victory over the Sakas.
• The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by numerous scholars including Kalidasa and

E
Amarashnha.
Estimate of Chandragupta II
OR
• The power and glory of Gupta empire reached its peak under the rule of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.
• He also contributed to the general cultural progress of the age and patronized great literary figures like
Kalidasa.
• He promoted artistic activity.
SC

• Because of the high level of cultural progress that was achieved during this period, the Gupta period is
generally referred to as a golden age.
Fahien's Visit
• The famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien (399-414) visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II and
GS

wrote an elaborate account of the life of its people.

• He came to India by the land route through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab.
• He visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara, Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh
Gaya among other places.
• He returned by the sea route, visiting on the way Ceylon and Java.
• The main purpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts
from India.
• He stayed in Pataliputra years studying Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts.
• Fahien provides valuable information on the religious, social and economic condition of the Gupta
empire.
• According to him, Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the northwestern India but in the
Gangetic valley it was in a state of neglect.
• He refers to the Gangetic valley as the 'land of Brahmanism'.
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• Fahien mentions the unsatisfactory state of some of the Buddhist holy places like Kapilavastu and
Kusinagara.
• According to him the economic condition of the empire was prosperous.
• Although his account is valuable in many respects, he did not mention the name of Chandragupta II.
• He was not interested in political affairs and his interest was primarily religion.
• He assessed everything from the Buddhist angle and his observations on social conditions are found to
be exaggerated. Yet, his accounts are useful to know the general condition of the country.
Successors of Chandragupta II
• Kumaragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta II and his reign was marked by general peace
and prosperity.
• He issued a number of coins and his inscriptions are found all over the Gupta empire.

E
• He also performed an asvamedha sacrifice.
•

•
international reputation.
OR
Most importantly, he laid the foundation of the Nalanda University which emerged as an institution of

At the end of his reign, a powerful wealthy tribe called the 'Pushyamitras' defeated the Gupta army.
• A branch of the Huns from Central Asia made attempts to cross the Hindukush mountains and invade
India.
SC

• But it was his successor Skandagupta who really faced the Hun invasion. He fought successfully against
the Huns and saved the empire. The war with Huns must have been a great strain on the government's
resources.
• After Skandagupta's death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Narasimhagupta, Buddhagupta and
Baladitya could not save the Gupta empire from the Huns.
GS

• Ultimately, the Gupta power totally disappeared due to the Hun invasions and later by the rise of
Yasodharman in Malwa.
Few Other Important Dynasties in the post-Gupta period
• The Maitraka kings of Valabhi had initially been under the overlordship of the Imperial Guptas and they
gradually established their own supremacy.
• The founder of the Gurjara kingdom was Harichandra whose three successors ruled till about 640.
• The region of north and north-west of Bengal was ruled by Sasanka, a contemporary and archrival of
Harshavardhana, as an independent kingdom in the early seventh century AD.
• The Prayagaprasasti recording the achievements of the Gupta ruler Samudragupta refers to two kingdoms
in Assail- Kamarupa and Davaka.
• Kamarupa became an important political region in northeastern India from the middle of the fourth
century AD. Pushyavarman probably founded, around this date, the first historical royal family of
Assam. This family ruled for twelve generations till the time of Bhaskaravarman who was a contemporary
and an ally of Harshavardhana of Kanauj and ruled in the first half of the seventh century AD.
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• Although there is evidence that some local rulers of Orissa owed allegiance to Imperial Gupta rulers
towards the end of Gupta rule, two autonomous kingdoms emerged in Orissa in the second half of the
sixth century AD.
• One was the Mana kingdom which extended from Balasore to Puri district and the other was the
kingdom of the Sailodbhavas of Kongoda, which extended fom Chilka lake to Mahendragiri mountains
in Ganjam district. Both kingdoms suffered setbacks because of the rise of Sasanka of Bengal and
Harshavardhana of Kanauj.

E
OR
SC
GS
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GUPTA ADMINISTRATION
• The various inscriptions mention the following titles as usual for Guptas: Paraniadvaita, Pararnabhattaraka,
Maharajadhiraja, Prithvipala, Paramesvara, Samrat, Ekadhiraja and Chakravartin.
• The king was assisted in his administration by a chief minister called mantri or sachiva.
• Pratiharas and Mahapratihart's were important officers in the royal court, though they did not participate
in the administration.
• Among the important military officers are mentioned Senapati, Mahasenapati, Baladhyaksha;
Mahabaladhyaksha, Baladhikrita and Mahabaladhikrita who perhaps represented different grades.

E
• There were two other high military officers - the Bhatasvapati, commander of the infantry and cavalry and
the Katuka, commander of the elephant corps.
•

•
treasury of the war office.
OR
Another important official mentioned in the Basarh seals was Ranabhandagaradhikarana, chief of the

One more high officer, mentioned for the first time in the Gupta records, was Sandhivigrahika or
Mahasandhivigrahika, a sort of foreign minister.
SC
• One of the inscriptions mentions Sarvadhyakshas, superintendents of all, but it is not clear whether they
were central or provincial officers.
• Numerous inscriptions mention Dutaka or Duty who communicated royal commands to officers and
people concerned.
• Dandapasadhikarana represented the chief of the police.
GS

• Ordinary police officials were known as Dandapasika, Chatas, Bhatas, Dandika (chastiser), and
Chauroddharanika (officer apprehending thieves).
• The king maintained a close contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called
Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas.
• Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as Uparikas. They were
mostly chosen from among the princes.
• Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis.
• Nagara Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration.
• The villages in the district were under the control of Gramikas.
• Fahien's account characterises the Gupta administration as mild and benevolent. There were no restrictions
on people's movements and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. There was no state interference
in the individual's life. Punishments were not severe. Imposing a fine was a common punishment. The
administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and there was no fear of thieves.
He mentioned that people were generally prosperous and the crimes were negligible.
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• Fahien had also appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta administration as he was able to travel without
any fear throughout the Gangetic valley.
• On the whole the administration was more liberal than that of the Mauryas.
Central Administration
• Maha Mantri (Chief minister) : stood at the head of civil administration.
• Maha-baladhikrta : commander-in-chief
• Sandhivgrahika : the foreign minister
• Maha-dandanayaka : Chief justice
• Maha-asvapati : commander of the calvalry
• Maha-pilupati : commander of elephant
• Maja-ranabhandagarika : Master general of military stores

E
The Maukharis
OR
• The Maukharis, as a political entity, have been mentioned in Patanjalis work and in other early documents.
• The Maukharis must have started gaining political power towards the end of 5th century AD as the
Harsha inscription of 554 AD mentions the rise of Yagnavarman from Gaya during this period.
• There are names of three Maukhari kings mentioned in the Nagarjuna inscriptions who ruled in Gaya,
SC

about 150 years earlier than their successors at Kanauj.

• The first three Maukhari kings were Yagnavarman, Sardulavarman and Anantavarman. Some of these
kings held simply the title of samanta which indicates that they were acting as kings under the overlordship
of the Guptas.
• From the Asirgarh copper seal we get the names of (1) Harivarman, (2) Adityavarman, (3) Isvaravarman,
(4) Isanavarman (5) Sarvavarman, who had ruled over Kanauj in UP. The first three kings had the title of
GS

maharaja whereas Saravarman is called maharajadhiraja.

• It was perhaps lsanavarman who set up an independent kingdom.
• The early Maukhari kings had established family ties with the later Guptas.
• However, Isanavarman's declaration of his independence must have spoilt the relations between the Later
Guptas and the Maukharis for the Apshad inscription tells of the victory of Kumaragupta, the fourth king
of the later Gupta family of Maghadha, over Isanavarman. But the dynasty seems to have continued its
rule.
• Sarvavarman, the second son of lsanavannan, was successful in retrieving the lost prestige of the Maukharis
by defeating Damodaragupta of the Later Gupta dynasty.
• The last of the Maukhari kings was Grahavarman who was married to Rajyasri, the daughter of
Prabhakaravardhan of Thaneshwar and sister of the famous ruler Harshavardharna.
• The Malaya king, Devagupta attacked Kanauj and killed Grahvarman bringing the Maukhari kingdom to
an end.
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• The Maukhari held sway over modern UP and parts of Magadha, however, the innumerable wars which
they lost and won kept changing their boundaries.
Later Guptas
• From around the middle of sixth century AD, till about 675, the kings who ruled Magadha were known
as Magadha Guptas or Later Guptas. However, it is not clear what connection they had with the Imperial
GtIptas of the earlier period.
• The Aphsad inscription from Gaya gives the names of eight-Gupta Monarchs Krishnagupta, Harshagupta,
Jivitagupta, Kumaragupta, Damodaragupta, Mahasenagupta, Madhavagupta.
• The Later Guptas entered into matrimonial alliances with other contemporary ruling families.
• For example, Harshagupta married his sister to a Maukhari king.
• Throughout this period, the Later Guptas remained engaged in battle with one enemy or the other.

E
• For example, Harashagupta had to fight the Hunas; his son Jivitagupta fought against Lichchhavis of Nepal
and Gaudas of Bengal; and Jivitagupta's successor Kumaragupta defeated Maukhari king Isanarvarman.
•

•
and lost a portion of Magadha.
OR
The next king Damodaragupta, son of Kumaragupta, was defeated and killed by Maukhari king Sarvavannan

For some time, the successors of Damodaragupta retreated to Malwa because of the Maukharis but they
again established their supremacy in Magadha.
SC
• Their most powerful ruler was Adityasena, who ruled in Magadha in 672, a date which seems to occur
in one of his inscription.
• The Later Gupta power survived the empire of Harshavardhana and Adityasena signalised his accession
to power by the performance of a horse sacrifice.
• According to the Aphsad inscription, Adityasena empire included Magadha, Anga and Bengal. It is just
GS

possible that his kingdom included a portion of eastern Uttar Pradesh.

• Adityasena was a Parama-Bhagavata and got a temple of Vishnu constructed.
• The Later Gupta line came to an end with the expansion of the power of the Gaudas of Bengal westward.
• But the Gaudas themselves were subdued by Yasovarman of Kanauj.
Social Life
• The pre-Gupta period in India witnessed a series of foreign invasions.
• Indian society had given way to those foreigners who had become permanent residents here.
• But during the Gupta period, the caste system became rigid.
• The Brahmins occupied the top ladder of the society.
• Land grants to the brahmanas on a large scale suggest that the brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta
times.
• The Guptas who were originally vaisyas came to be looked upon as kshatriyas by the brahmanas.
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• The brahmanas represented the Gupta kings as possessing the attributes of gods, and the Gupta princes
became great supporters of the brahmanical order.
• The brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of numerous land grants and claimed many privileges,
which are listed in the law-book of Narada.
• The practice of untouchability had slowly begun during this period.
• Fahien mentions that Chandalas were segregated from the society. Their miserable condition was elaborated
by the Chinese traveler.
• The position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period.
• Women were prohibited from studying the religious texts like the Puranas.
• The subjection of women to men was thoroughly regularized, but it was insisted that they should be
protected and generously treated by men.
• The practice of Swyamvara was given up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls.

E
• In the sphere of religion, Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had two branches -
Vaishnavism and Saivism.
OR
• Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites.
• The worship of images and celebration of religious festivals with elaborate rituals made these two religions
popular.
• Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during this period.
SC

• The progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of Buddhism and Jainism.

• Fahien refers to the decline of Buddhism in the Gangetic valley.
• But a few Buddhist scholars like Vasubandhu were patronized by Gupta kings.
• In western and southern India Jainism flourished.
GS

• The great Jain Council was held at Valabhi during this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambras was
written.
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GUPTA AGE ART AND CULTURE

• The Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in the field of art, science and literature and on
account of this it has been called “a golden age”.
• A few scholars even call this period a period of renaissance, but it should be remembered that there was
no dark period before the Gupta rule.
• Therefore the cultural progress witnessed during the Gupta period may be called the culmination of Indian
intellectual activities.

E
OR
SC
GS

Architecture
• By evolving the Nagara and Dravida styles, the Gupta art ushers in the history of Indian architecture a
formative and creative age with unlimited scope for future development and elaboration.
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• The rock-cut caves continue the old forms to a large extent, but possess striking novelty by bringing about
extensive changes in the ornamentation of the facade and in the designs of the pillars in the interior.
• The Most notable groups of rock-cut caves are found at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (MP).
The Udayagiri caves (Orissa) are also of this type.
• Structural Temples: The following five groups may be distinguished among the structural temples:
1. Flat-roofed square temple;
2. Flat-roofed square temple with a second storey (vimana) above;
3. Square temple with a curvilinear tower (sikhara) above;
4. Rectangular temple; and
5. Circular temple.
– The second group of temples shows many of the characteristic features of the Dravida style.
– The importance of third group lies in the innovation of a sikhara that caps the sanctum sanctorum,

E
the main feature of the Nagara style.
OR
• Stupas: They were also built in large numbers, but the best are found at Sarnath (UP), Ratnagiri (Orissa)
and Mirpur Khan (Sind).
Sculpture
• A good specimen of stone sculpture is of Buddha from Sarnath.
SC

• Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of
a cave at Udayagiri.
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• Metal Statues: The art of casting statues on a large scale by the cire process was practised by Guptan
craftsmen with conspicuous success.
• Two remarkable examples of Gupta metal sculpture are:
– A copper image of the Buddha, about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar, and
– Sultanganj Buddha of seven and half feet.
Painting
• The art of painting seems to have been more in general practice and popular demand in the Gupta period
than the art of stone sculpture.
• Remains of paintings of this period are found at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places.
• From the point of technique, the surface of these paintings was perhaps done in a very simple way.
• Infact the mural paintings of Ajanta are not true frescoes, for a fresco is painted while the plaster is still

E
damp and the murals of Ajanta were made after it had set.
• The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows the Madhyadesa School’ of painting at its best.
Literature
• OR
The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. Nagari script had evolved from the
Brahmi script.
• Numerous works in classical Sanskrit came to be written in the forms of epic, lyrics, drama and prose.
SC
The best of the Sanskrit literature belonged to the Gupta age.
• Himself a great poet, Samudragupta patronized a number of scholars including Harisena.
• The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by the celebrated Navratnas.
• Kalidasa remain the foremost among them. His master-piece was the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala. It is
considered one among the ‘hundred best books of the world’. He wrote two other plays - the
GS

Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya. His two well-known epics are Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava.
Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two lyrics.
• Visakadatta was another celebrated author of this period. He was the author of two Sanskrit dramas,
Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
• Sudraka was a renowned poet of this age and his book Mrichchakatika is rich in humour and pathos.
• Bharavi’s Kritarjuniya is the story of the conflict between Arjuna and Siva.
• Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita.
• Another important work of this period was Vasavadatta written by Subhandhu.
• The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period.
• The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali.
• This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosa by Buddhist author
Amarasimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II.
• The two great epics, namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were finally compiled probably in the
fourth century A. D.
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• The Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. There are eighteen Puranas. The
most important among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas. The Mahabharatha
and the Ramayana were given final touches and written in the present form during this period.
Science
• The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy, astrology and
medicine.
• Aryabhatta, a great mathematician and astronomer, wrote the book Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. It deals with
mathematics and astronomy. It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses.
• Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape and that it rotates on its own axis.
• Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. He was also a great authority
on astrology. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit literature. It deals with a variety of
subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens. His
Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
• A Gupta inscription from Allahabad district suggests that the decimal system was known in India at the

E
beginning of the fifth century A. D.
OR
• In the fields of astronomy a book called Romaka Sidhanta was compiled which was influenced by Greek
ideas, as can be inferred from its name.
• In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the last of the great medical trio of
ancient India.
• The other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age.
SC

• Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine).
• The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves by their work in iron and bronze.
• Several bronze images of the Buddha, which began to be produced on a considerable scale because of the
knowledge of advanced iron technology.
GS

• In the case of iron objects the best example is the iron pillar found at Delhi near Mehrauli. Manufactured
in the fourth century A.D., the pillar’ has not gathered any rust in the subsequent 15 centuries, which is
a great tribute to the technological skill of the craftsmen. It was impossible, to produce such pillar in any
iron foundry in the West until about a century ago.
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CHANGES IN THE GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA PERIOD

• The Gupta and post-Gupta period was characterized by certain changes in Indian economy.
• During the Gupta period there existed a flourishing trade abundant custom revenue from ports in west and
east, flourishing robust guild system, flourishing manufacturing industries and a high standard of living.
• The Trade contacts developed during the Kushana Period continued and Chandragupta II's conquest in
western India further added to this trade.
• The important port towns which include Brigukachchaha, Kalyana & Sind, were bulk trade centres with
Romans.

E
• Ujjain became a major commercial center and it was linked to southern and northern India. Nasik,
Paithan, Pataliputra, Benares were other major trade centers.
•
•
•
OR
Silk, Leather goods, Fur, Iron Products, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were major export items.
The Port of Tamralipti was used for trade with East Asia.
Most of the commodities were taxed one-fifth of the value as a toll in international Trade.
• Agriculture was the main occupation in Gupta Empire and there was no governmental interference.
SC
• Many cloth centers and silk industry witnessed a significant development during Gupta period.
• The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account of support for the growth of Silk Industry.
• Gold, silver and Copper was used in making ornaments and issuing coins.
• The Gold coins show the pomp, power and prosperity of the empire.
GS

• The Coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta issued after the Ashvamedha depict the horse tied to a
Yupastambha.
• The coins of Chandragupta bear Garuda preying a snake.
• In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in various literature,
inscription, clay seals etc.
• There is a mention of Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa.
• The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen.
• The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers.
• The guild system declined after the Gupta Period.
• During later phases of Gupta period trade and urban economy was badly affected due to Huna invasions
and trade and urban settlements, which were so much prominent features of Indian society, started
declining.
• There are many indications of these changes. Many important cities (such as Taxila, Kausambi, Pataliputra)
ceased to exist after the Gupta period.
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• This decline of urban settlements was not an isolated phenomenon and have been quite widespread.
• Trade activities also suffered a setback because of various reasons.
• This is perhaps most clear from the fact that minting and circulation of coins were on a much more
limited scale than before.
• Many of these changes had begun in the Gupta period itself.
• The decline of towns did not mean the overall contraction of the economy. However, it can be admitted
that the economy, instead of walking on two legs-agriculture and urban activities of crafts production and
trade - began to walk on one leg.
• It was predominantly an agrarian economy.
• According to some historians, one of the crucial elements in the chain of developments was the system
of land grants.
• Land grants grew in number in the Gupta and especially post-Gupta times and became widespread

E
throughout the country.
• Land grants were made to Brahmanas and religious establishments like temples and monasteries on a large
OR
scale by kings, chiefs, members of the royal family and their feudatories.
• Earlier the Satavahanas in the Deccan had given away only revenue rights.
• From the fifth century onwards, not only were the revenues of the donated lands transferred to the donee
but the mines and minerals in the said area were also trasferred.
SC

• The donated land, village or villages were exempted from the interference of soldiers and royal officials.
• One of the conspicuous economic changes in the Gupta and post-Gupta period, was the decline of trade,
both internal and external. Indian foreign trade registered a peak during the post-Mauryan period when
India traded with the Roman empire, central Asia and south-east Asia.
GS

• However, commercial decline set in during the Gupta period, and it became more pronounced by the
middle of the sixth century.
• The inflow of Roman coins into India stopped after the early centuries of the Christian era. the Roman
empire itself broke up at a later -date.
• The emergence of the Arabs and the Persians as competitors in trade did not augur well for Indian
merchants.
• Decline of commerce is demonstrated by the paucity of coins in the post-Gupta period.
• Gold coins, which were so abundant during the periods of the Kushanas and the Guptas, went out of
circulation after the sixth century.
• The absence of silver and copper coins also attracts attention.
• The percentage of gold in the Gupta gold coins was constantly falling and that the gold content of the
later Gupta coins was only half of that of the Kushana coins.
• Decline in trade, paucity of coins and absence of coin moulds and commercial seals indicate economic
decline and fall in demand for finished products.
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• Towns, which were active centres of craft production in the post-Mauryan period, experienced decay and
desertion.
• The pre-Kushana and Kushana towns in northern India and those associated with the Satavahanas in the
Deccan began to decay from the middle of the third or the fourth century.
• The epigraphic evidence of the Gupta and post-Gupta times suggests agrarian growth and rural expansion
on an unprecedented scale.
• The patronage extended by kings, princes and chiefs, to agriculture, improvement in irrigational facilities,
increasing knowledge of agricultural sciences etc. were some of the causative factors which strengthened
rural economy.
• Decline of towns may have led to the migration of a number of skilled artisans into the countryside and
some of them even changed their vocations.
• The dispersal of technical skill along with artisans and craftsmen into the countryside stimulated agrarian

E
growth.
• Land grants in tribal frontiers brought within land under cultivation.
•
•
•
OR
Numerous villages with Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit names came up in this period.
Contemporary literature presents, a vivid account of village life and reflect and richness of rural settlements.
The post-Gupta period also underwent a major change in the rural sector and that was land grants on a
large-scale as donations.
SC
• Land grant charters bestowed the beneficiary with superior right over those of the inhabitants in the
donated village.
• The donee were entitled to collect all kinds of taxes. He could collect regular and irregular taxes and fixed
and unfixed payments.
GS

• The donees enjoyed these exceptional advantages in addition to such regular taxes as bhaga, bhoga, kara,
uparikara, hiranya, udranga, halikakara, etc.
• In fact, the peasantry in early medieval India was subjected to an even increasing tax/rent burden.
• The donees were empowered with the right to evict the peasantry at will and to replace them with new
peasants.
• From the seventh century onwards grants give away water resources, trees, bushed and pastures to the
donee.
• The trend accelerated after the tenth century.
• The transfer of these resources to the donee not only affected peasantry of the donated villages adversely
but also strengthened the power of the donees.
• Forced labour is referred to in the Skanda Purana.
• Inscriptions too suggest that by the fifth-sixth centuries, vishti was a well entrenched practice in western,
central and southern India.
• In addition, the clause appeared in the landgrant charters asking the peasants to carry out the orders of
the donee.
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• In regions such as Chamba, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern India, the condition of the peasants
clearly suffered a decline.
• The earliest definite evidence of employment of forced labours in agriculture is in Bhagwat Purana (8th
century).
Social Changes
• The social changes in the Gupta and post-Gupta times can be related to the economic changes.
• The major economic forces of the period were large-scale landgrants, decline of trade, commerce and
urban life, paucity of money, agrarian expansion and growing agarian character of society, and the emergence
of relatively closed local units of production and consumption.
• On above mentioned basis evolved a social structure broadly characterised by a sizable ruling landed
aristocracy, intermediaries and a large body of impoverished peasantry.
• The unequal distribution of landed property and power led to the emergence of new social groups and
ranks which cut across varna divisions like Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra.

E
• The other important changes in the social structure involved the emergence and proliferation of new
castes, the hardening of caste relations and the acculturation of the tribes.
OR
• The acculturation of tribes was not simply the result of movement of Brahmanas into tribal areas as a
result of land grants. This was caused by the emergence of local royal families in remote areas, and the
Brahmanas were patronised mostly by these royal families with gifts of land, with employment at royal
courts and other offers.
SC

• This implies that where tribes lived, there emerged a much more complex society in which social
differentiation, represented by different groups like peasants, Brahmanas, craftsmen, merchants, rulers etc.,
was present.
• The scribe or the kayastha community was product of the socio-economic forces of the times. Land
grants involved the transfer of land revenues and land to Brahmanas, religious establishments and officials.
This and other complex administrative functions created the need for a body of scribes and record keepers
GS

who were employed to draft assignment of land and keep details of land transfer, including various items
of revenue.
• The Gupta period witnessed the beginning of fragmentation of land.
• There were laws of partition and rural boundary disputes, which constitute a part of the Dharmasastras.
• The maintenance of proper records of individual plots was very much necessary for settling such disputes.
• The existence of different types of rights in the same plot or village(s) made the land system quite
complex. Therefore, land records had to be maintained with all necessary details.
• This difficult job was carried out by a class of writers who were known variously as kayastha, karana,
karanika, puslapala, chitragupta, aksapatalika, etc.
• The kayasthas were only one group of the community of scribes. However, gradually the scribes and
record-keepers as a community came to be known as kayasthas.
• The 'impure' castes or the untouchables had assumed a definite shape by the early Christian centuries.
Nevertheless, they were numerically small.
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• From around the 3rd century AD onwards, the practice of untouchability appears to have intensified and
the number of untouchables registered a rise Katyayana, a Dharmasastra writer of the Gupta period, was
the first to use the empression asprsya in the sense of untouchables.
• Several new castes were included in the category of the untouchables in the Gupta and post-Gupta times.
• Not only hunters and some groups of artisans became untouchables but backward agriculturists were also
condemned to that status.
• By the turn of the first millennium AD, hunters, fishermen, butchers, executioners and scavengers appeared
as untouchables.
• Kalidasa, Virahamihira, Fahsien, Bana and others have given a vivid account of the social disabilities
imposed on them.
• The Chandalas were only one section of the untouchables, although the lowest in the social ladder.
• Interestingly, a caste hierarchy emerged among the untouchables as well. Contemporary literature describes

E
them in very disparaging terms.

OR
• Brahmanical and Buddhist sources suggest that most untouchable castes were originally backward tribes.
Their backwardness and resistance to the process of acculturation and brahmanisation may have prevented
them from being absorbed within the society and pushed them to the position of untouchables. They may
have been dispossessed of their lands and made to settle outside the villages.
• The contempt for the backward people, at times in inhospitable tracts, on the part of the Brahmanas and
SC
ruling elite and on occasions the former's opposition to the Brahmancial order, thus, to explain the
numerical growth of the untouchables and the practices of untouchability.
• In the context of the growing demand for labour, the presence of the untouchables as a pressed, dispossessed
group of people was an enormous advantage to all other sections of society.
• The untouchables did not normally hold land, settle outside the villages.
GS

• They were condemned to menial jobs during slack periods of the year and were available for work during
peak periods of agricultural activity.
• The untouchables thus, provided labour which the society required but were socially condemned and
segregated.
• During this period, several groups of artisans and craftsmen lost their earlier status and many even came
to be regarded as untouchables.
• To some extent, this may have resulted from the decline of urban centres where craftsmen were in great
demand.
• Craft guilds became transformed into castes and thus transformation effectively sums up the changes in
the nature and organisation of craft production.
• Various castes such as the svarnakara (goldsmith), malakara (garland maker), chitrakara (painter), napita
(barber), etc. emerged out of the numerous crafts (practised by different groups).
• Some categories of artisans were rendered untouchable. Weavers, dyers, tailers, barbers, shoemakers,
ironsmiths, washermen and others were reduced to the position of untouchables by the turn of the
millennium.
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HARSHA VARDHANA (606-647 A.D.)

• After the decline of the Guptas dynasty north India again split up into several kingdoms.

• The Hunas established their supremacy over Kashmir, Punjab and western India from about A.D. 500
onwards.

• North and western India passed under the control of about half a dozen feudatories who parcelled out
Gupta empire among themselves

• Gradually one of these dynasties ruling at Thanesar in Haryana extended its authority over all the other
feudatories. The ruler who brought it about was Harshavardhana (A.D. 606-647).

E
• The source for information about the rise of the family of Pushyabhutis which first ruled from Thaneshwar
in Haryana and later from Kanauj in Uttar Pradesh included the text Harshacharita of Banabhatta,
OR
accounts of Huen Tsang and some inscriptions and coins, etc.

• According to Banabhatta the founder king of this dynasty at Thaneshwar was Pushyabhuti and that the
family was known as Pushyabhuti vamsa.

• However, the inscriptions of Harsha make no reference of Pushyabhuti.

SC

• The Banskhera and Madhuvan plates and royal seals mention five earlier rulers among whom the first
three are given the title of maharaja. This may indicate that they were not sovereign monarchs.

• The fouth king Prabhakarvardhana has been described as a Maharajadhiraja which makes means that he
was an independent monarch and had established matrimonial relations with the Maukharis by marrying
his daughter Rajyasri with Grahavarman.
GS

• Thaneshwar, during this time (about 604) was threatened by the Hunas from the western side.

• Banabhatta has described Prabhakarvardhana as "a lion to the Huna deer". According to him an army
under Rajyavardhana was sent to defeat the Hunas but due to the sudden illness of his father he had to
come back.

• With Prabhakarvardhana's death, the family had to face troubled times for a while.

• The Malaya king Devagupta killed Grahavarman and took Rajyasri prisoner.

• The Malaya and the Gauda kings entered into alliance and even Thaneshwar was threatened.

• Rajyavardhana defeated the Malavas but was killed through treachery by Sasanka, the Gauda king and
Harsha succeeded his brother at Thaneswar.

• His first responsibility was to rescue his sister and to avenge the killings of his brother and brother-in-law.
He first rescued his sister when she was about to immolate herself.
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E
OR
SC
GS

Harsha's Military Conquests

• In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj and made it his new capital.
• This made him the most powerful ruler of north India.
• Harsha fought against Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi and defeated him. Dhuruvasena II became a vassal.
• The most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.
Both the accounts of Hiuen Tsang and the inscriptions of Pulakesin II provide the details of this campaign.
Harsha with an ambition to extend his kingdom south of the Narmada river marched against the Chalukya
ruler. But the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin.
• Pulakesin after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara. Hiuen Tsang's accounts also confirm the
victory of Pulakesin.
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• Harsha led another campaign against the ruler of Sindh, which was an independent kingdom.
• Nepal had accepted Harsha's overlordship.
• Harsha established his control over Kashmir and its ruler sent tributes to him.
• He also maintained cordial relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam.
• Harsha's last military campaign was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
• Thus Harsha established his hold over the whole of north India. The regions modern Rajasthan, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control. But his sphere of influence was much more
extensive.
• The peripheral states such as Kashmir, Sindh, Valabhi and Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereignty.
Harsha and Buddhism
• In his early life, Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist.

E
• Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.
• Harsha prohibited the use of animal food in his kingdom and punished those who kill any living being.
OR
• He erected thousands of stupas and established travellers' rests all over his kingdom.
• He also erected monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists.
• Once in five years he convened a gathering of representatives of all religions and honoured them with gifts
and costly presents.
SC

• He brought the Buddhist monks together frequently to discuss and examine the Buddhist doctrine.
Kanauj Assembly
• Harsha organized a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang towards the
close of his reign. He invited representatives of all religious sects.
GS

• It was attended by 20 kings, 1000 scholars from the Nalanda University, 3000 Hinayanists and Mahayanists,
3000 Brahmins and Jains.
• The Assembly went on continuously for 23 days.
• Hiuen Tsang explained the values of Mahayana doctrine and established its superiority over others.
• However, violence broke out and there were acts of arson and there was also an attempt on the life of
Harsha. Soon, it was brought under control and the guilty were punished.
• On the final day of the Assembly, Hiuen Tsang was honoured with costly presents.
Allahabad Conference
• Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference held at Allahabad, known as Prayag.
• It was the one among the conferences routinely convened by Harsha once in five years.
• Harsha gave away his enormous wealth as gifts to the members of all religious sects.
• According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was so lavish that he emptied the treasury and even gave away the
clothes and jewels he was wearing. His statement might be one of admiring exaggeration.
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Harsha's Administration
• Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas did, except that his administration had
become more feudal and decentralized.
• It is stated that Harsha had 100,000 horses, and 60,000 elephants. This seems to be astonishing because
the Mauryas, who ruled over practically the whole of the country except the deep south, maintained
only 30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants.
• Harsha could possess a larger army only if he could mobilize the support of all his feudatories at the time
of war Evidently every feudatory contributed his quota of foot soldiers and horses, and thus made the
imperial army vast in numbers
• Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state.
• In addition Harsha is credited with the grant of land to the officers by charters.
• These grants allowed the same concessions to priests as were allowed by the earlier grants.

E
• According to the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang the revenues of Harsha were divided into four parts. One
part was earmarked for the expenditure of the king, a second for scholars, a third for the endowment of

•
•
OR
officials and public servants, and a fourth for religious purposes.
Hsuan Tsang also mentions that ministers and high officers of the state were endowed with land.
The feudal practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land seems to have begun under
Harsha. This is natural because not many coins have been issued by Harsha.
SC
• In the empire of Harsha law and order was not well maintained. The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, about
whom special care may have been taken by the government, was robbed of his belongings, ,although
he reports that according to the laws of the land severe punishments were inflicted for crime. Robbery
was considered to be a second treason for which the right hand of the robber was amputated.
• It seems that under the influence of Buddhism the severity of punishment was mitigated, and criminals
GS

were imprisoned for life.

Society and Economy under Harsha
• Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang portray the social life in the times of Harsha.
• The fourfold division of the society - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vysya and Sudra - was prevalent.
• The Brahmins were the privileged section of the society and they were given land grants by the kings.
• The Kshatriyas were the ruling class.
• The vysyas were mainly traders.
• Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practiced agriculture.
• Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang talk about the existence of many subcastes such as the class of vernacular
poets, class of bards, class of betal-bearers, and so on. However, all those groups and subcastes were not
new to this period and at least some of them existed in the earlier periods.
• The rise of those subcastes was due to the social violation in the code of marriages and general ethics,
and also different occupations.
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• Hiuen Tsang takes note of many outcastes and untouchables such as butchers, fishermen, executioners
and scavengers, who were segregated and were not allowed to mix with the people of the higher varnas
and had habitations marked by a distinguishing sign.
• The position of women was not satisfactory.
• The institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing her husband) had declined.
• Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among the higher castes.
• The system of dowry had also become common.
• The practice of sati was also prevalent. Hiuen Tsang mentions three ways of disposal of the dead -
cremation, water burial and exposure in the woods.
• The trade and commerce had declined during Harsha's period. This is evident from the decline of trade
centres, less number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds.
• The decline of trade in turn affected the handicrafts industry and agriculture. Since there was no large scale
demand for goods, the farmers began to produce only in a limited way.

E
• This led to the rise of self-sufficient village economy.
OR
• In short, there was a sharp economic decline as compared to the economy of the Gupta period.
Cultural Progress
• The art and architecture of Harsha's period are very few and mostly followed the Gupta style.
• Hiuen Tsang describes the glory of the monastery with many storeys built by Harsha at Nalanda.
SC

• Hiuen Tsang also speaks of a copper statue of Buddha with eight feet in height.
• The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.
• Harsha was a great patron of learning.
• His biographer Banabhatta adorned his royal court. Besides Harshacharita, he wrote Kadambari.
GS

• Other literary figures in Harsha's court were Matanga Divakara and the famous Barthrihari, who was the
poet, philosopher and grammarian.
• Harsha himself authored three plays - Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda.
• Harsha patronised the Nalanda University by his liberal endowments. It attained international reputation
as a centre of learning during his reign. Hiuen Tsang visited the Nalanda University and remained as a
student for some time.
Nalanda University
• The Chinese travelers of ancient India mentioned a number of educational institutions among which
the most famous among them were the Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University
of Nalanda.
• Hiuen Tsang gives a very valuable account of the Nalanda University.
• The term Nalanda means "giver of knowledge".
• It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period.
• It was patronised by his successors and later by Harsha.
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• The professors of the University were called panditas.

• Some of its renowned professors were Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati and Silabadhra.
• Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he became the head of the Nalanda University.
• Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and
lodging.
• It was maintained with the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages endowed by different rulers.
• Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine,
Sankhya and Yoga philosophies were also taught. In addition to that, general subjects like logic, grammar,
astronomy, medicine and art were in the syllabus.
• It attracted students not only from different parts of India but from different countries of the east.
• Admission was made by means of an entrance examination.

E
• The entrance test was so difficult that not more than thirty percent of the candidates were successful.
• Discipline was very strict.
•
OR
More than lectures, discussion played an important part and the medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
SC
GS

• Recent archeological excavations have brought to light the ruins of the Nalanda University. It shows the
grandeur of this centre of learning and confirms the account given by the Chinese pilgrims.
• It had numerous classrooms and a hostel attached to it.
• According to Itsing, the Chinese pilgrim, there were 3000 students on its rolls.
• It had an observatory and a great library housed in three buildings.
• Its fame rests on the fact that it attracted scholars from various parts of the world.
• It was an institution of advanced learning and research.
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MAJOR DYNASTIES OF NORTH INDIA (750-1200)

• The period between AD 750 and AD 1200 is referred to as an early medieval period of Indian History.
• It was earlier treated by historians as a ‘dark phase’ because during this time the whole country was divided
into numerous regional states which were busy fighting with each other.
• But recent studies have indicated that, though politically divided, India witnessed a growth of new and
rich cultural activities in the fields of art, literature and language.
• In fact, some best specimens of temple architecture and Indian literature belong to this period.
• Thus, far from being ‘dark’ it may be treated as a bright and vibrant phase of Indian history.
• There were Gurjara Pratiharas in north India, Palas in eastern India and Rashtrakutas in South India. These

E
powers were constantly fighting with each other with an aim to set up their control on Gangetic region
in northern India.
OR
• This armed conflict among these three powers is known as ‘Tripartite struggle’.
• Later on, the breakup of these powers resulted in the rise of many smaller kingdoms all over the country.
SC
GS
Notes

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MAJOR DYNASTIES OF NORTH INDIA

The Pratiharas (8th to 10th Century)
• The Pratihars were also called Gurjar-Pratihars because they originated from Gurjarat or Southwest Rajasthan.
• It is believed that originally they were a branch of the Gurjaras, which was one of the nomadic central
Asian tribes that poured into India along with the Hunas following the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.
• As rulers, the Pratiharas came into prominence in the middle of the eight century when their King
Nagabhatta I, defended western India form the Arab incursions from Sindh into Rajasthan. He was able
to leave to his successors a powerful principality comprising of Malwa and parts of Rajputana and Gujarat.
• After the Nagabhatta I reign, the Pratiharas suffered a series of defeats mostly at the hands of the
Rashtrakutas.
• The Pratihara power regained its lost glory only after the succession of Mihirbhoja, popularly known as

E
Bhoja.
• Bhoja had a long reign of 46 years and his eventful career drew the attention of the Arab traveller,

• OR
Sulaiman. He re-established the supremacy of his family in Bundelkhand and subjugated Jodhpur.
The Daulatpura copper plate of Bhoja shows that the Pratihara king had succeeded in reasserting his
authority over central and eastern Rajputana.
• Mihirbhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala I whose most notable achievement was the conquest
SC
of Magadha and northern Bengal.
• Mahehdrapala I was a liberal patron of literature. The most brilliant writer in his court was Rajasekhara
who has to his credit a number of literary works- Karpuramanjari, Bala Ramayana, Bala and Bharta,
Kavyamimamsa.
• Mahendrapala’s death was followed by a scramble for the possession of the throne.
GS

• Bhoja II seized the throne, but half brother, Mahipala soon usurped the throne.
• The Rashtrakutas again challenged the strength of the Pratihara empire and its ruler, Indra III, completely
devastated the city of Kanauj.
• However, the withdrawal of Indra III to the Deccan enabled Mahipala to recover from the fatal blow.
• Mahendrapala II, son and successor of Mahipala, was able to keep his empire intact, but it received a
shattering blow during the reign of Devapala, when the Chandalas become virtually independent.
• The process of decline of the Pratihara Empire which had begun with Devapal accelerated during the reign
of Vijayapala.
• The Arab traveler Al-Masudi, who visited India in the year 915-16, also refers to the power and resources
of the King of Kanauj whose kingdom extended up to Sind in the west and touched the Rashtrakuta
kingdom in the south.
The Palas (8th to 11th Century)
• Sulaiman, an Arab merchant who visited India in the 9th century has termed the Pala empire as Rhumi.
• The Pala Empire was founded by Gopal in 750.
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• He was elected as the king by the notable men of the area to end the anarchy prevailing there after the
death of Sasanka of Bengal.
• Gopala was an ardent Buddhist and is supposed to have built the monastery at Odantapuri (Sharif district
of Bihar).
• Gopala was succeeded by his son Bharmapla who raised the Pala kingdom to greatness.
• The kingdom expanded under him and it comprised the whole of Bengal and Bihar.
• The kindom of Kanauj was a dependency, ruled by Dharmapal’s own nominee.
• Beyond Kanuja, there were a large number of vassal states in the Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa and Berar
whose rulers acknowledged Dharmapala as their overlord.
• After a reign of 32 years Dharmapal died, leaving his extensive dominions unimpaired to his son Devapala.
• Devapala ascended the throne in 810 and ruled for 40 years. He extended his control over Pragjyotishpur
(Assam), parts of Orissa and parts of Modern Nepal.

E
• Devapal was a great patron of Buddhism and his fame spread to many Buddhist countries outside India.
As a Buddhist, he founded the famous Mahavihara of Vikramaúîla near Bhagalpur. He also credited with
OR
the construction of a vihara at Somapura (Paharpur). He also patronised one of the great Buddhist authors
Haribhadra.
• Balaputradeva, a king of the Buddhist Sailendras, ruling Java, sent an ambassador to Devapala, asking for
a grant of five villages in order to endow a monastery at Nalanda.
SC

• Devapala granted the request and appointed Viradeva, as head of Nalanda Monastery.
• Devapala’s court was adorned with the Buddhist poet Vijrakatta, the author of Lokesvarasataka.
• The rule of Devapala’s successors was marked by a steady process of disintegration.
• A series of invasions led by the Chandellas and the Kalachuris dismembered the Pala Empire.
GS

The Tripartite struggle

The Tripartite struggle was a struggle for power and control over the central Gangetic valley among three major
empires in India during the 8th Century. These three empires were the Pratiharas, the Rastrakutas and the Palas.
The Pratiharas were settled in western India in the Avanti - Jalaor region. The Rastrakutas who were essentially
from the Deccan region were interested in Kannauj due to the fact that it formed an important center for trade
and commerce. The Palas occupied the eastern parts of India (present day Bengal) and were very strong
contenders in this struggle.
Causes
1. To acquire supremacy over Kanauj, as symbol of prestige.
2. Te get control over the rich resources of the Gangetic valley.
3. To get control over Gujarat and Malwa whose nearness to the coast was very important for foreign trade.
4. Lust for war booty which was the important source for maintaining a huge army.
5. Desire to impress the smaller kingdoms with the sense of their power and demand respect.
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The Senas (11th to 12th century)

• The Sena dynasty ruled Bengal after the Palas and its founder was Samantasena described as a
‘Brahmakshatriya’.
• The title Brahmakshatriya shows that Samantasena was a brahmin, but his successors called themselves
simply Kshatriyas.
• Samantasena’s son Hemantasena took advantage of the unstable political situation of Bengal and carved
out an independent principality.
• Vijayasena, son of Hemantasena, brought the family into the limelight by conquering nearly the whole of
Bengal.
• Vijayasena assumed several imperial titles like Paramesvara, Paramabhattaraka, and Maharajadhiraja.
• Vijayasena had two capitals, which was one, at Vijaypuri of Bangladesh.

E
• The famous poet Sriharasha composed the Vijayaprasasti in memory of Vijayasena.
•
• OR
Vijayasena was succeeded by his son, Ballalasena, who was a great scholar.
Ballalasena wrote four works of which two are extant, the Banasagara and the Adbhutasagara. The first
is an extensive work on omens and portents, and the second on astronomy.
• Lakshmanasena, who succeeded Ballalasena in 1179, reign was remarkable for patronizing literature.
SC
• Lakshmanasena was a devout Vaishnava and, Jayadeva, the famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and author
of the Gita Govinda lived at his court.
• Lakshmanasena’s reign saw the decline of the Sena power because of internal rebellions.
• The invasion of Bakhtiya Khalji gave it a crushing blow. A detailed account of the invasion of Bakhtiya
Khalji has been given in Tabakat-i-Nasiri.
GS

The Rajaputa’s Origin

• The anarchy and confusion which followed Harsha’s death is the transitional period of Indian history.
• This period was marked by the rise of the Rajput clans who began to play a significant part in the history
of northern and western India from the 8th century AD onwards.
• The term Rajput denotes a tribe or clan, the members of which claimed themselves as Kshatriyas
belonging to the ‘solar’ or lunar’ dynasties.
• According to some scholars the origin of the Rajputs is connected with that of the Gurjaras.
• In the early years of the 6th century AD, a tribe known as the Khazars poured into India along with the
Hunas.
• These Khazars were known as Gurjaras. According to the bardic tales, the Pratiharas (Pariharas), the
Chalukyas (Solankis), the Paramaras (Pawars) and the Chahamanas (Chauhans) are ‘fire-born’ (Agnikula),
originating from a sacrificial fire-pit at Mount Abu in southern Rajputana.
• The Hunas, Gurjaras and the other allied tribes who entered India during the 5th and 6th centuries merged
themselves with the Indians, just as their predecessors, the Greeks, the Kushanas and the Sakas had done.
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• In the southern group, the principal clans are the Chandels, Kalachuris or Haihayas and Gaharwars. They
apparently descended from the so called aboriginal tribes like the Gonds, and the Bhars.
• The evidence of a close connection between the Chandels and the Gonds is particularly strong. The
Chandel Rajputs were originally Hinduised Bhars or Gonds or both, who became Kshatriyas on attaining
political power.
• The Gaharwars similarly are associated with the Bhars; the Bundelas and the northern Rathors are offshoots
of the Gaharwars.
• As a general rule, the Rajputs formed by the social promotion of aborigines were inimical to the Rajputs
descended from foreigners.
Chandellas
• After the break-up of the Pratihara empire, the Chandellas rose and established their rule over Bundelkhand.
• Like most medieval dynasties, the Chandellas claim their descent from Chandratreya, a descendant of the
‘Moon dynasty’.
•

E
The earliest capital of the Chandella kings was Khajuraho, the splendour of which reached its zenith in
OR
the 10th century.
• Yasovarman, also known as Lakshavarman was the greatest of Chandella rulers.
• The decline of the Pratihara power made Yasovarman free to defy the former and to launch the Chandellas
to aggressive militarism.
SC

• The Khajuraho inscription describes with obvious exaggeration the extensive conquests made by Yasovarman.
• Though an element of doubt attaches to the achievements of Yasovarman, there is no doubt that he made
extensive conquests in north India and made the Chandellas a formidable power.
• Yasovarman built a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, identified with the Chaturbhuja temple, in which he
installed the image of Vishnu.
GS

Chahamanas
• There were several branches of the Chahamana dynasty annd the main branch ruled in Sakambhari,
modern Sambhar, in Jaipur and the others ruling in different places, were collateral.
• Some of these were unquestionably the feudatories of the Pratiharas.
• Vasudadeva founded the main line in the middle of the 6th century AD with Ahichchhatra as the seat
of his power.
• Taking advantage of the weakness of the Patiharas consequent to their struggle with the Rashtrakutas, the
next important ruler Vakpatiraja defied the authority of the Pratiharas.
• During the reign of Vakpatiraja the Chahamana family acquired a distinctly higher status as is revealed
by his assumption of the title Maharaja. He built at Pushkara a temple for Siva.
• Vakpati had three sons—Simharaja, Vatsaraja and Lakshmana.
• Simharaja was the first prince of the family who assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. This indicates that
he made himself independent of the imperial Pratiharas.
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• Simharaja’s son and successor Vigraharaja II was the real founder of the future greatness of the family. He
overran Gujarat, forced the Chalukya Mularaja to take refuge at Kanthakot in Kutch. He extended his
conquests as far south as the Narmada.
• Prithviraja I is reputed to have killed a body of 700 Chalukyas who had come to Pushkara to rob the
Brahmins.
Prithviraja III
• One of the early exploits of Prithviraja III was to suppress the revolt of his cousin, Nagarjuna.
• He invaded the Chandella kingdom and defeated its King Paramardi.
• Thereafter, he invaded the Chalukya kingdom of Gujarat and forced Chalukya, Bhima II to conclude a
treaty.
• Prithviraja III also entered into hostility with Jayachandra, Gahadvala ruler of Kanauj. It is said that
Jayachandra organised a svayamvara ceremony for the marriage of his beautiful daughter Samyukta.

E
Prithviraja was not invited. Prithviraja succeeded in carrying off the Gahadvala princess by force.

OR
• It was not till the capture of the strong fort of Tabarhindah, identified with Sirhind, by Muhammad Ghori
that Prithviraja became conscious of the gravity of the situation.
• Prithviraja met the enemy at the fateful field of Tarain in 1190-91.
• The first battle of Tarain was disastrous for the Sultan Muhammad Ghori.
SC
• Despite this victory, Prithviraja III did not take adequate steps to guard the north-western frontier of his
empire and allowed himself to dissipate his energy in fighting the Gahadvala king Jayachandra.
• Meanwhile, Muhammad Ghori came to Tarain in 1192 practically unopposed by passing through Multan
and Lahore. One lakh soldiers were killed in the battle, including Govindaraja, chief of Delhi. Prithviraja
himself was taken prisoner and executed thereafter.
GS

• Many a distinguished scholar and poet from different parts of the country gathered round the court of king
Prithviraja III who himself became the theme of two great poems, viz. Prithvirajavijaya and Prithviraj
Rasa, written by his court poets Jayanaka and Chanda (Chandbardai) respectively.
Gahadvalas
• The emergence of the Gahadvalas in Kanauj in the latter part of the 11th century is so sudden that it is
difficult to determine their origin.
• The well-known theory of their connection with the dynasties of the Sun and the Moon cannot be
accepted as true, although traditions trace them back to an obscure descendant of Yayati.
Early Rulers
• The Gahadvala dynasty was founded by Yasovigraha.
• Yasovigraha’s son Mahichandra, also called Mahindra and Mahitala, was a ruler of some consequence who
ruled in some part of Uttar Pradesh.
• Mahichandra’s son, Chandradeva, took hold of the opportunity afforded by the departure of Mahmud
from northern India and inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Rashtrakuta ruler, Gopala, on the banks of
the Yamuna.
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• Chandradeva conquered all the territory from Allahabad to Banaras and made Banaras the second capital
of the Gahadvalas.
• Chandradeva imposed a tax called turushkadanda possibly to defray the expenses of war against Muslim
invasions or to make annual payments to the latter.
• Chandradeva was succeeded by his son Madanachandra, also known as Madanapala.
Jayachandra
• Vijayachandra’s son and successor, he came to the throne in 1170.
• His career and achievements, known from his copper-plates and the panegyrics of the Prithviraja Raso, are
illumined by the Muslim chronicles and other independent sources.
• Jayachandra was the last great monarch of Kanauj whose power and resources must have impressed the
Muslim historians.
• Jayachandra’s peaceful reign was seriously menaced by Muhammad Ghori, who, after conquering Delhi

E
and Ajmer from the Chahamanas, advanced with a large force against Kanauj in 1193.
• Jayachandra met him on the plain between Chandwar and Etawah, and fell fighting.
OR
• Jayachandra’s name is associated with the history of Sanskrit literature for the liberal patronage extended
by him to Sriharsha, who wrote the well-known Naisadhaeharita, Khandana-khanda-khadya, the latter
being the most famous and important of those Vedanta treatises which emphasise the negative or skeptical
side of the system.
SC

• The defeat and death of Jayachandra did not lead to the annexation of the kingdom of Kanauj by the
Muslims.
• Harishchandra, son of Jayachandra, was allowed to rule as a vassal to Muhammad Ghori.
• Harishchandra’s successor, was deprived of his ancestral kingdom by Iltutmish which ended the glory of
imperial Kanauj after six centuries of political domination in northern India.
GS
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INDIAN FEUDALISM
• This period (from 750 to 1200) in Indian history has been termed as a period of ‘Indian Fedualism’ by
a few historians who believed that a number of changes took place in Indian society.
• One significant change was the growing power of a class of people who were variously called Samantas,
Ranaks, Rauttas, etc. Their origins were very different.
• Some were government officers who were defeated rajas who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited
areas.
• Others were local hereditary chiefs or tribal leaders who had carved out a sphere of authority with the help
of armed supporters.

E
• In course of time, these revenue-bearing lands began to be considered hereditary and monopoly of a few
families.
•
OR
The hereditary chiefs began to assume many of the functions of the government. They not only assessed
and collected land revenue but also assumed more and more administrative power such as the right lands
to their followers without the prior permission of the rulers. This led to an increase in the number of
people who drew sustenance form the land without working on it.
SC
The salient features of Indian feudalism were as follows:
1. Emergence of hierarchical landed intermediaries: Vassala and officers of state and other secular assignees
had military obligations and were called Samanta. Sub-in-feudation (verying in different regions) by these
donees to get their land cultivated led to the growth of different strata of intermediaries. It was a hierarchy
of landed aristocrats, tenants, share croppers and cultivators. This hierarchy was also reflected in the
powers, administrative structure, where a sort of lord vassal relationship emerged. In other words, Indian
GS

feudalism consisted of the unequal distribution of land and its produce.

2. Prevalence of forced labour: The right of extracting forced labour (Vishti) is believed to have been
exercised by the Brahmanas and other grantees of land. Forced labour was originally a prerogative of the
king or the state. It was transferred to the grantees, petty officials, village authorities and other. As a result,
a kind of serfdom emerged, in which agricultural labourers were reduced to the position of semi-serfs.
3. Curtailment of land rights of peasents:Due to the growing claims over them by rulers and intermediaries,
peasants also suffered an curtailment of their land rights. Many were reduced to the position of tenants
facing ever-growing threat of eviction. A number of peasants were only share- croppers (ardhikas). The
strain on the peasantry was also caused by the burden of taxation, coercion and increase in their indebtness.
4. Extra economic coercion:Surplus was extracted through various methods. Extra economic coercion was
a conspicuous method, new mechanisms of economic subordination also evolved.
5. Relatively closed village economy:It was relatively a closed village economy. The transfer of human
resources along with land to the beneficiaries shows that in such villages the peasants, craftsmen and
artisans were attached to the village and, hence, were mutually dependent. Their attachment to land and
to service grants ensured control over them by the beneficiaries.
• Recently, the validity of the feudal formation in the context of medieval India has been questioned.
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• It has been suggested that the medieval society was characterized by self dependent of free-peasant
production.
• The peasants had control over the means and the processes of production.
• It is added that there was relative stability in social and economic structure and there was not much change
in the level of techniques of the surplus than over a redistribution of means of production.
• The appropriation of agrarian surplus to the state formed the chief instrument of exploitation.
• The high fertility of land and the low subsistence level of the peasants facilitated the state appropriation
of the surplus in condition of relative stability.
• This line of approach does not take note of superior right and inferior rights of one party or another over
land.
• In fact, in early medieval times, in the same piece of land the peasant held inferior right and the landlords
held superior right.

E
• The land grants clearly made the position of the landlords strong over the land as compared to that of
peasants.
OR
• The critique of feudal polity does not take note of massive evidence in support of the subjection and
immobility of peasantry, which is an indispensable element in the feudal system.
• Some of these factors are stated below:
1. It weakened the position of the ruler, and made him more dependent on the feudal chiefs, many of
SC

whom maintained their own military forces which could be used to defy the ruler.
2. The internal weaknesses of the Indian states became crucial in their contest with the Turks later on.
3. The small states discouraged trade, and encouraged an economy in which villages or groups of
villages tended to become largely self-sufficient.
4. The domination of the feudal chiefs also weakened village self-government.
GS

5. The feudal order had a few advantages as well. In an age of disorder and violence, the stronger feudal
chiefs protected the lives and property of the peasants and other without which daily life could not
have functioned. Some of the feudal chief also took an interest in the extension and improvement
of cultivation.
• Economically, the first phase, i.e, AD 750–AD 1000, is believed to be one of decline which is evident
from the absence of coins for exchange and the decayed condition of towns in northern India.
• But in the second phase after AD 1000, revival of trade activities took place.
• Not only new gold coins came into circulation, there are also numerous references to trade goods and
towns.
• There seem to be two main reasons for it.
– There was increase in agricultural activities on account of land grants in fresh areas. It led to surplus
production of goods for exchange.
– The Arab traders had emerged on the coastal areas of India as important players in international sea
trade.
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• The Arabs had acquired a foothold in Sind in AD 712 and later, gradually, they set up their settlements
all along the sea from Arabia to China.

• These settlements served as important channels for the sale and purchase of Indian goods, and thus helped
in the growth of Indian external trade.

• In south India, the Chola kings maintained close commercial contact with Southeast Asia (Malaya,
Indonesia etc) and China.

Administration

• For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into a central region, directly ruled by the king, and
many fiefs ruled by the feudal lords.

• The central region was divided into bhuktis or rashtras, which were under viceroys, vishayas under
vishayapatis, and finally the villages under gramapatis.

E
• The administration of the fiefs also followed the same pattern.

• The village self-government in north India weakened during this period due to the domination of the

Military Administration

•
OR
feudal chiefs, while at the same time it was at its best in south India under the Cholas.

The army consisted of royal retainers or the personal army of the king and the contingents supplied by
the feudal lords.
SC

• The lack of cohesion in the army was, in fact, responsible for the lack of unity in the armies of the rulers
of this period.

• The army consisted of an infantry, cavalry and war-elephants, but the cavalry was neither numerous nor
there were majority of horses of fine breed.
GS

• Military service practically came to be the monopoly of Rajputs.

• Consequently 90 per cent of the people had no opportunity of sharing in the defence of their land and
they did not put up any strong opposition to the authority of any military usurper.

Revenue Administration
• Taxation during this period was heavier compared to the ancient times. This was so because expenditure
over the royal household and the court continued to increase.

• The military budget also continued to be inflated because of ceaseless fighting.

Judicial Administration
• Provision for justice had been laid down as one of the principal duties of the state in India, but the rulers
during this period did not pay adequate attention to it.

• In the bhuktis there was a dandanayaka who seems to have been in charge of justice, police and prisons
simultaneously.
• There is no mention of any other officer who might have been principally in charge of justice. So it seems
that most of the disputes were settled by arbitration through the caste and village panchayats.
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Different Types of Feudal Chiefs

• Some feudal lords were government officers who were increasingly paid not in cash but by assigning to
them revenue-bearing villages.
• Others were defeated kings and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenues of limited areas.
• Some others were local hereditary chiefs or military adventurers who had carved out a sphere of influence
with the help of armed supporters.
• Still others were tribal or clan leaders.
• The actual position of these people varied. Some of them were only village chiefs; some dominated a tract
comprising a number of villages, while others dominated an entire region.
• Thus, there was a definite hierarchy among these chiefs and they constantly contested against each other
and tried to enhance their position.
Caste System

E
• The caste system formed the basis of the society as in earlier periods, but now the Kshatriyas and the
Brahmins were given more privileges, while more and more social and religious disabilities were placed
OR
on the Sudras and other lower castes than in the earlier period.
• Contemporary writers mention a large number of sub-castes such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians,
barbers, and fishermen.
• Some of the castes were earlier guilds of workers which now began to be classified as castes (Jatis).
SC

• It is significant to note that the Smriti writers of the period regard handicrafts as low occupations. Thus,
most of the workers were also classified as untouchables.
Position of the Women
• The very high standard of learning, culture and all round progress reached by Indian women during the
GS

Vedic age is a well-known fact.

• The best proof of this is the fact that the Rigveda, the oldest known literature in the whole world, contains
hymns by as many as twenty-seven women, called brahmavakinis or women seers.
• Saunaka in his Brihaddevata (5th century BC), a work on the Rigveda, has mentioned the name of these
twenty-seven women seers.
• The position of women in India gradually deteriorated as the golden Vedic ideals of unity and equality
began to fade off through the passage of time.
• During the period of the Smritis, women were bracketed with the Sudras, and were denied the right to
study the Vedas, to utter Vedic mantras, and to perform Vedic rites.
• During early medieval period, there was distruption in women’s old privilege of choosing a life of celibacy
and asceticism.
• Since women and property are bracketed together in several reference in the epics, Smritis and Puranas,
there is no doubt that woman herself was regarded as a sort of property.
• Women could be given away or loaned as any item of property.
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• Manu and Yajnavalkya, for example, hold that a woman is never independent. This was like the attitude
of a typical patriarchal society based on private property. Because of this attitude, the Brahmanical law
did not allow any proprietary rights to women; the provision for stridhana is of a very limited character
and does not extend beyond the wife’s rights to jewels, ornaments and presents made to her.

• Manu declares that the wife, the son and the slave are unpropertied, whatever they earn is the property
of those to whom they belongs to. This sort of social philosophy took strong roots in the Gupta and post-
Gupta periods, although the institution of monogamous family and private property had been developed
much earlier.

Education and Learning

• The attitude of the learned classes of north India became increasingly rigid during this period.

• They tended to repeat the past learning, instead of putting forward and welcoming new ideas.

E
• They also tended to isolate themselves from the main currents of scientific thought outside India. This
is reflected in the writings of Al-Beruni, a noted scientist and scholar from Central Asia who lived in India
at Mahmud Ghazni’s court.

•
learned people of the country, viz., the Brahmins. OR
Although a great admirer of Indian sciences and learning, Al-Beruni also noted the insular attitude of the

The attitude of trying to confine knowledge among a very narrow group, and of taking an arrogant attitude
towards new ideas, from whichever source they might come, was largely responsible for making India
SC
backward.

Religious Developments

• Both Buddhism and Jainism continued to decline during the period.

• It was during this period that Buddhism almost disappeared from the land of its birth after the fall of the
GS

Palas.

• There was a marked revival and expansion of Hinduism. This took many forms, the most important being
the growing popularity of Siva and Vishnu. A number of popular movements arose around the worship
of these gods, while at the intellectual level, the tenets of Buddhism and Jainism were challenged.

• In due course, Siva and Vishnu became the chief gods, and the worship of the Sun, Brahma, etc. declined
in popularity.

• In eastern India, a new form of worship arose. This was the worship of Sakti, or the worship of the female
principle as the cause of creation.

• Thus, the Hindus began to worship Durga, Kali, etc. who were associated with Siva, and the Buddhists
worshipped Taras as the consorts of the Buddhas.

Nature of Society

• This society can be called a ‘feudal’ society, because the dominant position was held by those who drew
their sustenance from land without working on it.

• The growth of such a society in north India during this period had far reaching effects.
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Rise of Self-sufficient Village Economies

• A very important development of the period was the rise of a self-sufficient village economy where
production approximated local requirements, with little attempt at producing a surplus to be used specifically
for trade or exchange.
• This existing system led to accepting the standard of minimum production, since the incentive to improve
production was absent.
• As the pressure on the peasantry increased, production stayed at a subsistence level only.
Decline of Trade
• The subsistence, economy of the village naturally led to a decline in trade, since there was little surplus
production which could be traded or exchanged.
• Trade was further hampered by the emergence of a wide range of local weights and measures, making
long distance trade more difficult.

E
• Lack of trade led to a decrease in the use of coins, and this decrease in turn led to a further decline in
trade.
OR
• The unstable political conditions and the ceaseless internal fighting in India only helped this process of
decline in trade.
• There was also an important external development which contributed to this decline. This was the decline
of the Roman and Sassanid empires which caused a setback to the external demand for Indian goods in
the West.
SC

Decline of Towns and Cities

• The decline in trade in turn affected the growth of towns.
• Those that had attained a certain economic momentum continued, but the founding of new towns was
less frequent than before.
GS

• The Arab geographers, writing of this period, have commented on the paucity of towns in India as
compared with China.
• But in the coastal areas and Bengal, towns were prospering because they continued to trade with West
Asia and South-East Asia.
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DANCE
Salient facts:
• The Rig Veda mentions dance (nrti) and danseuse (nrtu).
• The discovery of the bronze statue of a dancing girl in Harappan culture testifies to the fact that some
women in Harappa performed dances.
• The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle.
• Dances performed inside the sanctum of the temple according to the rituals were called Agama
Nartanam.

E
• Dances performed in royal courts to the accompaniment of classical music were called Carnatakam.
CLASSICAL DANCE

OR
The term “classical” was introduced by Sangeet Natak Akademi to denote the Natya Shastra-based performing
art styles. These are described as below:
Bharata Natyam (Tamil Nadu) • The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is textual source for
SC
it.
• The dance movements are characterized by bent legs, while feet
keep rhythm. Hands may be used in a series of mudra.
Kathakali (Kerala) • The dancers wear large head dresses, and the different colours of
the face are extended with moulded lime.
GS

• Kathakali dance presents themes derived from the Ramayana,

the Mahabharata and other Hindu epics, mythologies and legends. 
Mohini Attam (Kerala) • Mohiniattyam is characterized by swaying movements of the
upper body with legs placed in a stance similar to the plie position.
The eyes play an important role in the direction of the movement.
• The performer wear The white and gold costume.
Kathak (Uttar Pradesh) • The movements include intricate footwork accented by bells
worn around the ankles and stylized gestures adapted from normal
body language.
• Lucknow, Banaras and Jaipur are recognized as the three schools
of it.
Odissi (Orissa) • The technique of Odissi includes repeated use of the tribhangi,
(thrice deflected posture) in which the body is bent in three
places, the shape of a helix. This posture and the characteristic
shifting of the torso from side to side, make Odissi a difficult
style to execute. 
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Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)
Manipuri (Manipur)
Sattriya (Assam)
FOLK DANCES OF INDIA
S. No. Dance form
• Kuchipudi exhibits scenes from the Hindu Epics, legends and
mythological tales through a combination of music, dance and
acting.
• Taranagam is the main unique piece of kuchpudi repertoire, also
known as plate (made by brass) dance. In that the dancer must
dance upon a brass plate, placing the feet upon the raised edges.
• It has two major streams. One is the sankeertana which is the
devotional aspect and the other is raasa. 
• Dressed in white costumes and turbans, head gears, they include
khol playing, performing dance, creating soundscapes, floor
patterns and choreographic designs.
State

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1. Chhau dance Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal
2. Kalbella Rajasthan
OR
3. Dumhal Jammu and Kashmir
4. Hikat & Namagen Himachal Pradesh
5. Chholiya Uttarakhand
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6. Bangra Punjab
7. Gaur Madhya Pradesh
8. Karma Dance Chattisgarh
9. Padayani Kerala
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10. Kummi and Kolattam Tamil Nadu

11. Naga Dances Nagaland
12. Bihu Assam
13. Nongkrem Meghalaya
14. Thang-ta & Dhol-Cholom Manipur
15. Lahoor Haryana
16. DolluKunitha Karnataka
17. Lava Dance Lakshadweep
18. Lavani Maharashtra
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MUSIC
Music in Indian subcontinent is the reflection of the diverse elements — racial, linguistic and cultural. It plays
a vital role in the religious, social and artistic life of the heterogeneous population of the country.

The oldest music, which possessed a grammar was the vedic. Of course, the Rig-Veda is said to be the oldest:
nearly 5000 years old. The psalms of the Rig-Veda were called the richas. The Yajur Veda was also a religious
chant. Natya Shastra of Bharata is another important landmark in the history of Indian music. It is supposed
to have been written sometime between the 2nd century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D. Some scholars are even
doubtful whether it is the work of one author and the work might well have been a compendium - at least,
the version which is available to us. The Natya Shastra is a comprehensive work mainly dealing with dramaturgy.

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But a few chapters of this deal with music. Therein we get information on scales, melodic forms, tala and
musical instruments.
CLASSICAL MUSIC
OR
Classical music tradition, including Carnatic and Hindustani music has a history spanning millennia and has
developed over several eras. It remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of spiritual
inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.
SC
Today there are two systems of classical music: the Hindustani and the Carnatic. Carnatic music is confined
to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The classical music of the rest of the country goes
under the name, Hindustani Classical Music. Of course, there are some areas in Karnataka and Andhra where
the Hindustani Classical system is also practiced. Karnataka has given us in the recent past some very
distinguished musicians of the Hindustani style.
GS

The development of two distinct streams is usually attributed to the fact that northern India absorbed the
impact of Muslim rule in its culture while South India did not. Hindustani classical music was greatly patronised
by the Muslim rulers of northern India, particularly by the Mughal and Awadhi (Lucknow) courts.

Classical music in India is elevated to the states of science and this can be gauged from the description of it
as Shastriya Sangeet, or ‘scientific music’. Central to the classical music tradition in India is what is known as
the guru-shishya parampara, literally the teacher-pupil tradition. The gurus are entitled Pandit if they are Hindu
or Ustaad if they are Muslim.

While the basics remain constant among the Hindustani and Carnatic Music, there are differences in style and
flourish that distinguish one gharana from another; gharana literally means ‘household’. The major gharanas are
those of Kirana, Gwalior, Agra, Lucknow, Jaipur and Patiala. While the guru-shishya paramapara is common
to the teaching of classical music all over the country, the tradition of gharanas is unique to the north Indian
form of Hindustani classical music.
PILLARS OF INDIAN MUSICAL SYSTEMS-

• Swara - In general sense, Swara means pitch or tone. In total there are 7 basic notes of scale:

Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni

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Collectively, these 7 swaras are called – SARGAM:

• Raga - It forms the basis of melody. Raga is a combination of tones or swaras which, with beautiful
illuminating graces, pleases the people is general.
• Tala - It focus the basis of rhythm. It is a time measure. It is an arrangement of beats a cyclical manner.
The range of taal is from 3 beats to 108 beats. As per natyashastra, the one 32 kinds of taal but presently,
there are more than 100 taals derived by musicians. The most popular taal is – Teen Taal (16 beats)
Hindustani Music
• Hindustani Sangeet is usually considered to be a mixture of traditional Hindu musical concepts and
Persian performance practice.
• Hindustani music is based on the raga system.
• A raga is a melodic scale, consisting of notes from the basic seven known as sa, re, ga, ma pa, dha, and
ni.

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• Formal compositions (songs or instrumental compositions in a fixed meter) are juxtaposed with the
improvised portion.
OR
• Khyal and Dhrupad are two major types of compositions within the Hindustani genre.
• There are many musical instruments that are associated with Hindustani sangeet. The most famous are
the tabla and sitar. Other less well known instruments are the sarangi, santur, and the sarod.
• North Indian Music offers a variety of forms of music like the Dhrupad, Khayal (classical North Indian
SC

music), Thumri (emotional music), Qawwali (songs from the Pakistani sufi’s), and Ghazal (Panjabi romantic
music).
Gharanas of Hindustani Music
In Hindustani music, a gharânâ is a system of social organization linking musicians or dancers by lineage or
apprenticeship, and by adherence to a particular musical style. A gharana also indicates a comprehensive
GS

musicological ideology. This ideology sometimes changes substantially from one gharana to another.
Some popular gharanas are:
Gharanas Place of Origin
Gwalior Gharana Gwalior
Agra Gharana Agra
Kirana Gharana Avadh
Jaipur Gharana Jaipur
Rampur Sahaswan Gharana Rampur
Patiala Gharana Patiala
Delhi Gharana Delhi
Benaras Gharana  Benaras
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Types of Hindustani Music and its meaning

Dhrupad - Effort from vocal chords and lungs

Dhamar - Play of Krishna during holy

Khayal - Delicate, romantic and based on imagination.

Thumr i - Romantic religious literature

Tappa - Quick turn of phase

Bhajan - Religious devotional songs

Tarana - Syllables stung together to set a rhythm

Sabadas - Sikh religious songs

Qawali - Indo- Muslim repertories of songs in groups.

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Ghazal - Independent couplets on love and devotion

Carnatic Music

•
OR
Carnatic sangeet (karnatik sangit), is the South Indian system of classical music.

It has a rich history and a very sophisticated system of theory. 

SC
• Carnatic Sangeet is found in the south Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh.

• Purandardas is considered as the father of Carnatic Music

• Carnatic music acquired its present form in the 18th century under the “trinity” of Carnatic music,
Thyagaraja, Shamashastri, and Muthuswami Dikshitar composed their famous songs. 
GS

• It is also based upon a system of ragam (rag) and thalam (tal).

• There are a number of musical instruments used in South Indian classical music. The most common ones
are the veena (vina), violin, mridangam, nadaswaram, and the tavil.

• The dominant element of Karnatic music is the ‘Kriti’; a form of composition with three parts.

Types of Carnatic Music and its meaning Ragam

Tanam- Pallavi - Elaborate rhythmic and melodic variation in unmeasured sense.

Kriti-Kirthanai - Most popular type which refers to devotional music laced with poetic beauty.

Varnam - Performed at the beginning of a concert; a completely composed piece.

Pa dam - Slower tempoed love songs referring to the human yearning for the adored god head.

Javalis - Faster tempoed love songs with direct description of human love.

Tillana - Meaningful phrases are interspersed with variety of meaningless syllables.

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FOLK MUSIC OF INDIA

1. Rasiya Geet: Uttar Pradesh:
2. Pankhida: Rajasthan
3. Lotia: Rajasthan
4. Pandavani: Chhattisgarh
5. Mando: Goa
6. Hori: Uttar Pradesh
7. Kajri: Uttar Pradesh
8. Tappa: Punjab
9. Daskathia: Odisha
10. Bihu songs: Assam

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MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
OR
In the Natya Shastra, compiled by Bharat Muni dated 200 B.C.-200 A.D., musical instruments have been
divided into four main categories on the basis of how sound is produced.
Tata Vadya - Stringed Instruments • Sound is produced by the vibration of a string or chord. These
vibrations are caused by plucking or by bowing on the string
which has been pulled taut.
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• It is divided as the plucked and the bowed.

• Examples: veena, rudraveena, gotuvadyam, sitar, sarod, guitar,
mandolin, etc.
Sushira Vadya •  Sound is produced by blowing air into an hollow column.
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• Examples: Flute,  Shehnai, Nadaswaram, etc.

Avanaddha Vadya • sound is produced by striking the animal skin which has been
stretched across an earthern or metal pot or a wooden barrel or
frame.
• Examples: Drums, table, nagada, etc.
Ghana Vadya • Played with a striker or hammer.
• Examples: Chipli, Taal, sticks, clappers, etc.
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DRAMA
Bharata’s Natya Shastra was the earliest and most elaborate treatise on drama written anywhere in the world.
India has a longest and richest tradition in theatre going back to at least 5000 years. The origin of Indian theatre
is closely related to ancient rituals and seasonal festivities of the country. The growth in drama took place with
the introduction of “curtain” in the kushanas era.

The first millennium was also characterized by the great harvest of Sanskrit drama by pre-eminent play-wrights
like Bhasa, Kalidasa, Shudraka, Vishakadatta, Bhavabhuti and Harsha. This body of works compares in its
range and power with the dramatic output of other rich theatre traditions of the world ancient Greek theatre
and Elizabethan theatre. The glory of ancient Sanskrit drama ended with the first millennium.

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Traditionally the theatre consisted of the auditorium, stage and the backstage which is behind the stage. Curtain
separates the stage and backstage. The drama was performed without scenery and decorations. It was more of

OR
acting and gestures by the actors. Costume and make-up was regulated by convention so that roles were
immediately recognizable. Most type of drama had a hero , a heroine, a villain and a “vidushaka” as a
comedian. Themes were mainly based on love.

The drama generally opened with a benediction song followed by a prologue in the form of a dialogue/
SC
discussion between the chief actor and his actress giving the title , nature and occasion of the play. Violence
and death were forbidden to be performed in the stage. At the end of the play came a concluding verse- a
virtual vote of thanks.

FOLK THEATRE

1. BHAND PATHER(JASHIN) - KASHMIR

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• unique combination of dance, music and acting.

• Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter.

• music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol.

• Since the actors are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of living, ideals
and sensitivity is noticable.

2. SWANG - HARYANA

• mainly music-based.

• Gradually, prose too, played its role in the dialogues.

• softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa along with the development of character can be seen

• two important styles are from Rohtak and Haathras.

• In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras, it is
Brajbhasha.
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3. NAUTANKI - UTTAR PRADESH

• most popular centres - Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras.
• The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel.
• nowadays, women have also started taking part
4. RAASLEELA 
• based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends
• believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the life of Krishna.
• dialogues in prose combined beautifully with songs and scenes from Krishna’s pranks.
5. BHAVAI - GUJARAT
• Main centers of - Kutch and Kathiawar.
• instruments used are: bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc.

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• there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
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6. JATRA - BENGAL
• Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies have within their framework musical plays
are known as Jatra.
• Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya prabhu’s influence.
SC

• earlier form of Jatra has been musical & dialogues were added at later stage.
• The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of action, etc.
7. BHAONA(ANKIA NAAT) - ASSAM
• cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen.
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• The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or Assamese.
8. MAACH - MADHYA PRADESH
• Maach is used for the stage itself as also for the play.
• songs are given prominence in between the dialogues.
• The term for dialogue in this form is bol and rhyme in narration is termed vanag.
• The tunes of this theatre form are known as rangat.
9. TAMAASHA - MAHARASHTRA
• evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan.
• female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the play. She is known as Murki.
• Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the
emotions through dance.
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10. DASHAVATAR - KONKAN AND GOA

• personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity. The ten incarnations
are Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lion-man), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram,
Rama, Krishna (or Balram), Buddha and Kalki.
• Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and papier mache.
11. KRISHNATTAM - KERALA
• came into existence in the middle of 17th century A.D. under the patronage of King Manavada of
Calicut.
• Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive days.
• The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham,
Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana.
• episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna - his birth, childhood pranks and various deeds

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depicting victory of good over evil.
12. MUDIYETTU - KERALA
•

•
of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess. OR
celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-December). performed only in the Kali temples

depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika.

SC
• seven characters in Mudiyettu-Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar
(Nandikeshvara) are all heavily made-up.
13. THEYYAM - KERALA
• ‘Theyyam’ derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Daivam’ meaning God.
• Hence it is called God’s dance.
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• performed by various castes to appease and worship spirits.

• distinguishing features - colourful costume and awe-inspiring headgears (mudi) nearly 5 to 6 feet high
made of arecanut splices, bamboos, leaf sheaths of arecanut and wooden planks and dyed into
different strong colours using turmeric, wax and arac.
14. KOODIYAATTAM - KERALA
• based on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
• characters of this theatre form are:
• Chakyaar or actor,
• Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and
• Naangyaar, those taking on women’s roles.
• The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the protagonists.
• Vidushak alone delivers the dialogues.
• Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements makes this dance and theatre form unique.
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15. YAKSHAGAANA - KARNATAKA

• based on mythological stories and Puranas.
• most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu
vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva
yuddha and Panchavati.
16. THERUKOOTHU - TAMIL NADU
• literally means “street play”.
• mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve
rich harvest.
• there is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi.
• Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara gives the gist of the play to the audience
• Komali entertains the audience with his buffoonery.

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17. KARYALA- HIMACHAL PRADESH
• Deals with serious question of life & death briefly and with simplicity of expression & diction, all
OR
enveloped in humour.
• Indeed, audience is given essence of our cultural heritage of viewing the world as a stage and as an
unsubstantial pageant which is to be negotiated and lived by rising above it.
• There is often stylistic diversity, which strengthens their identity from Swang, Nautanki, Bhagat, etc.
SC
GS
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INDIAN POTTERY
The art of handling of clay called Pottery was one of the earliest skills known to the Indians. From time
immemorial, lumps of clay were hand -moulded to form toys and deities of worship. The advent of the Potter’s
wheel gave man the task of making beautifully shaped pots for his personal use. The movement of the wheel
and the pressure exerted by the hands on the clay gives new shapes and forms.
Pottery is an art that has evolved since time immemorial. The origins of pottery date back to the Neolithic
Era; however in India it began with the Indus Valley Civilization and was developed as a response to the needs
of mankind.
UNGLAZED POTTERY

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Although the art of glazing pottery was known in India from ancient times, the finest pottery in India is of
the unglazed variety. This unglazed pottery has a wide range. Very fine paper-thin pottery is produced in Kutch,
Kanpur and Alwar. Alwar is known for paper-thin pottery called Kagzi.
There are three different styles in unglazed pottery.
1.
OR
Paper thin, biscuit colored pottery with incised patterns.
2. Here the pot is polished, painted with red and white slips into intricate patterns while the outline is incised.
SC
The scrafito technique is used here.
3. In this style, highly polished pottery is given strong, deeply incised, stylized patterns of arabesques. The rest
of the area is covered with rows of black dots and the contrast in color and texture gives the incised area
greater prominence.
Kangra in Himachal Pradesh, Pokhran in Rajasthan, Meerut and Harpur in Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur in Maharastra,
GS

Kutch in Gujarat, Jahjjar in Haryana, Birbhum in Bengal and Manipur are famous for their special styles in
pottery. Each region has its own specialty.
Kangra is noted for black pottery, which resembles the Harappan pottery style.Pokhran has stylized forms with
incised decorative patterns. Kanpur makes thin pottery with incised designs. Meerut and Jhajjar make slim
necked water containers called surahis. These are half -turned and half -moulded and have a variety of patterns
and designs. Kutch is famous for pots, terracotta horses and elephants. The pots are made for different
occasions like marriages, death, etc.Nizamabad in Uttar Pradesh is noted for black pottery with silver patterns
worked in it. This is similar to the Bidar work of Andhra where oxidized gunmetal is inlaid with silver wire.
GLAZED POTTERY
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In India, the making of Glazed pottery came into being with the advent of the Arab influence in India. Only
a few centers in India are known for its production. Glazed pottery with white background and blue and green
patterns is developed in Delhi, Amritsar, Jaipur, Khurja, Chunar and Rampur in Uttar Pradesh, and Karigari
in Tamilnadu.
Delhi, Khurja and Jaipur are known for the famed Blue Pottery. This does not involve the usage of clay. First,
the basic forms are created and then they are painted on the surface.

Ceramic pots of Jaipur put up for sale

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OR
Then it is covered with finely ground glass and fired. Jaipur and Delhi follow this method whereas Khurja and
Rampur prepare the base from red clay and then fire it.
SC

Marble inlay works

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In Chunar, the raised designs in Surahis are adapted for glazed pottery. A brown slip is given finally.In Karigari
in Tamilnadu, biscuit ware is created with incised patterns and given a blue or green glaze.
TERRACOTTA
The rural parts of India commonly display terracotta animal figures in places of worship or under the mango
or pipal trees in the vicinity of temples. The potters mostly do the terracotta figures. In some parts of Indian
villages, the women folk create their own forms of Gods for worship and other decorative pieces for adorning
their houses.
In Bihar, Bengal and Gujarat, during festivals, the women prepare clay figures to propitiate their Gods and
Goddesses.
The relief- worked plague of Moela in Rajasthan has a distinct style. Here on flat surface local deities are
created with moulded clay. They are then fired and then painted brilliant colors.
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Terracotta works used for decorations

Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh has villages where clay figures of animals are done. The potter creates the basic
form by throwing separate pieces on the wheel and then joining them.

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Tanjore doll
OR Clay toys common in India.
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Tamilnadu is famous for the terracotta figures of the Aiyanar Deity. The figures are huge and they are found
standing guard at the entrances of villages protecting the insiders from evil spirits.Gujarat also has votive
figures like horses with riders, etc.  
GS

PAPIER-MACHE
In the year 1398, when India was invaded by Tamur Lane, Sultan Sikander sent his son to pay tribute to the
invader. Tamur lane betrayed the agreement of his alliance with the Sultan and made his son a hostage in
Samarkhand for seven years. Many craftsmen from Central Asia and Persia had accompanied Tamur Lane to
India and were placed in Samarkhand as well. There this young dynamic Prince saw the strange craft made of
paper pulp. He learnt the art and later when he became the king after his father’s death, spread this art among
the craftsmen of his region. 

A Fish pattern made of Papier Mache

The base of this craft is paper pulp coarsely mashed and mixed with copper sulphate and rice-flour paste. Then
moulded by covering the mould with a thin paper and then with layers of this mixture. The designers then
sketch the designs intricately and finally it is laquered and polished in bright colors. A touch of golden color
is always found on all papier-mache products owing its root to the Persian design.
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PUPPET FORMS OF INDIA

The puppets are believed to be around since the time of Harappa and Mohenjodaro civilisation dating back
to 2300 BC. Several dolls with strings are found in some of the harappan cities.
The Mahabharata refers to popular entertainment in India including art of puppetry and shadow theatre. There
is reference in Gita where the three qualities found in men (Satta, Rajah and Tamah) are said to be the three
strings pulled by the Divine to lead man in life.
Silappadikaaram - earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Sangam literature.
Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in traditional entertainment. Puppetry has been
successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students to develop their mental and
physical faculties. Awareness programmes about the conservation of the natural and cultural environment have

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also proved to be useful. These programmes aim at sensitising the students to the beauty in word, sound, form,
colour and movement. The aesthetic satisfaction derived from making of puppets and communicating through
them helps in the all round development of the personality of the child.
OR
Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content of traditional puppet
theatre in India which, in turn, imbibes elements of all creative expressions like painting, sculpture, music,
dance, drama, etc. The presentation of puppet programmes involves the creative efforts of many people
working together.
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Several types of Puppet forms are available in our diverse culture of India:
• String Puppets
Characteristics:
a) It has jointed body and limbs that allow movement.
b) Puppets are made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with cotton, rags or saw dust. T
GS

c) The puppet is suspended from a hand held control strings that are attached to different parts of the
puppet’s body.
d) The puppet is manipulated by operating the control as well as by loosening or pulling the relevant string(s).
e) For the convenience of manipulation and support, two rods are attached to the hands of the puppets.
Examples:
i. Kathputli (Rajasthan)
ii. Kundhei (Orissa)
iii. Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
iv. Bommalattam (TN)
• Shadow Puppets
Characteristics
a) Shadow puppets are flat puppets that are operated against the rear of a tightly stretched white cloth
screen. 
b) They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent.
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c) Shadow puppets are pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it.
d) The manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows for the viewers
who sit in front of the screen.
e) The puppet shapes or cutouts are perforated and split bamboo or cane sticks are attached vertically to the
puppet for handling and manipulation.
Examples:
i. Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
ii. Tholu Bommalata (AP)
iii. Ravanachhaya (Orissa)
iv. Tolpavakoothu (Kerala)
v. Chamadyache Bahulya (Maharashtra)

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• Rod Puppets
Characteristics
a)

b)
OR
These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and
both hands attached to rods are joined at the shoulders.
The main holding rod that supports the puppet may be hidden by a robe or costume of the puppet.
c) The action rods are usually connected to the hands of the puppet and manipulated by the puppeteer to
SC
show action.
d) The body and hands have a bamboo base covered and plastered with hay and rice husk mixed and
moulded into required shape.
e) Due to the absence of legs the puppets are draped in a sari or dhoti as per the character.
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f) The puppet movements are highly dramatic.

Examples:
i. Putul Nautch (WB)
ii. Yampuri (Bihar)
iii. Kathi Kandhe (Orissa)
• Glove Puppets
Characteristics
a) The glove puppets are worn on hands just like a glove.
b) The middle finger and thumb act as hands of the puppet and the index finger acts as the head. 
c) Head is made of either papier mache, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck.
Examples:
1. Pava-kathakali (Kerala)
2. Kundhei nach (Orissa)
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In the past, traditional puppet shows were used to convey religious messages in villages. Today, due to the
influence of modern communication methods, the traditional puppetry is at the cross roads in many states of
India with most puppeteers taking to alternate source of livelihood. However, contemporary puppetry has a
tremendous scope in the field of education, entertainment and awareness generation. 
Pavai (Centre for Puppetry) explores and uses the art of puppetry for communication at various levels and
works towards its promotion and preservation with the help of children, youth and the teaching community. 

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OR
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INDIAN PAINTING
The origin of Indian painting goes back to 8000 years and an account of its development is inextricably
meshed with the development of Indian civilization.
• Prehistoric painting: Theme of painting were Hunting theme (group Hunting scenes); Figures of animals
& birds; Battle Scenes; Dancing Scenes. Example; Bhibetka Caves (MP).
• Mural paintings: Indian Mural Paintings are paintings made on walls of caves and palaces. The caves of
Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta also on the Bagh caves and Sittanvasal are examples of it.

Paintings Themes

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Ajanta paintings The themes of most of these paintings revolve around the life and teachings of

OR
Lord Buddha. This includes the Jataka stories related to the various lives and
incarnations of Buddha. 
Ellora Paintings The rock paintings of Ellora were painted in two different series. The first series,
which were done when the caves were carved, revolve around Lord Vishnu and
Goddess Lakshmi. The second series, painted centuries later, illustrate procession
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of Shaiva holy men, Apsaras, etc. It also included Jataka tales and Jain text.
Bagh Paintings Paintings are both secular and religious  ( Buddhism is main inspiration ). Painting
style is influenced by Ajanta.
Sittanavasal Paintings The themes of these paintings include animals, fish, ducks, people collecting lotuses
from a pond, two dancing figures, etc. Apart from that, one can also find inscriptions
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dating back to the 9th and 10th century. Jainism is main inspiration.

Badami Paintings Petronised by Chalukyas. It was inspired by Vaishaivism. Paintings in this cave
depict palace scenes.
Pandyas paintings Jains texts, female figures, etc.
Pallavas paintings Beautiful lotus pond and flowers, dancing figures, lilies, fish, geese, buffaloes and
elephants.
Chola paintings The paintings celebrate Lord Œiva.
Vijayanagara Paintings The paintings about the life and times of the Vijayanagara court.
Nayaka Paintings Depicting the story of Mucukunda, a legendary Chola king.

• Miniature Paintings: Miniature paintings are executed on books and albums, and on perishable material
such as paper and cloth. The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature painting in India. The art
reached its zenith during the Mughal period and was pursued by the painters of different Rajasthani
Schools of painting, like Bundi, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Marwar and Mewar. The Ragamala paintings also
belong to this school, as do the Company paintings produced during the British Raj.
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Pala School • They are representations of Buddhist yantras, graphic symbols which were
visual aids to the mantras and the dharanis (types of ritual speech).
• The Buddhist monasteries (mahaviharas) of Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila
and Somarupa were great centres of Buddhist learning and art.
Mughal School • It is synthesis of the indigenous Indian style of painting and the Safavid
school of Persian painting.
• The subjects depicted were scenes of warfare, hunting and trials of strength.
Rajasthani school • The themes of the paintings were mostly religious and love subjects, based on
Lord Rama and Lord Krishna. Court scenes were depicted as also royal
portraits.
• The Rajput painting developed individual styles in Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Jodhpur
and Kishangarh.

E
Pahari school • The Pahari School was lively and romantic, technically superior with soft
tonal shading, exquisitely created backgrounds that merged with the theme,
and attitudes and postures highly evocative of the moods they were to convey.
OR
• The important centres of the Pahari School were at Basholi, Jammu, Guler
and Kangra.
Deccani school • Deccani painting developed at Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and
Hyderabad, the former states that formed the region known as Deccan.
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• Tanjore paintings are of popular Hindu deities and scenes from Hindu epics.
The painting are done on cloth stretched over wood, style is decorative and
is marked by the use of bright colours and ornamental details.
Company school of • European artists also brought with them the technique of oil painting.
painting • One popular imperial tradition was that of picturesque landscape painting.
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• Another tradition of art that became immensely popular in colonial India

was portrait painting.
• There was a third category of imperial art, called "history painting".

• Folk paintings: The rural folk paintings of India bear distinctive colorful designs, which are treated with
religious and mystical motifs. These are:
Madhubani Painting Mithila region of Bihar
Phad Scroll painting of Rajasthan
Warli paintings Thane, Maharashtra
Patachitra Orissa
Kalighat paintings Kolkatta
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS RELATED

TO ART AND CULTURE
• Lalit Kala Akademi
To promote and propagate understanding of Indian art, both within and outside the country, the Lalit Kala
Akademi was established in 1954 at New Delhi for pursuance of the dream of the first Prime Minister of
independent India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru for a cultural and national identity.
The Akademi has regional centres called Rashtriya Lalit Kala Kendras at Lucknow, Kolkata, Chennai, Garhi
in New Delhi and Bhubaneswar with workshop facilities in painting, sculpture, print-making and ceramics.
Broadly the objectives of the Akademi are - to encourage the exchange of ideas between various schools of
art by organizing conferences, seminars, exhibitions etc. on all India basis involving scholars and educationists

E
and State Academies, Zonal cultural Centers and Art Organizations like faculties of art in universities, art
colleges and schools, art museums, art galleries and art associations; To publish and to promote publication of

OR
literature on art including monographs, journals etc (The Akademi also brings out bi-annual art journals, Lalit
Kala Contemporary (English), Lalit Kala Ancient (English) and Samkaleen Kala (Hindi)); To foster cultural contacts
within the country and also with other countries, through art exhibition, exchange of personal and art objects;
To award scholarships and prizes to deserving artists; To create a Reserve Fund, Sinking Fund, or any other
special fund, whether for depreciation or for repairs, improving , extending or maintaining any of the properties
or rights of the Akademi.
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The National Exhibition of Art is the most prestigious annual event of the Lalit kala Akademi begun in 1955;
it is directed towards showcasing and representing visual advances in the year. The Akademi honours eminent
artists and art historians every year by electing them as Fellows of the Akademi.
Lalit Kala Akademi was basically set up to serve as a medium to provide recognition to the unknown
unrecognized mediocre artists. By organizing exhibitions it acts as a platform for artists to get the suitable
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rewards for their hard work. The Akademi also organises Triennial India, an International exhibition of
contemporary art in New Delhi.
The main objective of the Triennale, an international Exhibition of Contemporary art, is to provide a platform
for sharing old experiences and sharing better understanding of art practices among the artists of participating
countries. This event is organised once in every three years.
• Sangeet Natak Akademi
The Sangeet Natak Akademi - India’s national academy for music, dance and drama - is the first National
Academy of the arts set-up by the Republic of India. It was created by a resolution of the Ministry of
Education, Government of India, dated 31 May 1952.
Since its inception the Akademi has been functioning as the apex body of the performing arts in the country,
preserving and promoting the vast intangible heritage of India’s diverse culture expressed in the forms of
music, dance and drama. In furtherance of its objectives the Akademi coordinates and collaborates with the
governments and art academies of different States and Territories of the Union of India as also with major
cultural institutions in the country. The Akademi establishes and looks after institutions and projects of
national importance in the field of the performing arts. The National School of Drama, set up in 1959, was
the first of their two national institutions of dance — Jawaharlal Nehru Manipur Dance Academy in Imphal
and Kathak Kendra (National Institute of Kathak Dance) in New Delhi - were set up in 1964 respectively.
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National Projects of Support to Kuttiyattam - the age-old Sanskrit theatre of Kerala - Chhau dances of eastern
India and Sattriya traditions of Assam have been lauched subsequently. After ten years of intensive work under
the Kutiyattam project, the UNESCO declared Kutiyattam as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage
of Humanity in May 2001.It organizes performances of music, dance, and theatre.
The Akademi Awards are the highest national recognition conferred on eminent artistes. The Akademi also
confers Fellowships and Scholarship, their numbers being restricted to 30 living recipients.
To subsidize the work of institutions engaged in teaching, performing or promoting music, dance, or theatre;
the Akademi gives grants-in-aid for research, documentation, and publishing in the performing arts; organizes
and subsidizes seminars and conferences of subject specialists; documents and records the performing arts for
its audio-visual archive. 
The Sangeet Natak Akademi is at present an autonomous body of the Ministry of Tourism and Culture,
Government of India and is fully funded by the Government for implementation of its schemes and programmes.
• Sahitya Akademi
Sahitya Akademi is the Indian National Academy of Letters meant to promote the cause of Indian literature

E
through publications, translations, seminars, workshops, cultural exchange programmes and literary meets organised
all over the country.
OR
The Akademi was founded in March 1954 as an autonomous body fully funded by the Department of Culture.
It was registered as a Society in 1956 under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
Over the 56 years of its dynamic existence, it has ceaselessly endeavored to promote good taste and healthy
reading habits, to keep alive the intimate dialogue among the various linguistic and literary zones and groups
through seminars, lectures, symposia, discussions, readings and performances, to increase the pace of mutual
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translations through workshops and individual assignments and to develop a serious literary culture through the
publications of journals, monographs, individual creative works of every genre, anthologies, encyclopedias,
dictionaries, bibliographies, who’s who of writers and histories of literature.
The highest honour conferred by the Akademi on a writer is by electing him its Fellow. This honour is reserved
for the ‘Immortals of Literature’ and limited to 21 at any given time.
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The Akademi has recognised 24 languages. Besides the twenty two languages enumerated in the Constitution
of India, the Sahitya Akademi has recognised English and Rajasthani as languages in which its programme may
be implemented.
It has three journals, Indian Literature (bi-monthly in English), Samkaleena Bharatiya Sahitya (bi-monthly in Hindi)
and Samskrita Pratibha (half-yearly in Sanskrit). Every year the Akademi publishes 250-300 books on an average.
The head office of Sahitya Akademi is situated at New Delhi whereas it has regional centres at:
Kolkata: This Regional Office looks after the publication and programme work in Assamese, Bengali, Bodo,
Manipuri and Oriya, besides a part of publication work in English and Tibetan. It also handles programmes
in the other north-eastern languages. The Regional office maintains a major Library.
Bangalore: Looks after the publication and programme work in Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu,
besides a part of publication in English. It is located in Central College Campus. This regional office also has
a major library.
Chennai Office: This office works as sub regional office and looks after the Tamil language and its programmes.
Mumbai: It was set up in 1972. It looks after the publication and programme work in Gujarati. Konkani,
Marathi and Sindhi, besides a part of publication work in English and Hindi.
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The Sahitya Akademi Library is one of the most important and unique multi-lingual libraries in India with a
rich collection of books on literature and allied subjects in the 24 languages recognised by the Sahitya Akademi.
The Library is well-known for its huge collection of books on criticism, of works of translation’ and reference
books including dictionaries.
• Archaeological Survey of India
The  Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), under the Ministry of Culture, is the premier organization for the
archaeological researches and protection of the cultural heritage of the nation. Maintenance of ancient monuments
and archaeological sites and remains of national importance is the prime concern of the ASI. Besides it regulate
all archaeological activities in the country as per the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological
Sites and Remains Act, 1958. It also regulates Antiquities and Art Treasure Act, 1972.
For the maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance the
entire country is divided into 24 Circles. The organization has a large work force of trained archaeologists,
conservators, epigraphist, architects and scientists for conducting archaeological research projects through its

E
Circles, Museums, Excavation Branches, Prehistory Branch, Epigraphy Branches, Science Branch, Horticulture
Branch, Building Survey Project, Temple Survey Projects and Underwater Archaeology Wing.
• The Asiatic society, Kolkata
OR
The Asiatic society was founded in Calcutta in 1784 by Sir William jones, an eminet indologist , with the
objective of inquiring into the history, antiquities, arts , science and literature of Asia. This institution proved
to be the fountain-head of all literary and scientific activities in India and patron of all Asiatic socities in the
world. The society has a rich collection of books , manuscripts , coins , inscriptions and archival material. It
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is also a museum.
• The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT)
The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT) is one of the premier institutions working in the field
of linking education with culture. Established in 1979, pioneered by Smt. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay and Dr.
Kapila Vatsyayan, it functions as an autonomous organization under the aegis of Ministry of Culture, Government
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of India. At the philosophical core of the CCRT lies a commitment to holistic education, encompassing the
cognitive, emotional and spiritual development of children. To this end the CCRT conducts education grounded
in cultural knowledge and understanding as conducive to clarity, creativity, independence of thought, tolerance
and compassion.
• National School of Drama
It is one of the foremost theatre institutions of the World and the only one of its kind in India. It was set
up by Sangeet Natak Academy in 1959, later in 1975 it became an autonomous body, totally financed by
Department of Culture. The objective of NSD is to train students in all aspects of theatre, including Theatre
History Production, Scene Design, Costume Designs, Lighting, Makeup etc. The training course at NSD Art
and Culture is of three years duration. Each year, 20 students are admitted to the course.
• Central Board of Film Certification
The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) was set up under the Cinematograph Act 1952. CBFC
certifies films for public exhibition in India. It consists of a chairperson and twenty five other non -official
members. Smt. Sharmila Tagore is the present Chairperson of CBFC. Its headquarters is in Mumbai. It has
nine regional offices in Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Cuttack, Guwahati, Hyderbad, Mumbai, New Delhi and
Thiruvananthapuram.
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• National Film Development Corporation Limited (NFDC)

The National Film Development Corporation Limited was incorporated in 1975. It was formed by the
Government of India with the primary objective of planning and promoting an organized, efficient and
integrated development of the Indian film industry. NFDC was reincorporated in the year 1980, by merging
the Film Finance Corporation (FFC) and Indian Motion Picture Export Corporation (IMPEC) with NFDC.
The erstwhile Film Finance Corporation was set up in the year 1962. It was formed with the primary objective
of extending finance to young talented film makers for film production. The Indian Motion Picture Export
Corporation was an autonomous body. It was set up to regulate the import and export of films and canalization
of raw stock into the country. The NFDC has so far produced over 200 films. These films in various Indian
languages, have been widely acclaimed and have won many national and international awards. The Corporate
office of NFDC is at Worli, Mumbai. It has three Regional Offices at Chennai, Kolkata and Delhi and a
Branch Office at Thiruvananthapuram

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OR
SC
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MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
MARTIAL ARTS OF INDIA
Martial arts is a part of India’s ancient culture and a traditional games.Originally a traditional form of martial
art that started in South India, and now it has different names and different forms in the culture of the regions
in India. Khusti The Indian Wrestling is also a part of Indian Martial arts found throughout the India. Indian
martial arts has an important influence in the development of modern Asian martial arts. Nowadays a sense
of self-defense and for fitness lots of people are opting for martial arts.As in other respects of Indian culture,
Indian martial arts can be roughly divided into northern and southern styles.
Martial art State

E
Gatka Punjab

OR
Paika Orissa
Thag Ta Manipur
Kalaripayattu Kerala
Choliya Uttaranchal
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Pang Lhabosol Sikkim
Silambam Tamil Nadu
Musti yuddha Uttar Pradesh
Mardani Khel Maharashtra
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Pari Khanda Bihar

CLASSICAL LANGUAGES
Classical languages are those which are ancient, of an independent nature and not a derivative of any other
tradition.
• The criteria evolved by Government to determine declaration of a language as a Classical language is as
under:-
• High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years;
• A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers;
• The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
• The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity
between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
Today six languages are included in the list of Classical Languages: Tamil (since 2004) Sanskrit (since 2005)
Telugu (since 2008) Kannada (Since 2008) Malayalam (since 2013) Odiya (since 2014).
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IMPORTANT ANCIENT UNIVERSITIES

Taxila Rawalpindi District of Punjab, Pakistan
Nalanda Near Patna, Bihar
Vikramshila District Bhagalpur, Bihar
Valabhi University Saurashtra, Gujarat
Pushpagiri University Jajpur district, Odisha
Somapura University Naogaon District, Bangladesh
PRINTING, WEAVING AND EMBROIDERY STYLES IN INDIA
The styles depend upon the location of the place, climatic conditions, cultural influences and trade contacts.
Printing, Weaving and Embroidery Styles City/State
Phulkari Punjab
Baluchari

E
Murshidabad (West Bengal)
OR
Kantha Embroidery West Bengal and Bihar
Block Printing Rajasthan and Gujarat
Resist Printing Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
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Bandhni Gujarat
Bhandej Rajasthan
Pochampalli Andhra Pradesh
Kota Rajasthan
Zardozi Varanasi, Lucknow, Surat, Ajmer, Bhopal and Hyderabad
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Chikankari Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)

Jamdani Tanda ( Uttar Pradesh)
Ikat Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
Kasuti Karnataka
Kashmiri or Kashida Jammu and Kashmir
Shamilami Manipur
TRADITIONAL SAREES/FABRIC OF INDIA
Sarees/Fabric City/State
Kanjeevaram Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu)
Zamdani,Tant West Bengal
Paithani Maharashtra
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Pattu Saree Kerala

Pochampally Andhra Pradesh/Telengana
Gota Saree Rajasthan and UP
Chanderi Madhya Pradesh
Bomkai, Kotki, Sambalpuri Orissa
Kota Rajasthan

E
OR
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT - III (1930-1947)

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-1931)
• On 12th March 1930, Gandhi began March to Dandi with his chosen 79 followers and broke the salt law
at Dandi on 5 April 1930.
• Following the conclusion of the Salt March to Dandi, Mahatma Gandhi chose a non-violent raid of the
Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat as the next protest against British rule.
• Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 5th of May, 1930, just days before his projected raid on the Dharasana
Salt Works.

E
• Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Civil Disobedience Movement and brought into
question the legitimacy of British rule in India because of widespread newspaper coverage by American

•
journalist Webb Miller.
OR
Civil Disobedience included Indian raids on salt depots, refusal to pay taxes in chosen areas, spirits and
avoidance of business with all British firms, disobedience of forest laws and boycott of foreign cloth.
• The Salt Satyagraha movement was taken up by C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and the Vaikon
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Satyagraha by K. Kalappan in Malabar.
• In the North West, the Pathans under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, popularly known as Frontier Gandhi,
organized the society of ‘Khudai Khidmadgars’ which was also known as Red Shirts.
• In Bihar there was a protest against Chowkidari tax in Saran, Bhagalpur and Monghyr.
• On 18th of April, around one hundred revolutionaries attacked police and railway armories at Chittagong.
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Mahatma Gandhi condemned the raid.

• This movement even sparked off patriotism among the Indian soldiers in the British army. The Garhwali
soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshawar.
• It continued for almost a year, ending with the release of Mahatma Gandhi from jail and after the
discussions at the Second Round Table Conference with Viceroy Lord Irwin.
• The movement had a significant effect on changing British attitudes toward Indian independence and
caused huge numbers of Indians to aggressively join the fight for the first time.
• The Salt March to Dandi and the flogging of hundreds of non-violent protesters in Dharasana, marked
the efficient use of civil disobedience as a method for fighting social and political injustice.
FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE, 1930
• The First Round Table Conference was convened in London on 31 October, 1929.
• Three basic principles were agreed in the Conference and the British Government was made to accept
those principles.
• It was held on to discuss the Simon Commission recommendations.
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• The conference was boycotted by the INC, but the Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and other
groups were present.
• It was attended by Tej Bahadur Sapru, B.R. Ambedkar, Md. Shafi, M.A. Jinnah, Fazlul Haq, Dr. Shafaat
Ahmad Khan, Sir Mirza Ismail, Sir Akbar Hydari, Maharaja of Bikaner, Raja Rajendra Nath and others.
• The conference was postponed to 2 January, 1931 because of the absence of Congress.
GANDHI-IRWIN PACT, 1931
• The moderate statesmen Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, Mukund Ramrao Jayakar and Srinivas Shastri initiated
efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
• On 25th of January 1931, Lord Irwin authorized Gandhi‘s release from prison and withdrew prohibition
of illegality against the Congress Working Committee. Following this the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed
on 5 March, 1931.
Salient features of the Pact:

E
– The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
– The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
OR
– The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress.
– The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses other than violent one. The Government
would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience
movement.
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• The INC called off the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to join the second Round Table
Conference.
• The government on its part released political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption
for villages along the coast.
• The Karachi session of 1931 endorsed the Pact.
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KARACHI SESSION OF 1931

• The Karachi session is known for its resolution on the Fundamental Rights and the National Economic
Programs.
• Even though the Congress had from its inception fought for the economic interests, civil rights and
political liberties of the people, this was the first time that the Congress defined what Swaraj would mean
for the masses.
• It also declared that in order to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include the real
economic freedom for the starving millions.
Some important features of these resolutions were:
– Basic civil rights of freedom of speech, Freedom of Press, Freedom of assembly, Freedom of association
irrespective of caste, creed or sex.
– Neutrality of state in regard to all religions.
– Equality before law.
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– Protection of Minorities and their culture, language and script and of different linguistic areas.
– Elections on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise.
– Free and compulsory primary education.
– Substantial reduction in rent and taxes.
– Better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work.
– Protection of women and peasants.
– Conferred the right to organize and form unions to workers and peasants.
– State ownership or control of key industries, mines and means of transport.
SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE, 1931
• The absence of the Congress representations in the First Round Table conference led to the Second

E
Round Table conference, in which the Congress representatives took part due to Gandhi-Irwin Pact of
1931.
•

•
Mohan Malaviya, etc. OR
Other Indians who part in the conference were Ambedkar, Sapru, Jayakar, Sarojini Naidu, Pt. Madan

Gandhi demanded immediate establishment of a full responsible government at the Centre as well as in
the provinces with complete control over defense, external affairs and finance.
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• The significant issue of the Second Round Table conference was to solve the communal problem, which
was not solved. This was because Jinnah inflexibility was secretly supported by the British statesman like
the Secretary of State for India Sir Samuel Hoare.
• The session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and demand of separate electorates.
• MacDonald ended the session with the announcement of creation of two new Muslim majority provinces,
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North West Frontier Province and Sindh.

• He also announced of setting up a committee on franchise, finance and states and held out the humiliating
and dangerous prospect of a unilateral British Communal Award.
• Gandhiji’s returned to India and on his arrival in Bombay, the Congress Working Committee decided to
resume the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• In 1932, INC was declared an illegal organization and all its leaders arrested.
• Gandhiji was sent to the Yeravada jail in Poona.
Communal Award
• On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement, which came
to be as then Communal Award.
• According to this award, the depressed classes were considered as a separate community and as such
provisions were made for separate electorates for them.
• Mahatma Gandhi protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death in the Yeravada
jail on 20 September 1932.
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POONA PACT, 1932

• After the announcement of the communal award and the subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meetings took
place everywhere.
• Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, B.R. Ambedkar and M.C. Rajah became active.
• Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi and it was called the Poona Pact.
• The British Government also approved of it.
• Accordingly, 148 seats in different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed Classes in place
of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.
• Thus the Poona Pact agreed upon a joint electorate for the upper and the lower classes.
• Harijan upliftment now became the principal concern of Gandhiji.
• An All India Anti-Untouchability League was started in September 1932 and the weekly ‘Harijan’ in
1933.
•

E
On May 8, 1933 Gandhiji decided to begin a 21 day fast for the purification of himself and his associates
for the Harijan cause.
OR
• He started the Individual Civil Disobedience on 1 August, 1933.
• A White paper was issued in the year March 1933. The details of the working basis of the new constitution
of India were enumerated in the White Paper.
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• It was declared that according to the new constitution, there would be dyarchy and a responsible government
in the center.
• In February 1935, a bill was introduced in the House of Commons by the Secretary of State for India,
which subsequently passed and enacted as the government of India Act, 1935.
• The Government of India Act, 1935 drew its materials from the Simon Commission, the report of the
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All-Parties conference i.e. the Nehru Report, the discussions at the three successive Round Table
Conferences, the detail enumerated in the White Paper and the reports of the Joint Select Committees.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935
The Government of India Act, 1935 was designed on the basis of the recommendation of Simon Commission.
It envisaged an administrative set-up for India such as:
Provided for the establishment of the All India Federation consisting of the British Provinces and the Princely
States. The joining of the Princely States was voluntary. (It did not come into existence since the Princely
States refused to give their consent for the union.)
• Introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre.
– The Governor-General and his councilors administered the “Reserved subjects”.
– The Council of Ministers was responsible for the “Transferred” subjects.
• The provinces were to be given complete autonomy and the administrative subjects divided into three lists
i.e.
– Federal List that included the subjects assigned to the Central Government;
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– The Provincial List that consisted of all the subjects under the sole jurisdiction of the provinces, and
– The Concurrent List upon whose subjects both the Centre and Provinces would exercise their combined
authority.
• Abolition of Dyarchy and the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in the provinces.
– The Governor was made the head of the Provincial Executive but he was expected to run the
administration on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
– The provincial government was entrusted to the elected Ministers.
– They were responsible to the popularly elected Legislative Assemblies.
• Provincial Legislatures of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar and Assam were made
bicameral.
• Establishment of a Federal Court at the Centre at Delhi with a Chief Justice and 6 judges.

E
• Extension of the principle of Separate Electorates to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Christians and Anglo
Indians.
•
OR
Besides these main provisions, it also contained the provisions of the formation of the provinces of Sindh
and Orissa, separate and communal electorate system with reduction of the qualification of voters;
separation of Burma and Aden from India.
• Accordingly, the Home Government in England was reformed. The Indian Council was abolished and a
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few advisers varying from 3 to 6 were appointed to advise the Secretary of States in his policy formulation
towards India.
• The Secretary was normally not expected to interfere in the Indian affairs which were to be carried on by
Governors.
• The working of the provincial autonomy was not successful, because the Governors were not bound to
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accept the advice of the ministers. In reality, the real power in the Provincial Government was with the
Governor.
• Despite the drawbacks in the scheme, the Congress decided to take part in the elections to the Provincial
Legislatures with the consideration that it was an improvement over the previous Acts.
• In accordance with the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935, elections to the Provincial
Legislatures were held in February 1937.
• The Congress swept the polls and Congress gained majority in Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, U.P.,
Bihar and Orissa.
• In Assam and northwestern frontier, it became the largest single party.
• Similarly, the Muslim League got absolute majority in Sindh.
• On 7 July 1937, after the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, assured the Congress of his cooperation, the party
formed its ministries in seven provinces.
• The most important fact regarding the achievement of the Act can be stated that the political experience
ingenerated in the minds of the Indian leaders went a long way in making the people of India conscious
for their political liberty which they achieved in 1947.
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WORLD WAR II AND INDIAN NATIONALISM

• In September 1939, the Second World War broke out.
• Indian opinion was not sought but the British government dragged India in the war as a party.
• India cannot associate herself in a war said to be for democratic freedom, when that very freedom is
denied to her.
• The Congress demanded the establishment of an Indian government responsible to the Central Legislative
Assembly but the British government did not agree to this.
• In November 1939, the Congress resigned in protest. The Muslim League celebrated that day as the
Deliverance Day.
• In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.
• During the course of the Second World War in order to secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British
Government made an announcement on 8 August 1940, which came to be known as the ‘August Offer’.

E
• The August Offer envisaged that after the War a representative body of Indians would be set up to frame
the new Constitution.
OR
• Gandhi was not satisfied with the offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
• Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature and it was left to Mahatma Gandhi
to choose the Satyagrahis.
• In October 1940, the Individual Satyagraha was launched and Vinoba Bhave was chosen by Gandhiji as
SC

the first person to offer the Satyagraha.

• Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and was imprisoned for four months.
• The individual Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
• Indian national leaders were opposed to fascism and condemned it as the enemy of the freedom.
GS

• Many countries allied against fascism and put pressure on the British government to concede the demand
of the Indian people.
CRIPPS MISSION (1942)
In March 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to hold talks with the Indian leaders.
Proposals of Cripps’ Mission
– Dominion status to be granted after the war.
– Setting up a Constitution making body for India after the war whose members would be elected by the
Provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in case of the Princely States.
• The British government undertook to accept and implement the Constitution so framed subject to two
conditions that if any province not willing to accept the new Constitution could form a separate union
and a separate Constitution.
• The new Constitution-making body and the British government would negotiate a treaty to sort out
matters arising out of transfer of powers to Indian hands.
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• The proposals were rejected by the Congress as it did not want to rely upon future promises. Gandhiji
termed it as a ‘post-dated cheque in a crashing bank’.
• At last, in August, 1942, Gandhiji gave forth the slogan ‘Quit India’.
• The Congress passed a resolution on 8th August 1942, which mentioned the ‘immediate ending of British
rule in India’.
• The day after the resolution was passed, the Congress was banned and all the important leaders were
pushed behind the bars.
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
• The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India
Resolution. On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.
• On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress.

E
• For once, this pre-planned action of the government left the Indian people without leadership and that is
why it is also called the Vardha Proposal and the Leaderless Revolt.
•
•
•
Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona.
OR
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort.
At this time, leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta, S.M. Joshi, Jayaprakash Narain
and Aruna Asaf Ali who started consolidating underground networks.
SC
• An underground Congress Radio was establishment and its announcer was Usha Mehta.
• Parallel governments were set up at various places such as the one in Ballia in eastern U.P. under the
leadership of Chittu Pande. Others were in Satara, Talcher, parts of Eastern U.P. and Bihar.
• However, the Muslim League kept aloof from the movement and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the
movement.
GS

• The Communist Party of India also didn’t support the movement.

• In 1943, there were armed attacks on government buildings in Madras and Bengal.
• In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail.
• Quit India Movement was the final attempt for country’s freedom and paved the way for India’s freedom.
INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY
• Indian National Army, also known as the Azad Hind Fauj, was formed in South-East Asia in the year
1942 by pioneering Indian Nationalists and prisoners.
• The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the
British Army, after the fall of Singapore.
• However, it was in 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose came to Tokyo and then joined the I.N.A. at Singapore.
With his arrival the more vigorous phase of the I.N.A. began.
• Rash Behari Bose, who set up the Azad Hind Government (the Provincial Government of Free India),
adopted the tri-color flag and gave the slogan of ‘Jai Hind’ (victory of India), handed over the leadership
to him.
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• Bose also reorganized the Azad Hind Fauj (I.N.A.).

• In November 1943, the Japanese announced their decision to hand over the administration of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands to the I.N.A.
• On 6th July 1944, Subhash Bose made an appeal on the Azad Hind Radio, Singapore, to Gandhi and seek
his ‘blessings and good wishes’, calling him the ‘Father of Nation.’
• To the Indian recruits, he offered: ‘you give me blood and I will give you freedom’. His war slogan was
‘’Dilli Chalo’’ (on to Delhi).
• In May 1944, battalion I of I.N.A. captured Mowdok, (outpost situated southeast of Chittagaon) and
hoisted the tri-color flag on Indian soil.
• Another battalion under Shah Nawaz Khan joined the Japanese Army in their assault on Kohima in
Nagaland.
• The next target was Imphal in Manipur to be followed by a rapid advance across the Brahmaputra into
Bengal.

E
• Fighting side by side with the Japanese Armed forces, the I.N.A. crossed the Indian frontier on 18th March
1944. However, the campaign achieved only limited success.
OR
• The I.N.A. failed to capture Imphal due to two reasons:
– The Japanese failed to supply the necessary materials and air cover to the I.N.A.
– The monsoon prevented their advance. In the meantime the British were able to regroup their forces
SC

and made counter-attacks.

– With the fortunes of war turned against Japan and they had to withdraw from the Indo-Burma border
to meet American threat in the South Pacific I.N.A. too could not stand on its own.
– The retreat of the I.N.A. began in the middle of 1944 and ended by mid 1945, resulting in surrender
of I.N.A. troops to the British Army.
GS

– Subhash Chandra Bose disappeared. Some believed he died in an air crash while going to Tokyo, while
others refused to believe this.
I.N.A. TRIALS
• The British Government of India charged the captured I.N.A. soldiers of waging war against the King.
• The trials were held in Delhi Red Fort and the first three accused were Captain P.K. Sehghal, Captain
Shahnawaz Khan, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon.
• Wide protests were held and there were meetings and processions, angry outbursts and agitated speeches
everywhere, calling for the immediate release of I.N.A. prisoners.
• Leaders of all political parties, the Congress, the Muslim League and the C.P.I. demanded the release of
I.N.A. prisoners. .
• Bhulabhai Desai, T. B. Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf Ali worked as the Defense counsel for the I.N.A.
heroes.
• The court martial found all the three guilty of waging war against the King, but Lord Wavell, the Viceroy,
sensing the mood of the nation remitted their death sentences on 1st January 1946.
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• All the same, the Viceroy announced that the remaining trials would be restricted to such soldiers who
were accused of using brutal methods to force their fellow prisoners of war to join the I.N.A.
Evaluation of Azad Hind Fauz
• I.NA. Movement was in a way, more successful then the Ghadarites and other revolutionaries who tried
to use the First World War as a catalyst for Indian Independence.
• Though the I.N.A. had failed to achieve its goal but it made a significant impact on the freedom struggle.
It became clear to the British that they could no longer depend on the loyalty of Indian soldiers and
consider them as mercenaries.
• The struggles of the I.N.A. demonstrated that those who waged an armed struggle against the British were
not at all affected by communal divisions.
• There were Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in the I.N.A. who had fought as Indians.

E
• The action of the Rani Jhansi brigade—an exclusively women force-demonstrated the capabilities of
Indian women waging armed struggle against the British.
•

OR
The I.N.A. trials moreover brought various political parties on a common platform showing the anti-
British protest.
R.I.N. REBELLION
• The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny or the Bombay Mutiny was the revolt of the Indian sailors.
SC
• The sailors who belonged to the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay
harbor went for a strike and organised a mutiny on 18th February 1946.
• The whole mutiny involved 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.
• It started as a protest against their general conditions.
GS

• The immediate reason for the outbreak of the mutiny was their pay and food.
• In addition to that there were more elementary matters such as racist behavior by Royal Navy personnel
towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary measures taken against the sailors who demonstrated nationalist
sympathy.
• The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was widely supported by the Indian population.
• The one day strike spread to other cities from Bombay and the Royal Indian Air Force and local police
forces also joined this mutiny.
• Furthermore, in Madras and Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the Indian
Army.
• The mutinying ships hoisted three flags which were tied together those of the Congress, Muslim League,
and the Red Flag of the Communist Party of India (CPI).
• The flags signified the unity and demarginalisation of communal issues among the mutineers.
• The rising, however, could not make any further headway on account of two reasons:
– The overwhelming military might of the British which was put into action.
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– The joint persuasion of Vallabhbhai Patel and M.A. Jinnah to the ratings to surrender on 23rd February.
• An undertaking was given by the Congress and the league that they would prevent any victimization of
the ratings but soon this assurance was forgotten. Thus, the Revolt of the Royal Indian Navy (R.I.N.)
ended.
• The mutiny of naval ratings demonstrated to the British rulers that they could no longer depend on the
loyalty of the armed force.
RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA, 1945
• Rajagopalachari in his formula proposed that plebiscite should be held in contiguous districts of North
West and East where Muslims were in absolute majority.
• If the majority decides in favor of forming a separate sovereign state, such decision could be accepted.
• Jinnah objected to the proposal as he wanted only Muslims of North West and East of India to vote in
the plebiscite.

E
CABINET MISSION (1946)
• After the Second World War, Lord Clement Atlee became the Prime Minister of England.
OR
• On 15 March, 1946 he made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and the
framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.
• Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Patrick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V.
Alexander - were sent to India.
SC

• This came to be known as the Cabinet Mission.

• The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the constitutional problem.
Major provisions of Cabinet Mission
– Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting Princely States was
GS

suggested. The union would deal into the following subjects: Foreign affairs, Defence and Communication
and would have the powers to raise the finances required for the above subjects. Full autonomy would
be enjoyed by the provinces in respect of all subjects other than the union subjects.
– There were to be three groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu majority provinces (Bombay,
United Province, Bihar, Central Province, Orissa, and Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces
(Sind, NWFP, and Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal). After the first general elections, a province
could come out of the group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group
or union constitution.
– The Union would consist of an executive and a legislature. The legislature would not be directly elected
by the people but by the provincial legislatures on the basis of communal electorates. Members of the
Princely States would be appointed by the rulers of the Princely States.
• A proposal was envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain in office till a new
government was elected on the basis of the new Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly.
• Both the Muslim League and the Congress accepted the plan.
• Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Assembly.
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• The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.
• An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.
• Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on
2 September 2, 1946.
• J.L. Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.
• Muslim League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five members of the League
join the government on Oct 26, 1946.
JINNAH DIRECT ACTION RESOLUTION
• Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on Jul 29, 1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress
(Aug 16, 1946) which resulted in heavy communal riots.

E
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.
Formation of constituent Assembly of India
• OR
The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN OF JUNE 1947
• Lord Mountbatten on 3 Jun, 1947, put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s
SC
political problem.
• The British Govt., passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in Jul 1947, which contained the major
provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.
• The main provisions of the Plan were:
GS

– India to be divided into India and Pakistan.

– Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would
be held.
– There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
– The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
– Aug 15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT 1947
• The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan by enacting the Indian
Independence Act on 18 July 1947.
• The salient features of this Act were:
– The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from 15 August 1947.
– The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions.
– A Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal.
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– The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of the two Dominions,
which will have full authority to frame their respective Constitutions.
• The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and Pakistan.
• On 15th August 1947 India, and on the 14th August Pakistan came into existence as two independent
states.
• Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali
Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan.

E
OR
SC
GS
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CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

India Regulating Act 1773
• Subjected the Company’s actions to the supervision of the British Government.
• End of Dual government.
• Governor of Bengal to be the Governor - General of British territories of India.
• Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta.
• The servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade, accept presents or bribes, etc.

E
Pitts India Act of 1784
•

•
OR
The commercial and political activities of the Company were now separated. Board of Control of six
members (including two cabinet ministers) set - up to guide and supervise the affairs of the Company in
India.
Three members will be there in Governor - General’s Executive Council.
SC
• Secret Committee of three Directors were to look into political and military affairs. [Governor General
and the council were forbidden to declare war and make treaties without the sanction of secret committee].
• Madras and Bombay Presidencies were subordinated to the Governor - General - in - Council of Bengal
in all matters.
• This act gave the British Government a measure of control over the Company’s affairs. In fact, the
GS

Company became a subordinate department of the State.

• Act of 1786 : Governor General given the power to over - ride the council and was made Commander
- in - Chief also.
Charter Act of 1793
• Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.
• Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian revenue.
• The Governor General and the Governors could now over - ride the decisions of their respective Councils.
• All laws were to be translated in Indian languages.
• It laid the foundation of government, by written laws, interpreted by courts.
Charter Act of 1813
• Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China. This made the
Company more of an administrative body. All Englishmen could trade in India subject to few restrictions.
• A sum of 1 lakh earmarked annually for education of Indians.
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• Further, Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and preach their religion.
Charter Act of 1833
• End of Company’s monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company was asked to close its commercial
business at the earliest.
• All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land and property in India by them
were removed, legalizing European colonization of India.
• Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers, administrative and financial,
were centralized in the hands of the Governor - General - in - Council. (1st Governor General of India
- Lord William Bentinck).
• President of Board of Control became the minister for Indian affairs.
• A law member (without power to vote) was added to the Executive Council of the Governor General.
Macaulay was the first Law member. This increased the Council’s strength to four, with it began the Indian
Legislature.

E
• A law commission was constituted for codification of laws.
OR
• The Act threw open to ail, irrespective of religion, place of birth, descent and colour, services under the
Company.
Charter Act of 1853
• The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories
SC

in trust for the British Crown but not for any specified period.
• The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 of which 6 were to be
nominated by the Crown.
• The Law member was made a full member of the Governor General’s Executive Council.
• Legislation was treated for the first time as separate from executive functions.
GS

• Questions could be asked and the policy of the Executive Council could be discussed, though the
Executive Council could veto a bill of the Legislative Council.
• Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians).
Government of India Act 1858
• Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began.
• System of Dual government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished and substituted
them with a post of Secretary of State (a member of the British cabinet). He was assisted by a 15 -
member council (called Indian Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
• Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General.
• Governor General received the title of Viceroy. He represented Secretary of State and was assisted by an
Executive Council, which consisted of high officials of the Government.
• A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created.
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The Indian Council Act 1861

• A fifth member, who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• 6 - 12 additional members to be added to the Executive Council for legislation purpose. This implied that
Viceroy’s Executive Council, which was so long composed of officials, would now include certain additional
non - official members. Some of non - official seats were offered to natives of high ranks. Thus, a minute
element of ‘popular’ participation was introduced in the legislative process. The additional members,
though, had little powers.
• The Executive Council was now to be called Central Legislative Council.
• Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.
Indian Council Act 1892
• Two improvements in both the Central and the Provincial Legislative Councils were suggested.

E
• Though the majority of the official members was retained, the non - official members were to be
nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Provincial Legislative Councils. [The non - official

•
OR
members of the Provincial Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities,
district boards, municipalities]. Indian leaders like G.K. Gokhale, Ashutosh Mukherjee, Ras Bihari Ghosh
and S.N. Banerjee found their way in the Legislative Council.
The Councils were to have the powers to discuss the annual statement of revenue and expenditure (i.e.
the budget) and of addressing questions to the Executive). They could also put questions, within certain
SC
limits, to the Government on matters of public interest after giving six days notice.
Indian Council Act 1909 or Morley - Minto Reforms
• Morley was the Secretary of State, while Minto was the Indian Viceroy.
• Legislative Councils, both at the Centre and in the Provinces, were expanded.
GS

• With regard to Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the Executive Council of the
Governor General.
• The size of the Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged by including elected non - official members
so that the official majority was gone. Their functions were also increased. Now, they could move
resolutions on Budget and on some matters of public matters.
• An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority
was maintained.
• The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that Muslims were given separate representation.
Thus, communal representation was introduced.
Government of India Act 1919 or Montague - Chelmsford Reforms
• Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer
of power to the Indians). The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories
: Transferred and Reserved.
• The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible
to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved
subjects without any responsibility to the legislature.
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• Devolution Rules : Subjects of administration were divided into two categories - Central and Provincial.
Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central,
while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.
• The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative Council).
• The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was raised to three in a Council of
eight. The Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and
Industries.
• The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It actually happened after 1935
Act.
• Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo - Indians, etc. Secretary of State to be
henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.
Government of India Act 1935
• Provided for the establishment of All - India Federation consisting of the British provinces and the

E
Princely States. The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come
into existence.
OR
• Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g., Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for
the Governor General).
• The other Federal subjects were to be administered by the Governor General with the assistance and
advice of a Council of Ministers to be chosen by him (but to include representatives of Princely States
and minorities, and to be responsible to the Central Legislature). Residuary powers were to be with the
SC

Governor General only.

• The Federal Legislature (Central Legislature) was to have two chambers (bicameral) - the Council of State
and the Federal Assembly. The Council of State was to be a permanent body with one - third of its
membership being vacated and renewed triennially. The Federal Assembly’s duration was fixed for five
years.
• It made a 3 - fold division of powers: Federal (Central) Legisl1ative List Provincial Legislative List and
GS

the Concurrent Legislative List. Residuary legislative powers were subject to the discretion of the Governor
General. Even if a bill was passed by the Federal Legislature, the Governor General could veto it, while
even Acts assented to by the Governor General could be disallowed by the King - in - Council.
• Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces i.e., the distinction between Reserved and Transferred
subjects was abolished and full responsible government was established, subject to certain safeguards.
They were granted separate legal identity.
• The Governor was the head of the Provincial Executive and was expected to be guided by the advice of
the popular ministries. However, the Act gave arbitrary powers to the Governors to act in their ‘discretion’
in certain matters.
• The Act also provided for a Federal Court (which was established in 1937), with original and appellate
powers) to interpret the Constitution. A Federal Bank (the Reserve Bank of India) was also established.
The Indian Council of Secretary of State was abolished.
• Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo - Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.
• Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were separated from India and two new provinces Orissa and Sind were
created.
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GOVERNOR GENERALS DURING BRITISH INDIA

GOVERNOR OF BENGAL (BEFORE 1773)

Robert Clive (1754-1767)
• Founder of the British Indian Empire, popularly known as "Clive of India".
• He was British administrator and military leader to start with, however his destiny brought him to India
and he worked in various capacities for British East India Company.
• He was Governor of Bengal before "Regulating Act of 1773" - which actually marks beginning of Birtish

E
rule.
• He was involved in Battle of Plassey (1757) and consequent annexation of Bengal.
•
•
•
Civil Services were organized during Clive's tenure. OR
Started Dual administration in Bengal (1757-1722), the practice was stopped by Warren Hastings.

He prohibited employees of the company from undertaking any private or accept any gift.
SC
• During First Anglo-Mysore War (1766-69), Robert Clive was recalled during the course of war in 1767.
English were defeated by Haider Ali.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF BENGAL (1773-1833)
Lord Warren Hastings (1773-1785)
• Governor of Bengal was designated as Governor General of Bengal.
GS

• He annexed Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1772.

• He started modern western administration in India.
• He entered into business with Egypt, Tibet and Bhutan. He stopped annual pension to Mughal Emperor
and reduced the pension of the Nawab of Bengal.
• Overall administration including Civil Services was very corrupt during Hastings's tenure.
• He initiated the Rohilla War (1774) and annexation of Rohilkhand by Nawab of Awadh, with the help
of British.
• During his tenure Act of 1781 came under which the powers of jurisdiction between the Governor-
General-in-council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta were clearly divided.
• He led First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) followed by Treaty of Salbai as Marathas were defeated.
• Pitts India Act of 1784 was enacted.
• He was involved in Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), Haider All died and Mysore was defeated.
• During his tenure Judicial Murder of Nand Kumar in 1775 took place. Nand Kumar was critic of Warren
Hastings, indicted in false case and sentenced to death.
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Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

• He was the founding father of 'Indian Civil Services'. (Reforms for purification of Administration).
• He was the father of modern police administration in India.
• He created the post of DSP. He believed in the separation of powers, therefore he deprived the District
Collector of judicial powers and created the new post of District Judge. He also carried out gradation of
courts.
• He proposed Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating several judicial reforms. He codified the personal laws
(IPC and CrPC are codified personal laws) and separation of revenue and civil administration.
• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) followed by Treaty of Seringapatnam (1792).
• Introduction of the Permanent Revenue Settlement that is Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar (1793).
It was the worst measure of Lord Cornwallis.
• Europeanization of administrative machinery and introduction of civil services.

E
He established Permanent revenue settlement with a class of revenue collectors (Zamindars under Zamindari
OR
rights).
Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
• First civil servant to become Governor-General. He played important role during the introduction of
Permanent revenue settlement that is Zamindari system in 1793.
SC

• Charter act of 1793 was enacted during his period.

• He defeated Nizam of Hyderabad who later on joined Subsidiary Alliance with British during Wellesley's
tenure.
Lord Arthur Wellesley (1798-1805)
GS

• During his tenure introduction of Subsidiary Alliance in 1798 occured. The rulers of the state of Nizam
of Hyderabad, Mysore, Tanjavore, Awadh, Jodhpur, Jaipur and finally Peshwas also signed Subsidiary
Alliance.

• During his tenure Fouth Anglo-Mysore war (1799) & Second Anglo-Maratha war (1803-05) occured.
Lord George Barlow (1805-1807)
• Pursued moderate policy, that is, the policy of non-intervention with princely states.
• Tried to establish peaceful relations with Marathas.
• White Mutiny at Vellore (1806) occured during his tenure.
Lord Minto-I (1807-1813)

• Concluded important Amritsar treaty (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh which decided later course of
Anglo-Sikh relations.

• Governor General of Bengal at the time of passage of Charter Act of 1813.

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Francis Rawdon Hastings (1813-1823): (Marques of Hastings)

• Renounced the policy of non-intervention followed by his predecessor and revived aggressive imperialistic
policy marking the beginning of second phase of British imperialism in India, so as to build large British
Asiatic Empire by conquering territories bordeting India.
• During his tenure Anglo-Nepal War; Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819) and Pindari War (1817-18)
occured.
Lord Amherst (1823-28)
• First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826) and signed Treaty of Yaudaboo in 1826 by which British merchants
were allowed to settle on southern coast of Rangoon.
• Capture of Barakhphr (1826) occured.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1832-1858)

E
Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
• Charter Act of 1833 was enacted.
•
•
OR
He was the most liberal British Governor-General of India.
Tenure coincides with socio-religious reform movements of 19th century (Abolition of Sati and other
cruel rights (1829) occured during his tenure.
SC
• Resolution of 1835 and Educational reforms.
• Suppression of `Thuge' that is highway robbery in 1830 by Colonel Sleeman.
• Raja of Mysore was deposed and territories of kingdom were annexed (1831).
• Annexation of Cachar (1834) and Jaintia (1832) and Coorg (1834) on the charges of mal-administration.
GS

• Formation of Agra province in 1834.

• Provincial courts of appeal and circuits were replaced by commissioners of revenue and circuit.
• Treaty of `Perpetual friendship' with Ranjit Singh took place.
Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)
• Brief tenure marked by the liberation of Indian press of prohibitory restrictions as new press law was
passed.
Lord Auckland (1836-1842)
• Disastrous First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842) occured during his tenure.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)
• Successfully completed Afghan war and annexed Sindh province for British in 1843.
• Became first Governor General of India to be recalled for defying the orders of the Court of Directors
of East India Company.
• War with Gwalior (1843) occured during his tenure.
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Lord Hardinge-I (1844-1848)

• Issued orders for prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the practice of human sacrifice
among the Goads of Central India.
• Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) occured during his tenure.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856 great imperialist and colonist)
• Application of 'Doctrine of Lapse' (one of the principle political reasons for "Revolt of 1857) annexed
Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854)
and Awadh (1856) under `Doctrine of Lapse'
• The introduction of Railways (first train Bombay to Thane), Telegraph and Postal systems (first telegraph
line - Calcutta - Agra) in India in 1853.
• Postal reforms (Post Office Act 1854) initiated during his tenure.
• Charter- Act of 1853 passed.

E
• Wood's Education Dispatch 1854 (Magna Carta of Modern Western Education in India) also passed.
• Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852) and annexation of lower Burma occured during his tenure.
OR
• Widow Remarriage Act (1856) enacted.
• Military headquarter of British India was moved to Shimla, where summer capital of British India was
also established. Headquarter of Bengal artillery was moved to Meerut.
• Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-56) and annexation of Punjab from Maharaja Dalip Singh (Maharaja Dalip
SC

Singh handed over Kohinoor diamond to British).

• Establishment of separate Public Works Department in every province.
• To bring more land under cultivation so as to earn more revenue, two canals (1854), upper Ganga canal,
in western Uttar Pradesh (originating in Haridwar) and Baridoad canal in Punjab were constructed. Similarly,
the harbors of Calcutta, Bombay and Karachi were modernized to receive large maritime ships.
GS

VICEROY AND GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1858-1947)

Lord Canning (1856-1857 and 1858-1862)
(Last Governor of East India Company and first viceroy and Governor General of India)
• Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857 occured during.
• Witnessed and suppressed the Revolt of 1857.
• 'Doctrine of Lapse' started by Lord Dalhousie was finally withdrawn in 1859.
• Two arms of British administration originated (Secretary of State of India, Viceroy and Governor General
of India to look after the administration of India)
• Regressive laws, such as Criminal Procedure Codes (CrPC) and Indian Penal Codes (IPC) were introduced.
• Introduction of new tax such as income tax, on experimental basis in 1859.
• `White Mutiny' by European troops in 1859 occured.
• Indian Councils Act of 1861 enacted.
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Lord Elgin-I (1862-1863)

• Wahabi movement occured during his tenure and get suppressed.
Lord Lawrence (1862-1869)
• Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Afghanistan called Policy of Masterly Inactivity.
• Setting up of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras (1865).
Lord Mayo (1869-1872)
• Opening of the Rajkot college in Kathiawar and the Mayo College at Ajmer for political training of Indian
princes.
• Establishment of Statistical Survey of India occured.
• Establishment of Department of Agriculture and Commerce.

E
• Introduction of State Railways.
Lord North Brook (1872-1876)
•
•
Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875 occured.
Trial of Gaelcwar of Baroda occured.
OR
• Kuka movement in Punjab occured during his tenure.
SC
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
• Famine of 1876-1878 affecting Madras,. Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad, parts of Central India and Punjab
occured. Famine commission under the presidency of Richard Strachey (1878) appointed.
• Royal Titles Act (1876), Queen Victoria assuming the title of ''Kaiser-i-hind" or "Queen Empress of
India".
GS

• The Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878) enacted.
• The Second Afghan War (1878-1880) took place.
Lord Rippon (1880-1884)
• Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882) took place.
• The first Factory Act, 1881, to improve labor conditions enacted.
• Government resolution on Local Self Government (1882) also passed.
• Continuation of Financial decentralization.
• Appointment of education commission under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter (1882).
• The IIbert bill controversy (1883-1884) occured.
Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)
• The third Burmese war (1885-86) and establishment of Indian National Congress occured during his
tenure.
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Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

• Factory act (1891) enacted.
• Categorization of civil services as imperial, provincial and subordinate occured.
• Indian Council Act (1892) enacted.
• Setting up of Durand Commission (1893) to define the Durand line between India and Afghanistan (now
between Pakistan and Afghanistan).
Lord Elgin-II (1894-1999)
• Two British officials assassinated by Chapekar brothers (1897) during his tenure.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
• Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer to review police administration.
• Appointment of Universities Commission (1902) and passing of Indian Universities Act (1904)

E
Establishment of department of Commerce and industry.
• Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) enacted.
OR
• Ancient Monument Preservation act (1904) & Partition of Bengal (1905) enacted.
• Curzon-Kitchener controversy started.
• Partition Bangal (1905) of Bengal occured.
SC

• Younghusbands mission to Tibet (1904) started.

Lord Minto-II (1905-1910)
• Popularization of Anti-partion and Swadeshi movements.
• Split in Congress in the annual session of 1907 in Surat occured.
GS

• Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan (1906).

Lord Hardinge-11 (1910-1916)
• Creation of Bengal presidency (like Bombay and Madras) in 1911.
• Coronation Durbar of King George V held in Delhi 1911.
• Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi 1911.
• Establishment of Hindu Mabasabha (1915) by Madan Mohan Malavaya.
Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)
• Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant and Tilak (1916).
• Lucknow session of the Congress (1916).
• Lucknow pact between Congress and Muslim league (1916) signed.
• Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916) after Gandhiji's return; Launch of Champaran Satyagraha (1916),
Kheda Satyagaha (1918) and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918) occured.
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• Montague's August declaration (1917) proposed.

• Government of India's Act (1919) enacted.
• The Rowlatt Act (1919) enacted.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) took place.
• Launch of Non-cooperation and Khilafat movement occured.
• Foundation of women's university at Pune (1916) and appointment of Saddler's commission (1917) for
reforms in educational policy.
• Appointment of S.V. Sinha as Governor of Bihar (the first Indian to become a Governor).
Lord Reading (1921-1926)
• Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the subsequent withdrawal of non-cooperation movement.

E
• Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921) started.
• Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of 1919 occured.
•
•
OR
Criminal Law Amendment Act and Abolition of cotton exercise.
Communal riots in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, Aligarh, Arvi and Calcutta occured.
• Kakori train robbery (1925) also happened during his tenure.
SC
• Establishment of Swaraj party by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (1922).
• Decision to hold simultaneous examination for the ICS both in Delhi and London with effect from 1923.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
• Visit of Simon Commission to India (1928) and the boycott of the commission by the Indians occured.
GS

• An All Parties Conference held at Lucknow (1928) for suggestions for (future) Constitution of India, the
report of "Nehru Report" of the " Nehru Constitution" proposed.
• Appointment of Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission 1927.
• Murder of Saunders, the Assistant Superintendent of Police of Lahore; bomb blast in the assembly hall
of Delhi; the Lahore conspiracy case and the death of Jatin Das after prolonged hunger strike (1921) and
bomb accident on train in Delhi (1929).
• Lahore session of the Congress (1929); Puna Swami resolution.
• Dandi March (March 12,1930) by Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Deepavali declaration by Lord Erwin (1929).
• Boycott of the first round table conference, Gandhi-Irwin pact (1931) and the suspension of the civil
disobedience movement (March 1931).
Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)
• Second round table conference (1931) and failure .of the conference, presumption of civil disobedience.
• Announcement of communal award 1932 under which separate communal electorates were set up.
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• "Fast unto Death" by Gandhi in Yeravada prison, broken after the Pune pact (1932).
• Third round table conference (1932) occured.
• Launch of individual Civil Disobedience Movement (1933).
• The Government of India Act (1935) enacted.
• Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha (1936) and Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev
and Jayprakash Narayan (1934).
• Burma-separated from India (1935).
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)
• First general elections (1936-37); occured Congress gained majority in 5 provinces and formed coalition
in 3 other provinces.
• Resignation of the Congress ministries after the outbreak of the World War-II (1939).

E
• Subash Chandra Bose elected President of Congress at the 51st session of the Congress (1938).
OR
• Resignation of Bose in 1939 and formation of the Forward Bloc (1939) occured.
• Lahore resolution (March 1940) by the Muslim league demand for the separate state for Muslims.
• 'August offer' (1940) by the viceroy; criticism by the congress and the endorsement by the Muslim league.
• Vincent Churchill was elected Prime Minister of England (1940).
SC

• Escape of Subash Chandra Bose from India (1941) and organization of the Indian National Army.
• Cripps Mission, Cripps Plan to offer dominion status to India and setting up of a constituent assembly
and its rejection by the congress.
• Passing of the 'Quit India resolutions' by the congress (1942); outbreak of 'August Revolution'; or Revolt
GS

of 1942 after the arrest of National leaders.

• 'Divide and Quit' slogan at Karachi session (1944) of the Muslim League.
Lord Wavell (1944-1947)
• C.Rajagoapalachari's `C.R.Formula' (1944) was proposed.
• Failure of Gandhi-Jinnah pacts (1944) occured.
• Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference (1942) took place.
• End of World War-II (1945).
• Proposals of the Cabinet Mission (1946) and its acceptance by the Congress.
• Observance of 'Direct action day"(August 16, 1948) by the Muslim League.
• Elections to the constituent assembly, formation of interim government by the congress (September 1946)
• Announcement of the end of British rule in India by Clement Atlee (Prime Minister of England) on
February 20, 1947
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Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)

• June 3 Plan (June 3, 1947) announced.
• Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons.
• Appointment of two boundary commissions under Sir Cyril Radcliffe for the partition of Bengal and
Punjab.

E
OR
SC
GS
Notes

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PERSONALITIES
MAHATMA GANDHI
• Mahatma Gandhi was born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on October 2, 1869 at Porbandar, located
in the present day state of Gujarat.
• His father Karamchand Gandhi was the Diwan (Prime Minister) of Porbandar and mother Putlibai was
a pious lady and under her tutelage Gandhi imbibed various principles of Hinduism at an early age.
• After completing his college education Gandhi left for England on September 4, 1888 to study law at
University College, London.
• In 1893, went to South Africa as a legal adviser to an Indian firm in South Africa.

E
• As he descended in South Africa, Gandhi was left appalled at the rampant racial discrimination against
Indians and blacks by the European whites.
OR
• Soon Gandhi found himself at the receiving end of such abuse (thrown away from first class bogie of the
train) and he vowed to take up the cudgels on behalf of the Indian community.
• He organized the expatriate Indians and protested against the injustices meted out by the African
government.
SC

• After years of disobedience and non-violent protests, the South African government finally conceded to
Gandhi’s demands and an agreement to this effect was signed in 1914.
• Later, Gandhi realized the war that was to be waged against the British awaits his arrival in India and he
returned to India in 1915.
• After reaching India, Gandhi traveled across the length and breadth of the country to witness the atrocities
GS

of the British regime.

• He founded the Satyagraha Ashram and successfully employed the principles of Satyagraha in uniting the
peasants of Kheda and Champaran against the government. After this victory Gandhi was bestowed the
title of Bapu and Mahatma and his fame spread far and wide.
• In 1921, Mahatma Gandhi called for the non-cooperation movement against the British Government with
the sole object of attaining Swaraj or independence for India.
• Even though the movement achieved roaring success all over the country, the incident of mob violence
in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh forced Gandhi to call off the mass disobedience movement. Consequent
to this, Mahatma Gandhi took a hiatus from active politics and instead indulged in social reforms.
• The year 1930 saw Gandhi’s return to the fore of Indian freedom movement and on March 12, 1930 he
launched the historic Dandi March to protest against the tax on salt.
• The Dandi March soon metamorphosed into a huge civil disobedience movement.
• The Second World War broke out in 1939 and as the British might began to wane, Gandhi called for the
Quit India movement on August 8, 1942.
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• Post World War, the Labour Party came to power in England and the new government assured the Indian
leadership of imminent independence. The Cabinet Mission sent by the British government proposed for
the bifurcation of India along communal lines which Gandhi vehemently protested.
• Eventually Gandhi had to relent and on the eve of independence thousands lost their lives in communal
riots.
• Gandhi urged for communal harmony and worked tirelessly to promote unity among the Hindus and
Muslims.
• But Mahatma’s act of benevolence angered Hindu fundamentalists and on January 13, 1948 he was
assassinated by Hindu fanatic Nathuram Godse.
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi
Truth: Gandhi strictly maintained that the concept of truth is above and beyond of all other considerations
and one must unfailingly embrace truth throughout one’s life.

E
Satyagraha: In the context of Indian freedom movement, Satyagraha meant the resistance to the British
oppression through mass civil obedience.

OR
Nonviolence: The principle of nonviolence or Ahimsa has been integral to many Indian religions and Mahatma
Gandhi espoused for total nonviolence in the Indian freedom struggle.
Khadi: Mahatma used the adoption of Khadi as a subtle economic tool against the British industrial might
and also as a means of generating rural employment in India.
SC
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
• Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889, to a wealthy Kashmiri Brahmin family in Allahabad,
Uttar Pradesh.
• His father Motilal Nehru was a renowned advocate and also an influential politician.
GS

• For higher education, young Nehru was sent to Harrow school and then later to Cambridge University in
England. After spending two years at the Inner Temple, London, he qualified as a barrister.
• During his stay in London, Nehru was attracted by the ideas of liberalism, socialism and nationalism.
• In 1912, he had returned to India and joined the Allahabad High Court Bar.
• In 1916, Nehru participated in the Lucknow Session of the Congress. There, after a very long time,
member of both the extremist and moderate factions of the Congress party had come. All the members
equivocally agreed to the demand for “swaraj” (self rule). Although the means of the two sections were
different, the motive was “common” - freedom.
• In 1921 Nehru was imprisoned for participating in the first civil disobedience campaign as general secretary
of the United Provinces Congress Committee. The life in the jail helped him in understanding the
philosophy followed by Gandhi and others associated with the movement. He was moved by Gandhi’s
approach of dealing with caste and “untouchablity”.
• In 1922, some of the prominent members including his father Motilal Nehru had left the congress and
launched the “Swaraj Party”. The decision, no doubt upset Jawahar but he rejected the possibility of
leaving the Congress party.
• He was elected as the president of the Allahabad municipal corporation in 1920.
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• In 1926, he traveled to the flourished European nations like Germany, France and the Soviet Union. Here,
Nehru got an opportunity to meet various Communists, Socialists, and radical leaders from Asia and
Africa.
• Nehru was also impressed with the economic system of the communist Soviet Union and wished to apply
the same in his own country.
• In 1927, he became a member of the League against Imperialism created in Brussels, the capital city of
Belgium.
• During the Guwahati Session in 1928, Mahatma Gandhi announced that the Congress would launch a
massive movement if the British authority did not grant dominion status of India within next two years.
It was believed that under the pressure of Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose, the deadline was reduced
to one year.
• Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the famous “Nehru Report” prepared by his father Motilal Nehru in 1928 that
favored the concept of a “dominion status for India within the British rule”.
• In 1930 Mahatma Gandhi advocated Nehru as the next president of the Congress. The decision was also

E
an attempt to abate the intensity of “communism” in the Congress. The same year, Nehru was arrested
for the violation of the Salt Law.
OR
• In 1936, Nehru was re-elected as the president of the Indian National Congress.
• Fifteen years after the Guwahati Session, on 15 August, 1947, the congress succeeded to overthrow the
influential British Empire. Nehru was recognized as the first Prime Minister of independent India.
• In the year 1949, Jawaharlal Nehru made his first visit to the United States, seeking a solution to India’s
SC

urgent food shortage.

• In 1951, Jawaharlal Nehru launched the country’s “First Five-Year Plan” emphasizing on the increase in
the agricultural output.
• He was also the chief framer of domestic and international policies between 1947 and 1964.
GS

• Nehru played a predominant roles in substantiating India’s role in the foundation of NAM. He advocated
the policy of Non-Alignment during the cold war and India, subsequently, kept itself aloof from being in
the process of “global bifurcation”.
• In 1964, Jawaharlal Nehru suffered a stroke and a heart attack and on 27 May 1964, Nehru passed away.
• Nehru was cremated at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, Delhi
VALLABHBHAI PATEL
• Vallabhbhai Patel was born on October 31, 1875 in Gujarat to Zaverbhai and Ladbai.
• He completed his law studies in 1913 and came back to India and started his law practice.
• For his Excellencies in Law, Vallabhbhai was offered many lucrative posts by the British Government but
he rejected all.
• Later, inspired by Gandhi’s work and philosophy Patel became a staunch follower of him.
• In 1917, Sardar Vallabhbhai was elected as the Secretary of the Gujarat Sabha. The next year, when there
was a flood in Kaira, the British insisted on collecting tax from the farmers. Sardar Vallabhbhai led a
massive “No Tax campaign” that urged the farmers not to pay their land.
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• The peaceful movement forced the British authority to return then land taken away from the farmers. His
effort to bring together the farmers of his area brought him the title of ‘Sardar’ to his name.
• In 1928, the farmers of Bardoli faced a similar problem of “tax-hike”. After prolonged summons, when
the farmers refused to pay the extra tax, the government in retaliation seized their lands. Under the
leadership of Vallabhbhai Patel the agitation took on for more than six months and after a deal struck
between the government and farmer’s representatives, the lands were returned.
• In 1930 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was imprisoned for participating in the famous Salt Satyagraha called by
Mahatma Gandhi.
• His inspiring speeches during the “Salt Movement” transformed the lives of numerous people, who later
played a major role in making the movement successful.
• Sardar Patel was freed in 1931 following an agreement signed between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin,
the then Viceroy of India. The treaty was popularly known as the Gandhi-Irwin pact.

E
• In 1931 Patel was elected as the president of Indian National Congress Party for its Karachi session.In
the Karachi session, the Indian National Congress Party committed itself to the defence of fundamental
rights and human rights and a dream of a secular nation. An agreement regarding this was also sanctioned.
•
OR
In 1934, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led the all-India election campaign for the Indian National Congress.
Though he did not contest a seat for himself, Sardar Patel helped his fellow party mates during the
election.
• At the time of independence, Indian territory was divided into three parts. First, the territories under the
SC
direct control of the British government, second were the territories over which the hereditary rulers had
suzerainty. The regions, which had been colonized by France and Portugal, formed the last. India, without
the integration of these different territories under one roof, could not be considered as a unified and total
country. Vallabhbhai Patel played a crucial role during the freedom struggle of India and was instrumental
in the integration of over 565 princely states into the Indian Union.
BAL GANGADHAR TILAK
GS

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a social reformer and freedom fighter and was one of the prime architects of
modern India and strongest advocates of Swaraj (Self Rule).
• He was a great reformer and throughout his life he emphasized on the concepts of women education and
women empowerment.
• To inspire a sense of unity, he introduced the festivals like ‘Ganesh Chaturthi’ and Shivaji Jayanti’. In
present times Ganesh Chaturthi is considered as the prime festival of the Marathis.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak launched two newspapers called ‘Mahratta’ (English) and ‘Kesari’ (Marathi). Both the
newspaper stressed on making the Indians aware of the glorious past and empowered them to be self
reliant. The newspaper actively propagated the cause of national freedom.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak joined the Indian National Congress Party in 1890.
• Realizing that the constitutional agitation in itself was futile against the British, Tilak opposed the moderate
views of the party. This subsequently made him stand against the prominent leaders like Gopal Krishna
Gokhale.
• His movement was based on the principles of Swadeshi (Indigenous), Boycott and Education. But his
methods also raised bitter controversies within the Indian National Congress Party and the movement
itself.
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• As a result, Tilak formed the extremist wing of Indian National Congress Party. Tilak was well supported
by fellow nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab. The trio was referred
to as the Lal-Bal-Pal.
• A massive trouble broke out between the moderate and extremist factions of the Indian National Congress
Party in the 1907 session of the Congress Party. As a result of which, the Congress split into two factions.
• During 1908-1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak spent six years rigorous imprisonment in Mandalay Jail, Burma.
He was deported because of his alleged support to the Indian revolutionaries, who had killed British
people.
• Tilak returned to India in 1915 when the political situation was fast changing under the shadow of World
War I.
• Tilak decided to re-unite with his fellow nationalists and founded the All India Home Rule League in 1916
with Joseph Baptista, Annie Besant and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• In mid-July 1920, his condition worsened and on August 1, he passed away.

E
GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale was one of the pioneers of the Indian Independence Movement and was a senior
OR
leader of the Indian National Congress.
• He was a leader of social and political reformists and one of the earliest and founding leaders of the Indian
Independence Movement and was respected widely in the Indian intellectual community.
• In 1884, after the completion of his graduation in arts at the Elphinstone College, Bombay, Gokhale joined
SC

as professor of history and political economy at the Fergusson College, Poona. He remained on the staff,
finally as principal, until 1902.
• Becoming actively identified with the National Congress movement, he was for some years the joint
secretary and in 1905 president at the Benares session.
• The higher education made Gokhale understand the importance of liberty, democracy and parliamentary
GS

system of the government.

• In 1985-86, Gopal Krishna Gokhale met a great scholar and a social reformer Mahadev Govind Ranade.
Ranade was a great leader, judge, scholar and above all social reformer. Gokhale regarded Mahadev
Govinda Ranade as his “Guru”.
• Ranade helped Gokhale in establishing the “Servants of India Society” in 1905. The main objective of
this society was to train Indians to raise their voices and serve their country.
• Gokhale also worked with Ranade in a quarterly Journal, called “Sarvajanik”. The Journal wrote about
the public questions of the day in frank and fearless manner.
• Gokhale was the secretary of the “Reception Committee” of the 1895 Poona session of Indian National
Congress and from this session, Gokhale became a prominent face of the Indian National Congress.
• For a while Gokhale was a member of the Bombay Legislative Council where he spoke strongly against
the then Government.
• In 1905, Gokhale was sent by the Congress on a special mission to England to spread India’s constitutional
demands among the British leaders.
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• Gokhale was instrumental in the formation of the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909, which was tabled. The
Reforms Act became law in 1909 but it was disappointing that despite Gokhale’s efforts, the people were
not given a proper democratic system.
• However, Gokhale’s efforts were clearly not in vain and Indians now had access to seats of the highest
authority within the government, and their voices were more audible in matters of public interest.
• Gokhale, during his visit to South Africa in 1912, met Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
• Gokhale made him aware of the issues confronting common people back in India.
• In his autobiography, Gandhi calls Gokhale his “mentor and guide”.
• Not only Gandhi, Gokhale also guide Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah.
SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
• Subhash Chandra Bose was born into an affluent Bengali family on January 23, 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa.

E
• During the period of civil disobedience movement called by Mahatma Gandhi Bose resigned from the ICS
in April 1921 to join the freedom struggle.
•

•
eloquence and leadership skills. OR
He joined the youth wing of the Congress Party and soon rose up the party hierarchy by virtue of his

At an early stage of his life Subhas Bose accepted Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das as his political guru.
• Over a span of 20 years, Bose was imprisoned eleven times by the British, the first one being in 1921.
SC
In 1924, after a brief period of incarceration, Bose was exiled to Mandalay in Burma.
• Subhash Bose was imprisoned again in 1930 and deported to Europe. During his stay in Europe from 1933
to 1936, Subhash Bose zealously espoused the cause of Indian freedom while meeting a number of
prominent European statesmen.
• In 1937, Bose married Emilie Schenkl who was his secretary.
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• Subhash Bose was twice elected president of the Indian National Congress (1938 and 1939) but following
his disagreements with Mahatma Gandhi he relinquished his post and formed a progressive group known
as the Forward Block.
• The principles and the philosophy of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose were instrumental factors in his
embracing of armed revolution in the later part of his political career.
• Initially Bose was a follower of the Gandhian way of freedom movement but years of travel in European
countries during exile and the ripening of mental faculties with age made him disenchanted with the ways
of the Indian National Congress.
• Disappointed with the leniency shown by some Congress leaders towards the British, Bose became
increasingly convinced that the goal of achieving freedom would remain a pipedream as long as the British
held sway over the land and peaceful protests would never be able to throw the British out.
• While outlining his vision for a free India, Subhash Chandra Bose proclaimed that socialist authoritarianism
would be required to eradicate poverty and social inequalities from a diverse country like India.
• He openly espoused for an authoritarian state on the lines of Soviet Russia and Kemal Atatürk’s Turkey.
• Bose was also an exponent of socialism and opined that industrialization and Soviet-style five-year plans
held the key to a vibrant Indian nation.
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• The Second World War broke out in 1939 and Bose launched a campaign of mass civil disobedience to
protest against the Viceroy’s decision to declare war on India’s behalf.
• Bose was placed under house arrest. Taking advantage of the laxity of the house guards and aided by his
cousin Sishir Bose, Subhash managed to escape and traversing through enemy territories he reached
Moscow.
• Bose tried to garner the help Nazi Germany but due to the indifferent attitude of Hitler and other German
leaders he left for Japan and soon assumed the leadership of Indian National Army (INA) founded by
Rash Behari Bose.
• Bolstered by material assistance from the Japanese forces, the INA attacked the British forces in Manipur
and Nagaland in northeastern India and hosted the National Flag in the town in Moirang, in Manipur.
• But with the defeat of Japan, the invasion by the INA soon petered out and Netaji was forced to retreat
to Malaya.
• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose allegedly died in a plane crash over Taiwan, while flying to Tokyo on August
18, 1945.
LALA LAJPAT RAI

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OR
• Lala Lajpat Rai immensely contributed in attaining independence the nation and helped to establish the
nationalistic Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School and became a follower of Dayanand Saraswati.
• In 1888 and 1889 he was a delegate to the annual sessions of the National Congress.
• In 1895 Rai helped found the Punjab National Bank, demonstrating his concern for self-help and enterprise.
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• In 1897 he founded the Hindu Orphan Relief Movement to keep the Christian missions from securing
custody of these children.
• In the National Congress in 1900 he stressed the importance of constructive, nation-building activity and
programs for self-reliance.
• In October 1917, he founded the Indian Home Rule League of America in New York.
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• In 1920, after his return from America, Lajpat Rai was invited to preside over the special session of the
Congress in Calcutta, (now Kolkata).
• He plunged into the non-cooperation movement, which was being launched in response to the Rowlatt
Act, in principle.
• The movement was led by Lajpat Rai’s in Punjab and he soon came to be known as “Punjab Kesri” (The
Lion of Punjab).
• Lala Lajpat Rai was also a noted writer. The United States of America: A Hindu’s impressions and a
study, History of the Arya Samaj, Swaraj and social change, England’s Debt to India: India, The Problems
Of National Education In India were among the books, he had written.
• On October 30, 1928 he died after the police lathi-charged on the activists, protesting the arrival of Simon
Commission. .
MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was one of the foremost leaders of Indian freedom struggle. He was also a
renowned scholar, and poet.
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• Imbued with the pan-Islamic spirit, he visited Afghanistan, Iraq, Egypt, Syria and Turkey.
• In Iraq he met the exiled revolutionaries who were fighting to establish a constitutional government in Iran.
In Egypt he met Shaikh Muhammad Abduh and Saeed Pasha and other revolutionary activists of the
Arab world.
• He had a firsthand knowledge of the ideals and spirit of the young Turks in Constantinople. All these
contacts metamorphosed him into a nationalist revolutionary.
• On his return from abroad, Azad met two leading revolutionaries of Bengal- Aurobinto Ghosh and Sri
Shyam Shundar Chakravarty, and joined the revolutionary movement against British rule.
• Azad observed that the revolutionary activities were restricted to Bengal and Bihar, and within two years,
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad helped set up secret revolutionary centers all over north India and Bombay.
• During that time most of his revolutionaries were anti-Muslim because they felt that the British government
was using the Muslim community against India's freedom struggle. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad tried to

E
convince his colleagues to shed their hostility towards Muslims.
• In 1912, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started a weekly journal in Urdu called Al-Hilal to increase the

•
revolutionary recruits amongst the Muslims.
OR
Al-Hilal played an important role in forging Hindu-Muslim unity after the bad blood created between the
two communities in the aftermath of Morley-Minto reforms. Al-Hilal became a revolutionary mouthpiece
ventilating extremist views. 'The government regarded Al- Hilal as propagator of secessionist views and
banned it in 1914.
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• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started another weekly called Al-Balagh with the same mission of propagating
Indian nationalism and revolutionary ideas based on Hindu-Muslim unity. In 1916, the government banned
this paper too and expelled Maulana Abul Kalam Azad from Calcutta and put him in jail at Ranchi from
where he was released after the First World War 1920.
• After his release, Azad roused the Muslim community through the Khilafat Movement. The aim of the
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movement was to re-instate the Khalifa as the head of British captured Turkey. M
• aulana Abul Kalam Azad supported Non-Cooperation Movement started by Gandhiji and entered Indian
National Congress in 1920.
• He was elected as the president of the special session of the Congress in Delhi (1923).
• Maulana Azad was again arrested in 1930 for violation of the salt laws as part of Gandhiji's Salt Satyagraha.
He was put in Meerut jail for a year and a half.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad became the president of Congress in 1940 (Ramgarh) and remained in the
post till 1946.
• He was a staunch opponent of partition and supported a confederation of autonomous provinces with
their own constitutions but common defense and economy. Partition hurt him greaty and shattered his
dream of an unified nation where Hindus and Muslims can co-exist and prosper together.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad served as the Minister of Education (the first education minister in independent
India) in Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru's cabinet from 1947 to 1958.
• He was appointed as India’s first Minister for Education and inducted in the Constituent Assembly to draft
India’s constitution.
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• Under Maulana Azad’s tenure, a number of measures were undertaken to promote primary and secondary
education, scientific education, establishment of universities and promotion of avenues of research and
higher studies.
• For his invaluable contribution to the nation, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was posthumously awarded
India’s highest civilian honor, Bharat Ratna in 1992.
RAJENDRA PRASAD
• Rajendra Prasad was a great leader of the Indian Nationalist Movement and also one of the architects of
the Indian Constitution.
• He was elected as the first President of Republic of India.
• In 1911, during his stay in Calcutta (now Kolkata) as a legal practitioner, Rajendra Prasad joined the Indian
National Congress Party and was subsequently elected to the AICC.
• During the Champaran movement, Mahatma Gandhi asked Rajendra Prasad to visit Champaran along
with the other volunteers and partisans of the Indian National Congress.
•

E
Initially Rajendra Prasad was not impressed with Gandhiji’s appearance and conversation but deeply
moved by the dedication, conviction and courage of Gandhi.
OR
• Rajendra Prasad also responded to the call of Mahatma Gandhi to boycott Western education.
• He asked his son Mrityunjaya Prasad, a brilliant student to leave the University and enroll himself in Bihar
Vidyapeeth.
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• He wrote articles for magazines like “Searchlight” and “Desh”.

• Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Bombay session of the Indian National Congress
Party in October 1934.
• In July 1946, when the Constituent Assembly was established to frame the Constitution of India, Dr.
Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. And, eventually he was also elected as the first President of
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Republic of India.
• He was also awarded with Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.
• Following a brief illness, he passed away in 28 February, 1963.
SAROJINI NAIDU
• Sarojini Naidu was known by the sobriquet “The Nightingale of India” and her contribution was not
confined to the fields of politics only but she was also a renowned poet.
• Sarojini Naidu was moved by the partition of Bengal in 1905 and decided to join the Indian freedom
struggle.
• She met regularly with Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who later introduced her to the stalwarts of the Indian
freedom movement. She met Mahatma Gandhi, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, C. P. Ramaswami Iyer and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• Sarojini later moved on to become leader of the Indian National Congress Party. She traveled extensively
to the United States of America and many European countries as the flag-bearer of the Indian Nationalist
struggle.
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• During 1915, Sarojini Naidu travelled all over India and delivered speeches on welfare of youth, dignity
of labor, women’s emancipation and nationalism.
• In 1916, she took up the cause of the indigo workers of Champaran in the western district of Bihar.
• Mahatma Gandhi organized the Non-Cooperation Movement to protest against Rowlatt Act and Naidu
was the first to join the movement.
• Sarojini Naidu also actively campaigned for the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, the Khilafat issue, the
Sabarmati Pact, the Satyagraha Pledge and the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• In 1919, she went to England as a member of the all-India Home Rule Deputation.
• In January 1924, she was one of the two delegates of the Indian National Congress Party to attend the
East African Indian Congress.
• In 1925, she was elected as the President of the Indian National Congress Party.

E
• In 1905, her collection of poems was published under the title “Golden Threshold”. Later, she also
published two other collections called “The Bird of Time”, and “The Broken Wings”.
•

•
Conference in 1947 was highly-appraised.
OR
Sarojini Naidu was the first woman Governor of Uttar Pradesh. Her chairmanship of the Asian Relations

On 02 March 1949, Sarojini Naidu died at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI
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• Lal Bahadur Shastri (2 October 1904 – 11 January 1966) was the third Prime Minister of the Republic
of India and a leader of the Indian National Congress party.
• Shastri joined the Indian independence movement in the 1920s. Deeply impressed and influenced by
Mahatma Gandhi, he became a loyal follower, first of Gandhi, and then of Jawaharlal Nehru.
• During the “Salt Movement” Lal Bahadur lead a door-to-door campaign, urging people not to pay land
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revenue and taxes to the British authority.

• He was one of the leading and prominent faces that continued the Quit India movement, called by
Mahatma Gandhi.
• Lal Bahadur, in 1937, was elected to the UP Legislative Assembly.
• After Independence, he became the Minister of police in the Ministry of Govind Vallabh Panth in Uttar
Pradesh. His recommendations included the introduction of “water-jets” instead of sticks to disperse the
unruly mob.
• Impressed with his efforts in reforming the state police department, Jawaharlal Nehru, invited Shastri to
join the Union cabinet as a Minister for railways.
• He was a responsible man and known for his ethics and morality. In 1956, Lal Bahadur Shastri resigned
from his post, following a train accident that killed around 150 passengers near Ariyalur in Tamil Nadu.
• Nehru, had once said, “No one could wish for a better comrade than Lal Bahadur, a man of the highest
integrity and devoted to ideas”.
• In 1961, he became Minister for Home and formed the “Committee on Prevention of Corruption” headed
by of K. Santhanam.
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• Jawaharlal Nehru was succeeded by a mild-mannered and soft-spoken Lal Bahadur Shastri on 9 June,
1964.
• He was a follower of Nehruvian socialism. Shastri tackled many elementary problems like food shortage,
unemployment and poverty. To overcome the acute food shortage, Shastri asked the experts to devise a
long-term strategy. This was the beginning of famous “Green Revolution”.
• Apart from the Green Revolution, he was also instrumental in promoting the White Revolution. The
National Dairy Development Board was formed in 1965 during Shastri as Prime Minister.
• The 1965 Indo-Pak war took place during the tenure of Shastri which ended on 23 September 1965 after
the United Nations passed a resolution demanding a ceasefire.
• The Russian Prime Minister, Kosygin, offered to mediate and on 10 January 1966, Lal Bahadur Shastri
and his Pakistan counterpart Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Declaration.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri, who had earlier suffered two heart attacks, died of the third cardiac arrest on 11
January, 1966.

E
• He is the only Indian Prime Minister, to have died in office, overseas.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri was the first person to be posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, (India’s highest
OR
civilian award).
CHANDRASEKHAR AZAD
• Chandrasekhar Azad waged a valiant battle against the British and inspired the youth of the nation with
his heroics.
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• Chandrashekhar was deeply troubled by the Jalianwalabagh massacre in Amritsar in 1919 and at an age
of 15, got involved in the revolutionary activities.
• He was caught by the British police while participating in the non-cooperation movement and sentenced
to whip-lashes as punishment.
• When the magistrate asked him his name, he said “Azad” (independence). From that point onwards,
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Chandrashekhar assumed the title of Azad and came to be known as Chandrashekhar Azad.
• After the suspension of the non-cooperation movement by Mahatma Gandhi, Azad, along with Bhagat
Singh distanced themselves from the paths of Gandhi. They were more attracted by the aggressive and
violent revolutionary ideals and means.
• They formed the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and trained the revolutionaries like Sukhdev,
Batukeshwar Dutt, and Rajguru.
• Azad was instrumental in carrying out numerous acts of violence which included the Kakori Train
Robbery in 1926, assassination of John Poyantz Saunders in 1928 at Lahore to avenge the killing of Lala
Lajpat Rai.
• On February 27, 1931, surrounded by police in the Alfred Park, Allahabad and all escape routes sealed,
Azad fought and ultimately took his life with the last bullet of his pistol.
BHAGAT SINGH
• Bhagat Singh joined the Hindustan Republican Association, a radical group, later known as the Hindustan
Socialist Republican Association.
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• He established contact with the members of the Kirti Kisan Party and started contributing regularly to
its magazine, the “Kirti”.
• In March 1926, the Naujawan Bharat Sabha was formed with Bhagat Singh, as its secretary.
• As an avenge to the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh and his associates plotted the assassination
of Scott, the Superintendent of Police, believed to have ordered the lathi charge.
• The revolutionaries, mistaking J.P. Saunders, an Assistant Superintendent of Police, as Scott, killed him
instead. Bhagat Singh quickly left Lahore to escape his arrest.
• In response to the formulation of Defence of India Act, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
planned to explode a bomb inside the assembly premises, where the ordinance was going to be passed.
• On April 8, 1929 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb onto the corridors of the assembly
and shouted ‘Inquilab Zindabad!’.The bomb was not meant to kill or injure anyone and therefore it was
thrown away from the crowded place. Following the blasts both Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt

E
courted arrest.
• Bhagat Singh along with other revolutionaries found responsible for the Assembly bombing and murder

•
of Saunders.

OR
On March 23, 1931, Bhagat Singh was hanged in Lahore with his fellow comrades Rajguru and Sukhdev.
ANNIE BESANT
• Annie Besant (1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a prominent British socialist, theosophist,
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women’s rights activist, writer and orator and supporter of Irish and Indian self-rule.
• In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky and became a member of the Theosophical Society and a prominent
lecturer on the subject. As part of her theosophy-related work, she travelled to India.
• In 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu College and in 1922 she helped establish the Hyderabad
(Sind) National Collegiate Board in Mumbai, India.
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• In 1907 she became president of the Theosophical Society, whose international headquarters were in
Adyar,Madras, (Chennai).
• She also became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National Congress.
• In 1916 Besant launched the Home Rule League along with Lokmanya Tilak, once again modelling
demands for India on Irish nationalist practices.
• This was the first political party in India to have regime change as its main goal. Unlike the Congress itself,
the League worked all year round. It built a structure of local branches, enabling it to mobilise demonstrations,
public meetings and agitations.
• In June 1917 Besant was arrested and interned at a hill station, where she defiantly flew a red and green
flag. The Congress and the Muslim League together threatened to launch protests if she were not set free;
Besant’s arrest had created a focus for protest.
• The government was forced to give way and to make vague but significant concessions. It was announced
that the ultimate aim of British rule was Indian self-government, and moves in that direction were
promised.
• Besant was freed in September 1917, and in December 1917 she took over as president of the Indian
National Congress for a year.
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• She continued to campaign for Indian independence and for the causes of theosophy, until her death in
1933.
BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR
• Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularly known as Babasaheb, was an
Indian lawyer, politician and academic who inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement and worked for equal
rights for the Dalit.
• As independent India’s first law minister, he was principal architect of the Constitution of India.
• Ambedkar opined that there should be separate electoral system for the Untouchables and lower caste
people.
• He also favored the concept of providing reservations for Dalits and other religious communities.
• Ambedkar began to find ways to reach to the people and make them understand the drawbacks of the
prevailing social evils.
• He launched a newspaper called “Mooknayaka” (leader of the silent).
•

E
In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labor Party.
OR
• In the 1937 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly his party won 15 seats.
• Ambedkar oversaw the transformation of his political party into the All India Scheduled Castes Federation,
although it performed poorly in the elections held in 1946 for the Constituent Assembly of India.
• Ambedkar was appointed on the Defence Advisory Committee and the Viceroy’s Executive Council as
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Minister for Labor.

• His reputation as a scholar led to his appointment as free India’s first, Law Minister and chairman of the
committee responsible to draft a constitution.
• Ambedkar emphasized on the construction of a virtual bridge between the classes of the society. According
to him, it would be difficult to maintain the unity of the country if the difference among the classes were
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not met.
• After his return from Sri Lanka after attending a convention of Buddhist scholars and monks in 1950
converted himself to Buddhism. I
• In his speeches, Ambedkar lambasted the Hindu rituals and caste division.
• Ambedkar founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha In 1955.
• His book “The Buddha and His Dhamma” was published posthumously.
• Ambedkar was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in 1990.
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PERSONALITIES
ACHARYA VINOBA BHAVE
• Acharya Vinoba Bhave was a freedom fighter and a spiritual teacher.
• He is best known as the founder of the ‘Bhoodan Movement’ (Gift of the Land).
• The reformer had an intense concern for the deprived masses.
• Vinoba Bhave had once said, “All revolutions are spiritual at the source. All my activities have the sole
purpose of achieving a union of hearts.”

E
• In 1958, Vinoba was the first recipient of the international Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community
Leadership.
•
• Bhoodan Movement OR
He was also conferred with the Bharat Ratna (India’s highest civilian awards) posthumously in 1983.

In 1951, Vinoba Bhave started his peace-trek on foot through the violence-torn region of Telangana.
• On April 18, 1951, the Harijans of the Pochampalli village requested him to provide them with around
SC
80 acres of land to make a living.
• Vinoba asked the landlords of the village to come forward and save the Harijans. A landlord, responded
to the call and offered the required amount of land.
• This incident added a new chapter in the history of sacrifices and non-violence and was the beginning of
the Bhoodan (Gift of the Land) movement.
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• Following this, Vinoba Bhave traveled all across the country asking landlords to consider him as one of
their sons and so give him a portion of their land. He then distributed those portions of land to the
landless poor.
• He always followed the path of truth and Non-violence, as shown by Mahatma Gandhi.
SRI AUROBINDO
• Sri Aurobindo was a revolutionary, poet, philosopher, writer, and spiritual master, during the course of his
life.
• He became one of the primary leaders fighting for Indian independence, from British rule.
• With time, Aurobindo drifted from his political career and found a new motive in life - bringing a new
spiritual consciousness amongst people.
• Yoga and meditation became his primary concerns in life and thus, emerged the development of a new
spiritual path, which he termed as Integral Yoga. It was during this time that Sri Aurobindo Ashram, also
known as The Mother, was formed. Started as a small unit, the organization soon grew is size as well as
reach and is operational till date.
• In 1906 that Sri Aurobindo joined the Indian Nationalist Movement in Calcutta.
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• Working as an editor in the newspaper Bande Mataram, he brought forward the idea of independence from
British.
• He was also one of the founders of the Jugantar party, an underground revolutionary group.
• Sri Aurobindo’s spiritual mission commenced when he became a prominent figure in the world of politics.
It was, thence, that he came across Lele Maharaj, a teacher of meditation, who taught him the art of
controlling his thoughts and beliefs. A
• urobindo was arrested for the possession of weapons in 1908 and was held in jail for a year. It was during
this time only that he became conscious about his inner self.
• He practiced meditation in his cell, read about the ancient principles of yoga and realized the omnipresence
of God.
• Becoming aware of a divine inner guidance, Sri Aurobindo listened to his inner command, which instructed
him to leave politics and work for the renewal of sanatana dharma, ‘the eternal religion’.
• After coming out of the jail, he came in contact with Sister Nivedita, a disciple of Swami Vivekananda.

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Thereafter, he changed his abode, from Calcutta, to Pondicherry and devoted himself completely towards
spiritual disciplines.
OR
• Sri Aurobindo also became a prolific writer, producing many articles, writings and poetry. Eventually,
Pondicherry became a mecca for spiritual seekers.
• Sri Aurobindo believed that every religion was right in its own way.
• A poet, philosopher, writer and spiritual master, he offered a new vision of yoga and a spiritual path that
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could be followed by his disciples.

• Out of his many works, one of the most praiseworthy is ‘The Life Divine’, a comprehensive explanation
of his integral yoga.
RABINDRANATH TAGORE
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• Rabindranath Tagore, the brilliant poet and eminent educationist was born on 6th may 1861 in Calcutta.
• In 1878 he went to London and studied law for two years, but returned to India without a degree.
• On the way over to England he began translating, for the first time, his latest selections of poems,
Gitanjali, into English.
• According to him the prevailing schooling system was defective and cannot favourable influence on his
life. So he founded an educational institution based on his own philosophy of life and education at
Santiniketan near Bolepur in West Bengal.
• He participated in the movement on Bengal division in 1905.
• His literary excellence, outstanding Educational philosophy and broad cultural outlook made him popular
and famous.
• In 1913 he was awarded with the prestigious Nobel Prize for his great literary work “Gitanjali”. He was
the first non-westerner to be so honored.
• In 1915 he was knighted by the British King George V. In 1919, following the Amritsar massacre of 400
Indian demonstrators by British troops, Sir Tagore renounced his Knighthood.
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• Although a good friend of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, most of the time Tagore stayed out of
politics.
• He was opposed to nationalism and militarism as a matter of principle, and instead promoted spiritual
values and the creation of a new world culture founded in multi-culturalism, diversity and tolerance.
• Although Tagore is a superb representative of his country - India - the man who wrote its national anthem
- his life and works go far beyond his country.
• He is truly a man of the whole Earth, a product of the best of both traditional Indian, and modern
Western cultures.
DADABHAI NAOROJI
• Dadabhai Naoroji (4 September 1825 – 30 June 1917), known as the Grand Old Man of India, was a
Parsi intellectual, educator, cotton trader, and an early Indian political and social leader.

E
• He was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the United Kingdom House of Commons between 1892 and
1895, and the first Asian to be a British MP.
•

•
Dinshaw Edulji Wacha.
OR
Naoroji is also credited with the founding of the Indian National Congress, along with A.O. Hume and

He was also member of Second International along with Kautsky and Plekhanov.
• He viewed that the intervention of into India by foreigners were clearly not favorable for the country.
SC
• R.C. Dutta and Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory.
• Naoroji’s book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ brought attention to the draining of India’s wealth
into Britain. R C Dutt blamed the British policies for economic ills in his book “Economic History of
India”.
• Drain of wealth refers to the portion of national product of India, which was not available for consumption
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of Indians.
• Drain of wealth began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey when the Company’s servants began to extort
fortunes from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and send home.
• In 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani of Bengal and began to purchase the Indian goods out of the
revenue of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Company’s investments. Duty free
inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian counterparts.
• The actual drain, as a part of the salaries and other incomes of the English officials and the trading
fortunes of English merchants, was even more.
• The drain of wealth stunted the growth of Indian enterprise and checked and retarded capital formation
in India.
MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah (25 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was a lawyer, politician, and eminent
leader during national movement.
• Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress’s twentieth annual meeting, in Bombay in December
1904.
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• Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln’s Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the
Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century.
• He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu–Muslim unity in achieving
self-government, and following such leaders as Mehta, Naoroji, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu–Muslim unity, helping to shape the
1916 Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the All-India Muslim League, a party in which Jinnah had
also become prominent.
• Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen-point constitutional
reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims should a united British India become independent.
• In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha,
or non-violent resistance, advocated by the influential leader, Mohandas Gandhi.
• In 1940, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation.
• During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned,

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and in the elections held shortly after the war, it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims.
• Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power-sharing formula for a united
OR
India, leading all parties to agree to separate independence for a secular India, and for a Muslim-majority
state, to be called Pakistan.
• Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until and as Pakistan’s first Governor-
General from independence until his death.
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KHÂN ABDUL GHAFFÂR KHÂN

• Khân Abdul Ghaffâr Khân (6 February 1890 – 20 January 1988) was an independence activist of Pashtun
descent.
• He was a political and spiritual Gandhian, leader known for his non-violent opposition to the British Rule
in the sub-continent, and a lifelong pacifist and devout Muslim.
GS

• A close friend of Mahatma Gandhi, Khân Abdul Ghaffâr Khân has been nicknamed Frontier Gandhi.
• In 1910, he opened a mosque school at his hometown Utmanzai, and in 1911 joined the freedom
movement of Haji Sahib of Turangzai. However in 1915, the British authorities banned his mosque
school.
• Having witnessed the repeated failure of revolts against the British Raj, he decided that social activism
and reform would be more beneficial for the Pashtuns. This led to the formation of Anjuman-e Islâh al-
Afghân (“Afghan Reform Society”) in 1921, and the youth movement Paxtûn Jirga (“Pashtun Assembly”)
in 1927.
• After he returned from the Hajj in May 1928, he founded the Pashto language monthly political journal
Paxtûn.
• In November 1929, Khan founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”) movement, whose
success triggered a harsh crackdown by the British Empire against him and his supporters and they
suffered some of the most severe repression of the Indian independence movement.
• In 1962, he was named the Amnesty International Prisoner of Conscience of the Year.
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• In 1987, he became the first non-Indian to be awarded Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.
• Khan is a Pashtun national hero and a key figure of Pashtun nationalism.
• Khan strongly opposed the All-India Muslim League’s demand for the partition of India.
• After partition, he pledged allegiance to Pakistan and demanded an autonomous “Pashtunistan”
administrative unit within the country.
CHAKRAVARTI RAJAGOPALACHARI
• Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972) was a lawyer, independence
activist, politician, writer and statesman.
• Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India.
• He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining
the Non-Cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil Disobedience movement.

E
• In 1930, Rajagopalachari risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha in response
to the Dandi March.
•

•
OR
In 1937, Rajagopalachari was elected Premier of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he
resigned due to Britain’s declaration of war on Germany.
He later advocated co-operation over Britain’s war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement.
SC
• He favoured talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League and proposed what later
came to be known as the C. R. Formula.
• In 1946, Rajagopalachari was appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the
Interim Government of India, and then as the Governor of West Bengal from 1947 to 1948, and Governor-
General of India from 1948 to 1950.
GS

• He also served as Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state.
• Rajagopalachari founded the Swatantra Party and was one of the first recipients of India’s highest civilian
award, the Bharat Ratna.
• He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament.
PANDIT MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA
• Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861–1946) was an Indian educationist and politician notable for his role
in the Indian independence movement and his espousal of Hindu nationalism (being one of the initial
leaders of the far-right party Hindu Mahasabha).
• Later in life, he was also addressed as ‘Mahamana’.
• He was the President of the Indian National Congress on four occasion.
• He founded the largest residential university in Asia and one of the largest in the world, Banaras Hindu
University (BHU) at Varanasi in 1916, of which he also remained the Vice Chancellor from 1919 till 1938.
• Pandit Malviya was one of the founders of Scouting in India.
• He also founded a highly influential, English-newspaper ‘The Leader’ published from Allahabad in 1909.
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RAM MANOHAR LOHIA

• Ram Manohar Lohia, a socialist political leader as well as a noted freedom fighter of India was born in
the village of Akbarpur, Uttar Pradesh on 23rd March, 1910.
• Ram Manohar was highly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi ideas which instigated the feeling of Swaraj
(freedom) into him.
• ‘Salt Satyagraha’ was his subject in the PhD thesis paper.
• Though he had a good affinity with Jawaharlal Nehru but dissented with him on many political issues.
• His first contribution as a nationalist leader was organizing a ‘hartal’ on Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s death.
• In 1928, he joined protests against the Simon Commission.
• In Europe he organized ‘Association of European Indians’ .
• Joined Indian National Congress and established Congress Socialist Party,1934.

E
• He was elected the Secretary of All India Congress Committee (1936).
• He was arrested on 7th June, 1940 and sentenced to two years imprisonment for writing an article
OR
‘Satyagraha Now’ in Gandhiji’s newspaper Harijan.
• He published and circulated posters and pamphlets on ‘Do or Die’ during the ‘Quit India Movement’,
1942.
• He along with Aruna Asaf Ali edited a Congress Party monthly newspaper called ‘Inquilab’.
SC

• Post-independence Lohia took the leadership of building a dam on river Paniyari called ‘Lohia Sagar Dam’.
• He founded ‘Hind Kisan Panchayat’ to provide solution to the farmers after independence.
• He also set up World Development Council and World Government to retain peace.
ARUNA ASAF ALI
GS

• Aruna Asaf Ali played a leading role during Quit India Movement; elected as Delhi’s first Mayor; awarded
the Lenin Prize for peace in 1975 and the Jawahar Lal Nehru award for International understanding for
1991; honored with Bharat Ratna in 1998.
• Her first major political action was during the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 when she addressed public meetings
and led processions.
• In 1942 she attended the Bombay Congress Session, where the historic Quit India resolution was passed
on 8th August.
• When the Congress leaders were arrested on the day after this resolution was passed, Aruna presided over
the flag-hoisting ceremony at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay.
• Her moment of reckoning came in 1942 during Quit India Movement and she rose to the occasion. She
provided the spark that ignited the movement. She became a full-time activist in the Quit India movement.
MAHADEV GOVIND RANADE
• Mahadev Govind Ranade, (18 Jan, 1842 – 16 Jan, 1901), a Citpavan Brahmans of Maharashtra who was
a judge of the High Court of Bombay, a noted historian, and an active participant in social and economic
reform movements.
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• During his seven years as a judge in Bombay, Ranade worked for social reform in the areas of child
marriage, widow remarriage, and women’s rights.
• After his appointment as instructor of history at Elphinstone College, Bombay (1866), he became interested
in the history of the Marathas.The publication of his ‘Rise of the Maratha Power’ followed in 1900.
• Ranade has been called the father of Indian economics for urging (unsuccessfully) the British government
to initiate industrialization and state welfare programs.
• He was an early member of the Prarthana Samaj (“Prayer Society”), which sought to reform the social
customs of orthodox Hinduism.
• He regularly voiced views on social and economic reform at the annual sessions of the Indian National
Social Conference, which he founded in 1887.
• Ranade inspired many other Indian social reformers, most notably the educator and legislator Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, who carried on Ranade’s reform work after his death.

E
CHITTARANJAN DAS
•

•
Party in Bengal under British rule.
OR
Chittaranjan Das (5 November 1870 – 16 June 1925) was a politician and leader of the Swaraj (Independence)

He was a leading figure in Bengal during the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1919-1922, and initiated the
ban on British clothes, setting an example by burning his own European clothes and wearing Khadi clothes.
SC
• He brought out a newspaper called Forward and later changed its name to Liberty to fight the British Raj.
• When the Calcutta Corporation was formed, he became its first Mayor.
• He resigned his presidency of the Indian National Congress at the Gaya session after losing a motion on
“No Council Entry” to Gandhi’s faction.
• He then founded the Swaraj Party, with veteran Motilal Nehru and young Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy,
GS

to express his immoderate opinions.

• He was a believer of non-violence and constitutional methods for the realisation of national independence,
and advocated Hindu-Muslim unity, cooperation and communal harmony and championed the cause of
national education.
• His legacy was carried forward by his disciples, and notably by Subhas Chandra Bose.
• He is generally referred to by the honorific Desh Bandhu.
JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN
• Jayaprakash Narayan (11 October 1902 – 8 October 1979), popularly referred to as JP or Lok Nayak ,
was an Indian independence activist, social reformer and political leader, remembered especially for leading
the mid-1970s opposition against Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
• Narayan joined the Indian National Congress on the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1929; Mahatma
Gandhi became his mentor in the Congress.
• He actively participated in non cooperation movement and Quit India Movement.
• After independence, Narayan kept distance from active politics. Instead, he continue with the struggle for
social reforms and joined Vinoba Bhave’s Bhoodan movement.
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• He once again actively participated in politics against Indira Gandhi’s Emergency tenure.
• In 1999, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in recognition of
his social work.
• Other awards include the Magsaysay award for Public Service in 1965.
PANDIT DEENDAYAL UPADHYAY
• Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay (25 September 1916 – 11 February 1968) was an Indian philosopher, economist,
sociologist, historian, journalist, and political scientist.
• He was one of the most important leaders of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, the forerunner of the present day
Bharatiya Janata Party.
• Upadhyaya conceived the political philosophy Integral Humanism.
• The philosophy of Integral Humanism advocates the simultaneous and integrated program of the body,
mind and intellect and soul of each human being.

E
• His philosophy of Integral Humanism, which is a synthesis of the material and the spiritual, the individual
and the collective, bears eloquent testimony to this.
OR
• He visualised for India a decentralised polity and self-reliant economy with the village as the base.
M.N. ROY
• Manabendra Nath Roy (21 March 1887 – 26 January 1954), born Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, was an
SC

Indian revolutionary, radical activist and political theorist, as well as a noted philosopher in the 20th
century.
• Roy was a founder of the Mexican Communist Party and the Communist Party of India.
• He was also a delegate to congresses of the Communist International and Russia’s aide to China.
• Following the rise of Joseph Stalin, Roy left the mainline communist movement to pursue an independent
GS

radical politics.
• In 1940 Roy was instrumental in the formation of the Radical Democratic Party, an organisation in which
he played a leading role for much of the decade of the 1940s.
• Roy later moved away from Marxism to become an exponent of the philosophy of radical humanism.
ERODE VENKATA RAMASAMY
• Erode Venkata Ramasamy (17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973), commonly known as Periyar also
referred as E. V. R. or Thanthai Periyar, was a social activist, and politician who started the Self-Respect
Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam.
• E.V. Ramasamy was born in Erode, Madras Presidency to a wealthy family of Balijas and at a young age,
he witnessed numerous incidents of caste and gender discrimination.
• E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919, but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the
party was only serving the interests of the Brahmins.
• He questioned the subjugation of Dravidian race as the Brahmins enjoyed gifts and donations from them
but opposed and discriminated them in cultural and religious matters.
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• In 1924, E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non-violent agitation (satyagraha) in Vaikam, Kerala.

• In 1939, E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party, and in 1944, he changed its name to
Dravidar Kazhagam.
• The party later split and one group led by C. N. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(DMK) in 1949.
• While continuing the Self-Respect Movement, he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu (Dravidistan).
• E.V. Ramasamy propagated the principles of rationalism, self-respect, women’s rights and eradication of
caste.
• He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non-Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and
the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India.
• His work has greatly revolutionised the Tamil society and has significantly removed caste-based
discrimination.

E
• He is also responsible for bringing new changes to the Tamil alphabet.
•
OR
The citation awarded by the UNESCO described E.V. Ramasamy as “the prophet of the new age, the
Socrates of South East Asia, father of social reform movement and arch enemy of ignorance, superstitions,
meaningless customs and base manners.”
SC
GS
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EARLY MUSLIM INVASIONS

The Arab Conquest of Sind
• By the 8th Century AD, the Arabs had acquired a core position from Spain to India, connecting the trade
of Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.
• During the early years of the 8th Century, the Umayyads reached the height of their power and created
the largest ever-Mulsim state that existed.
• Arabs were also attracted by the wealth of India.
• However, the reason for the invasion of Sindh was to avenge the plunder of Arab Ships by pirates of

E
Debol. King Dahir refused to punish the pirates.
• Hajjaj the governor of Iraq despatched an army under Muhammad Bin Qasim.
•

•
killed. OR
At Rawar, in AD 712 Muhammad Bin Qasim attacked Dahir who was defeated. Dahir was caught and

Muhammad Bin Qasim now proceeded forward and within a short span he conquered various important
places in Sind including Brahmanabad.
SC
• Muhammad Bin Qasim conquered the major portion of Sind up to the lower Punjab.
• Many Arabs settled down in Sind and established relations with the local population. The Arab influence
continued for a long period with pockets of Muslim influence established in various parts of Sind.
Mahmud of Ghazni
GS

• In all Mahmud Ghazni invaded India 17 times during AD 1000-1026.

• Mahmud Ghazni was Son of Sabuktigin, the founder of Ghazni dynasty & Turkish slave commander.
• Mahmud himself claimed descent from the Iranian legendary king Afrasiyab.
• He was the first Muslim ruler to penetrate deep into India.
• He led 17 expeditions in all into India from A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1027. The initial raids were directed against
the Hindusahi rulers who at the time held Peshawar and the Punjab.
• The chief motive of Mahmud invasions in India was the desire to secure its wealth.
• On the north-western frontier of India there were three principal kingdoms.
• The Brahmana dynasty of the Shahiyas ruled over a wide territory, extending from Kashmir to Multan
and from Lambhan to Sarhind.
• To the south of it lay the Shia kingdom of Multan, and the principality of Mansura where the Arab
dynasty held authority.
• Mahmud attacks on India were an attempt to fulfil his ambition to make Ghazni the formidable power
in the politics of Central Asia.
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• Mahmud’s raids into India were only to acquire the famous wealth of India which would help him to
consolidate his vast rule in Central Asia.
• The Ghaznavids had their control on parts of Punjab and Sind which continued till AD 1135.
• Firddausi, who wrote Shah Nama in which he glorified the ancient Iranian heroes, was the poet laureate
of Mahmud.
• Alberuni, who wrote ‘Kitabul-Hind or An Enquiry Into India’ had accompanied him to India along with
his corps of army.

E
OR
SC

• The Ghaznavid conquest of the Punjab and Multan completely changed the political situation in north
India.
• Mahmud’s invasions exposed the weak defence of Indian kingdoms and opened possibility of attacks in
future by the Turks.
GS

Muhammad Ghori
• Towards the middle of the twelfth century two new powers rose to prominence - the Khwarizmi empire
based in Iran and the Ghurid empire based in Ghur in north-west Afghanistan.
• The power of the Ghurids increased under Sultan Alauddin who earned the title of ‘Jahansoz’ or the ‘world
burner’. He ravaged Ghazni and burnt it to the ground.
• In A.D. 1173, Shahabuddin Muhammad also known as Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam (called Muhammed
Ghori) ascended the throne of Ghazni.
• Muhammad Ghori conquered Multan and Uchh from Karmatia rulers in A.D. 1175.
• In A.D. 1178, he tried to penetrate into Gujarat but was defeated and completely routed by the Chalukya
ruler of Gujarat, Mularaja II, near Mount Abu.
• After that Muhammad Ghuri attacked Punjab using Khybar pass. Peshawar was occupied in A.D. 1179-
80. By A.D.1182, the whole of Sind was subdued.
• Next he captured Lahore, deposed Khusru Malik, the Ghaznavid prince, and annexed Punjab to his
dominions.
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• With Lahore as the base, he first thoroughly consolidated his position in the Punjab.
• Muhammad Ghori’s possession of Punjab and his attempt to advance into the Gangetic Doab brought him
into direct conflict with the Rajput ruler Prithivaraja Chauhan.
• The conflict started with claims of Bhatinda.
• In the first battle fought at Tarain in AD 1191, Ghori’s army was routed and he narrowly escaped death.
• Prithviraj conquered Bhatinda but he made no efforts to garrison it effectively. This gave Ghori an
opportunity to re-assemble his forces and make preparations for another advance into India.
• The Second Battle of Tarain (AD 1192) is regarded as one of the turning points in Indian History. The
Indian forces were more in number but Turkish forces were well organised with swift moving cavalry and
the bulky Indian forces were no match against the superior organisation, skill and speed of the Turkish
cavalry.
• The Turkish cavalry was using two superior techniques.

E
– The first was the horse shoe which gave their horses a long life and protected their hooves.

•
–
power in the battle.
OR
The second was, the use of iron stirrup which gave a good hold to the horse rider and a better striking

Prithviraj tried to escape but was captured near Sarsuti.

• After Tarain, Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the affairs of India in the hand of his trusted slave general
SC
Qutbuddin Aibak.
• In AD 1194 Muhammad Ghori again returned to India. and gave a crushing defeat to Jai Chand at
Chandwar near Kanauj.
• Thus the battle of Tarain and Chandwar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in Northern India.
• On his way to Ghazni, Muhammad Ghuri was killed while encamping at Dhamyak on the Indus.
GS

• His general Qutbud-din Aibak declared himself Sultan at Delhi in A.D. 1206.
• The political achievements of Muhammad Ghori in India were long lasting than those of Mahmud of
Ghazni. While Mahmud Ghazni was mainly interested in plundering Muhammad Ghori wanted to establish
his political control.
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DELHI SULTANATE - ADMINISTRATION

AND SOCIETY
The Delhi Sultanate (1200-1400 AD)
• After Muhammad Ghuri's death, his nephew Ghiyasuddin Mahmud became the ruler of Ghur, but he was
in constant fear of internal revolts and foreign invasions.
• TajuddinYalduz, NasiruddinQubacha and Qutbud-din Aibak - the three able and trusted Turkish nobles of
Muizuddin each one of them aspired for independence.
• Ghiyasuddin Mahmud could not suppress their revolts and hence immediately after the dealth of Muizuddin,
partition of his empire started. Yalduz succeeded at Ghazni and as the ruler of Ghazni wished to bring
India also under his suzerainty.

E
• Qubacha who had held Multan and Uchh since 1205, occupied the whole of Sind and decided to declare
his independence.
OR
• The Indian possession of Muizuddin was held by Qutbud-din Aibak.
• The establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526 had five different dynasties
- the Slave (Mamluk Sultans), Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids and Lodis.
• Not only they extended their rule over North India, but also they penetrated into the Deccan and South
SC

India.
• Their rule in India resulted in far-reaching changes in society, administration and cultural life.
SLAVE DYNASTY
• The dynasty founded by the Ilbari Turks is generally called the 'Slave Dynasty' or 'Mamluk Dynasty'
because many of the important rulers of this dynasty had originally been slaves like Qutbud-din who was
GS

a slave of Mahmud Ghuri and Iltutmish who in turn was slave of Qutbud-din.
• QutbuddinAibak was a Turkish slave who had risen to high rank in Muhammad Ghori's army.
• After Muhammad Ghori's death in AD 1206, the control of his Indian possessions was passed on to
QutbuddinAibak.
• Aibak was the first independent Muslim ruler of Northern India, the founder of Delhi Sultanate.
• Aibak had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs.
• TajuddinYaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni, claimed his rule over Delhi. NasiruddinQabacha, the governor of
Multan and Uchch aspired for independence.
• Aibak was able to win over his enemies by conciliatory measures as well as a display of power.
• He defeated Yaldauz and occupied Ghazni.
• The successor of Jaichand, Harishchandra had driven out the Turks from Badayun and Farukhabad.
• Aibak re-conquered both Badayun and Farukhabad.
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• QutbuddinAibak was brave, faithful and generous and due to his generosity he was known as "Lakh
Baksh".
• Most of the scholars consider Aibak as the real founder of Mulsim rule in India.
Iltutmish (A.D. 1210 - 1236)
• On Aibak's death in A.D. 1210 his adopted son Aram Shah succeeded to the throne but he was shortly
after removed by Iltutmish, Qutbud-din's slave and governor of Budaun.
• Iltutmish's elevation was resented by many Turkish nobles while Qubacha, the governor of Sind and
Yalduz, the governor of Ghazni rose in open revolt.
• Yalduz was defeated near Tarain in A.D. 1215 and Qubacha was finally subdued in A.D. 1228.
• Ali Mordan Khan of Bengal and Bihar, who had rebelled, was suppressed.
• The revolt of Hindu rulers at Gwalior and Ranthambore who had declared their independence were

E
tackled.
QutbuddinAibak (AD 1206-1210)
•
OR
In Bihar and Bengal, a person called Iwaz had taken the title of Sultan Ghiyasuddin minted under the
leadership of Changiz Khan in pursuit of Jalaluddin, a prince of Khwarizm who had fled to Punjab and
sought asylum in Iltutmish's court.
• India was in imminent danger of being overrun by the Mongols but Iltutmish's acting with precedence,
SC
refused asylum and slaved the infant Turkish empire from the wrath of the Mongol warlord.
• In A.D. 1229 Iltutmish received a role of honour and a patent of investiture from Al MustansirBildah,
the reigning caliph of Baghdad who confirmed him Sultan-Azmi (great Sultan).
• In return Iltutmish described himself as the 'Lieutenant' of the caliph and the name of caliph was
inscribed on the coins issued by him and this strengthened his position still more.
GS

• It has his authority the sanction of the man honoured in whole of the Islamic world.
• He issued a purely Arabic coinage of silver and was the first to do so.
• He was the real founder of Delhi Sultanate and an architect of its administration.
• He had eliminated the refractory nobles from all-important posts and had organized a band of his own
forty trusted nobles called 'Turkan-I-Chihalgani'.
• He completed QutabMinar in A.D. 1231-32 named after a Sufi saint KhwajaQutb-ud-din Kaki, a native
of Ush area in Baghdad.
• He extended the screen walls of the Quwwatul Islam Mosque constructed by Qutb-ud-din.
• Minhaj-us-Sirad, his contemporary historian too praised him.
Raziya (1236-1240)
• Although Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor, the Qazi of Delhi and Wazir put
RuknuddinFeroz on the throne.
• When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin marched to suppress that revolt and Raziya with the
support of Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of Delhi Sultanate.
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• She appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as Master of the Royal Horses.

• Raziya discarded the female apparel and held the court with her face unveiled and even went for hunting
and led the army which aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles.
• In 1240, Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda revolted against her.
• She went in person to suppress the revolt but Altunia killed Yakuth and took Raziya prisoner. In the
meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram, another son of Iltutmish on the throne.
• Raziya won over her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to Delhi but was defeated and
killed.
• The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of the Forty.
Nasirud-din-Mahmud (A.D. 1246-1266)
• After Raziya's fall, two weak rulers Bahram (A.D. 1240-420 and AluddinMasud (A.D. 12142-46) followed
in quick succession. Their brief inglorious rule was marked by nothing else but the invasions of Mongols.

E
• In A.D. 1246 Nasirud-din Mahmud, another son of Iltutmish ascended the throne. He was a man of
peaceful and pious disposition and an excellent calligraphist spending his leisure time in copying Quran.
OR
• Nasiruddin placed all powers into the hands of his Prime Minister Balban. They worked in perfect
harmony except on one occasion when Balban was removed from office for a brief period (A.D. 1253)
at the instigation of Imadud-din Raihan, the leader of the part of Indian Mulsim nobles.
• As Prime Minister, Balban ruled with a strong hand and crushed the rebellious governors of Bengal, Avadh
SC

and Sind, defended the Mongols who had marked into the Punjab in A.D. 1257.
• Balban swooped upon the hilly country of Mewat and punished the Mewati marauders.
• The frontier posts were strongly garrisoned under his able cousin Sher Khan for checking the Mongol
inroads and suppressed the refractory elements.
• After the death of Nasirud-din who had no son, Balban, ascended the throne.
GS

• The contemporary chronicler Minhaj-us-Sirad had held a high post (chief Quazi) under the Sultan Nasirud-
din and dedicated his Tahaqat-i-Nasiri to his patron.
Balban (AD 1266-87)
• The struggle between the sultan and the Turkish nobles continued, till one of the Turkish chiefs, Ulugh
Khan, known in history by the name of Balban, gradually arrogated all power to himself and finally
ascended the throne in AD 1266.
• When Balban became the Sultan, his position was not secure and many Turkish chiefs were hostile to him;
the Mongols were looking forward for an opportunity for attacking the Sultanate, the governors of the
distant provinces were also trying to become independent rulers, the Indian rulers were also ready to revolt
at the smallest opportunity.
• The law and order situation in the area around Delhi and in the Doab region had deteriorated. In the
Ganga-Yamuna doab and Awadh, the roads were infested with the robbers and dacoits, because of which
the communication with the eastern areas had become difficult.
• Some of the Rajput zamindars had set up forts in the area, and defied the government.
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• The Mewatis had become so bold as to plunder people up to the outskirts of Delhi.
• To deal with these elements, Balban adopted a stern policy.In the Mewat many were killed. In the area
around Badayun, Rajput strongholds were destroyed.
• Balban ruled in an autocratic manner and worked hard to elevate the position of the Sultan. And did not
allow any noble to assume great power.
• He even formulated the theory of kingship.
• The historian Barani, who was himself a great champion of the Turkish nobles, says that Balban remarked
'whenever I see a base born ignoble man, my eyes burn and I reach in anger for my sword (to kill him)."
• It is not known if Balban actually said these words but his attitude towards the non-Turks was that of
contempt.
• Balban was not prepared to share power with anyone, not even with his own family.

E
• Balban was determined to break the power of the Chahalgani.
• To keep himself well informed, Balban appointed spies in every department.
•

•
OR
He also organised a strong centralized army, both to deal with internal disturbances, and to repel the
Mongols who had entrenched themselves in the Punjab and posed a serious threat to the Delhi Sultanate.
Balban re-organised the military department (diwan-i-arz) and deployed army in different parts of the
country to put down rebellion.
SC
• The disturbances in Mewat, Doab, Awadh and Katihar were ruthlessly suppressed.
• Balban also secured control over Ajmer and Nagaur in eastern Rajputana but his attempts to capture
Ranthambore and Gwalior failed.
• In AD 1279, encouraged by the Mongol threats and the old age of Sultan the governor of Bengal, Tughril
Beg, revolted, assumed the title of Sultan and had the khutba read in his name.
GS

• Balban sent his forces to Bengal and had Tughril killed. Subsequently he appointed his own son Bughra
Khan as the governor of Bengal.
• In order to impress the people with the strength and awe of his government, Balban maintained a
magnificent court.
• He refused to laugh and joke in the court, and even gave up drinking wine so that no one may see him
in a non-serious mood.
• He also insisted on the ceremony of sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing of the monarch's feet) in the
court.
• Balban was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Sultanate of Delhi, particularly of its form of
government and institutions.
• By asserting the power of the monarchy, Balban strengthened the Delhi Sultanate, but even he could not
fully defend northern India against the attacks of the Mongols.
• Moreover, by excluding non-Turkish from positions of power and authority and by trusting only a very
narrow racial group he made many people dissatisfied which led to fresh disturbances and troubles after
his death in AD 1287.
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• After his death the nobles raised his grandson Kaiquabad to the throne.

• Kaiquabad was soon replaced by his son, Kaimurs, who remained on the throne for a little over three
months.

• During Balban's reign, Firoz had been the warden of the marches in north-west and had fought many
successful battles against the Mongols.

• He was called to Delhi as Ariz-i-Mumalik (Minister of War).

• In AD 1290 Firoz took a bold step by murdering Kaimurs and seized the throne.

• A group of Khalji nobles led by him established the Khalji dynasty.

• Some scholars call this event as the 'dynastic revolution' of AD 1290.

• It brought to an end the so called slave dynasty and Firoz ascended the throne under the title of
JalaluddinKhalji.

E
THE KHALJI DYNASTY (1290-1320)

• The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked

OR
the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India.

• The founder of the Khalji dynasty was

JalaluddinKhalji. He was generous and
lenient.
SC

• Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was

allowed to remain the governor of Kara.

• His leniency was misunderstood as

weakness.
GS

• When Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed

but he was pardoned.

• When the thugs (robbers) looted the

country, they were allowed to go after a
severe warning.

• In 1292 when Malik Chhajju revolted for

the second time, he was replaced by his
son-in-law, AlauddinKhalji.

• In 1296 AlauddinKhalji took an expedition

to Devagiri and returned to Kara.

• During the reception there, AlauddinKhalji

treacherously murdered his father-in-law
JalaluddinKhalji and usurped the throne of
Delhi.
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AlauddinKhalji (AD 1296-1316)

• Alauddin decided to revive Balban's policies of ruthless governance and decided to curb the powers of
the nobles and interference of Ulema in the matters of the state.
• He also faced, a few rebellions in succession during the early years of his rule.
• According to Barani, the author of Tarikh-i-FiruzShahi, Alauddin felt that there were four reasons for these
rebellions which were the inefficiency of the spy system, the general practice of the use of wine, social
intercourse among the nobles and inter marriage between them and the excess of wealth in the possession
of certain nobles.
• In order to prevent the reoccurrence of these rebellions, Alauddin formulated certain regulations and
implemented them.
(i) Families that had been enjoying free land to support themselves should pay land tax for their
holdings. This curbed the excess of wealth owned by some people.

E
(ii) The Sultan reorganized the spy system and took measure to make it more effective.
(iii) The use of liquor and intoxicants was prohibited.

OR
(iv) The nobles were ordered not to have social gatherings or inter-marriages without his permission.
Alauddin established a huge permanent, standing army to satisfy his ambition of conquest and to
protect the country from Mongol invasion.
• As regards Alauddin's theory of kingship, it was essentially secular and he said, "I do not know whether
SC
this is lawful or unlawful; whatever I think to be for the good of the state or suitable for emergency, that
I decree,"
• He refuted the suzerainty of the Caliph and did not allow any power independent of the state to guide
his policies.
• In view of his territorial and administrative achievements, he may be called one of the greatest Sultans
GS

of Delhi.
• Alauddin had a refined taste for art and culture and gave patronage to many artists and men of letters
including the celebrated poet Amir Khusrau who was his poet laureate.
• Some of his architectural works are Alai Fort or Koshak-i-Siri (or Siri Fort) with seven gates which was
the second capital of Alauddin and also of Islamic Delhi, the gateway of the QutabMinar, better known
as the Alai Darwaza, are gems of Indo-Islamic style.
Expansion of Delhi Sultanate
• AlauddinKhalji sent his army six times against the Mongols. The first two was successful. But the third
Mongol invader Khwaja came up to Delhi but they were prevented from entering into the capital city. The
next three Mongol invasions were also dealt with severely. Thousands of Mongols were killed. The
northwestern frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik was appointed to as the Warden of Marches to protect
the frontier.
• The military conquests of AlauddinKhalji include his expedition against Gujarat, Mewar and the Deccan.
He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in 1299. The king and his daughter escaped
while the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. Kafur, an eunuch, was also taken to Delhi and later he
was made the Malik Naib - military commander.
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• In 1301, Alauddin marched against Ranthampur and after a three month's siege it fell. The Rajput women
committed jauhar or self-immolation.

• Alauddin next turned against Chittor. The siege lasted for several months. In 1303 Alauddin stormed the
Chittor fort. Raja Ratan Singh and his soldiers fought valiantly but submitted.

• The Rajput women including Rani Padmini performed jauhar. This Padmini episode was graphically
mentioned in the book Padmavath written by Jayasi.

• AlauddinKhalji's greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far south which was ruled by
four important dynasties - Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and
the Pandyas of Madurai.

– His first target was Rai Karan (the earlier rule of Gujarat), who had now occupied Baglana, and
defeated him.

– The second expedition was against RaiRamachandra, the ruler of Deogir who had earlier promised
to pay tribute to Sultan but did not pay. Ramachandra surrendered after little resistance to Malik

E
Kafur and was treated honourably. He was kept a guest at Alauddin's court and was given a gift of
one lakh tankas and the title of RaiRayan. He was also given a district of Gujarat and one of his
OR
daughters was married to Alauddin. Alauddin showed generosity towards Ramachandra because he
wanted to have Ramachandra as an ally for campaigns in the South.

• After AD 1309 Malik Kafur was despatched to launch campaign in South India.

• The first expedition was against PratabRudradeva of Warangal in the Telengana area. This siege lasted for
SC

many months and came to an end when Rai agreed to part with his treasures and pay tribute to Sultan.

• The second campaign was against DwarSamudra and Ma'bar (modern Karnataka and Tamil Nadu). The
ruler of DwarSamudra, VirBallala III realized that defeating Malik Kafur would not be an easy task, hence
he agreed to pay tribute to Sultan without any resistance.

• In the case of Ma'bar (Pandya Kingdom) a direct decisive battle could not take place. However, Kafur
GS

plundered as much as he could including a number of wealthy temples such as that of Chidambaram.

• According to Amir Khusrau, Kafur returned with 512 elephants, 7000 horses, and 500 mans of precious
stone.

• The Sultan honoured Malik Kafur by appointing him Naib Malik of the empire.

• Alauddin's forces under Malik Kafur continued to maintain a control over the Deccan kingdoms.

Reforms of Alauddin Khalji

• Alauddin's measures to control the markets were one of the most important policy initiative.

• Since Alauddin wanted to maintain a large army, he therefore, lowered and fixed the price of the commodities
of daily use.

• To control the prices, Alauddin set up three different markets for different commodities in Delhi.

• These markets were the grain market (Mandi), cloth market (SaraiAdl) and the market for horses, slaves,
cattles, etc.
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• To ensure implementation, Alauddin appointed a superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi) who was assisted by an

intelligence officer.

• Apart from Shahna-i-Mandi, Alauddin received daily reports of the market from two other independent
sources, barid (intelligence officer) and munhiyans (secret spies).

• Any violation of Sultan's orders resulted in harsh punishment, including expulsion from the capital,
imposition of fine, imprisonment and mutilation.

• Control of prices of horses was very important for the Sultan because without the supply of good horses
at reasonable price to army, the efficiency of the army could not be ensured.

• Low price in the horse market were ensured by putting a stop to the purchase of horses by horse dealers
and brokers (dalals) in Delhi market.

• AlauddinKhalji maintained a large permanent standing army and paid them in cash from the royal treasury.

E
• According the Ferishta, he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen.

OR
• He introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of soldiers).

• In order to ensure maximum efficiency, a strict review of army from time to time was carried out.

• AlauddinKhalji died in 1316.

• Although the Sultan was illiterate, he patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.
SC
• He also built a famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza and constructed a new capital at Siri.

Qutbud-din Mubarak Khalji (A.D. 1316-1320)

• Malik Kafur set aside the claims of the heir apparent Khizr Khan and crowned an infant son of the late
Sultan and began to rule in his name.
GS

• Soon after another son of Alauddin murdered Kafur and ascended the throne as Qutbud-din Mubarak
Shah. His only noteworthy acts were to march to Devagiri (A.D. 1318) and dispatch an army to Gujarat.

• Qutbud-din Mubarak Shah own WazirKhushrau Khan had him murdered.

• Ghazi Malik collected a large army and appeared before Delhi.

• Khushrau was defeated and killed, and Ghasi Malik ascended the throne as GhiyasuddinTughlaq in A.D.
1320.

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414)

• The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was GhiyasuddinTughlaq.

• GhiyasuddinTughlaq sent his son Juna Khan/Ulugh Khan to fight against Warangal. He defeated
Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty.

• Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi.

• Ulugh Khan was said to have treacherously killed his father and ascended the throne with the title
Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
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E
OR
SC
GS

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a very attractive character in the history of medieval India owing to his
ambitious schemes and novel experiments.
• His enterprises and novel experiments ended in miserable failures because they were all far ahead of their
time.
• He was very tolerant in religious matters.
• He maintained diplomatic relations with far off countries like Egypt, China and Iran.
• He also introduced many liberal and beneficial reforms, but all his reforms failed.
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• Contemporary writers like Isami, Barani and IbnBattutah were unable to give a correct picture about his
personality.

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious
and philosophical education.

• The regions of the Deccan which were conquered by the Khaljis had stopped paying tribute and were
proclaiming independent status.

• Muhammad Tughlaq while a prince (called Juna Khan) led the early expeditions against RaiRudraDev
who was defeated after a prolonged conflict and Warangal was now annexed under direct control of the
Sultanate.

• Ma'bar was also defeated. The whole region of Telangana was divided into administrative units and made
part of the Sultanate.

E
• In contrast to AllauddinKhalji's policy the Tughlaqs annexed the Deccan region.

• Bhanudeva II, the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa had helped RaiRudraDev of Warangal in his battle against

•
Delhi Sultans.
OR
Muhammad bin Tughlaqled an army against him in AD 1324 and defeated Bhanudeva II and annexed
his territory.

• In Bengal there was discontent of nobles against their Sultan. The dissatisfied nobles invited the Tughlaq
SC
prince to invade their ruler. The army of Bengal was defeated and a noble Nasiruddin was installed on
the throne.

• The Mongol invasions from the North-West region were rocking the Sultanate on regular intervals. In AD
1326-27 a big Mongol assault under Tarmashirin Khan took place. Muhammad Tughlaq decided to secure
the frontier. The region from Lahore to Kalanur including Peshawar was conquered and new administrative
GS

control was established.

• Besides, the Sultan also planned invasions of Qarachil region (In present day Himachal) and Qandhar but
did not succeed. In fact these schemes resulted in heavy loss.

Transfer of Capital

• One of the controversial measures of Muhammad bin Tughlaq was that he transferred his capital from
Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad).

• According to Dr. Mahdi Hussain, the Sultan wanted to maintain both Delhi and Daultabad as his capitals.

• As per Barani, in AD 1326-27, Sultan decided to shift his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad) in
the Deccan because it was more centrally located.

• According to IbnBatuta, the people of Delhi used to write letters containing abuses to the Sultan, therefore,
in order to punish them Sultan decided to shift the capital.

• Isami say that it was a place at a safer distance from the North West frontier and thus-safe from the
Mongols.
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• In view of different versions it is difficult to assign one definite reason for this shift.

• The entire population was not asked to leave only the upper classes consisting of shaikhs, nobles, ulema
were shifted to Daultabad.

• No. attempt was made to shift the rest of the population.

• Though Muhammad bin Tughlaq built a road from Delhi to Deogir and set up rest houses but the journey
was extremely harsh for the people.

• Large number of people died because of rigorous travelling and the heat.

• Due to growing discontent and the fact that north could not be controlled from south, Muhammad
decided to abandon Daultabad.

• However, the plan improved ties between the north and south. Apart from territorial expansion the social,
cultural and economic interactions also grew.

E
Token Currency

• Another controversial project undertaken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the introduction of "Token
OR
Currency".

• According to Barani, the Sultan introduced token currency because the treasury was empty due to the
Sultan's schemes of conquest as well as his boundless generosity.

• Some historians are of the opinion that there was a shortage of silver worldwide at that time and India
SC

too faced the crisis therefore, the Sultan was forced to issue copper coins in place of silver.

• Muhammad introduced a copper coin (Jittal) in place of silver coin (tanka) and ordered that it should be
accepted as equivalent to the tanka.

• However, the idea of token currency was new in India and it was difficult for traders and common people
to accept it.
GS

• The State also did not take proper precautions to check the imitation of coins issued by the mints.

• Government could not prevent people from forging the new coins and soon the new coins flooded the
markets.

• According to Barani, the people began to mint token currency in their houses.

• However the common man failed to distinguish between copper coin issued by the royal treasury and
those which were locally made. Thus the Sultan was forced to withdraw the token currency.

Taxation in Doab and Agricultural Reforms

• The failure of above two experiments affected the prestige of the Sultan and enormous money was
wasted.

• In order to overcome financial difficulties, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the
farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and Yamuna rivers). It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the
farmers.
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• A severe famine was also ravaging that region at that time and resulted in a serious peasant revolts. They
fled from the villages but Muhammad bin Tughlaq took harsh measures to capture and punish them. The
revolts were crushed.
• The Sultan realized later that adequate relief measures and the promotion of agriculture were the real
solution to the problem.
• He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy
seed and to extend cultivation.
• A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established. Model farm under the state was
created in an area of 64 square miles for which the government spent seventy lakh tankas.
• This experiment was further continued by FirozTughlaq.
Rebellions
• The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign witnessed a spate of rebellions by the nobles and

E
provincial governors.
• The rebellion of Hasan Shah resulted in the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate.
•
•
In 1336 the Vijayanagar kingdom was founded.
In 1347 Bhamini kingdom was established.
OR
• The governors of Oudh, Multan and Sind revolted against the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
SC
• In Gujarat Taghi rose in revolt against the Sultan who spent nearly three years in chasing him.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq's health became worse and he died in 1351.
• According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the Sultan.
• According to Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites.
GS

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign marked the beginning of the process of its decline.
Firuz Tughlaq (A.D. 1351-1388)
• Firuz Tughlaq formulated his aims in accordance with his own character and the circumstances of his
assumption of power. He had been asked by the nobles to accept the crown to save the state from
ruination.
• Firuz was a man of religious bent of mind and he preferred to rule in conformity with the Sharia.
• He abolished many irksome taxes, keeping only those four allowed by the Quranic law.
• He took special interest in development of agriculture. He proved irrigation facilities by constructing five
canals and advanced loans to the needy.
• He opened a hospital named Darush-Shifa for the poor in Delhi; created a department of charity called
Diwan-i- Khairat and provided employment to 1,80,000 slaves.
• He organized slavery into an institution and opened a department of slaves (Diwan-i-Bandgane).
• He opened schools and colleges, laid out 1200 gardens and orchards in the vicinity of Delhi.
• He built a number of mosques and founded several towns like Firuzabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.
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• He repaired the QutabMinar, which had been struck by a lightening.

• The chief architect of Firuz was Malik GhaniSahana.
• He tried to solve the unemployment problem by starting an employment bureau.
• Firuz was born of a Hindu mother that is why he made loud demonstration of his zeal for Islam and
contempt for Hinduism.
• He imposed Jizya even on the Brahmanas.
• Worst, he burnt a Brahmana who practiced his right in public.
• He did not allow the Hindus to build new temples.
• The Sultan desecrated the shrines of Jagnnath and Jwalamukhi, imposed restrictions on Hindu fairs,
destroyed all new temples and forbade repair of old ones.
• He was a devout Muslim of the orthodox Sunni sect and was intolerant of the practices of the Shias as

E
well.
• He entertained great regard for the Caliph of Egypt and styled himself as his deputy and twice received
OR
the roles of honour from him.
• Firuzrevieded the Jagir system and increased the salaries of the nobles.
• Due to his very mild rule corruption became rampant in almost every branch of administration.
SC

• His military administration was dislocated.

• He marched twice to recapture Bengal in A.D. 1353-54 and 1339, but failed on both the occasions and
the province was lost to the Sultanate.
• The outlying areas of the empire began to fall apart.
• Before he died he could see clear symptoms of the coming disorder and confusion and when Firuz died
GS

in A.D. 1388, a virtual civil war broke out among the scions of the royal house.
• Timur marched into India in A.D. 1398 and defeated Nasiruddin Mahmud.
• Timur Plundered Delhi who returned to Samar Qand leaving his Indian possessions in the charge of Syed
Khizr Khan of Sind.
THE SYEDS
• Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan.
• Khizr Khan captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• Khizr Khan tried to consolidate the Delhi Sultanate but in vain and died in 1421 and was succeeded by
his son, Mubarak Shah.
• Muhammad Shah who succeeded Mubarak Shah was always busy against conspirators and gradually lost
control over his nobles. Buhlul Khan Lodi dominated everything.
• Muhammad Shah died in 1445 and was succeeded by his son Alam Shah (1445-1451) the weakest of the
Sayyid princes. He handed over the throne to Buhlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.
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THE LODIS

E
OR
SC
GS

Bahlul Lodi (A.D. 1451-1489)

• Bahlul Lodi crowned himself in April 1451 and assumed the title of Abu MuzaffarBahlul Shah.
• He issued coins in his own name which was also included in the Khutba.
• His accession to power was resented by the king of Jaunpur, who himself claimed the throne.
• A long-drawn war followed ending the annexation of the Sarqi kingdom of Baglul (A.D. 1484).
• He also brought almost the entire region, now called Uttar Pradesh, under his control.
• When he died in A.D. 1489 the Sultanate comprised the territories from the Punjab to Varanasi.
SikandarLodi (A.D. 1489-1517)
• SikandarLodi was the successor of Baglul Lodi.
• He built a new capital at Agra and through his relentless wars and conquests added to the Delhi Sultanate.
• He was the greatest and the ablest of the Lodi dynasty.
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• He held the Afghan nobles in check, encouraged agriculture, and made roads safe for travel. In his times
harvests were plentiful, food cheap and the people contented.
• He ordered the land to be measured and rent fixed accordingly.
• He introduced a yard which measured 30 inches and was known as Sikandar Yard.
• He himself was a poet and lover of music and is reported to have written a book 'Bulrukni'.
• However, with advancing years he turned into a bigot and undertook measures prejudiced to the Hindus.
He tried to disown his Hindu origin by persecuting the Hindus.
Ibrahim Lodi (A.D. 1517 - 1526)
• When Sikandar Lodi died, the nobles divided the empire between his two sons and Ibrahim was made
king of Delhi.
• The governor of Bihar declared independence and that of Punjab, Daulat Khan, invited Babar, the ruler
of Kabul, to invade Hindustan and oust Ibrahim from the throne.

E
• In A.D. 1525, Babar came marching towards Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi advanced to meet him and a sanguinary
battle was fought in Panipat on April 21, 1526.
OR
• Babar emerged victorious, who occupied Agra and Delhi and laid the foundation of Mughal empire in
India.
CHALLENGES FACED BY THE SULTANATE
• With the establishment of the Mughal Empire the rule of Delhi sultanate came to an end.
SC

• During more than 300 years of its rule the Delhi sultanate went through various ups and downs but
survived as a political force.
Attacks by Mongols and others
• Since its inception the major threat to the sultanate came in the form of Mongol invasions.
GS

• Mongols were nomadic groups who inhabited the steppes north of China and east of Lake Baikal.
• They formed a huge nomadic empire under Chengiz Khan in the 12th century.
• From 13th century onwards they repeatedly attacked the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Sultans as a policy appeased them and also at times confronted.
• Balban and AllauddinKhalji confronted them with full military might.
• During Khalji's time Mongols under QultlugKhwaja even besieged Delhi and caused a lot of damage.
• The last significant attack of Mongols was by Tarmashirin during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.
• A lot of energy and resources of the Sultans were spent in facing these invasions but they could not
destroy the sultanate.
• Another important attack which shook the foundation of the sultanate was by Timur in 1398.
• The weakness of the Delhi Sultanate was made even worse by Timur's invasion of Delhi (1398).
• Timur was a son of the Chief of Chagtai branch of Turks.
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• When he invaded India he was the master of almost whole of Central Asia.
• Timur's raid into India was a plundering raid and his motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the
Sultans of Delhi over the last 200 years.
• Sultan Nasiruddin and his WazirMalluIqbasl faced Timur but were defeated.
• Timur entered Delhi and stayed for 15 days and ordered general massacre and large number of Hindu and
Muslim including women and children were murdered.
• Before leaving India Timur's invasion indicated the downfall of Delhi Sultanate.
• Delhi Sultanate lost control over Punjab andTimur appointed Khizr Khan, the ruler for Multan who
controlled Punjab also.
• After the fall of Tughlaq dynasty Khizr Khan occupied Delhi and became the ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
He laid the foundation of Saiyyid Dynasty.

E
Inner Conflict of Nobility
• Three hundred years of Delhi Sultanate witnessed five dynasties ruling over it.
•

•
Sultan and the nobility (Umara).
OR
The main reason for change of dynasties and deposing of rulers was a constant struggle between the

Soon after the death of Aibak they started fighting over the question of succession and finally Iltutimish
emerged victorious.
SC

• Iltutimish created a group of loyal nobles called Turkan-i-Chihiligani ('The Forty').

• After the death of Iltutimish various factions of the group of forty got involved in making their favourite
son/daughter as the sultan.
• In ten years five sultans were changed and after that the Sultan who occupied the throne (Nasiruddin
GS

Mahmud) for 20 years, hardly ruled and one of the powerful noble Balban was defacto sultan.
• Balban succeeded Nasiruddin after his death.
• Almost similar events happened after the death of each powerful sultan (Balban, AlauddinKhalji,
FirozTughlaq and others.)
• Since there was no well defined law of succession each noble tried to either crown himself or support
some favourite heir of the dead sultan.
• Finally Afghans replaced the Turks as sultan with the accession of Bahlol Lodi.
Provincial Kingdoms
• Another consequence of this conflict was declaration of independence by various provincial heads in the
regions.
• As a result a number of independent Afghan and Turkish kingdoms emerged. Important ones of such
states were Bengal (Lakhnouti), Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan etc.
• Quite often these states were at war with the Sultanate.
• The whole process weakened the sultanate.
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Resistance by Indian Chiefs

• The sultans had to face the resistance from Indian chiefs at regular intervals.
• The Rajput chiefs in Rajputana (Mewar, Ranthambhor, Chittor etc.), Warangal, Deogiri&Ma'bar in Deccan
and South, the king of Dhar, Malwa in Central India, Jajnagar in Orissa and a host of smaller chieftains
were constantly at war even after successive defeats.
• All these struggles weakened the sultanate.

E
OR
SC
GS
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THE DELHI SULTANATE (ECONOMIC, SOCIAL

& CULTURALLIFE)
Administration
• The establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the evolution of a powerful and efficient
administrative system.
• At its zenith the authority of Delhi Sultan had extended as far south as Madurai.
• Although the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated, their administrative system made a powerful impact on the
Indian provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal system of administration.
• The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.

E
• According to the theological basis, Muslims believe that Islamic society and government should be
organised on the basis of divine injunctions of the Quran. The saying and doings of Prophet Muhammad,

• OR
collectively known as hadis, began to be supplemented with the above.
The ulema (Muslim theologians) gave various religons on the basis of the Quran and the hadis to meet
different situations and problems, which are together known as the Sharia (Islamic Law).
• According to secular basis, Zawabit (rules and regulations framed by the Sultans) were also used for a
SC
smooth and efficient running of the administration.
• The doctrine of farr or farrah (supernatural effulgence or radiance) was first enunciated in the Shah Namah
by firdausi, according to whom the God endows the rulers with farr, which symbolises the divine favour.
• Among the Delhi Sultans, Balban was the first to exhibit his awareness of the doctrine when he remarked
that 'the king's heart is the mirror of the divine attributer'.
GS

• Amir Khusrau observed that Kaiqubad was endowed with the farr.
• The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph. They included the name of the Caliph
in the khutba or prayer and inscribed it on their coins.
• Although Balban called himself the shadow of God, he continued to practice of including the name of
Caliph in the khutba and coins.
• Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and FirozTughlaq obtained mansur or letter of permission from the
Caliph.
• The office of the Sultan was the most important in the administrative system. He was the ultimate
authority for the military, legal and political activities.
• There was no clear law of succession during this period. All the sons had equal claim to the throne.
• Iltutmish even nominated his daughter in preference to his sons, but such nominations or successions were
to be accepted by the nobles.
• Sometimes ulemas played crucial role in accepting the succession to the throne.
• However, the military superiority remained the main factor in matters of succession.
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• Limits to Sultan's authority in the framing of new rules and regulations the authority of the Sultan was
circumscribed and every ruler could not govern the kingdom in complete disregard of the advice of the
ulema or theologians as Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad Tughlaq had been able to do. The power of
the nobility also blunted their authority to some extent. When there was a weak ruler on the throne, the
nobles, and the ulema particularly, dominated him.
• But during the reign of Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji or Muhammad Tughlaq, checks by the nobles, and the
ulema proved ineffective.
• The Sultans were not powerful enough to rule the land in complete disregard of the sentiments of the
Hindus and, the numerical inferiority of the Muslims gave them little or no opportunity to interfere with
local government.
• During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was headed by the Sultan who was helped by
various nobles.
• There was a council of Ministers Majlis-i-Khalwat to assist the Sultan. The entire bureaucracy acted under
his control and supervision. He was assisted by a number of officials, chief among whom were the

E
following: -
– Deputy Sultan or Naib: Appointment to this post was generally made only when a ruler was weak or
OR
minor. The Naib enjoyed practically all the powers of the Sultan on his behalf and exercised a general
control over the various departments of the governments.
– Wazir: He was the head of the finance department and next to the Sultan was the highest dignitary of
the state. But if there was a Naib Sultan, he ranked above the Wazir. The department of the Wazir was
SC

called Diwan-i-Wazarat. He had a number of powerful assistants, three among whom deserve particular
mention-NaibWazir (chief's deputy), Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant General) and MustaufiMumalik
(Auditor General).
– Ariz-i-Mumalik: He was the chief of military staff and was responsible for the organisation, maintenance
and control over the armed forces of the state. His department was called Diwan-i-Arz. He was not the
ex-officio commander-in-chief of the forces.
GS

– Sadr-us-Sudur: He was the head of the ecclesiastical department. He was in charge of public charities and
was also responsible for enforcing conformity to Islam. It was he who made grants in cash or land for the
construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs, khanqahs, Madarsas and Maktabs.
– Qazi-ul-Quzal: He was the head of judicial department and usually the post of the chief Sadr and the
chief Qazi were combined in a single person.
– Dabir-i-Khas or Amir Munshi: He was the head of the records department, which was called Diwan-I-
Insha. The Farmans of the Sultan were issued from his department also while all high-level correspondence
passed through his hands.
– Barid-i-Mumalik: He was the head of the information and intelligence department. Dakchaukis or news
outposts were also under his control.
Officers connected with the court and royal household were principally six -
• Vakil-i-dar: He looked after the royal palace and personal attendants of the sovereign.
• Barbak: His duty was to maintain the dignity of the court.
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• Amir-i-Hajib: He scrutinized all visitors to the court.

• Amir-i-Shikhar: He organized royal hunting.
• Amir-i-Majlis: He made arrangements for assemblies, feasts and special celebrations.
• Sar-i-Jandar: He was the personal bodyguard of Sultan.
Provincial Government
• The whole kingdom was divided into a number of provinces, but the provincial administration under the
Sultans was neither strong nor efficient.
• In the earlier stages, a nobleman was assigned unconquered or semi-conquered territory in Jagir and he was
acknowledged the governor of all the land he could subdue by his armed forces.
• With the increasing power of the Sultan a correct provincial administration was evolved wherein the
whole empire was divided into a number of provinces which varied from 20-25.

E
• The largest number of provinces was held by Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
•
Local Administration
•
OR
The provincial administration was placed under governors or Walis or Muqtas.

Provinces were divided into Shias and were headed by a Shiqdar.

SC
• The Shiqswere further divided into Parganas which comprised a number of villages and was headed by
the Amil.
• Villages were the basic unit of administration and continued to enjoy a large measure of self government.
• The most important official of the village was the village headman called Muqaddam.
• Other important functionaries were Khats, Chaudharies, etc. Most of the towns had a Kotwal and Qazi.
GS

Caliph-Sultan Relationship
• Most of the Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal sovereign while they
themselves were the caliph's representatives.
• Most of them included the name of the caliph in the khutba (prayer) and the sikka (coin) and adopted
titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph.
• As against this, three rulers emphasised their own importance.
– Balban used to say that after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign and
called himself the 'Shadow of God'.
– Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban
had retained the name of the caliph in the khutba andsikka, Muhammad made no mention of caliph
anywhere.
– But, neither Balbannor Muhammad bin Tughlaqhad the audacity to call himself the caliph. The only
person who had done this was AllaudinKhalji.
• Only three Sultans sought, and secured a mansur or ‘letter of investiture’ from the caliph.
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– The first among them was Iltutmish.

– Next Muhammad bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by securing an investiture from the Abbasid
caliph in Egypt.
– After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice.
• Muslims in general regarded office of the caliph as incumbent on the Sultan to show respect to the caliph,
and opposition to the Sultan, who had been recognised by the caliph as his deputy, was regarded as
contrary to the Law. Hence the Sultans kept up the pretense of subservience to the caliph just to exploit
the popular Muslim sentiments in their favour.
• Law of Succession according to Islamic ideals, essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should
be a male adult, suffering from no physical disability, a free Muslim, having faith in Islam and acquainted
with its doctrines, and he should be elected by the people.
• However in practice there were several violations of the prescribed criteria for being elected to the
throne.

E
– Raziya was raised to the throne despite her womanhood.
– Minority proved no bar in the case of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
OR
– Qutub-ud-din Aibak's authority was recognised even before his manumission. Kaiqubad remained the
Sultan as a paralytic.
– Nasir-ud-din Khusrau had no special reverence for Islam and yet he was accepted as the Sultan of
Delhi.
SC

– Ala-ud-din Khalji frankly admitted his ignorance of the sharia but nobody dubbled him a unfit to rule
on that score.
• As far as election was concerned, it had never existed in Islam. At best, support of a few leading men
was regarded as tantamount to election by the people. This farce or peculiar type of election was tried
in the case of Iltutmish, Ghiyasoud-din Tughlaq and FirozTughlaq.
GS

ECONOMY
• After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue
administration. The lands were classified into three categories:
1. Iqta land - lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
2. Khalisa land - land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues collected were spent for
the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
3. Inam land - land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
Iqta System
• The institution of the Iqta had been in force in early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to
the state.
• In the caliphate administration it was used to pay civil and military officers.
• After the establishment of the Sultanate iqta system was introduced by the Sultans.
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• The army commanders and nobles were given territories to administer and collect the revenue. The
territories thus assigned were called iqta and their holders as iqtadar or muqti.
• In essence this was a system of payment to the officers and maintenance of army by them.
• Gradually rules and regulations were laid down to organize the whole system.
• Through the years it became the main instrument of administrating the Sultanate.
• Further the sultans could get a large share of the surplus production from different parts of the vast
territories through this system.
• From the 14th century Walis or muqtis who are commanders of military and administrative tracts called
Iqta.
• Their exact powers varied according to circumstances.
• In due course the muqti was given complete charge of the administration of the iqta which included the

E
task of maintaining an army.
• The muqti was to help the sultan with his army in case of need. He was expected to maintain the army

•
and meet his own expenses with the revenue collected.
OR
From the time of Balban the muqti was expected to send the balance (fawazil) of the income to the centre
after meeting his and the army's expenses. This means that the central revenue department had made an
assessment of the expected income of the Iqta, the cost of the maintenance of the army and the muqti's
SC
own expenses. This process became even more strict during the time of AlauddhinKhalji.
• As the central control grew, the control over muqti's administration also increased.
• The Khwaja (probably same as Sahib-i-Diwan) was appointed to keep a record of the income of the Iqtas.
It was on the basis of this record that the Sultan used to make his revenue demands.
• A barid or intelligence officer was also appointed to keep the Sultan informed.
GS

• During the reign of Muhmmad-bin-Thughlaq a number of governors were appointed on revenue sharing
terms where they were to give a fixed sum to the state.
• During the time of Feroze Shah Tughlaq the control of state over iqtas was diluted when iqtas became
hereditary.
• The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one half of the
produce. They also paid other taxes and always led a hand-to-mouth living. Frequent famines made their
lives more miserable.
• Sultans like Muhammad bi Tughlaq and FirozTughlaq took efforts to enhance agricultural production by
providing irrigational facilities and by providing takkavi loans. They also encouraged the farmers to cultivate
superior crop like wheat instead of barley.
• Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture. Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural
department, Diwani Kohi.
Taxation
• The fiscal policy of Turkish Sultans of India was modeled on the theory of finances of the "Hanafi
School" of Sunni Jurists".
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• Only four different sources of revenue were sanctioned by the Quran - Kharaj, Khams, Jaziya and Zakat,
but the Sultanate of Delhi charged about two dozen extra taxes. Following were the few important taxes:
– Zakat: The religious taxes were collectively known as the Zakat. This was realized from well to do
Muslims amounting at the rate of 1/40th of one's property.
– Jizya: It was levied on non-Muslims in return for the protection of life and property and exemption
from military services. Women, children, indigent and the Brahmanas were exempted from it.
– Kharaj: It was the land tax realized from non-Muslims.
– Khums: It was the tax on mines, treasure trove and share in war booty.
– Sharaf: It was the irrigation tax charged at the rate of 1/10th of the produce. This was imposed by
FiruzTughlaq.
– Abwafs: It was the extra taxes like housing tax, grazing tax, etc.
• During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum. Lahore, Multan, Broach,

E
Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad, Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them.
• Delhi remained the largest city in the East.
OR
• The growth of trade and commerce was described by contemporary writers. Barani, a contemporary
historian, gives an excellent account of their riches.
• Political unification of major parts of India removed the political as well as economic barrirs.
• India exported a large number of commodities to the countries on the Persian Gulf and West Asia and
SC

also to South East Asian countries.

• Overseas trade was under the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims.
• Inland trade was dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchants.
• Introduction of the institution of dalals or brokers (dalal, meaning one who acts as an intermediary, is
GS

Arbic in origin), facilitated commercial transactions on a large scale.

• Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth transport and communication.
Particularly the royal roads were kept in good shape.
• Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the travelers.
• Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period.
• Sericulture was introduced on a large scale which made India less dependent on other countries for the
import of raw silk.
• Paper industry had grown and there was an extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th centuries.
• Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing demand.
• The royal karkhanas supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his household. They manufactured costly
articles made of gold, silver and gold ware.
• The nobles also aped the life style of Sultans and indulged in luxurious life. They were well paid and
accumulated enormous wealth.
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Causes for Changes in Urban Economy

• The foremost cause was the immigration of artisans and merchants from the Islamic East to India,
bringing with them their crafts, techniques and practices.
• Secondly, there was an abundant supply of docile trainable labour obtained through large scale enslavement.
• Finally, the Delhi Sultans established a revenue system though which a large share of agricultural surplus
was appropriate for consumption in towns.
• Contemporary historians like Isami give us a good account of the immigration of artisans and merchants
to India.
• The large number of captive obtained for enslavement in the military campaigns were trained as artisans
by their captors, and they later became free artisans by obtaining or buying their freedom.
• Thus the immigration and enslavement were responsible for the growth of urban centres and crafts, and

E
their sustenance was provided by the increase in the revenues with the establishment of the new land
revenue system.
•
Coins of Delhi Sultanate
•
OR
The ruling class, who appropriated a large part of the country's surplus, spent most of it in towns.

The gold coins which Muhammad of Ghur struck in imitation of the issues of the Hindu kings of Kanauj,
with the goddess Lakshmi on the obverse, are without a parallel in Islamic History.
SC
• For the first forty years the currency consisted almost entrirely of copper and billon: hardly have any gold
coins been struck and silver coins of the earlier Sultans are scarce.
• Iltutmish issued several types of the silver tanka, the earliest of which has a portrait of the king of
horseback on the obverse. The latest type bears witness to the diploma in investiture he had received from
the Khalifa of Baghdad, AI Mustansir.
GS

• One silver tanka was divided into 48 jitals during the Khalji rule and 50 jitals during the Tughlaq rule.
• Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of AlauddinKhalji after his South Indian conquests.
• Copper coins were less in number and dateless.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq had not only experimented token currency but also issued several types of gold
and silver coins. They were minted at eight different places. At least twenty five varieties of gold coins
were issued by him.
• Gold, though minted by Masud, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, Balban and Jalal-ud-din Khalji, was not common
until Ala-ud-din Khalji had enriched his treasury by conquests in south India.
• These gold coins are replicas of the silver in weight and design.
• Ala-ud-din, whose silver coins are very plentiful, changed the design by dropping the name of the caliph
from the obverse and substituting the self laudatory titles, the second Alexander, the right hand of the
Khalifate.
• His successor, Mubarak, whose coins are in some respects the finest of the whole series, employed the
old Indian square shape for some of his gold, silver and billon. On his coins appear the even more arrogant
titles, the supreme head of Islam, the Khalifa of the Lord of heaven and earth.
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• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq was the first Indian sovereign to use the title Ghazi (Champion of the faith).
• Most of the coins struck in billon by these early Sultans, including Muhammad of Ghur, are practically
uniform in size and weigh (about 56 grains).
• The coins of Ala-ud-din Khalji are the first to bear dates. The earliest copper coins of this period is small
and insignificant. All copper coins are dateless.
• Muhammad binTughluq, has been called the Prince of moneyers. Not only do his coins surpass those of
his predecessors in execution, especially in calligraphy but his large output of gold, the number of his
issues of all denominations the interest of the inscriptions, reflecting his character and activities, his
experiments with the coinage, entitle him to a place among the greatest moneyers of history.
• For earliest gold and silver pieces Muhammad bin Tughluq retained the old 172.8 grain standard of his
predecessors. His first experiment was to add to tesem in the first years of his reign, gold dinars of 201.6
grains and silver aslis of 144 grains weight. Muhammad bin Tughluq's gold and silver issues, like those
of his predecessors, are identical in type. One of the earliest and most curious of these was struck both
at Delhi and Daulatabad, in memory of his father. It bears the superscription of Ghiyas-ud-din accompanied

E
by the additional title, al-Shahid (the Martyr).
• The early gold and silver, of which about half a dozen different types exist, were minted at eight different
OR
places, including Delhi. And at least twenty five varieties of his billon coinage are known. There appear
to have been two scales of division, one for use at Delhi and other for Daulatabad and the south. In the
former the silver tanka was divided into forty eight, and in the latter into fifty jitals.
• The gold of Firoz Shah is fairly common, and six types are known. Following his predecessors example
SC

he inscribed the name of the caliph on the obverse and his own name on the reverse.
• Firoz associated the name of his son, Fath Khan, with his own on the coinage.
• Gold coins of subsequent kings are exceedingly scarce; the shortage of silver is even more apparent. Only
three silver pieces of Firoz have ever come to light, but the copper coins are abundant.
• The coinage of the later rulers, though abounding in varieties is almost confined to copper and billon
GS

pieces.
• During the whole period, with but two exceptions, one mint name appears, Delhi.
• The long reign of Firoz established his coinage as a popular medium of exchange; and this probably
accounts for the prolonged series of his posthumous billon coins, extending over a period of forty years.
• The coinage of the Lodhi family, despite the difference in standard, bears a close resemblance to that of
the Sharqi King of Jaunpur.
SOCIAL LIFE
• There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society during this period. Traditional caste system
with the Brahmins on the upper strata of the society was prevalent.
• The subservient position of women also continued and the practice of sati was widely prevalent.
• The seclusion of women and the wearing of purdah became common among the upper class women. The
Arabs and Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became widespread among the Hindu
women in the upper classes of north India.
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• The Muslim society remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups. The Turks, Iranians, Afghans
and Indian Muslims developed exclusively and there were no intermarriages between these groups. Hindu
converts from lower castes were also not given equal respect.
• The Muslim nobles occupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were given high position in
the government.
• The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for which they were forced to pay a tax called
jiziya. In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
• FirozTughlaq separated it from the land revenue and collected jiziya as a separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins
were exempted from paying jiziya.
• Autonomous Chieftains constituted the most prosperous rural section Though they were now a defeated
ruling class, they were still powerful in their respective areas and continued to live a luxurious life as in
the pre-Muslim period.

E
• Maqaddams and Small Landlord had a better standard of life, for they readily misused their power in order
to exploit the ordinary peasants.
•
OR
The peasantry, known as the balahars, paid one third of their produce as land revenue, sometimes even
one half of the produce. Besides land revenue, they paid certain other taxes which prove that taxation
during this period was as much, if not higher than, as in the previous period.
• The peasants were always living at the subsistence level which was easily denied by the frequent wars,
SC
thus resulting in large scale, and not so infrequent, famines.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
• The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was distinct from the Indian style.
• The Turks introduced arches, domes, lofty towers or minarets and decorations using the Arabic script.
They used the skill of the Indian stone cutters.
GS

• They also added colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and yellow sand stones.
• In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished into mosques.
• For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near QutubMinar in Delhi was built by using the materials
obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples, but later, they began to construct new structures.
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• The most magnificent building of the 13th century was the QutubMinar which was founded by Aibek
and completed by Iltutmish. This seventy one metre tower was dedicated to the Sufi saint
QutbuddinBakthiyar Kaki. The balconies of this tower were projected from the main building and it was
the proof of the architectural skills of that period.
• Later, AlauddinKhalji added an entrance to the QutubMinar called Alai Darwaza. The dome of this arch
was built on scientific lines.
• The buildings of the Tughlaq period were constructed by combining arch and dome. They also used the
cheaper and easily available grey colour stones.
• The palace complex called Tughlaqabad with its beautiful lake was built during the period of
GhyasuddinTughlaq. Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on a high platform.
• The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of FirozTughlaq.
• The Lodi garden in Delhi was the example for the architecture of the Lodis.
Music
•

E
New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this period.
OR
• Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a new style of light
music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems.
• The invention of sitar and table was also attributed to Amir Khusrau.
• The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of FirozTughlaq.
SC

• PirBhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period.
• Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical
work called Man Kautuhal.
GS
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E
Literature
OR
• The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature and many of them had great love for Arabic and
SC
Persian literature.
• Learned men came from Persia and Persian language got encouragement from the rulers.
• Besides theology and poetry, the writing of history was also encouraged.
• Some of the Sultans had their own court historians. The most famous historians of this period were
GS

HasanNizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, ZiauddinBarani, and Shams-SirajAfif.

• Barani'sTarikhi- FirozShahi contains the history of Tughlaq dynasty.
• Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260.
• Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of this period. He wrote a number of poems.
He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaqi- Hind
or the Indian style. He also wrote some Hindi verses.
• Amir Khusrau'sKhazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin's conquests.
• Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link languages in the Delhi Sultanate.
• Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian. The book Tutu Nama or Book of the
Parrot became popular and translated into Turkish and later into many European languages.
• The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of
Kashmir.
• Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were translated into Persian.
• In Arabic, Alberuni'sKitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work.
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• Regional languages also developed during this period.

• Chand Baradi was the famous Hindi poet of this period.
• Bengali literature had also developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of Mahabaratha into
Bengali.
• The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi languages.
• The Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada literature.
INDIA ACCORDING TO ALBERUNI
• Abu'lRayanAlberuni was a philosopher scientist, whoseDitab-al-Hind was the first and most important
discussion on Indian sciences, religion and society by an outsider.
• Alberuni’s knowledge and interest covered many other areas such as astronomy, geography, logic, medicine,
mathematics, philosophy, religion and theology.

E
• He was attached to Mahmud's court and accompanied him to India during various raids.
• Alberuni'sKitab al Hind or Tahkik-i Hind is the survey of Indian based on his study and observations in
OR
India between 1017 and 1030.
• To get a proper grip of the situation, he learned Sanskrit so that he might go to the sources of Hindu
thought and religion.
• He learnt Sanskrit to acquire first hand information. He read the religion texts and met the learned Indians.
SC

• His approach was scientific and religious prejudices do not mar the quality of his observations.
• He Quoted form the Bhagavat Gita, Vishnu Puran, Kapil'sSankhya and the work of Patanjali.
Alberuni's observation of Indian society can be studied under six major sub-heads:
• Caste-ridden Society
GS

– The complete caste structure of Indian society did not go unnoticed by Alberuni.
– One notable observation of Alberuni was that the Vaishyas were also fast degeneration to the rank
of Sudras.
– He noted the absence of any significant difference between the Vaishyas and the sudras, who lived
together in the same town and village and mixed together in the same house.
– By the 11th century it seems that the Vaishyas come to be treated as Sudras virtually and legally.
– The alliance of convenience between the Brahmanas and the ruling Kshatriyas was a fact that
Alberuni refers to indirectly.
– He also refers to a class of untouchables which existed in the society called antyaja.
– Alberuni lists eight antyaja castes below the status of the Sudras.
– Some of the names of untouchable castes that are mentioned by him are: Bhodhatu, Bhedas,
Chandala, Doma, and Hodi.
• Closed Society
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– The closed attitude of society, lacking dynamism did not go untouched by Alberuni..
– The area within which a Brahmana could live was fixed and a Hindu was not generally permitted to
enter the land of the Turks. All this makes sense in the context of "feudal localism" which ruled out
or other types of connection between one region of the country and another.
– According to Alberuni the isolationist attitude of Indians was further buttressed by a false sense of
superiority.
– In his opening chapter Alberuniwrote that the Indians belived that there is no county like theirs, no
nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like theirs." The Indian are by
nature niggardly in communication what they know and they do not believe in exchange of ideas.
They take the greatest possible care to with hold their knowledge from men of another caste, from
among their own people, and even more from any outsider.
• Stagnant Knowledge

E
– While the rich heritage of the past knowledge is highlighted by Alberuni when he refers to the various
'sidhantas' and the progress made in astronomy and mathematics, but he paints a very pathetic
picture of the 11th century.
–
OR
According to Alberuni, "The Indians are in a state of utter confusion, devoid of any logical order,
and they always mix up with silly notions of the crowd.I can only compare their mathematical and
astronomical knowledge to a mixture of pearls and sour dates. Both kind of things are equal in their
eyes since they cannot raise themselves to the method of a strictly scientific deduction."
SC
• Social Evils
– Alberuni mentions evil social practices within the Indian society like child-marriage, sati,low position
of women in general and widows in particular.
– He mentions that Hindus marry at a very young age.
– If a wife loses her husband due to death she cannot remarry.A widow has only two options, either
GS

the remain a widow as long as she lives, or to burn herself (sati). The latter option was generally
preferred because as a widow she was ill-treated.
• Religious Beliefs and Practices
– Alberuni, who had carefully studied the Hindu religion's philosophy and institutions, found no difficulty
in marking out the trinity gods (three deities of the Hindu religion) and philosophy of the Upanishads.
– He says that the belief in a multitude of gods is vulgar and is a typical of the un-educated. Educated
Hindus believe god to be one and Enternal. Hindus considered the existence of god as real because
everything that exists, exists through god.
– Alberuni also learned all about the Hindu concept of transmigration of soul. He explains that Indians
believed that every act of this life will be rewarded or punished in the life to come, and the final
emancipation of a human being is possible only through true knowledge. He terms all these beliefs
of the Indian as narrow-mindedness.
– According to Alberuni, insularity at every level was the characteristic feature of India in the 11th
century and the price of this insularity was the disruption of the country by the coming of the Turks.
• Scientific Knowledge and legal System
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– Although Alberuni is critical of the scientific knowledge of Indians, sometimes he has praised their
knowledge.
– He made great effort to understand the Indian legal system.
– He noted every practical aspect of the legal system and points out the difference between these and
the legal theories as expounded in the law books like Manusmriti,
– He also praises the weights and measure system and distance measurement system of Indians.
– He also notices the many variations of the Indian alphabets.
– He provides interesting geographical data and took into account local astronomical and mathematical
theories.
– While making his profound observation, Alberuni, did not pay a partisan role and condemned Mahmud
Ghazni's destructive activities.
– He was perhaps the first Muslim to have undertaken the study of Indian society on such a major

E
scale.
– Where Alberuni was not very sure of his own knowledge, he frankly admitted it.
OR
– According to Alberuni,the fact that Indians had started depending on tradition heavily was a hindrance
to genuine intellectual quest. He felt that learning and scientific spirit suffered because they had been
sub-ordained to religion.
SC
GS
Notes

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RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

• The Medieval period is considered as an age of great cultural synthesis in India and during this period a
new phase of cultural development was initiated.
• The Turks and Mughals introduced fresh ideas and helped in giving rise to new features in the areas of
religion, philosophy and ideas.
• The synthesis between different cultures gave birth to new philosophical and religious traditions, ideas.
SUFISM
• Sufism or tasawuf is the name for various mystical and movements in Islam.

E
• It aims at establishing direct communion between god and man through personal experience of mystery
which lies within Islam.
•

•
OR
Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies in its fold at a particular stage of its evolution. In this
sense, Sufism was a natural development within Islam based on the spirit of Quaranic Piety.
The Sufis while accepting the Shariat did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence and
stressed cultivation of religious experience aimed at a direct perception of god.
SC
• There developed a number of Sufi orders of silsilah in and outside India. All these orders had their specific
characteristics. However, there were a number of features which are common to all Sufi orders.
• Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realization of God. Love of
God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was tantamount to service
to God.
GS

• In Sufism, self discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense of
perception.
• While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
• While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals, the Sufis consider love and devotion as the only
means of attaining salvation.
• According to Sufis one must have the guidance of a pir or guru, without which spiritual development is
impossible.
• Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers.
• Other ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of
prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.
Growth of Sufism in Islamic World
• Sufism began to acquire the form of an organised movement with the establishment of the Turkish rule
under the Ghaznavis and then under the Seljuqs in various parts of central Asia and Iran in the later 10th
and 11th centuries.
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• The period marks the development of two parallel institutions in the Islamic world - the Madarasa system
(seminary, higher religious school) in its new form as an official institution of orthodox Islamic learning
and the Khanqah system as an organized, endowed an permanent centre for Sufi activities.
• Another salient feature of Sufism during this period was the emergence of Sufi poetry in Persian.
• While Arabic literature on mysticism is in prose, Persian literature is in poetry.
• Sufi poetry in Persian in the form of narrative poems (mannavis) reached its peak during the 12th and
13th centuries.
• Al-Ghazzali was the most outstanding sufi author.
• One of the most authentic and celebrated manual of sufism was KashfulMahjub written by Al-Hujwiri.
Sufi movement in India
• The Sufi movement in India commenced in the 11th century A.D. Al Hujwiri, who established himself
in north India was buried in Lahore and regarded as the oldest Sufi in the sub-continent.

E
• Among the important Sufi Orders in the history of Medieval India were those of the Chishtitiya,
Suhrawardiya, Qadiriya and Naqshbandiya.
OR
• Chisti and the Suhrawardisilsilahs were popular during the Sultanate period.
• The Suhrawardis were active in Punjab and Sindh while the Chishti’s were active in Delhi, Rajasthan and
parts of the western Gangetic plains. By the end of the sultanate period Chishti’s spread to the eastern
regions of the Gangetic plain (Bihar and Bengal) and into the Deccan.
SC

• During the medieval period the Sufis played an important role in interpreting and elaborating on Islamic
theological concepts like WahdatulWujud (unity of being) and also encouraged the development of
practices like Ziyarat (the practice of visiting tombs).
The ChishtiSilsilah
• The Chisti Order was established in India by MuinuddinChishti who moved to India after the invasion
of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori and subsequently to Ajmer in 1206.
GS

• The fame of KhwajaMuinuddin grew after his death in 1235.

• His grave was visited by Muhammad Tughlaq after which the mosque and dome were erected by Mahmud
Khalji of Malwa in the fifteenth century.
• The patronage of this dargah peaked after the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
• The Chishtis believed in love as the bond between God and individual soul and tolerance between people
of different faiths.
• They accepted disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs.
• They associated with Hindu and Jain yogi’s, and used simple language.
• The Chishti presence in Delhi was established by QutbuddinBakhtiyar Kaki who settled in Delhi from his
homeland in Trans-oxiana in 1221. This was at the time of the Mongol invasions when there was a steady
flow of people from central Asia fleeing from the Mongols.
• QutbuddinBakhtiyar Kaki presence in Delhi was a threat to the Suhrawardis who sought to force him to
leave by leveling charges against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish, dismissed these attempts eventually
forcing the Suhrawardis to relent.
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• The Chishtipirs laid great emphasis on the simplicity of life, poverty, humility and selfless devotion to
God.
• The renunciation of worldly possessions was regarded by them as necessary for the control of the senses
that was necessary to maintain a spiritual life.
• KhwajaMuinuddinChishti argued that highest form of devotion to God was to redress the misery of those
in distress, fulfilling the need of the helpless and to feed the hungry.
• Chisti’s refused to accept any grant for their maintenance from the Sultans.
• The other important Chishti Baba FariduddinGanj-i-Shakar, established himself at Hansi (in Haryana) on
the route between Multan and Lahore.
• NizamuddinAuliya, was the best known Chishti saint of the Sultanate period. He lived in the fourteenth
century, during a period of political change and turmoil. During his lifetime he was witness to the
establishment of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban and subsequently the establishment of the

E
Tughlaq’s.
• There are numerous stories surrounding the life of NizamuddinAuliya, famous among them were stories

•
respect of many. OR
of his confrontations with the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said to have maintained a strict policy of
not involving himself with the various groups and factions of the Sultan’s court in Delhi earning him the

NasiruddinChiraghDehlvi was another of the Chishti saint of Delhi. He played an active role in the
political affairs of the period.
SC
• In the 13th century the Chishti Order was established in the Deccan by ShaikhBurhanuddinGharib.
• Between the 14th and 16th centuries many Chishti Sufis migrated to Gulbarga. This was accompanied
with a change where some of the Chishtis began accepting grants and patronage from the ruling
establishment.
• Muhammad Banda Nawaz was among the famous pirs in the region.
GS

• The Deccan city of Bijapur emerged as an important centre for Sufi activity.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah
• This Silsilah was founded by ShihabuddinSuhrawardi in Baghdad.
• It was established in India by BahauddinZakariya who founded the Suhrawardi Order, based in Mutan,
which was under the control of Qubacha.
• BahauddinZakariya was critical of Qubacha and openly favored Iltutmish over his rival.
• BahauddinZakariya’s ways were different from that of the Chishtis.
• The Suhrawardis, unlike the Chishtis, accepted, maintenance grants from the Sultans.
• They believed that a Sufi should possess the three attributes of property, knowledge and hal or mystical
enlightenment.
• Suhrawardi saints argued that this was necessary to ensure that they served the poor better.
• BahauddinZakariya stressed on the observance or external forms of religious belief and advocated a
combination of ilm (scholarship) with mysticism.
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• Practices like bowing before the sheikh, presenting water to visitors and tonsuring the head at the time
of initiation into the Order that the Chishtis had adopted were rejected. After his death the silsilah
continued to play an important role in Punjab and Sindh.
Naqshbandi Silsilah
• In India this order was established by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi.
• From the beginning the mystics of this Order stressed on the observance of the Shariat and denounced
all innovations or biddat.
• Sheikh BaqiBillah the successor to KhawajaBahauddinNaqshbandi settled near Delhi, and his successor
Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi attempted to purge Islam from all liberal and what he believed were ‘un-Islamic’
practices.
• He opposed the listening of sama (religious music) and the practice of pilgrimage to the tombs of saints.
• He opposed interaction with Hindus and Shias.

E
• He criticised the new status accorded by Akbar to many non-Muslims, the withdrawal of the Jizyah and
the ban on cow slaughter.
OR
• He believed that he was the mujaddid (renewer) of the first millennium of Islam.
• He maintained that the relationship between man and God was that between the slave and the master and
not the relation of a lover and beloved.
• He emphasized the individual’s unique relation of faith and responsibility to God as creator.
SC

• He tried to harmonize the doctrines of mysticism and the teachings of orthodox Islam.
The QadriSilsilah
• The Quadiriyyasilsilah was popular in Punjab.
• Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons were supporters of the Mughals under Akbar.
GS

• The pirs of this Order supported the concept of Wahdat al Wajud.

• Among the famous Sufis of this order was Miyan Mir who had enrolled the Mughal princess Jahanara
and her brother Dara as disciples.
• The influence of the sheikh’s teachings is evident in the works of the princeDara.
• Shah Badakhshani another pir of this silsilah while dismissing orthodox elements, declared that, the infidel
who had perceived reality and recognised it was a believer and that a believer who did not recognise reality
was an infidel.
• During medieval period there was constant tension between the liberal and orthodox views in Islam.
• The sufis featured on both sides, while there were those like the Chishtis who held a liberal view and
argued in favour of assimilation of local traditions there were others like Sheikh Abdul Haqq of the
Qadiriyyasilsilah who held the view that the purity of Islam was being diluted.
• This Orthodox view was represented by the ulema that argued from the perspective of being upholders
of the Shariat.
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• The liberal opinion found its voice among many sufis who argued against the narrow definition of Islamic
laws by the ulema.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new orientation to Hinduism.
• His doctrine of Advaita or Monism was too abstract to appeal to the common man.
• Moreover, there was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes)
with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).
• In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai, preached
Visishtadvaita.
• According to RamanujaGod is Sagunabrahman. The creative process and all the objects in creation are real
but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya. Therefore, God, soul, matter are real. But God is inner

E
substance and the rest are his attributes. He also advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God.
He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism.
•

•
OR
In the thirteenth century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or dualism of Jivatma and
Paramatma. According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter are
unique in nature.
Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya were also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region.
SC
Sankaracharya
• Sankaracharya was a Nambudiri Brahman born in Kaladi, Malabar.
• He was originally a worshiper of Shiva.
• He gave an entirely new turn to the Hindu revival movement by providing it with a solid philosophical
background through the reinterpretation of ancient Indian scriptures, particularly the Upanishads.
GS

• Sankaracharya advocated the philosophy of “Advaita” the monism of the Vedanta by giving a brilliant
exposition to the entire range of the Vedic religions and spiritual thought.
• Having lost his father in his childhood, Sankaracharya become a sanyasi, while in his teens and began to
roam around in search of true knowledge and wisdom.
• A genius by birth and intensely religious by outlook and social heritage, he received instruction in religious
scriptures and philosophy at Kashi.
• Sankaracharya renewed and systematised Vedanta philosophy by stressing on its main principle of monism
(evalaadvaita or absolute non-dualism).
• Sankaracharya started a vigorous campaign for the revival of Hinduism based on the solid foundation of
Vedic philosophy and ancient Indian cultural tradition in order to check the growth of Buddhism and
Jainism.
• He recognised the ascetic order of sanyasis on the pattern of Buddhist sangha and launched a campaign
for the popularisation of Hinduism.
• He composed extensive commentaries on the Brahmasutra and chief Upanishad and traveled all around
India to highlight the cultural unity of India.
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• The mathas also began propagating and became the centre of Vedic religion.
• The mathas, among many, included Jaganathpuri in the east, Sringeri in the South, Dwarka in the west and
Badrinath in the north.

• Sankaracharya was an orthodox Brahmin for whom the Vedic literature was sacred and unquestionably
true.

• In order to harmonise the many paradoxes of Vedic tradition, he had to take recourse to a philosophy of
“ double standard of truth” (already known in Buddhism). It meant that on the everyday level of truth,
the world was produce by Brahma, and it went through an evolutionary process similar to that taught by
the Sankhya school of philosophy. But on the highest level of truth, the whole universe including the God
was unreal, i.e., the world in maya, an illusion and figment of imagination,

• Therefore, Shankarcharya believed that ultimately the only reality was the Brahman, the impersonal world
soul of the Upanishads with which the individual soul was identical.
• Sankaracharya also believed that god and the created world was one and the difference which is evident

E
is due to ignorance.
OR
• According to him, the way to salvation was to realize by means of meditation and knowledge that god
and the created beings were one and same. At the deepest level of meditation “nirvikalpasamadhi”, the
complete identity between god and the individual is realized.

• It is the goal of everyone to know, realize, feel and display in action this identity. When this is accomplished
all sufferings, birth and death cease. This identity has been termed as “sachidanand Brahman” by
SC

Sankaracharya.
• Sankaracharya’s ‘Brahman’ is not really different from the concept of ‘nirvana’ of Mahayana Buddhism.

• It is a fact which was well recognised by his opponents who called him “crypto-Buddhist.”

• However, Shankarcharya proved the Buddhist scholars wrong and was able to show that Buddhist
GS

metaphysics was only a poor imitation of the metaphysics of Sanatan dharma.

• The philosophy of Sankaracharya had far reaching consequences for the India society. For example, the
monsticSankaracharya (mathas) which he established in the four corners of India served as an effective
step towards the physical and spiritual unification of India.

• By the able use of arguments he reduced all the apparently self-contradicting passages of the Upanishads
to a consistent system which has remained the standard of Hinduism to this day.

• Sankaracharaya passed away at KedarNath at the age of 32.

• Later on Ramanuja combined Sankara’sAdvaitavada with the VaishnavaPancharatra theology which claimed
that Vishnu is the very foundation of the universe.
• The impact of Ramanuja’s writings and his long service as priest of the famous Vishnu temple at Srinangam
made his ideas widely known among the Vaishnavites and he is justly regarded as the founder of
Srivashnavism.

• The Vedantic Philosophy of Sankaracharya was revived by Vivekanand in the second half of the 19th
century.
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The Bhakti movement in North India

• The bhakti movement in the north included socio-religious movements that were linked to one of the
acharyas from the south and is sometimes seen as a continuation of the movement that originated in the
south.
• Though there were similarities in the traditions of the two regions, the notion of bhakti varied in the
teachings of each of the saints.
• The Nirguna’s like Kabir rejected the varnaashrama and all conventions based on caste distinction and
championed new values, helping the emergence of new groups and new unorthodox/protestant sects.
• The Saguna’s like Tulsidas on the other hand upheld the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins.
They preached religion of surrender and simple faith in a personal god and had a strong commitment to
idol worship.
Monotheistic Bhakti

E
• Kabir was the earliest and most influential Bhakti saint in north India.
•
•
•
OR
He was a weaver and spent a large part of his life in Banaras.
His poems were included in the Sikh scripture, the AdiGranth.
Among those who were influenced by Kabir were Raidas, who was a tanner by caste from Banaras, Guru
Nanak who was a Khatri from Punjab and Dhanna who was a Jat peasant from Rajasthan.
SC
• There are similarities in the teachings of the various monotheistic Bhakti saints in North India.
• Most of the monotheists belonged to the low castes and were aware that there existed a unity in their
ideas.
• They were also aware of each other’s teachings and influence and in their verses they mention each other
and their predecessors in a manner suggesting ideological affinity among them.
GS

• All of them were influenced by the Vaishnava concept of Bhakti, the Nathpanthi movement and Sufism.
• Their ideas seem to be a synthesis of the three traditions.
• The importance given to the personal experience of Bhakti saint with God was another common feature
among the monotheistic bhakti saints.
• Nirguna bhakti and not saguna bhakti was what they believed in. They had adopted the notion of bhakti
from Vaishnavaism but they gave it a nirguna orientation.
• Though they called God using different names and titles their God was non-incarnate, formless, eternal and
ineffable.
• The Bhakti saints refused any formal association with the organized dominant religions of the time
(Hinduism and Islam) and criticized what they regarded to be the negative aspects of these religions.
• They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and attacked the caste system and practice of idolatry.
• They composed their poems in popular languages and dialects spoken across north India which enabled
them to transmit their ideas among the masses. It also helped their ideas to spread rapidly among the
various lower classes.
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Vaishnava Bhakti
• In the 14th and early 15th centuries Ramananda emerged as a popular Vaishnava bhakti saint in north
India.
• Though he was from the south he lived in Banaras because he considered it to be the link between the
South Indian bhakti and North Indian Vaishnava bhakti traditions.
• He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as the object of bhakti.
• He worshiped Ram and Sita and came to be identified as the founder of the Ram cult in north India.
• He like the monotheist bhakti saints also rejected cast hierarchies and preached in the local languages in
his attempt to popularize the cult.
• His followers are called Ramanandis.
• Tulsidas also championed the bhakti cause.
• In the early 16 century Vallabacharya, a popular bhakti saint popularized the Krishna bhakti.
•

E
Among those who followed Vallabacharya’sfootsteps were Surdas and Mira Bai.
OR
• Surdas popularized Krishna cult in north India.
• Mirabai was a great devotee of Krishna and she became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans.
• Tulsidas was a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi version of
Ramayana.
SC

• The Vaishnava bhakti movement in Bengal was very different form its counterparts in north India and the
south and was influenced by the Vaishnava bhakti tradition of the Bhagavatapurana and the Sahajiya
Buddhist and Nathpanthi traditions. These traditions focused on esoteric and emotional aspects of devotion.
• In the 12th century, Jayadeva was an important bhakti saint in this tradition. He highlighted the mystical
dimension of love with reference to Krishna and Radha. Chaitanya was a popular bhakti saint from the
GS

region; he was looked upon as an avatara of Krishna. Though, he did not question the authority of the
Brahmans and the scriptures. He also popularized the sankirtan (group devotional songs accompanied with
ecstatic dancing). With him the bhakti movement in Bengal began to develop into a reform movement
with the notions of caste divisions that came to be questioned.
• In Maharashtra the bhakti movement drew its inspiration from the Bhagavatapurana and the Siva Nathpanthis.
Jnaneswar was a pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra. His commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called
Jnanesvari served as a foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. Arguing against caste distinctions
he believed that the only way to attain God was through Bhakti. Vithoba was the God of this sect and
its followers performed a pilgrimage to the temple twice a year. The Vithoba of Pandarpur became the
mainstay of the movement in Maharashtra.
• Namdev (1270–1350) was another important bhakti saint from Maharashtra. While he is remembered in
the north Indian monotheistic tradition as a nirguna saint, in Maharashtra he is considered to be part of
the varkari tradition (the Vaishnava devotional tradition).
• Some of the other important bhakti saints of Maharashtra were the saints Choka, Sonara, Tukaram and
Eknath. Tukaram’s teachings are in the form of the Avangas (dohas), which constitute the Gatha, while
Eknath’s teachings that were in Marathi attempted to shift the emphasis of Marathi literature from
spiritual to narrative compositions.
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Importance of the Bhakti Movement

• The importance of the bhakti movement was very great.
• Various preachers spoke and wrote in the regional languages and thus, the bhakti movement provided an
impetus for the development of regional languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
• Through regional languages they made direct appeal to the masses. A
• s the caste system was condemned by the bhakti saints, the lower classes were raised to a position of great
importance.
• The importance of women in society was also increased because the bhakti movement gave equal importance
to them.
• Moreover, the bhakti movement gave to the people a simple religion, without complicated rituals.
• They were required to show sincere devotion to God.

E
• The new idea of a life of charity and service to fellow people developed.

•
•
GURU NANAK
OR
The teachings and philosophy of Guru Nanak form an important part of Indian philosophical thought.
His philosophy consists of three basic elements: a leading charismatic personality (the Guru), ideology
(Shabad) and Organization (Sangat).
SC
• Nanak evaluated and criticized the prevailing religious beliefs and attempted to establish a true religion,
which could lead to salvation.
• He repudiated idol worship and did not favour pilgrimage nor accept the theory of incarnation.
• He condemned formalism and ritualism.
GS

• He laid emphasis on having a true Guru for revelation.

• He advised people to follow the principles of conduct and worship: sach (truth), halal (lawful earning),
khair (wishing well of others), niyat (right intention) and service to the lord.
• He denounced the caste system and the inequality it caused.
• He argued that the caste and honour should be judged by the acts or the deeds of individuals.
• He laid stress on concepts of justice, righteousness and liberty.
• His verses mainly consist of two basic concepts, Sach (truth) and Naam (name).
• The bases of the divine expression for him were formed by, the Sabad (the word), Guru (the divine
precept) and Hukam (the divine order).
• He introduced the concept of Langar (a community kitchen).
• Guru Nanak identifies himself with the people or the ruled.
• Though the Sikh guru’s stressed on equality the social differentiation among the followers continued. It
was only towards the end of the 17th century that Guru Gobind Singh reasserted the idea of equality.
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• In 1699 Guru Gobind Singh attempted to resolve the differences among the various Sikh groups and
created the Khalsa. This institution removed the masands as intermediaries. Thereafter every Sikh was to
have a direct link with the Guru. To create a sense of unity among the Sikhs the Guru started some
practices which were to be followed by Sikhs. These were initiation through the baptism of the double
edged sword, wearing uncut hair, carrying arms, adopting the epithet Singh as part of the name.
• The idea of Guru Panth was another institutional idea that emerged during this period. It sanctified the
collective authority of the KhalsaPanth, which equated the Panth with the Guru.
• Guru Nanak in his last days had nominated a successor and paid homage to him, this gave rise to the idea
that the Guru and the Sikh were interchangeable.
• This created a problem for the institution of the Sangat (that was a collective body of the Sikhs) in which
God was said to be present.
• When Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa he chose the panjpiyare (the five beloved) and requested
them to administer the pahul (amritchakhha) to him.

E
• With this the difference between the Guru and the Khalsa was symbolically removed. Guru Gobind Singh
is believed to have said that the Khalsa is his own roop (form).
OR
• Guru Arjun compiled the Guru Granth Sahib.
• After the death of Guru Gobind Singh the tenth Guru the tradition of guru ended.
• It was believed that the spirit of the guru did not pass onto any successor but instead remained within
“ShriGurugranth Sahib”.
SC
GS
Notes

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VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS

VJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources
• The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary, archaeological and numismatics.
• Krishnadevaraya's Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi's Maduravijayam and Allasani Peddanna's Manucharitam
are some of the indigenous literature of this period.
• The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler AbdurRazzak and
the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among eminent foreign travelers who left valuable accounts

E
on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire.
• The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide the genealogy

•
and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers.
OR
The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural contributions
of the Vijayanagar rulers.
• The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures and legends explaining their tittles and
SC
achievements.
GS

Political History
• The Vijayanagarempire was founded in 1346 as a direct response to the challenge posed by the sultanate
of Delhi.
• The empire was founded by brothers, Harihara and Bukka. Their dynasty was named after their father,
Sangama.
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• There are several theories with regard to the origin of this dynasty. According to some scholars, they had
been the feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and after their fall they served the Kampili state.
• Another view says that they were the feudatories of the Hoysalas and belonged to Karnataka.
• Harihara and Bukka were helped and inspired by contemporary scholar and a saint Vidyaranya for the
establishment of their kingdom. It is believed that to commemorate the memory of their guru, the
brothers established the city of Vidyanagar or Vijayanagara on the banks of river Tungabhadra.
• The empire included people from different cultural regions, the Tamil, Telegu and Karnataka region who
all spoke different languages and belonged to different cultures.
• Between 1336 and 1565, Vijayanagar was ruled by three different dynasties- Sangama, who remained in
power till 1485; the Saluva who remained in power till 1503 and the Tuluvas.
• The last dynasty was the Aravidu dynasty that ruled till seventeenth century.
• Foreign travellers like Nicolo Conti, FernaoNuniz ,DomingoPaes, Duarto Barbosa and AbdurRazzaq wrote
about the magnificence of Vijayanagar.

E
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 1530)
OR
• The Tuluva dynasty was founded by ViraNarasimha.
• The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed
great military ability. His imposing personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first task
was to check the invading Bahmani forces.By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced by Deccan
Sultanates.
SC

• The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya.
• Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail
Adil Shah. Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he
marched on Bidar and captured it.
GS

• Krishna Deva Raya's Orissa campaign was also successful.

• He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese.
• Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.
• Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. H
• e was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
• Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal court.
• AllasaniPeddanna was the greatest and he was called AndhrakavitaPitamaga. His important works include
Manucharitam and Harikathasaram.
• PingaliSuranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars.
• Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works,
JambavatiKalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
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• He built the famous Vittalaswamy and HazaraRamaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.

• He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi.
• Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams.
• After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne.
• During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar
defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565.
• This battle is also known as RaksasaThangadi.
• Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was
generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire.
• However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about another century.
• Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty.

E
• The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
Administration
•
•
OR
The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters.
He was the highest court of appeal.
SC
• The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.
• Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as SaluvaNarasimha came to power by ending the Sangama
dynasty.
• The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
• The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally
GS

into gramas.
• The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
• Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.
• Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes
on various professions were other sources of income to the government.
• Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce.
• The expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities given by him and
military expenditure.
• In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were followed.
Army and Military Organisation of the Vijayanagar Empire
• In order to wage continuous warfare there was a need to keep a large army.
• Artillery was important and well bred horses were maintained.
• The Vijayanagar rulers imported high quality horses from across the Arabian Sea from Arabia and other
Gulf countries.
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• The port of Malabar was the centre of this trade and trade in other luxury commodities. The Vijayanagar
rulers always attempted to control the port of Malabar.
• Like the Bahamanis, the Vijayanagar state also was familiar with the use of firearms and employed
Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
• One of the rayas, Deva Raya II enrolled Muslims in his armed services, allotted them jagirs and erected
a mosque for their use in the city.
• The walls of the forts to counter the firearms were now made thick and special kinds of door with fortified
walls front were constructed.
• On the walls of the forts, special kinds of big holes were made to rest the guns. Special kinds of parapets
were constructed on the forts to put the canons on it.
• Firearms were used. Some firearms were small and comprised of rifles and pistols. Some like canons were
heavy and had to be put on a bullock cart or on an elephant and pushed into the battlefield.
• One of the important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration was the amaranayaka system. In

E
this system, the commander of the Vijayanagar army was called the nayaka. Each nayaka was given an
area for administration.
OR
• The nayaka was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in his area. He collected taxes in his area
and with this income maintained his army, horses, elephants and weapons of warfare that he had to supply
to the raya or the Vijayanagar ruler. The nayaka was also the commander of the forts.
• Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works. The amara-
SC

nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express
their loyalty.
• In the seventeenth century, several of these nayakas became independent and established separate states.
• The feudal Nayankaras used to maintain their own soldiers, forces and elephants. They were a powerful
section that challenged the Vijayanagar authority, weakened its internal structures and contributed to the
GS

defeat of the Vijayangar in the battle of Talikota.

Social Life
• AllasaniPeddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras - in the Vijayanagar society.
• Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of
Vijayanagar.
• Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
• Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people.
• Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants.
• Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery.
• Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements.
• Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the
later period.
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• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal
images.
• Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
Economic Condition
• According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar Empire was one of the wealthiest parts
of the world at that time.
• Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people.
• The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing irrigation facilities.
• New tanks were built and dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra. Nuniz refers to the
excavation of canals.
• There were numerous industries and they were organized into guilds.

E
• Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this period.
•
•
•
Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade. OR
Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district.

The chief gold coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied from place to place.
SC
• Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity.
• There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore.
• Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the west and with Burma, Malay
peninsula and China on the east flourished.
• The chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and sugar.
GS

• The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet clothes. The art of
shipbuilding had developed.
Cultural Contributions
• The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
• The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams
or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.
• The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features. The horse was the most common
animal found in these pillars.
• Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some big temples. These
mandapams were used for seating the deity on festival occasions.
• Also, many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
• The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or the city of
Vijayanagar.
• Vittalaswamy and HazaraRamaswamy temples were the best examples of this style.
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• The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the magnificence of
the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.
• The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar.
• They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
• The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal
images.
• Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
• Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions.
• There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature.
• The peak of literary achievement was reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya.
• He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu.

E
• His famous court poet AllasaniPeddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature.
BAHMANI KINGDOM
OR
• The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• In order to establish a stable administration in the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed amiran-
i-sada/ Sada Amir, who were the administrative heads of hundred villages.
• From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi sultanate accelerated which led to the
SC

establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the capital at Gulbarga in Andhra
Pradesh.
• Its founders Haran Gangu assumed the title AlauddinHasanBahman Shah as he traced his descent from
the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman Shah and the kingdom was named after him, the Bahamani Sultanate.
• After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no attempts by the Delhi Sultanate to control the Deccan
GS

region, therefore, the Bahamani Sultans without any checks annexed the kingdom.
• There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom. Among them, AlauddinBahman Shah,
Muhammad Shah I and Firoz Shah were important.
• Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
• The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III. It extended
from the Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from Goa to Bombay. On the east,
it extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna.
• The success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services of his minister Mahmud Gawan.
• One of the important acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an important port on the west coast.
• Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammmad Shah, the administrative system was well organised.
• The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called 'taraf' or provinces. These provinces were
Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and Gulbarga.
• Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom and consequently Golconda was annexed to Bahamani
kingdom.
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• Every province was under a tarafdar

who was also called a subedar.
• Some land was converted into
Khalisa land from the jurisdiction
of the tarafdar. Khalisa land was that
piece of land which was used to run
expenses of the king and the royal
household.
• Further the services and the salary
of every noble was fixed. Those
nobles who kept 500 horses were
given 1000,000 huns annually.
• If short of the stipulated troops, the

E
tarafdar would have to reimburse the
amount to the central government.
• Nobles used to get their salary either
in cash or in form of grant of land
or 'jagir' .
OR
• Bahamani ruler depended for
military support on his amirs.
SC

• There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were immigrant Muslims and
had been staying for a long time in the Deccan region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who had
recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq and had settled in the Deccan region recently.
• Between both these groups there was always tension to appropriate better administrative positions and
because of their feuds, the stability of the Bahamani Sultanate was affected.
GS

• For the first time in India both Bahamani and Vijaynagar kingdoms used gunpowder in the warfare.
• The Bahamanis were already familiar with the use of firearms. They employed Turkish and Portuguese
experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
Mahmud Gawan
• One of the most important personalities in the Bahamani kingdom was Mahmud Gawan. The Bahmani
kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Mahmud Gawan.
• Mahmud Gawan's early life is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and first reached Deccan as a trader.
He was granted the title of 'Chief of the Merchants' or Malikut-Tujjar by the Bahamani ruler, Humayun
Shah.
• The sudden death of Humayun led to the coronation of his minor son Ahmad III. A regency council was
set for the administration and Mahmud Gawan was its important member.
• He was made wazir or the prime minister and was given the title of 'Khwaju-i-Jahan.'
• The history of Bahmani kingdom after this period is actually the record of the achievements of Mahmud
Gawan.
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• He lived a simple life and was magnanimous. He was also a learned person. He possessed a great
knowledge of mathematics.
• He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which was built in the Persian style of architecture.
• He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the sea pirates
on the Arabian sea.
• His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari delta and thus he expanded the Bahmani
Empire through his conquests.
• Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal and wanted a compromise between the Afaquis and the
Deccanis.
• He controlled the kingdom in an efficient manner and provided it stability.
• Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi.
• On the western coast, Goa and Dhabol were conquered. Losing these important ports was a great loss for

E
Vijayanagar.
OR
• Bahamani strengthened its trading relations with Iran and Iraq after gaining control over Goa and Dabhol.
• His administrative reforms were were aimed to increase the control of Sultan over the nobles and provinces.
• Gawan carried out many internal reforms and attempted to put an end to the strife in the nobility. Royal
officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the forts were under the control of
SC

these officers.
• In order to curb the military power of the tarafdar, Gawan ordered that only one fort of each province
was to be under the direct control of the provincial tarafdar.
• The remaining forts of the province were placed under a Qiladar or commander of the forts. The Qiladar
was appointed by the central Government.
GS

• However, soon after his death, the governors declared their independence and the Bahamani kingdom
broke up.
• In the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, some amirs in Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bijapur and
Berar established independent sultanates of their own and formed new states.
• These were the NizamShahis of Ahmadnagar, the AdilShahis of Bijapur, the QutbShahis of Golconda,
and the ImadShahis of Berar and the BaridShahis of Bidar.
• They formed a league of states and strengthened them by matrimonial alliances.
• They maintained the traditional rivalry with the Vijayanagar rulers.
• Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial alliances and led the Battle of Talikota against Vijayanagar.
• They finally succumbed to the Mughal armies.
Conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani Kingdoms
• There were constant conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani kingdoms over the control of
Raichur doab which was the land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
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• This area was fertile and rich in mineral resources. The famous diamond mines of Golconda were located
in the eastern part of the doab region.
• The geography of both the kingdoms was such that expansion was possible only across Tungabhadra in
the Deccan.
• It appears that the battles between the two were not conclusive and the status quo was maintained.
• Sometimes, Bahamani had an advantage and sometimes, Vijayanagar had an advantage. For instance, in
1504, the Bahamani managed to reconquer the Raichur doab. However, with the ascent of Krishna Deva
Raya, the Bahamanis lost Raichur, Mudkal, Nalgonda and other inland towns.
• An important result of these wars was that both the powers were so involved amongst themselves that
they never realized the increasing power of the Portuguese on the coast of South India.
• Besides, continuous warfare exhausted the resources of both the states and weakened them.

E
• The other areas of conflict were the Marathwada region and the deltaic region of Krishna-Godavari.
• Both regions had fertile areas and important ports that controlled trade to the foreign countries.
•

•
OR
The fertile area in the Marathwada region was the Konkan belt that also had the port of Goa which was
an important region for trade and export and import especially import of horses from Iraq and Iran.
Often, the battles between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani states are perceived as Hindu-Muslim
conflicts, but the above mentioned reasons show that the struggle was not due to any religious differences.
SC
• Territorial and economic motives were the main causes for the war.
• Despite hostilities between the two states, there were times when they also co-operated with each other.
• Krishna Deva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and took pride in
the title "establisher of the Yavana kingdom".
GS

• Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagra following the
death of Krishna Deva Raya.
• There were also sharing and exchange of ideas, especially in the field of art, literature and architecture.
Notes

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OTHER REGIONAL STATES

• The fifteenth and early sixteenth century was the crucial period between the death of the last Tughlaq king
in 1413 AD and emergence of a new Turkish power in the sub-continent- the Moghuls.
• There were two main process at work in Muslim India at this point of time:
– the disintegration of Delhi sultanate, and
– the rise of independent regional kingdoms.
• The centralizing authority of Delhi Sultanate ceased to be paramount power in Indian political life, and
its power and position were taken over by other regional kingdoms, which were more powerful than the
Delhi sultanate with better organized state machinery.

E
• Many of these states also centers of artistic activity.
• Though the Delhi Sultanate has fallen from its former glory during this period, it continued to be viewed
OR
as symbol of prestige and source of wealth for which many factions struggled and fought.
• The Deccan states, and Bengal in the east, and Sindh and Multan in the west had broken away towards
the end of Muhammad- bin -Tughlaq’s rule, and after some feeble efforts, Firuz saha reconciled himself
to this loss.
SC

• Follwing the Timurid invasion, the governors of Gujarat, Malwa and Jaunpur (in the east of Uttar Pradesh)
declared themselves independent, while Khizr Khan assumed full powers in the Punjab.
• With the expulsion of the Muslim governor from Ajmer, the various states of Rajputana also asserted
their independence.
• While these various provincial kingdoms and Rajput states fought against each other, it would be wrong
GS

to consider the 15th century a period of decadence and decline in north India.
• Politically, warfare between the various states rarely extended beyond the border regions, with a definite
pattern of balance of power emerging between the states located in the various regions, - east, west and
north.
• In the west, Gujarat, Malwa and Mewar balanced and checked the growth of each others’ power.
• In the east, Bengal was checked by the Gajapati rulers of Orissa, as also by the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur.
• In the north, while Kashmir remained aloof, the rise of the Lodhis at Delhi towards the middle of 15th
century led to a long drawn out struggle between them and the rulers of Jaunpur for the mastery of the
Ganga -Yamuna doab.
• The balance of power began to break down by the end of the 15h century. With the final defeat of
Jaunpur by the Lodis, and the extension of their rule from Punjab upto the borders of Bengal, the
Sultanat of Delhi had been virtually re-established and the heat was on eastern Rajastahan and Malwa.
• Meanwhile, Malwa started disintegrating due to internal factors, leading to a sharpened rivalry between
Gujarat and Mewar. Thus, Malwa once again became the cock-pit of the struggle for mastery of north
India.
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• Culturally, the new kingdoms which arose tried to utilize local cultural forms and traditions for their own
purposes. This was mostly manifested in the field of architectures where efforts were made to adopt and
adapt the new architectural forms developed by the Turks by utilitarian local forms and traditions.
• In many cases; encouragement was given to local languages, while political necessity compelled many of
them to establish a closer association with Hindu ruling elites. This, in turn, had an effect on the processes
of cultural rapprochement between the Hindus and the Muslims which had been working apace.
REGIONAL STATES
Bengal
• After conquest by Bakhtiyar Khalji in A.D.1204, Bengal in a freakish nature continued to be ruled by
governors appointed by the Delhi Sultans.
• Its long distance from Delhi tempted its governors to seek sovereignty, hence rebellions were a recurrent
feature in Bengal.

E
• The history of Bengal as an independent kingdom may be dated from A.D. 1338 hen one Fakhruddin
taking advantage of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s troubles proclaimed himself ruler of eastern Bengal as

•
OR
Sonargaon its capital under the title of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah.
Shortly after, Alauddin Ali Shah (A.D. 1339-1342) established its authority in western Bengal with Lakhnauti
as its capital.
• About A.D. 1342, Ilyas, an officer of Alauddin Ali Shah, made himself independent ruler of the entire
Bengal, assuming the title of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah and founded Ilyas Shahi dynasty.
SC

• He overran Tirhut and went as far as Kathmandu in Nepal (A.D. 1346). He then exacted a tribute from
the ruler of Orissa. He also defeated the ruler of Sonargaon and annexed his dominions.
• Firuz Tughlaq attempted twice to capture Bengal but failed.
• The rule of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty continued till A.D. 1415 when it was superceded by that of Raja
GS

Ganesha; though it was recovered in about A.D. 1442.

• But there followed a period of weak monarches and the throne was finally seized by Malik Andil, an
Abyssinian commander of the Ilyas Shahi army.
• The Abyssinian regime covered a short period of 6 years (A.D. 1487-1493) and comprised three weak
rulers.
• Then the throne was occupied by one Syed Hussain, who assumed the title of ‘Alauddin Hussain Shah’.
His long reign (A.D. 1493-1519) is noted for public works and for promotion of Bengali literature.
• Chaitanya, the famous Hindu reformer, enjoyed Alauddin Hussain Shah’s patronage and was able to
propagate his ideas freely.
• Alauddin Hussain Shah was succeeded by his son Nusrat Shah, a contemporary of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi.
• The Afghan rebel chiefs who were rising against the Sultans sided with Nusrat Shah who is said to have
conquered Tirhut. Subsequently, he made a treaty with Babar, and was assassinated soon after in A.D.
1532.
• Then decline set in and there followed a quick succession and one Mahmud Shah was overthrown in A.D.
1538 by Sher Khan Suri and sought shelter with Humayun who had then advanced in Bihar with the
object of suppressing Sher Khan.
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• Humayun turned out the latter, and sat on the throne of Gaur (the other new capital) as emperor for three
months. But Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Chausa and recovered the independence of Bengal.
• But after his death Bengal fell under confusion till it was annexed to the Mughal empire in A.D. 1575.
Jaunpur
• Jaunpur is now in Varanasi division in eastern Uttar Pradesh on the banks of river Gomati.
• It was a prosperous province in the eastern part of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The governor of Jaunpur was Malik Sarwar, who was a prominent noble during Feroz Shah Tughlaq’s
period.
• In 1394, Sultan Nasiruddin Mohammad Shah Tughlaq made him a minister and gave him the title of
Sultanu-Sharq which means the master of the east. Thereafter, he was known as Malik Sarwar Sultanus
Sharq.
• After Timur’s invasion and the weakening of the Delhi Sultanate, Malik Sarwar took advantage of a weak

E
political situation and declared himself independent.
• Malik Sarwar was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah Sharqi. The Sultan struck coins in his name.
OR
• During the period of Mubarak Shah Sharqi, the ruler of the Delhi sultanate was Mahmud Shah Tughlaq,
who tried to annex Jaunpur, but failed. Thereafter, there were constant tensions between the various rulers
of Jaunpur and Delhi Sultanate.
• The Sharqi Sultans made several attempts to conquer Delhi, but they could never be successful.
SC

• In 1402, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi, Mubarak Shah’s brother became the Sultan and ruled Jaunpur for thirty four
years.
• Ibrahim was also a scholar, well versed with Islamic theology and law, music and fine arts. He was a great
patron of architecture.
• A distinct style of architecture evolved called the Sharqi style that had some Hindu influence.
GS

• At its height, the Sharqi Sultanate extended from Aligarh in western Uttar Pradesh to Darbhanga in north
Bihar in the east and from Nepal in the north to Bundelkhand in the south.
• It was during the reign of Hussain Shah Sharqi (1458– 1505) Bahlol Lodhi attacked Jaunpur in 1484 and
Hussain Shah had to flee.
• Finally, Sikandar Lodhi who succeeded Bahlol Lodhi annexed Jaunpur. Hussain Shah died and the Sharqi
dynasty came to an end.
Kashmir
• Kashmir is in the northern part of India. In the eleventh century, the rulers were followers of Saivism, and
Saivism became the central religion in Kashmir. It was a closed kingdom.
• Albiruni, the Arab traveller who visited India during this period remarked in his work, Al-Hind that no one,
not even Hindus from outside was allowed access to Kashmir.
• In 1320s, the ruling dynasty of Kashmir could not check the devastating Mongol invasions.
• It therefore, lost all public support. In 1339, Shamsuddin Shah deposed the Saiva ruler and became the
ruler of Kashmir. From this period onwards, Islam influenced the Kashmiri society.
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• A group of Sufi saints known as the Rishis propagated a religion that combined features of Hinduism and
Islam Sufi saints and refugees migrated from Central Asia to Kashmir and further influenced the society
and religion.
• Gradually, the poorer section of the population started converting to Islam. The state encouragement to
Islam took place when the Kashmiri Sultan, Sikandar Shah (1389–1413), issued an order that all Hindus
especially, the brahmanas living in his kingdom should embrace Islam or leave his kingdom.
• These orders were issued at the instance of the king’s minister, Suha Bhatt who was a Hindu and had
recently converted to Islam.
• Perhaps, one of the greatest rulers of Kashmir was Zainul Abidin (1420–1470). He was an enlightened
ruler and called back those Hindus who had left the state due to the persecution of Sikandar Shah. He
abolished jaziya and prohibited cow slaughter and gave the Hindus important state posts. A large number
of temples were repaired and new ones constructed.
• Abul Fazl, the court historian of the Mughal Emperor Akbar noted that Kashmir had one hundred and

E
fifty big temples.
• Sultan Zainul Abidin married the daughters of the Hindu raja of Jammu. Some scholars call Zainul

•
Shah or the great king of Kashmiris. OR
Abidin as the Akbar of Kashmir. Under him, Kashmir became prosperous and he was called the Bud

The Sultan Zainul Abidin contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by constructing dams
and canals. Agricultural records were maintained. During the period of famine and other natural calamities,
SC
relief in terms of loans and grains and fodder was provided to the peasants.
• Sultan Zainul Abidin also introduced reforms in the currency. He introduced market control and fixed
prices of the commodities. Traders and merchants were asked to sell the commodities at fixed prices.
Sultan also subsidized the import of the commodities which were scarce in the state.
• To make up for the shortage of salt, he imported salt from Ladakh and helped the traders in every
possible way.
GS

• Sultan also paid attention to the development of handicrafts. He sent some people to Samarqand for
training of paper making and book binding.
• Sultan also encouraged stone cutting and polishing and many other crafts. He introduced carpet and shawl
making, which make Kashmir famous till day.
• Sultan also founded the towns of Zaingir, Zainket and Zainpur and laid out the islands on the Dal Lake.
• His chief engineering achievement was the Zaina Lanka, an artificial island in the Woolur Lake on which
he built his palace and mosque.
• He was a great scholar of Persian, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Arab languages and patronised the Sanskrit and
Persian scholars.
• Under his patronage, the Mahabharat and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini were translated into Persian and many
Persian and Arabic works were translated into Hindi.
• He himself was a poet and wrote poetry under the pen name ‘Qutb’.
• After him weak rulers ascended the throne of Kashmir and there was confusion. Taking advantage of this,
Mirza Haider, Babur’s relative occupied Kashmir.
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• In 1586, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the Mughal Empire.
Gujarat
• Gujarat was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate in 1297 by Alauddin. From that time it was ruled for long
time by Muslim governors appointed by the Delhi Sultans.
• Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad, sixth king of the Tughlaq house, appointed in A.D. 1391, Zafar Khan as
governor of Gujarat.
• In A.D. 1407, he took the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah and founded the Muzaffari Dynasty which
continued till A.D. 1573 when it was annexed by Akbar to the Mughal empire.
• Of the fourteen kings of this dynasty, the most important are three – Ahmad Shah I, Mahmud Begara,
also known as Mahmud I and Bahadur Shah.
• Ahamd Shah (A.D. 1411-1443) was a grandson of Muzaffar Shah and is remembered for founding the city
of Ahmadabad on the Sabarmati. He died at Ahmedabad in A.D. 1442.

E
• Ahmad Shah’s grandson, Mahmud I (A.D. 1449-1511), commonly known by his surname Begara, was by
far the most eminent Sultan of Gujarat. Champaner was rechristened by him as Muhammadabad.
OR
• Towards the close of his reign, he attempted, in alliance with Egypt, to check the power of the Portuguese
who monopolized the lucrative trade which passed through Egypt and Red Sea to India. After his death,
the decline of the empire began.
• Only Bahadur Shah (A.D. 1526-1537) proved to be a capable ruler. He invaded Mandu fort and entered
the city unopposed. The king of Malwa, Mahmud Khalji II, was taken prisoner and his territory was
SC

annexed to Gujarat in A.D. 1591.

• Bahadur Shah also captured the fortress of Ujjain, Bhilsa and Raisen completing the conquest of Malwa.
• In A.D. 1535, he captured Chittor. By this time, the Mughal emperor, Humayun as it is felt it necessary
to stem the tide of Bhadur’s conquests he marched into Malwa and occupied Mandasor.
• In the reign of the last ruler Muzaffar III, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.
GS

Sind
• Sind retained some degree of independence, the desert of thar being a fairly effective barrier to frequent
communications with Rajastan and Delhi.
• The Arabs who conquered Sind in 8th century after reverses they met with appear to have lost interest
in enlarging their indian possessions.
• During the period of the sultanate Sind was ruled by obscure tribes.
• In 1520 Shah Beg Arghun the governor of Kandhar having been driven out of Afghanistan by Babur
migrated to Sind, conquered it and laid the foundation of the Arghun dynasty. His son shah Hussain
consolidated his conquest by annexing Multan.
• At the time Babur’s invasion the power was Arghuns was in Sind was at its height.
Malwa
• Iltutmish attacked Chilsa and Ujjain but the kingdom had continued to be under the paramara rulers and
their feudatories.
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• It became a province of the Delhi Sultanate in A.D. 1310 under Alauddin.

• In A.D. 1390 one Delawar Khan Ghauri was made governor of Malwa, but from A.D. 1401 he ruled
independently without a formal proclamation.
• In A.D. 1406 he died and Alp Khan ascended the throne with the title of Hushang Shah.
• He made Mandu his capital, strenghthened its defences and decorated its residential buildings, palaces,
mosques and tombs.
• He died in A.D. 1935 and was buried in a marble tomb at Mandu.
• Mahmud Khalji, a cousin and minister of the new ruler Muhammad Shah Ghauri, murdered him and
seized the throne (A.D. 1436).
• His war with Rana Kumbha of Chittor was inconclusive. Strangely enough, both sides claimed success,
and while the Rana of Mewar erected the tower of victory at Chittor, the Sultan of Malwa built a seven-
storeyed column at Mandu to commemorate his triumph.

E
• In A.D. 1469 Mahmud Khalji died at Mandu at the age of sixty-eight.
•

•
OR
Mahmud Khalji was succeeded by his eldest son, Muhammad Shah, under the title of Sultan Ghiyasuddin
(A.D. 1469). After his accession he waged only one war with Raimal, the Rana of Chittor and was
defeated. He is credited with the construction of Jahaz Mahal.
Muhammad Shah was succeeded in A.D. 1500 by Nasir Shah. After Nasir Shah’s death in A.D. 1510,
his third son ascended the throne with the title of Mahmud Khalji II.
SC
• Mahmud Khalji II conferred the office of wazir on Medini Rai.
• Mahmud was defeated and killed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Baz Bahadur proclaimed independence
and assumed regal power and title after his father’s death in A.D. 1555.
• Baz Bahadur fell in love with Rupmati who was noted for her gift of music and poetry.
GS

• Baz Bahadur was the last independent ruler of Malwa. Malwa was finally annexed to the Mughal empire
in A.D. 1562.
Khandesh
• The kingdom of Khandesh was situated in the valley of Tapti, its Governor Malik Raja declared his
independence of the Delhi sultanate and ruled his small realm wisely and well until his death in 1399.
• From the very beginning the Sultanas of Gujarat were desirous of establishing their supremacy over
Khandesh. Hence the two kingdoms were at war.
• Under the last notable monarch Adil Khan Farrukhi ( I457- I503) great progress was made in the country.
• For some time the little kingdom lingered on as a political entity until at last Akbar’s reign saw its close.
Rajputana
• Mewar with its capital at Chittor was the most extensive and powerful state in Rajasthan.
• Babur’s contemporary on the throne was the famous Rana Sangram Singh popularly known as Rana
Sangha.
• He was a man of the great military powers and was a terror to the muslim states.
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• Devoted to military activites all through his life his body bore the signs of eighty wounds in addition to
an eye blinded and a leg crippled.
• He fought successfully against Gujarat and repulsed an invasion of Mewar by Ibrahim Lodhi.
• Rana Sangha helped Medini Rai against Mehmud II of Malwa who was taken as captive to Chittor.
• The economic resources and the military forces of Mewar were thoroughly organized and it was clear that
any other power aiming at supremacy in Hindustan would have to contest it with him.
• In the Deccan that is beyond Vindhyas two formidable empires viz. the Bahamani Kingdom (the Muslim
Kingdom) and the Vijyanagar Kingdom (The Hindu Kingdom) had been founded during the rule of
Muhammed Bin Tughluq.
Social and Cultural Conditions
• The Indian society in the beginning of 16th century was divided into two distinct communities – Hindus
and Muslims. But socially the country was passing through a period of transition from conflict to co-
operation between Hindus and Muslim.
•

E
The bitterness between the Hindus and Muslims had gradually subsided. Islam had come to stay in India
OR
and Muslim culture had become a part of the Indian society.
• The Turks – Afghan rulers and their followers were shedding their foreign ways and were becoming
Indiansied.
• More over a large number of Hindus converted as Muslims, though these Hindustani Muslims were
SC

considered inferior to the pure foreign blood.

• The Muslims were the dominant class in the state enjoying considerable prestige.
• Muslims followed the teachings of the Quaran and muslim traditions. The holy men were consulted on
important questions of religions and state but their advice was not always followed.
• The Hindus were divided into castes, the Sudras being the lowest in society.
GS

• Slavery was common and there was sale and purchase of slaves.
• The life of Hindus was governed by the rules laid down in the Smritis and they led pure and dignified
lives, restricted by the convention of their caste. Sati was prevalent in certain parts of India.
• Foreign writers like Ibn Batuta and Nicolo Conti testify to the practice of Sati in the state of Delhi and
Vijyanagar empire in the Deccan.
• The property right of women were recognized and they were declared absolute owners of their stridhana
which they could dispose of without any interference from their husbands.
• Caste distinctions were rigidly observed.
• Although India was politically divided yet culturally she was becoming one.
• It was during this period that the saints of the Bhakti movement played a very important part in abridging
the gulf between Hinduism and Islam.
• The reformers of the Bhakti cult such as Ramanand, Chaitanya, Namdev and particularly Kabir and
Nanak stressed the need of Hindu-Muslim unity.
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• The work of these saints was supplemented by the Sufi mystics of the day.
• Close cooperation between Hindus and Muslims had an interesting side effect; it led to the growth of
vernacular languages like Hindi Punjabi, Bengali, Marathi and Gujarati.
Economic Conditions
• The Indian economy so far as its agricultural and material wealth was concerned was quite sound and
there was general prosperity.
• Agriculture was in flourishing condition. In normal times the peasants produced so much corn that after
satisfying the needs of the country it was exported to foreign lands.
• However, on account of frequent invasions villages were built and destroyed very often.
• India had brisk inland and foreign trade.
• There was a lot of trade with Malaya, China, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran and Tibet.

E
• Many kinds of industries like textile industry sugar, mental and paper industries were found in most parts
of the country.
•
OR
People lived a life of ease and comfort. The common man though poor had few needs and did not suffer
from starvation.
Military Conditions
SC
• Militarily India was weak at the beginning of 16th century.
• The Indian as well as the Muslim rulers no doubt maintained huge armies but there was not much of
discipline and training.
• The military organization was based upon feudalism. The Indian rulers did not have direct control over
their troops. They depended upon feudal nobility for the supply of most of the fighting men. Therefore
GS

these soldiers were more loyal to their immediate masters than to the kings.
• Moreover the training and the military skill differed from contingent to contingent. There was no uniformity
in their actions on the battle field.
• The Indian rulers were also ignorant of the latest invasions in the field of military science, including the
use of artillery which had become quite popular with the countries of Central Asia who had borrowed
from the West.
• The use of elephants in the advance guard, the lack of reserve force and the absence of second-in-
command in the battle fields were some of other defects in the Indian Military organization.
• The Delhi army under the Lodhis was not a national force. It was organised on clannish basis. The Lodhis
had failed to safeguard the north western frontier which gave Babur a free hand to deal with the Indian
situation as he pleased. Such were the political, social, economic and military conditions of India on the
eve of Babur’s invasion in 1526.
Notes

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MUGHAL (BABUR & HUMAYUN) AND SUR DYNASTY

Babur
• Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Babur was related to Timur from his father’s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
• Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana, but was soon defeated by his
distant relative and as a result lost his kingdom.
• He became a wanderer for sometime till he captured Kabul from one of his uncles.
• Then, Babur took interest in conquering India and launched three expeditions between 1519 and 1523.

E
• The opportunity to fullfil his ambition came to Babur when he was invited to India by discontented party,
Daulat Khan Lodhi the most powerful noble of the Punjab and Alam Khan an uncle of Ibrahim Khan
Lodhi sought Babur to help to
OR
fight against Ibrahim Lodhi.
• India was then distracted by
ambitions, rivalries and
disaffection of nobles and the
SC

Delhi sultanate existed only in

name.
• Babur, a man of adventurous spirit
at once responded to the call
which presented him an excellent
opportunity for giving effect to his
GS

long cherished ambition.

• This was his fourth expedition in
which he occupied Lahore in 1524
and such occupation was not what
Daulat Khan desired.
• He had hoped that Babur would
retire after a raid leaving the field
clear for him and so he turned
against him and Alam Khan also
joined hands with him.
• Babur had to retire to Kabul to
collect re-enforcements.
• Babur soon re-occupied the Punjab
in 1525 and Daulat Khan Lodhi
submitted to Babur.
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• On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India, there were five prominent Muslim rulers – the Sultans of Delhi,
Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal and the Deccan – and two prominent Hindu rulers – Rana Sangha of Mewar and
the Vijayanagar Empire.
• Most of the soldiers and officers of Daulat Khan Lodhi joined the ranks of Babur.
• Babur got rid of all the self seeking Afghan nobles of the Punjab.
• He received messages of support from disaffected and opportunists nobles of Ibrahim’s court and Rana
Sangha of Mewar is also said to have sent him an invitation for a joint invasion of Delhi.
Military Conquests
• On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi, who was killed
in the battle.
• One of the causes of Babur’s success in the battle was that Babur was seasoned General whereas Ibrahim

E
was a head strong, inexperienced youth. As Babur remarks he was ‘an inexperienced man, careless in his
movements, who marched without order, halted or retired without method and engaged without foresight.’
•

•
OR
Babur was the master of a highly evolved system of warfare which was the result of a scientific synthesis
of the tactics of the several Central Asian people. While Ibrahim fought according to the old system then
in existence in the country.
Babur had a park of artillery consisting of big guns and small muskets while Ibrahim’s soldiers were
absolutely ignorant of its use.
SC
• Also, Ibrahim did not get the backing of his people which weakened his power.
• Moreover his army was organised on clannish basis.
• The troops lacked the qualities of trained and skilful soldiers.
• Babur was right when he recorded in his diary that the Indian soldiers knew how to die and not how to
GS

fight.
• On the other hand Babur’s army was well trained and disciplined and shared the ambition of conquering
rich Hindustan.
• Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
• Babur proclaimed himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
• His subsequent victories over Rana Sangha of Mewar and the Afghans secured his position as the ruler
of India. He marched against Babur and in the Battle of Khanua (near Agra) held in 1527 Babur won a
decisive victory over him. Babur assumed the title Ghazi.
• This battle supplemented Babur’s work at Panipat and it was certainly more decisive in its results.
• The defeat of the Rajputs deprived them of the opportunity to regain political ascendancy in the country
for ever and facilitated Babur’s task in India and made possible the foundation of a new foreign rule.
• In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler Medini Rai.
• In 1529, Babur defeated the Afghans in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar.
• By these victories, Babur consolidated his power in India.
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• Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty seven.

Estimate of Babur
• Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid achievements.
• He was also a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages.
• Turki was his mother tongue and he wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language. It provides a
vivid account of India.
• He frankly confesses his own failures without suppressing any facts.
• He was also a naturalist and described the flora and fauna of India.
Humayun
• Humayun succeeded Babar in December 1530 at the young age of 23 and the newly conquered territories
and administration was not yet consolidated.

E
• Unlike Babur, Humayun did not command the respect and esteem of Mughal nobility.
• The Chaghatai nobles were not favourably inclined towards him and the Indian nobles, who had joined
OR
Babur’s service, deserted the Mughals at Humayun’s accession.
• He also confronted the hostility of the Afghans mainly Sher Khan in Bihar on the one hand and
Bahadurshah, the ruler of Gujarat, on the other.
• As per the Timurid tradition Humayun had to share power with his brothers.
SC

• The newly established Mughal empire had two centres of power; Humayun was in control of Delhi, Agra
and Central India, while his brother Kamran had Kabul and Qandhar and by subsequently annexing the
Punjab, had deprived him of the main recruiting ground of his army.
• However, the granting of the Punjab and Multan had the advantage that Humayun was free to devote his
attention to the eastern part without having to bother about his western frontier.
GS

• In A.D. 1532, Humayun first turned his arms against the Afghans, who under Sultan Mahmud Lodi
threatened his position in the east and defeated the Afghan forces which had conquered Bihar and overrun
Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh at a place called Daurah near Lucknow.
• After this success Humayun besieged Chunar then held by the able Afghan chief named Sher Khan.
• Sher Khan showed a submission and Humayun made a fatal mistake in allowing Sher Khan to retain
possession of Chunar.
• Humayun was anxious to return to Agra as he had to face the growing power of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• The attitude of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was hostile to Humayun from the very beginning. Humayun
defeated Bahadur Shah but could not retain his conquest as he was soon recalled to the east to meet the
revolt of Sher Khan.
• Humayun marched into Bengal but Sher Khan did nothing to oppose him as his object was to lure
Humayun into the interior and then to cut off his communication.
• In the Battle of Chausa (A.D. 1539) Humayun was completely defeated by Sher Khan.
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• In 1540 Humayun had one more encounter with Sher Shah at Bilgram near Kannauj but again met with
a crushing defeat and was compelled to leave Hindustan.
• The battle of Kannauj (A.D. 1540) was bitterly contested and it decided the issue between Sher Khan and
the Mughals.
• Humayun now became a prince without a kingdom; Kabul and Qandhar remaining under Kamran.
• Wandering Humayun found temporary refuge at Amarkot from where he made his way to Persia.
• The Persian king Shah Tahmasp, agreed to help him on condition that Humayun should conform to the
Shia creed.
• Humayun yielded to the necessity and conquered Kabul and Qandhar from his brother Kamran, with the
help of Persian troops.
• Freed from his brother’s opposition Humayun was now in a position to attempt the reconquest of India.

E
• He had secured the services of an able officer named Bairam Khan and the time was also favourable to
him.
•
•
OR
Humayun defeated the Afghan forces of Sikandar Sur and occupied Agra and Delhi (A.D. 1555).
It is clear that the major causes of Humayun’s failure against Sher Khan was his inability to understand
the nature of the Afghan power.
• Due to existence of large numbers of Afghan tribes scattered over north India, the Afghans could always
SC
unite under a capable leader and pose a challenge.
• In 1556, Humayun died after tumbling down from the staires of his library.
• His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title of Insan-
i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals.
GS

Sher Shah (The Second Afghan Empire)

• The first Afghan kingdom under the Lodis was replaced by the Mughals under Babur in 1526.
• After a gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing the Afghan rule again in India in 1540.
• Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years and this period is known as the period of second Afghan
Empire.
• The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name was Farid.
• He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
• Later, Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery.
• He defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa and became the ruler of Delhi in 1540.
• Sher Khan was a great tactician and able military commander.
• Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the Rajputs and expanded his empire.
• His conquests include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand.
• His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat.
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• Sher Shah after his death in 1553 was succeeded by his son Islam Shah.
• Islam Shah had to face a number of conflicts with his brother Adil Khan and many Afghan nobles.
• The Afghan empire was substantially weakened. Humayun saw an opportunity and moved towards India
who again captured his lost kingdom by 1555 and ended the second Afghan Empire.

E
OR
SC
GS

Sher Shah’s Administration

• Although Sher Shah’s rule lasted for five years, he organized a brilliant administrative system.
• The central government consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four important
ministers:
1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir - in charge of Revenue and Finance.
2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
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3. Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister.

4. Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications.
• Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars.
• Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the two officers in charge of the administration
in each sarkar.
• Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar
(treasurer) Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.
• There were also many administrative units called iqtas.
Land Revenue System
• Sher Shah’s most striking contribution was made in the field of revenue.

E
• Sher Shah, however, as the only sovereign who is known to have gained a practical experience in managing
a small body of peasants before rising to the throne came with his scheme of revenue settlement readymade
and successfully tested by experiment. It was but an extension of the system introductioned by him at

•
Sasaram.
OR
As a monarch, he unilatereally decided that the best system of assessment must be based on actual
measurement. According, the empire was surveyed.
• In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honestry of collection he fixed the wages of the
SC
measurers and the collectors.
• The uniform system of measurement in spite of strong opposition from some quarters, was enforced all
over the empire, with the exception of Multan where political turmoil could endanger the security of the
State.
• But in Multan too, a record was kept of the settlement made between the government and the cultivator,
GS

and the latter was given a title deed (Patta) in which conditions of the settlement were specifically stated.
• According to the schedule of Sher Shah’s assessment rates the revenue on perishable articles was fixed
in cash rates, but for all the principal staple crops, the land was classified into three classes-good, middling
and bad.
• After the average produce of the three was added, one-third of the total was taken as the average produce
of each bigha for revenue purposes.
• Of this, one-third was demanded as the share of the government. It could be paid in cash or in kind though
the former mode was preferred. In case of cash payments, the state demand was fixed according to the
prices prevalent in the near markets and a schedule of crop of crop rates was preserved indicating the
method and the rates of assessment.
• The state gave a patta to each cultivator, which specified the state demand. The cultivator was also obliged
to sign a qabuliat (deed of agreement) promising to honour the revenue due from him. Both the documents
contained information on the size of the plot.
• Sher Shah’s revenue settlement has been unanimously acclaimed. And it has been contended hat it
provided the basis for Todar Mal’s bandobust in Akbar’s reign, as also for the Ryotwari system in British
India.
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• Notwithstanding its obvious strengths it would be unrealistic to describe his revenue settlement as a
master-piece; for the system was not without defects.
• Sher Shah was the first ruler who considered the welfare of the people as essential for the interests of the
state.
• He was benign in times of drought and famine. The state, under such circumstances, would lend money
and material to the cultivators.
• He instructed the army not to damage any crops and in any damage, to adquately compensate.
Other Reforms
• He removed the currency which had debased under the later Turko-Afghan regimes and instead issued well
executed coins of gold, Silver and Copper of a uniform standard.
• His silver rupee which weighed 180 grams and contained 175 grains of silver was retained throughout the
Mughal period as also by the British East India Company, till 1885.

E
• Besides the coins of smaller fractions of a rupee, the copper coins too had fractions of half quarter, eighth
and sixteenth.
OR
• Sher Shah gave every possible encouragement to the trade and commerce and took a number of measures
for this purpose.
• He did away with all the internal custom duties with the exception of the two. These two duties were
charged at the time of entry of the goods in the kingdom and at the time of the actual sale.
SC

• Foreign goods were permitted to enter Bengal duty free.

• Sher Shah paid special attention to the safety and convenience of the merchants and had issued specific
instructions to his officers in this regards.
• Sher Shah not only took necessary measures to ameliorate the condition of the people but also paid
attention to the promotion of education. He gave liberal grants to both the Hindu and Muslim educational
GS

institutions.
• The Hindus were free to regulate their educational institutions and Sher Shah did not interfere in their
working.
• Similarly, the Muslim educational institution were mainly attached with mosques and imparted elementary
education to the children.
• To help the poor and brilliant students he awarded liberal scholarships.
• Sher Shah also made liberal provisions for the support of blind, the old, the weak, widows etc.
• Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways. They were:
1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan.
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• Primarily planned for military purposes, these highways proved equally effective for the growth of trade
ans commerce.
• Along both sides of these roads, Sher Shah ordered the planting of fruit trees and the sinking of fresh
wells.

E
OR
• Another important feature of the public works comprised the building of the Serais (Rest-houses).
SC
• The Serais were fully furnished, with well equipped kitchens and cooks for both the Hindus and the
Muslims.
• Sher Shah also repaired about 1,700 Caravan Serais for the efficiency of the royal posts.
• Soon, the Serais functioned as post offices and marketing centres and Sher Shah posted news-readers in
the various Serais to keep abreast of the local gossip.
GS

• Rest-houses were built on the highways for the convenience of the travelers.
• Police was efficiently reorganized and crime was less during his regime.
• The Shiqdars and the Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran were responsible for the maintenance of law and order in
Parganas and Sarkars.
• The village headmen were obliged to look after their areas.
• The largest responsibility rested with the Muqaddams and Chowdharies, who were severely punished, in
case they failed to detect the crimes.
• The military administration was also efficiently reorganized and Sher Shah borrowed many ideas like the
branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji.
Estimate of Sher Shah
• Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions. He employed Hindus
in important offices.
• He was also a patron of art and architecture. He built a new city on the banks of the river Yamuna near
Delhi. Now the old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving.
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• He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of Indian
architecture.
• Sher Shah also patronized the learned men.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.
• After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India.
Fall of the Sur Dynasty
• After the death of Sher Shah his son Islam Shah came to the throne in I545. Though he did not inherit
the Qualities of his father yet he kept his heritage intact for 8 years. After his death, in October 1553
the Sur dynasty began to disintegrate.
• The Afghan empire was partitioned and was ruled by three independent Nobles namely Ibrahim Khan Sur
in Delhi and Agra, Muhammad adil Shah In the East and the Punjab under Sikander Shah.
• The various provinces of Malwa, Rajputana, Bengal and Bundelkhand proclaimed independence.

E
• The ongoing political chaos provided Humayun with the needful opportunity to stage a come back in
India.
OR
• He defeated Sikander Sur in a battle near Sirhind in 1555 and occupied Delhi and Agra.
• The Second Afghan Empire like the first one once again fell to the tribal concepts and political intrigues
of the Afghan nobility.
SC

• The field was left to the Mughals and Akbar used every opportunity to retrieve the Mughal prestige and
power.
GS
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MUGHAL DYNASTY (AKBAR ONWARDS)

Akbar (1556-1605)

• Akbar was at Kalanaur in Punjab at the death of Humayun’s death and therefore his coronation took place
in Kalanaur itself in 1556.

• Humayun’s favourite and confidant Bairam Khan, who served as the regent and tutor of the Mughal
emperor from 1556 to 1560. He became the wakil of the kingdom with the title of Khan-i-Khanan.

• One of the major achievements of Bairam Khan’s regency period was the defeat of Hemu and the Afghan
forces who were posing a serious threat to the Mughal Empire. In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556,

E
Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But an arrow pierced his eye and he became unconscious. The
Mughal victory was decisive.

•
OR
Bairam Khan consolidated the Mughal empire. After five years he was removed by Akbar due to court
intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by an Afghan.

Akbar started a policy of expansion after overcoming initial problems and consolidating his hold on the
throne. The major political powers spread in different parts of the country were:
SC
i) The Rajputs who were spread throughout the country as independent chiefs and kings, and were
concentrated mainly in Rajasthan.

ii) The Afghans held political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal.

iii) Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and few other kingdoms in South India and Deccan were
GS

quite powerful.

iv) Kabul and Qandhar, though ruled by Mughal Akbar Military policy factions, were hostile towards
Akbar.

• Akbar’s conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal.

• He strengthened the northwest frontier and later on he went to the Deccan.

• Akbar through a systematic policy started the task of expanding his Empire.

• The first step that Akbar took after the dismissal of Bairam Khan was to put an end to the conflict within
the nobility. He demonstrated great diplomatic skills and organizational capabilities in handling it.

• Akbar started his policy of expansion with central India. In 1559–60 the first expedition was sent to
capture Gwalior before moving towards Malwa. Akbar deputed Adham Khan to lead the expedition
against Malwa in central India which was ruled by Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur was defeated and fled
towards Burhanpur.

• Gondwana, an independent state in Central India ruled by Rani Durgawati, widow of Dalpat Shah, was
also conquered and annexed to the Mughal empire in 1564.
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E
OR
SC

Rajasthan
• The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable. Akbar was fully aware of the importance of Rajput kingdoms
and wanted them as allies in his ambition of establishing a large empire.
• He tried to win over the Rajputs wherever possible and inducted them into Mughal service.
GS

• He also entered into matrimonial alliances with the Rajput rulers. He married the Rajput princess, the
daughter of Raja Bharamal.
• Rajputs served the Mughals for four generations and many of them rose to the positions of military
generals.
• Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions in the administration by Akbar.
• The Rajput kingdoms like Merta and Jodhpur were also occupied without much resistance.
• However, Maharana Pratap, the ruler of Mewar posed most serious challenge to the Mughal emperor and
did not submit before Akbar.
• After a prolonged struggle and siege of the fort of Chittor, Akbar succeeded in defeating the Mewar
forces. However, it could not be fully subdued and some resistance from Mewar side continued for a long
time.
• After the fall of Chittor Ranthambhor and Kalinjar were captured. Marwar, Bikaner and Jaisalmer also
submitted to Akbar.
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• By 1570 Akbar had captured almost the whole of Rajasthan.

• The most important achievement of Akbar was that in spite of the subjugation of the whole of Rajasthan
there was no hostility between the Rajputs and the Mughals.
Afghans (Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal)
• Akbar’s compaign against Afghans started with Gujarat in 1572.
• One of the princes, Itimad Khan, invited Akbar to come and conquer it.
• Akbar himself marched to Ahmedabad. In a short time most of the principalities of Gujarat were brought
under his control.
• Akbar organized Gujarat into a province and placed it under Mirza Aziz Koka and returned to capital.
• Within six months various rebellious groups came together and revolted against the Mughal rule and the
Mughal governor had to cede a number of territories.

E
• The leaders of rebellion were Ikhitiyar ul Mulk and Mohammad Hussain Mirza. From Agra, Akbar
marched at a rapid pace and managed to reach Ahmedabad in ten days and quickly suppressed the

•
rebellion.
OR
Bengal and Bihar which were under the control of the Afghans, were paid attention after the Gujarat
expedition. In 1574, Akbar along with Munim Khan Khan-i-Khanan marched towards Bihar. In a short
time, Hajipur and Patna were captured and Gaur (Bengal) was also taken away. With this the independent
SC
rule of Bengal was ended in 1576.
• By 1592, the Mughal mansabdar Raja Man Singh also brought the whole of Orissa under the Mughal rule.
• A series of conflicts arose in some regions of the Mughal empire in 1581. Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat and the
north-west were main centres of unrest.
• The Afghans were at the root of these problems since they were overthrown everywhere by the Mughals.
GS

• Apart from this, Akbar’s policy of strict administration of jagirs was also responsible for this.
• A new policy was adopted, according to which the jagirdars were asked to submit the accounts of the
jagirs. This created dissatisfaction and jagirdars rose in revolt.
• Akbar immediately sent a large force under Raja Todar Mal and Shaikh Farid Bakshi and a little later, Aziz
Koka and Shahbaz Khan to help Todar Mal.
• The rebels declared Akbar’s brother Hakim Mirza, who was in Kabul, as their king.
• But soon the Mughal forces were able to successfully crush the rebellion in Bihar, Bengal and adjoining
regions.
Punjab and North West
• In the Punjab, Mirza Hakim attacked Lahore. Akbar decided to march towards Lahore himself. Hakim
Mirza immediately retreated and Akbar controlled the whole region. He gave first priority to organize the
protection of North-West frontiers. After this he marched towards Kabul and conquered the territory.
Akbar gave the charge of Kabul to his sister Bakhtunnisa Begum.
• Later on Raja Man Singh was appointed governor of Kabul and it was given to him in jagir.
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• Another important development in the North-West region was the rebellion of Roshanai who captured
the road between Kabul and Hindustan.
• Roshanai was a sect established by a soldier who was called Pir Roshanai in the region. His son Jalala
was heading the sect who had large following.
• Akbar appointed Zain Khan as commander of a strong force to suppress the Roshanais and establish
Mughal control in the region. Sayid Khan Gakhar and Raja Birbal were also sent with separate forces to
help Zain Khan. In one of the operations Birbal was killed with most of his forces.
• He deputed Raja Todar Mal and Raja Man Singh to suppress the rebellion and they were successful in
defeating the Roshanais.
• Akbar annexed Kashmir to the Mughal Empire in 1586.
• Finally, by the year 1595, the complete supremacy of Mughals over North-West region was established.
Deccan

E
• After 1590, Akbar gave shape to a Deccan policy to bring these states under Mughal control.
• During this period the Deccan states were facing internal tensions and regular conflicts.
OR
• In 1591, Akbar sent offers to the Deccan states asking them to accept Mughal sovereignty, but there was
not much success.
• In 1595, the Mughal forces invaded Ahmednagar. Its ruler Chand Bibi decided to face the Mughals. She
approached Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur and Qutub Shah of Golkonda for help but with no success.
SC

After heavy losses on both sides, a treaty was worked out and Chand Bibi ceded Berar to Mughals.
• After some time Chand Bibi attacked Berar to take it back. At this point Nizamshahi, Qutabshahi and
Adilshahi troops decided to present a joint front. The Mughals suffered heavy losses but could retain their
position. Meanwhile, Adil Shah of Bijapur also expressed allegiance and offered his daughter in marriage
to Prince Daniyal and Chand Bibi also died. Now Mughal territories in Deccan included Asirgarh,
Burhanpur, Ahmedanagar and Berar.
GS

• Along with the expansion of territory Akbar initiated the policy of absorbing the chieftains into Mughal
nobility which paid rich dividends to the empire. The Mughal emperor succeeded in getting the support
of chieftains and their armies for new conquests.
• The chieftains also benefited from this policy and they could retain their territories and administer them
as they wished. In addition, they received jagir and mansab. Often they got territories in jagir bigger than
their kingdoms. It also provided them security from enemies and rebellions.
• Many Rajput mansabdars were assigned their own territories as Watan Jagir, which was hereditary and
non-transferable. The territorial expansion under Akbar gave a definite shape to the Mughal Empire.
• In terms of territorial expansion very little was added to the empire after Akbar. Some territories were
added during the regions of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb in the Deccan and North East of India.
• Akbar’s last days were rendered unhappy. His beloved friend and poet Faizi passed away in A.D. 1595.
• Two of his sons, Murad and Danyal, died of over drinking.
• In an eagerness to seize the throne Salim set himself up as an independent king at Allahabad.
• In A.D. 1602, he further wounded his father’s feelings by causing Abul Fazl to be put to death.
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• A reconciliation was brought out between the father and the son. Soon after, Akbar fell ill and died on
October 1605 A.D.
• Akbar patronized men of letters. Todarmal, Abul Fazl,. Faizi, Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-
Khanan, Man Singh etc. were gems of his court.
Religious Policy
• Various factors were responsible for the religious policy of Akbar.
• The most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi saints, the teachings of his tutor
Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak
and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his ambition to establish an empire in
Hindustan.
• In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim.

E
• He abolished the pilgrim tax and in 1562, he abolished jiziya.
• He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
•
•
Later, he became a skeptical Muslim.
OR
In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital Fatepur
Sikri.
SC
• Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
• He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
• In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he asserted his religious powers.
• In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It
contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed at bridging
GS

the gulf that separated different religions.

• However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even during his life time, it
had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.
Land Revenue Administration
• Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration with the help of Raja Todar Mal.
• The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
• It was further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala System which was completed in
1580.
• By this system, Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement.
• The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years.
• The land was also divided into four categories – Polaj (cultivated every year), Parauti (once in two years),
Chachar (once in three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years).
• Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
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Mansabdari System
• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.
• Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
• The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
• Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
• The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
• Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
• Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain.
• Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary.

E
• All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.
Jahangir (1605-1627)
OR
• After the death of Akbar, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) in 1605.
• Soon after accession to the throne, Jahangir tried to win the hearts of all the people by various measures.
• He released prisoners and struck coins in his name.
SC

• He issued I2 ordinances to be uniformly implemented all over his empire :-

i) Prohibition of cesses.
ii) Regulations about highway robbery and theft
iii) Free inheritance of property of deceased person
GS

iv) Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor

v) Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments
vi) Prohibition of forcible seizure of property
vii) Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the sick
viii) Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days
ix) Respect pay to Sunday
x) General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs
xi) Confirmation of aima lands i.e. lands devoted to the purposes of prayer and praise (of God)
xii) Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds.
• Jahangir also set up a famous chain of justice between the Shah Burj in the fort of Agra and a stone pillar
fixed on the banks of Yamuna to enable the people to approach him without any servant.
• Jahangir was a lover of art, literature and particularly painting.
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E
OR
SC

• John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years and the emperor called him Inglish Khan. Sir Thomas Roe
arrived in India in September A.D. 1615 and was granted audience at Ajmer. He was granted a Farman
GS

by prince Khurram, which gave the English reasonable facilities for trade.
• Jahangir’s rule witnessed a spate of rebellions. He suppressed the rebellion of his son Khusrau and the
prince was imprisoned. The fifth Sikh Guru Arjun was sentenced to death for his blessings to the rebel
prince.
• He also pardoned his political opponents and accorded generous treatment to them. The few changes that
Jahangir effected in the office’s of the state were intended to secure him a band of supporters.
• He rewarded Bir Singh Bundela the murderer of Abul Fazal with the dignity of Commander of three
thousand horses while Abdur Rahman was assigned the mansab of 2000.
• Mirza Ghiyas Beg a Persian immigrant father of Noor Jahan received the office of the imperial Dewan
with the title of Itimad-Ud-Dula.
• Jahangir married Nur Jahan, originally known as Mihr-ul-Nisa, in A.D. 1611.
• Taking advantage of the internal disorder in the empire in 1621 owing to the political estrangement
between Noor Jahan and Shah Jahan the Persians besieged Kandhar in 1621 and finally took it in 1622.
• Jahangir thought of elaborate preparations of war which he hoped to carry right to the Persian capital but
his plans were frustrated by Shah Jahan who refused to lead the expendition as he knew that during his
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absence from the capital Nur Jahan would do her best to ensure his exclusion from the throne and push
the claims of Shahryar her son-in-law.
• Thus, Kandhar was lost to the Mugals. Jahangir ordered prince Parvez to recover the fortress but this
could not be done owing to Shah Jahan’s rebellions.
• Jahangir decided to follow Akbar’s expansionist policy in the Deccan. But Jahangir could achieve little
success in it due to certain problems. He could not devote much attention in the crucial phase due to
Khurram’s revolt.
• The Mughal nobles were also involved in a number of intrigues and conflicts to gain some advantages
from Deccan.
• During the first three years, the Deccan regained half of Balaghat and many districts of Ahmednagar.
• Malik Ambar was the main ruler who managed to defeat Mughal forces and captured Berar, Balaghat and
parts of Ahmednagar. The Mughals could not regain control of the lost territories.
• Meanwhile Shah Jahan revolted against his father and became friends with Malik Ambar.
•

E
Malik Ambar made an attempt to capture Ahmednagar; but failing there, he took away Sholapur from
OR
Adil Shah and in alliance with Shah Jahan tried to capture Burhanpur but failed.
• Once peace was established between Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Malik Ambar was also pacified. Malik
Ambar died in 1627 and was succeeded by his son Fath Khan as Wakil and Peshwa of the kingdom.
• Fath Khan was arrogant and during his time the conflict between the Dakhnis and other nobles grew.
SC

• During the reign of Jahangir there was no addition to the Mughal territory in Deccan. In fact the Deccani
rulers weakened the Mughal authority in their states. Over ambition of Malik Ambar was an obstacle in
the way of a joint front of the Deccan states.
• During the period between the death of Jahangir and the accession of Shah Jahan, the Mughal governor
of the Deccan, Khan Jahan Lodi, with the intention of securing help in times of necessity, gave away
Balaghat to the Nizam Shah.
GS

Religious Policy of Jahangir

• Jahangir was born of a Rajput mother and had grown in the atmosphere of ‘Idabat khana’ debates. The
result was that Jahangir imbibed these liberal tendencies and his religious views became enlightened and
liberal.
• Jahangir had respect for the teachings of Islam and retained this attitude till the end of his life, but he
can by no means be described staunch or even an orthodox follower of the principles of his faith.
• He was friendly to the Christians.
• He held religious discourses with a Hindu saint named Yadurup and participated in the celebration of
Hindu festivals.
• He did not seek to revive the Jizya or the Pilgrim Tax and the Hindus still occupied high office and
enjoyed the freedom to erect new temples.
• But some of his acts reflects of his harshness and discrimination. After the conquest of Kangra, he
destroyed the local Jwalamukhi temple.
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• Similarly, he ordered destruction of the Varah temple at Pushkar near Ajmer because he was convinced
that God could never have incarnated himself in that form. But even though his action might be rationally
sound, he committed the grave error of disregarding the freedom of conscience of others in upholding his
own religious predilections.
• He suspected the Jains of having sided with Khusrau and on that ground banished them from empire.
• On the same charge, he imposed a fine of two lakhs of rupees on Guru Arjun and when he refused to
pay the fine he put him to death on charge of treason.
• When offended by the conduct of Christians, he had their church closed down.
• But the only conclusion that can be drawn from these various stray incidents is that Jahangir was not
always careful to avoid wounding religious susceptibilities of others. But it cannot be maintained that he
persecuted the Hindus, the Jains, the Christians or the Sikhs as a community. His action affected only an
individual or a particular locality and each instance of alleged religious persecution had some non-religious
motive at its base.

E
Nur Jahan
•
•
•
OR
In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).
Her father Itimaduddauala was given the post of chief diwan.
Other members of her family also benefited from this alliance. Nur Jahan’s elder brother Asaf Khan was
appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the nobles.
SC
• In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married Jahangir’s third
son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
• It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a group of “junta” and this led to two factions
in the Mughal court.
• This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since he felt that Jahangir was completely
GS

under Nur Jahan’s influence.

• However, this view is not accepted by some other historians. Till Jahangir became weak due to ill health,
he only took important political decisions. It is revealed from his autobiography.
• However, it is clear that Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions based on Persian
traditions.
• She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court.
• She was a constant companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658)
• Shah Jahan rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar. This rebellion distracted
the activities of the empire for four years.
• After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the support of the nobles and the army and
was proclaimed emperor.
• Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.
• The Portugese settlement at Hoogly was destroyed by him in A.D. 1632.
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• The fort of Daulatabad was occupied occupied by Mahabat Khan in June 1633.
• After ascending the throne, Shah Jahan ordered Khan Jahan Lodi to recover Balaghat from Nizam Shah
but as the latter failed, Shah Jahan recalled him to court.
• Khan Jahan turned hostile and rebelled. He took shelter with Nizam Shah. This infuriated Shah Jahan and
he decided to follow aggressive policy towards the Deccan states. Shah Jahan’s main concern was to
recover the lost territories of the Deccan.
• He believed that independence of Ahmednagar was in the way of Mughal control in the Deccan. He
decided to isolate Ahmednagar and win over Bijapur and Marathas. He was successful. Fath Khan son
of Malik Ambar also made peace with Mughals.
• Now Mahabat Khan was appointed governor of Deccan, but the conflict with Deccan states continued.
• Finally in 1636 treaties were signed with Bijapur and Golconda which ended the conflicts in the Deccan.
• A distinct change in Mughal policy came towards 1656–57 when the treaties were ignored. Shah Jahan
asked Aurangzeb to conquer and annex the territories of Deccan kingdoms. It is argued by some historians

E
that this change of policy was to exploit resources of the Deccan states for Mughals. However, this
change did not benefit the Mughal empire in any substantial way and created more problems for future.
OR
• Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and other
ancestral lands. The Mughal army lost more than five thousand lives during the successive invasions
between 1639 and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility of his ambition and stopped fighting.
War of Succession
SC

• The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his four sons –
Dara Shikoh (crown prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad
Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
• Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time but later recovered. But the princes
started fighting for the Mughal throne.
GS

• Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle. He entered the Agra fort after defeating Dara. He forced
Shah Jahan to surrender. Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly
put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated.
• Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara. He died in 1666 and buried
beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.
• Foreign travelers like Bernier, Travernier and Manucci have left accounts about his reign. Moti Masjid
(Agra), Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi) and above all the Taj Mahal – the mausoleum of his
beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal are his famous buildings.
Religious Policy of Shah Jahan
• Orthodox Muslims did not like the views of Akbar and Jahangir and there was some resentment among
them.
• In his early years, a policy of religious persecution and religious discrimination in favour of Islam is clearly
noticeable.
• He stopped sijda, forbade the use of the royal portrait as an adornment to the cap or the turban and
restored the use of the Hijri era in place of the Ilahi era.
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• In 1633 he ordered wholesale demolition of all newly built temples and in Benaras alone 72 temples were
destroyed. Similarly, destruction took place in Allahabad, Gujarat and Kashmir.
• He established a separate department for securing conversions to Islam. These incidents show that Akbar’s
policy of religious liberty and equality was gradually being forsaken and religious discrimination, began
under Jahangir, was gaining in virulence and scope.
• But even under Shahjahan, there was no permanent adoption of religious persecution as an integral
element of state policy. He too did not revive the Jizya.
• During the later part of his reign there is no reference to temple destruction or any other form of religious
persecution.
• He continued Jharokha darshan, tula dan and tilak.
• Nor did he deprive the Hindus of high office. 20% to 25% of the higher mansabs were still given to the
Hindus. Nor did he deprive the Hindu poets, artists and scholars of state patronage.

E
• It thus appears that in his early years he issued certain orders and did certain acts on grounds of political
expediency which proved harmful to certain individuals and localities. But he never adopted a general

•
OR
policy of discrimination, persecution and hatred and retained the affections of his Hindu subjects till the
end of his reign.
But this twin-headed policy of Shahjahan led to emergence of two rival groups in the state as the
supporters of these two policies, which proved very harmful to the state and facilitated Aurangzeb’s
accession to the throne. If he had adopted a liberal policy from the very outset, there might have been
SC
no dissensions at court.
Aurangazeb (1658-1707)
• Aurangazeb was crowned emperor at Delhi in A.D. 1658, but it was only after the final defeat of Dara
Shikoh at Deorai that he celebrated his coronation in A.D. 1659.
• He assumed the title Alamgir
GS

(World Conqueror).
• He faced serious difficulties in
the latter part of his reign. The
Jats and Satnamis and also the
Sikhs revolted against him.
These revolts were induced by
his harsh religious policy.
• Guru Teg Bahadur, the ninth
Guru of Sikhs, was besieged
and taken to Delhi where he
was beheaded.
• In A.D. 1679, over the
question of succession in
Marwar, Aurangzeb interfered
and defeated the Rathors near
Pushkar and their dominion
was occupied.
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• Later Udaipur was also occupied, and the Rana of Mewar made peace with Mughals.
Deccan Policy
• The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who conquered Khandesh and Berar.
• Jahangir fought against Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
• During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan policy.
• When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty five years, he concentrated on the northwest
frontier.
• At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the territories of
north and south Konkan.
• To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda.
• He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom.

E
• Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty and annexed it.
• In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on the part of Aurangazeb. The
OR
barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there ensued a direct confrontation
between them.
• Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N. Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer
ruined Aurangazeb.
SC

Religious Policy
• Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life.
• His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
• He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called Muhtasib.
GS

• Drinking was prohibited.

• Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
• Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
• He discontinued the practice of Jarokha-darshan.
• He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers were also dismissed
from service.
• Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old temples. Then he
began a policy of destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were
reduced to ruins.
• In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
• He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of Muharram was stopped.
• He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur. This had resulted in the
transformation of Sikhs into a warring community.
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• His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into the enemies of
Mughal empire.
• It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar. Therefore,
Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire.
The Revolts Against Aurangzeb
Revolt of the Jats
• Bold, brave and ferocious with a deep sense of loyalty towards their tribal organisation, the Jat peasantry
was more akin to any martial community.
• They were notorious for cattle-lifting who frequently, raided the traders between Agra and Delhi.
• Confined to the not so fertile regions of west of Agra, they constituted the marginal sections of peasantry.
• In 1669 A.D. the Jats under their leader Gokul, revolted. They killed the Faujdar and plundered the

E
Pargana of Sadabad. The rebellion soon spread to other districts.
• Aurangzeb ruthlessly suppress the rebellion. Gokul and his limbs were publicly displayed. The Jats,

OR
however, remained defiant and in 1686 A.D. once again rose in revolt, under Rajaram. He too, was slain
but his nephew, Churaman, continued the Jat resistance till Aurangzeb’s death.
Revolt of the Satnamis
• They were a peasant religious brotherbood who resided in Narnol.
SC
• Its other memebrs belonged to the low professions.
• Firmly united and militant, they never hesitated to use arms to aid the harassed members.
• Thus when a Satnami cultivator was killed by a Muslim soldier, the whole tribe arose to seek to seek
revenge and broke into rebellion.
GS

• When, of the Mughal efforts, they could not be quelled, the Mughals resorted to ruthless warfare.
• Over a thousand Satnamis were slain before peace was secured in the region.
• The Jats and the Satnamis revolts only convinced Aurangzeb of the disloyalty of the Hindus to the
Mughals state who therefore needed to be ruthlessly suppressed.
• Moreover, it also convinced him that only the emergence of an Islamic state would reduce the Hindus
to their proper place in State.
The Revolt of the Sikhs
• The Sikh organisation was founded by Guru Nanak, a devout social reformer, as a peaceful universal
brotherhood which was free from the shackles of caste and community.
• Under the next three Gurus too, the community remained peaceful and enjoyed amicable relation with
Akbar who granted Guru Ram Das a piece of land which became renowned as Amritsar.
• The fifth Guru, Arjan Singh, proved a more dynamic and zealous organiser. He wielded the community
into one compact whole. He also was the first Guru who actively participated in politics.
• Consequently, the Mughal-Sikh conflict can be traced to Jahangir’s reign. He ordered Arjan Singh’s execution.
This was done on purely grounds for sheltering the fugitive Khusrav and in no way was it accompanied
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by the religious persecution of the Sikhs. Nevertheless, the act deeply embittered the Sikhs against the
Mughals.
• Under the leader, Har Gobind, the character of the Sikh movement, for the first time, became more
militant, while its democratic social set up attracted the Jat peasantry in large numbers.
• Henceforth, any harshness towards the peasantry was regarded as an oppression by the Mughal state
towards the Sikhs.
• The military character was further developed under Guru Teg Bahadur who in order to strengthen the Sikh
interests encouraged the creation of a state within the state.
• In the earlier years of Aurangzeb’s reign, there was no conflict between Teg Bahadur and Aurangzeb.
However once the Guru publicly condemned Aurangzeb’s anti-Hindu measures as is clearly evident from
the support that he rendered to the Hindu population of Kashmir, Aurangzeb became suspicious of the
Guru’s motives.
• Their relation rapidly deteriorated and ultimately resulted in the gruesome murder of Teg Bahadur in 1675
A.D.
•

E
While Guru Teg behadur’s persecution was not accompanied by the annihilation of the sons; (Ram Rai
continued to live at the Mughal court and his sons were granted mansabs).
OR
• The last Guru, Gobind Singh, was determined to militarily strengthen his community. To unite them, he
formed the brotherhood of Khalsa which free of caste and creed, advocated equality of mankind.
• To this end, he initiated the practice of drinking water, conservated by a sword or dagger (Amrit chakna).
To distinguish the member from other communities, they were asked to wear five things—Kanghi (comb),
SC

Kachha (underwear), Kara (iron bangle), Kesh and Kirpan (sword).

• Henceforth, the Guru lived like a regal monarch, holding court, building forts with the help of his
followers who were as zealously dedicated to the cause of Skihism as the soldiers of Islam.
• Their expansionist activities inevitably led ta a clash of arms with the Mughals. The Sikhs were defeated,
his two sons were executed while the Guru ultimately escaped and settled at Anandpur.
GS

• Guru Govind Singh was murdered by an Afghan in 1708 A.D.

• Guru Gobind’s aspirations of founding a Sikh state were completed by Banda, who the Guru had nominated
as his military successor.
The Marathas
• The Marathas emerged in the Deccan as a vital force under Shivaji in the middle of the 17th century and
began to challenge the Mughal authority.
• Shiviji started his offensive operations in 1656 and captured the principality of Javli.
• Shivaji raided the Bijapur territory, and, in 1659, the Sultan of Bijapur sent his general, Afzal Khan, to
capture Shivaji, but Shivaji killed him.
• In 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur entered into a peace settlement with Shivaji and acknowledged him as an
independent ruler of his conquered territories.
• Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, the viceroy of the Deccan, with a big army against Shivaji and the Treaty
of Purandhar (1665) was signed between the two.
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• Out of the 35 forts held by Shivaji, he agreed to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals. The remaining 12 forts
(with annual income of one lakh of huns) were to be left with Shivaji.
• Shivaji was asked to pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra. But, when Shivaji went there, he was ill-
treated and was taken a prisoner. He managed to escape, reaching Raigarh in 1666.
• Soon he conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals.
• In 1670, he plundered Surat for the second time.
• In 1674, Shivaji made Raigarh his Capital and celebrated his coronation, and assumed the title of Chatrapati.
• Shortly, after this, he made a great expedition into southern India and conquered Jinji Vellore and many
forts in Karnataka.
• He died at Raigarh in 1680 after ruling for only six years. In this short time he founded the Maratha
kingdom, which dominated western India for a century and a half.

E
• Shivaji’s successor was his son Sambhaji.
• Many Maratha chiefs did not support Sambhaji and extended help to Rajaram the other son of Shivaji.
•

•
by Aurangzeb. OR
The internal conflict weakened Maratha power. Finally Sambhaji was captured and put to death in 1689

Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram as his son Sahu was still young.
SC
• Rajaram died in 1700 and was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji III under the regency of Tara Bai, his
mother.
• The failure of Aurangzeb against the Marathas was largely due to Tara Bai’s energy and administrative
genius.
• The Mughals, however, succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two rival camps - one under Tara Bai and
GS

the other under Sambhaji’s son, Sahu.

• Sahu, who for long was in the Mughal court, was released. He succeeded in deposing Tara Bai with the
help of a Chitpavan Brahman named Balaji Vishwanath.
Personality and Character of Aurangazeb
• In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined. He was very simple in food and dress. He
did not consume wine.
• He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies.
• He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was a lover of books.
• He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly observed the Ramzan
fasting.
• In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes. He misunderstood the true nature of the
Maratha movement and antagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open
sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be a wrong policy.
• His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim. But his move
to apply his religious thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure. His antagonistic policies
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towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his side. On the other hand it had
strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire.
Decline of the Mughal Empire
• The unity and stability of the Mughal Empire was shaken during the long and strong reign of Emperor
Aurangzeb.
• However, in spite of setbacks and adverse circumstances the Mughal administration was still quite
efficient and the Mughal army strong at the time of his death in 1707.
• This year is generally considered to separate the era of the great Mughals from that of the lesser Mughals.
• After the death of Aurangzeb the Mughal authority weakened, it was not in a position to militarily
enforce its regulations in all parts of the empire.
• As a result many provincial governors started to assert their authority. In due course of time they gained
independent status. At the same time many kingdoms which were subjugated by the Mughals also
claimed their independence.

E
• Some new regional groups also consolidated and emerged as political power with all these developments,
the period between 1707 and 1761 (third battle of Panipat, where Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the
OR
Maratha chiefs) witnessed resurgence of regional identity that buttressed both political and economic
decentralization.
• At the same time, intra-regional as well as inter-regional trade in local raw materials, artifacts, and grains
created strong ties of economic interdependence, irrespective of political and military relations.
SC

• The new emperor, Bahadur Shah I (or Shah Alam; ruled 1707-12), followed a policy of compromise,
pardoning all nobles who had supported his rivals. He granted them appropriate territories and postings.
• He never abolished jizya, but the effort to collect the tax was not effective.
• In the beginning Shah Alam tried to gain greater control over the Rajput states of the rajas of Amber
(later Jaipur) and Jodhpur. When his attempt met with firm resistance he realized the necessity of a
GS

settlement with them. However, the settlement did not restore them to fully committed warriors for the
Mughal cause.
• The emperor's policy toward the Marathas was also that of half-hearted conciliation. They continued to
fight among themselves as well as against the Mughals in the Deccan.
• Bahadur Shah was, however, successful in conciliating Chatrasal, the Bundela chief, and Churaman, the
Jat chief; the latter also joined him in the campaign against the Sikhs.
• Jahandar Shah (ruled 1712-13) was a weak and ineffective ruler. His wazir Zulfiqar Khan assumed the
executive direction of the empire with unprecedented powers.
• Zulfiqar believed that it was necessary to establish friendly relations with the Rajputs and the Marathas
and to conciliate the Hindu chieftains in general in order to save the empire.
• Zulfiqar reversed the policies of Aurangzeb and abolished jizya.
• He continued the old policy of suppression against the Sikhs. His goal was to reconcile all those who were
willing to share power within the Mughal institutional framework.
• Zulfiqar Khan made several attempts at reforming the economic system but failed in his efforts to
enhance the revenue collection of the state.
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• When Farrukh Siyar, son of the slain prince Azimush-Shan, challenged Jahandar Shah and Zulfiqar Khan
with a large army and funds from Bihar and Bengal, the rulers found their coffers depleted. In desperation,
they looted their own palaces, even ripping gold and silver from the walls and ceilings, in order to finance
an adequate army.
• Farrukh Siyar (ruled 1713-19) owed his victory and accession to the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and
Husain Ali Khan Baraha.
• The Sayyids thus earned the offices of wazir and chief bakhshi and acquired control over the affairs of
state.
• They promoted the policies initiated earlier by Zulfiqar Khan. Jizya and other similar taxes were immediately
abolished.
• The Sayyid brothers finally suppressed the Sikh revolt and tried to conciliate the Rajputs, the Marathas,
and the Jats. However, this policy was hampered by divisiveness between the wazir and the emperor, as
the groups tended to ally themselves with one or the other.

E
• The Jats once again started plundering the royal highway between Agra and Delhi. Farrukh Siyar deputed
Raja Jai Singh to lead a punitive campaign against them but wazir negotiated a settlement over the raja's

•
head.
OR
As a result, throughout northern India zamindars either revolted violently or simply refused to pay assessed
revenues. On the other hand, Farrukh Siyar compounded difficulties in the Deccan by sending letters to
some Maratha chiefs urging them to oppose the forces of the Deccan governor, who happened to be the
deputy and an associate of Sayyid Husain Ali Khan.
SC

• Finally, in 1719, the Sayyid brothers brought Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and a Maratha force to Delhi to depose
the emperor.
• The murder of Farrukh Siyar created a wave of revulsion against the Sayyids among the various factions
of nobility, who were also jealous of their growing power.
GS

• Many of these, in particular the old nobles of Aurangzeb's time, resented the wazir's encouragement of
revenue farming, which in their view was mere shop keeping and violated the age- old Mughal notion of
statecraft.
• In Farrukh Siyar's place the brothers raised to the throne three young princes in quick succession within
eight months in 1719.
• Two of these, Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Dawlah (Shah Jahan II), died of consumption.
• The third, who assumed the title of Muhammad Shah, exhibited sufficient vigour to set about freeing
himself from the brothers' control.
• A powerful group under the leadership of the Nizam-ul-Mulk, Chin Qilich Khan, and his father's cousin
Muhammad Amin Khan, the two eminent nobles emerged finally to dislodge the Sayyid brothers (1720).
• By the time Muhammad Shah (ruled 1719-48) came to power, the nature of the relationship between the
emperor and the nobility had almost completely changed.
• Individual interests of the nobles had come to guide the course of politics and state activities.
• In 1720 Muhammad Amin Khan replaced Sayyid Abdullah Khan as wazir; after Amin Khan's death
(January 1720), the office was occupied by the Nizam-ul-Mulk for a brief period until Amin Khan's son
Qamar-ud-Din Khan assumed the title in July 1724 by a claim of hereditary right.
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• The nobles themselves virtually dictated these appointments. By this time the nobles had assumed lot of
powers. They used to get farmans issued in the name of emperor in their favours.
• The position of emperor was preserved as a symbol only without real powers. The real powers seated with
important groups of nobles.
• The nobles in control of the central offices maintained an all-empire outlook, even if they were more
concerned with the stability of the regions where they had their jagirs.
• Farmans (mandates granting certain rights or special privileges) to governors, faujdar, and other local
officials were sent, in conformity with tradition, in the name of the emperor.
• Individual failings of Aurangzeb's successors also contributed to the decline of royal authority.
• Jahandar Shah lacked dignity and decency; Farrukh Siyar was fickle-minded.
• Muhammad Shah was frivulous and fond of ease and luxury. He was a pleasure loving king and was nick
named Rangeela.

E
• During the reign of Muhammad Shah, Nadir Shah raided India and took away the peacock throne and the
Kohinoor diamond.
OR
• Nizam ul mulk was appointed Wazir in 1722 but he relinquished the post and marched to the Deccan to
found the state of Hyderabad.
• Bengal acquired virtual independence during the governorship of Murshid Quli Khan.
• Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed governor of Awadh by him laid down the foundation
SC

of the autonomous state.

• During Ahmed Shah's reign, Ahmed Shah Abdali (one of the ablest generals of Nadir Shah) marched
towards Delhi and the Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan.
• Later on during Alamgir reign Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was also plundered by
the Marathas.
GS

• During Shah Alam II reign Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful in Delhi so much so that Shah Alam
II could not enter Delhi. The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought during his reign.
• During Akbar Shah II reign Lord Hastings ceased to accept the sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an
equal status.
• Bahadur Shah II was the last Mughal king , who was confined by the British to the Red Fort.
• During the revolt of 1857 he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebellions. He was deported to Rangoon
following the 1857 rebellion.
Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals
• The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb and the causes for the downfall of
the Mughal Empire were varied.
• The vastness of the empire became unwieldy. It is quite evident that the territorial expansion of Mughal
empire achieved under Akbar continued to be the core of the empire. Its further expansion during
Aurangzeb’s reign was in Deccan and in small measure in North-East region. During Aurangzeb’s period
the Mughal empire had the largest area.
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• However, the beginning of the decline of the Mughal empire also could be traced to the rule of Aurangzeb.
• To some extent, the religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb contributed to its decline.
• The breaking up of the association with the potent regional forces like the Rajputs and failing relationships
with the Deccani states and Marathas shook the unity and stability of the Mughal empire.
• Under his weak successors the empire kept disintegrating and demoralization of the Mughal army also
paved the way for it.
• The Mughal court became the scene of factions among the nobles.
• The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
• The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle in India.
• Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state.

E
• The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted
Delhi in 1739.
•

OR
Thus the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was due to the combination of political, social and
economic factors.
SC
GS
Notes

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MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

• The Mughals retained many features of the administrative system of the Sultanate and Shershah and
hardly any changes were made by Akbar in the organization of local government.
• Under Shershah the administrative units of Pargana (a group of villages), sarkar (a group of parganas) and
groups of sarkars (somewhat like subas or province) were placed under specific offices.
• The Pargana and the sarkar continued as before. The chief officers of the Sarkar were the ‘faujdar’ being
in charge of law and order.
• The Mughals formalized a new territorial unit called suba.
• Institutions of Jagir and Mansab system were also introduced by the Mughals. Thus change and continuity

E
both marked the Mughal administrative structure which brought about a high degree of centralisation in
the system.
OR
Mughal Administration
• Akbar’s system of central government was based on the structure of the government which had evolved
under the Delhi Sultanate, but the functions of the various departments were carefully organized, and
meticulous rules and regulations were laid down for the conduct of affairs.
SC

• The central Asian and Timurid tradition was of having an all powerful ‘wazir’ under whom various heads
of departments functioned. He was the principal link between the ruler and the administration.
• Akbar reorganized the central machinery of administration on the basis of the division of power between
various departments, and checks and balances.
GS
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The Emperor
• The Emperor was the supreme head of the administration and controlled all military and judicial powers.
• All officers in Mughal administration owed their power and position to the Emperor.
• The Emperor had authority to appoint, promote, and remove officials at his pleasure.
• There was no pressure institutional or otherwise on the Emperor.
Wakil and Wazir
• The institution of Wizarat (or Wikalat since both were used interchangeably) was present in some form
during the Delhi Sultanate also.
• The position of Wazir had lost its prominent position during the period of Afghan rulers in the Delhi
Sultanate.

E
• The position of the wazir was revived under the Mughals.
• Babur’s and Humayun’s wazir enjoyed great powers.
•

•
unlimited powers. OR
The period during which Bairam Khan (1556–60) was regent of Akbar, saw the rise of wakil-wazir with

Akbar in his determination to curb the powers of wazir later on took away the financial powers from him
which was a big jolt to wazir’s power.
SC
Diwan-i-Kul
• Diwan-i Kul was the chief diwan and was responsible for revenue and finances.
• Akbar strengthened the office of diwan by entrusting the revenue powers to the diwan.
• The diwan used to inspect all transaction and payments in all departments and supervised the provincial
GS

diwans.
• The entire revenue collection and expenditure of the empire was under his charge.
• The diwans were to report about state finance to the Emperor on daily basis.
Mir Bakshi
• Mir Bakshi looked after all matters pertaining to the military administration.
• Recommendations for appointment to mansabs, their salary papers or for promotions, etc. were made to
the emperor through him.
• He kept a strict watch over proper maintenance of the sanctioned size of armed contingents and war
equipage by the mansabdars.
• The new entrants seeking service were presented to the Emperor by the Mir Bakshi.
• The Mir Bakshi was also the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire.
• Intelligence officers (basids) and news reports (wakia navis) were posted to all parts of the empire. Their
reports were presented to the emperor at the court through the Mir Bakhshi.
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Sadr-us Sudur
• The Sadr-us Sudur was the head of the ecclesiastical department and his chief duty was to protect the
laws of the Shariat.
• The office of the Sadr used to distribute allowances and stipends to the eligible persons and religious
institutions.
• It made this office very lucrative during the first twenty-five years of Akbar’s reign.
• The promulgation of Mahzar in 1580 restricted his authority.
• According to Mahzar Akbar’s view was to prevail in case of conflicting views among religious scholars.
• This officer also regulated the matters of revenue free grants given for religious and charitable purposes.
• Later several restrictions were placed on the authority of the Sadr for award of revenue free grants also.
• Muhtasibs (censors of public morals) were appointed to ensure the general observance of the rules of
morality.
•

E
He also used to examine weights and measures and enforce fair prices etc.
OR
Chief Qazi
• Though the emperor was the highest judge in the empire, he was assisted by the chief qazi at the capital.
• The qazi tried all cases in matters of religious disputes according to the Islamic law.
SC

• On his recommendations, the emperor appointed qazis at the provincial and district level.
• Similarly large towns and cities had their own qazis.
• The Mufti was an authority on the Quranic law and advised and assisted the Qazi.
Mir Saman
GS

• The Mir Saman was the officer in-charge of the royal Karkhanas.
• He was responsible for all kinds of purchases and their storage for the royal household.
• He was also to supervise the manufacturing of different articles for the use of royal household.
Provincial Administration
• Akbar divided the empire into twelve subas. These were Bengal, Bihar, Allahabad, Avadh, Agra, Delhi,
Lahore, Multan, Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa and Gujarat.
• Later on Ahmednagar, Bearar and Khandesh were added.
• With the expansion of Mughal empire the number of provinces increased to twenty.
• A governor (subedar), a diwan a bakshshi, a sadr, a qazi and a waqia novis were appointed to each of the
provinces. Thus, orderly government based on the principle of checks and balances was extended to the
provinces.
• The Subedar or provincial governor was directly appointed by the Emperor. The subedar was head of the
province and responsible for maintenance of general law and order. He was to encourage agriculture, trade
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and commerce and take steps to enhance the revenue of the state. He was also to suppress rebellions and
provide army for expeditions.
• The head of the revenue department in the suba was the Diwan. He was appointed by the Emperor and
was an independent officer. He was to supervise the revenue collection in the suba and maintain an
account of all expenditures. He was also expected to increase the area under cultivation. In many cases
advance loans (taqavi) were given to peasants through his office.
• The Bakshi in the province performed the same functions as were performed by Mir Bakshi at the centre.
He was appointed by the imperial court at the recommendations of the Mir Bakshi. He was responsible
for checking and inspecting the horses and soldiers maintained by the mansabdars in the suba.
Local Administration
• The provinces or subas were divided into Sarkars.
• The Sarkars were divided into Parganas.

E
• The village was the smallest unit of administration.
•
• OR
At the level of Sarkar, there were two important functionaries, the faujdar and the Amalguzar.
The Faujdar was appointed by the imperial order. Sometimes within a Sarkar a number of Faujdars
existed. At times, their jurisdiction spread over two Sarkars even if these belonged to two different subas.
• Faujdari was an administrative division whereas Sarkar was a territorial and revenue division. The primary
SC
duty of the faujdar was to safeguard the life and property of the residents of the areas under his
jurisdiction. He was to take care of law and order problem in his areas and assist in the timely collection
of revenue whenever force was required.
• The Amalguzar or Amil was the revenue collector. His duty was to assess and supervise the revenue
collection. He was expected to increase the land under cultivation and induce the peasants to pay revenue
willingly. He used to maintain all accounts and send the daily receipt and expenditure report to the
GS

provincial Diwan.
• At the level of Pragana, the Shiqdar was the executive officer. He assisted the amils in the task of revenue
collection.
• The amils looked after the revenue collection at the Pargana level.
• The Quanungo kept all the records of land in the pargana.
• The Kotwals were appointed mainly in towns by the imperial government and were incharge of law and
order. He was to maintain a register for keeping records of people coming and going out of the towns.
• The Muqaddam was the village head man and the Patwari looked after the village revenue records.
• The services of the Zamindars were utilized for the maintenance of law and order in their areas as well
as in the collection of revenue.
• The forts were placed under an officer called Qiladar. He was incharge of the general administration of
the fort and the areas assigned in Jagir to him.
• The port administration was independent of the provincial authority. The governor of the port was called
Mutasaddi who was directly appointed by the Emperor.
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• The Mutasaddi collected taxes on merchandise and maintained a custom house. He also supervised the
mint house at the port.
Military Organization
• The military was the most important department of the state as the Mughal state was a military state.
• The Mughal Emperor was the supreme commander of the armed forces.
• The military department of the empire was under the charge of the officer known as the mir bakshi.
• The different branches of the Mughal army were the infantry, cavalry, artillery, elephants and war-boats.
• The infantry was not a well-organized force though its numerical strength was large.
• The cavalry formed an important branch of the army. It consisted of two classes- the bargir who were paid
and equipped by the state and the silahdars, the troopers who brought their own horses and equipments.
Their salary of silahdars was much higher than that of the bargirs as they had to look after the horses
and that they would have to replace horses more often.

E
• The artillery was under the charge of daroga-i-topkhana or the mir atish.
• The Mughals tried to enlist the services of Europeans who had superior skills in handling artillery.
OR
• An officer called the hazari commanded a unit of artillery of thousand men.
• The artillery was divided into two wings - heavy and light pieces. Heavy guns were used to defend or
assault a fort. Light guns were mobile and moved with the emperor.
SC

• Artillery or swivel guns were mounted on elephants and camels.

• Babur began the use of artillery on a large scale in India and his successors continued the practice with
success.
• Elephants were widely used by the Mughals. These were useful in breaking the enemies’ military formations.
They were used to opening gates of palaces or forts and for transporting goods.
GS

• As artillery was more commonly used, there was greater possibility of elephants running amuck and
injuring their own side. The elephants were used more as beasts of burden.
• The navy of the Mughals was more useful for river warfare. In lower Bengal there was a flotilla of war
boats carrying artillery up and down the river.
• On the western coast naval defense was in the hands of the Abyssinian immigrants, the Siddis of Janjira.
Foreigners were employed in the Mughal navy.
• Agra and Allahabad were important river ports.
• There was an officer called the mir bahr at important river ports. He had to supply the emperor with boats
or make a bridge across the river for the army to cross over.
Land Revenue System developed during the period of Akbar
• The system of administration elaborated by Sher Shah had fallen into confusion after the death of Islam
Shah. Akbar, therefore, had to start afresh.
• In the beginning Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s system. But was soon found that the fixing of a central (ray)
schedule of prices annually often led to considerable delays, and resulted in great hardships to the peasantry.
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94
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• Apart from this the prices fixed were generally those prevailing at the Imperial Court, and thus were higher
than in the country-side, the peasants had to part with a larger share of their produce.
• Akbar, therefore, reverted to a system of annual assessment. Officials called ‘Karoris’ were appointed all
over north India. They were responsible for the collection of a crore of dams (Rs. 250,000) and also
checked the facts and figures supplied to the ‘quanungos’.
• On the basis of information provided regarding the actual produce, local prices, productivity etc. in 1580,
Akbar instituted a new system called the ‘dahsla’.
• Under Dahsla system, the average produce of different crops as well as average prices prevailing over the
different crops as well as average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. One third
of the average produce was the state share. The state demand was, however, stated in cash. This was done
by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten
years.

E
• A further improvement was made in form of zabti system. Under this system Parganas having same type
of productivity and similar prices were grouped into separate assessment circles. Thus, the peasant was
required to pay on the basis of local produce as well as local prices.
•
OR
There was a number of advantages of zabti system. As soon as the area sown by the peasant had been
measured by means of the bamboos linked with iron rings, the peasant as well as the state knew what the
dues were. The peasant was given remission in the land revenue, if crops failed on account of drought,
floods etc. Akbar introduced this system in the area from Lahore to Allahabad, and in Malwa and Gujarat.
SC
• A number of other systems of assessment were also followed under Akbar. The most common and,
perhaps, the oldest was called ‘batai’ or ghalla bakhshi. In this system, the produce was divided between
the peasants and the state in fixed proportion. The crop was divided after it had been thrashed, or when
it had been cut and tied in stacks, or while it was standing in the field. This system was considered a very
fair one, but it needed an army of honest officials to be present at the time of the ripening or the reaping
of the crops.
GS

• A third system which was widely used in Akbar’s time was ‘nasaq’. Some modern historians think that
it was merely a system of computing the peasant’s dues, not a different system of assessment. Others
think that it meant rough appraisement both on the basis of the inspection of the crops and past experience,
and thereby fixing the amount to be paid by the village as a whole. It is called ‘kankut’.
• Other local methods of assessment also continued in some areas.
• In fixing the land revenue, continuity of cultivation was taken into account.
(i) Land, which remained under cultivation almost every year, was called ‘Pohaj’. Thus it was cultivated
annually.
(ii) Parati (fallow) or land occasionally left fallow to recuperate its productive strength.
(iii) Chachar or land left fakllow for three or four years.
(iv) Banjar or land remaining uncultivated for five years and more. Law was classified further into good,
middling and bad. One-third of the average produce was the state demand, but it varied according
to the productivity of the land, the method of assessment etc.
• Akbar was deeply interested in the improvement and extension of cultivation. He asked the amil to act
like a father to the peasants. He advanced taccavi loans to the peasants for seed, implements, animals etc.
Notes

95
• Akbar used to try and indue the peasants to plough as much land as possible and to sow superior quality
crops.
• The zamindars of the area were also enjoined to co-operate in the task. The zamindars had a hereditary
right to take a share of the produce. The peasant, too, had a hereditary right to cultivate their land and
could not be ejected as long as they paid the land revenue.

• With some changes, Akbar’s settlement remained the basis of the land revenue system of the Mughal
Empire till the end of the seventeenth century.

• The ‘zapti’ system is associated with Raja Todar Mal, and is sometimes called Todar Mal’s bandobast.
• Akbar could not have been able to expand his empire and maintain his hold over it without a strong army.
For this purpose, it was necessary for him to organize the nobility as well his army. Akbar realized both
these objectives by means the mansabdri system.
Mansab & Jagir System
• Mansab is an Arabic word meaning ‘office’, ‘rank’, or ‘dignity’. Mansab was the measure of status of a
Mughal official which determined rank, salary and office. By all account it was instituted by Akbar in
1577 A.D.
• The system was the steel frame of Mughal administration in which the nobility, bureaucracy and the army
were all rolled into one. It was based on the Mongols system of decimal organization of army.

• Under Mansab system, every officer was assigned a rank (Mansab); the lowest being 10 and the highest
being 10,000. The ranks were divided into two – Zat and Sawar.
• Zat was the personal rank and fixed the person’s status, and also the salary due to him. Sawar indicated
the number of cavalrymen (Sawars) a person was required to maintain.
• At Akbar’s time no one could have a higher quota of Sawars than his Zat rank.
• But Jahangir introduced a system whereby a Mansabdar holding this rank had to maintain, and was paid
for, double the quota of troops indicated by his Sawar rank. This was called the “Du-aspa Sihaspa
System”.
• In the time of Shah Jahan an opposite modification aimed at reducing the number of Sawars – a
Mansabdar was required to maintain. A Mansabdar was expected to maintain a quota of 1/3rd, 1/4th
or even 1/5th of this Sawar rank according to the location of his Jagir and place of his service.
• Another experiment which is called ‘Month Scale’ was introduced by Shah Jahan. The salaries of Mansabdars
were put on month-scale – 10 months, 8 months and 6 months or even less, and their obligations of
maintenance of Sawars were brought down accordingly.
• Above mentioned measures were apparently aimed at cutting down the state’s expenditure.
• The Mansabdars could not be paid cash salaries out of the central treasury.
• Each Mansabdar was assigned an area that was officially estimated to yield revenue equivalent to his
salary. The land so assigned was ‘Jagir’.
• For purpose of assignment estimates (Jamadani) were preponed for administrative divisions down to the
village. The estimates were called ‘Jamadani’ as they were worked out in dues and not rupees.
• A Jagirdar had no permanent rights in the assignment. He merely had the right to collect land revenue
on behalf of the state. Moreover, he was liable to transfers. It was also imperative was Mansabs were
revised from time to time calling for change in Jagirs.
Mansabdari system
• Merits
a. A systematic and progressive system to reorganize the army within the fold of despotic monarchy
b. First such system of tribal chieftainship and feudalism
c. Officers were not hereditary
d. Every mansabdar was held personally responsible to the monarch
e. This eliminated all chances of dis-affection and revolts by the military officers
• Demerits
a. This system did not give birth to a national army
b. About 2/3rd of the mansabdars were either foreigners or the immediate descendents of the foreign immigrants
c. Non-regimentation of the army
d. Hesitation on the part of the imperial govt to recruit all the soldiers of the mansabdars
e. No uniform rules were prescribed for systematic training of the soldiers
f. The nature and the quality of the war weapons borne by them different from contingent to contingent
Economic and Social Life
• During this period, many European travelers and traders came to India and their accounts contain a mine
of information about the socio-economic conditions of India.
• A striking feature of the economic and social situations during the time was the glaring disparity between
the highly osetentious life style of the ruling classes, on the one hand, and acute poverty and want of the
people – the peasants, the artisans and the labourers on the other.
• Babur was struck by the scanty clothes worn by the common people. He observed that “peasants and
people of low standing go about naked”. Similar remarks have been made by other foreign travelers.
• The nobility, along with the landed gentry, the zamindars, formed what may be called the ruling class in
medieval India.
• Socially and economically, the Mughal nobility formed a privileged class. Most of them were foreigners
such as Turks and Afghans. But there was tussle between them throughout this period. However, many
of them settled down in India and made it their permanent home. They readily assimilated themselves
into the Indian society and culture. At the same time they retained some of their personal traits.
• Theoretically, the doors of the Mughal nobility were open to everyone. In practice, persons belonging to
aristocratic families, whatever they were, Indians or foreigners, had a decided advantage.
• From the time of Akbar, the Hindus, particularly the Rajputs were included in the nobility. For example,
mention may be made about Raja Man Singh, Raja Birbal and Raja Todar Mal. Later, the Marathas also
joined the Mughal service and rose to the position of nobles.
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• The Mughal nobles were paid high salaries but their expenses were also very high.

• Each noble maintained a large number of servants, horses, elephants, etc. The nobles tried follow the
luxurious life style of the Mughal emperors. They wore fine clothes and ate imported fruits. Costly jewels
were worn by men and women. They also made costly presents to the emperors.

• While the wealthy people wore silk and cotton clothes, the poor people wore the minimum cloths. They
suffer from insufficient clothing even during the winter.

• Nikitin observed that the people of Deccan were bare-footed. It might be due to high cost of leather. Rice,
millets and pulses were the staple food of the common people. Fish was popular on the coastal region.
While ghee and oil were cheaper, salt and sugar were more expensive. As plenty of cattle were kept by
the rural people, milk and milk products were available in plenty.

Muslim Society

• As a result of continuous immigration from the Muslim countries of central and West Asia the Muslim
population retained the mixed character which it had acquired during the previous centuries.

E
In the north-western region the central Asians and Persians, who entered India during the reigns of Babur
OR
and his successors, lived side by side with the Muslim immigrants of the pre-Mughal period.

• In coastal regions the immigrants were primarily traders, hailing originally form Arabia and the Persian
Gulf. As a result of their regular or irregular unions with the local Hindus or converts a number of Muslim
communities of mixed origin had come into existence, e.g., the Navayats of western India, the Mappillas
or Moplabar, and the Labbais of the Coromandel cost.
SC

• There were also a considerable number of Muslims of Abyssinian origin, most of whose ancestors were
originally imported as slaves.

• As large parts of Afghanistan formed an integral part of the Mughal Empire, Afghans living in India could
hardly be placed in the category of immigrants.
GS

• Muslims of foreign origin, formally united by Islam, had racial and religious differences which influenced
politics and society.

• The Turanis (Central Asians) and the Afghans were Sunnis; the Persians (Iranians) were Shias. There was
much rivalry for political prominence and social promotion among these Muslims of diverse origins.

• However, Muslims of foreign origin considered as a distinct group, constituted the principal element in
the ruling class of the Mughal period. They claimed superiority to the Hindustani Muslims, i.e., Hindu
converts and their descendants on the basis of birth, race and culture.

• The overwhelming majority of the Muslims were descendants of Hindu converts; but there was a tendency
on their part to claim foreign descent with a view to securing political and social advantages. They were
generally looked down upon by bona fide Turanians and Iranians; but they were received on equal terms
in mosques during the Friday prayers and also on occasions of principal religious festivals.

• There was no bar to inter-marriage on racial on racial grounds. A Muslim of low birth could rise to a high
rank in the nobility by dint of ability of through the favour of fortune. The Muslim society had far greater
internal mobility than the Hindu society.
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Hindu Society
• Hindu society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was characterised by conflicting trends of
liberalism and catholicity on the one hand and exclusiveness and conservatism on the other.
• Some of the Vaishnava and Tantric teachers recognized, to some extent, the religious and social rights of
women as also of the Sudras.
• Some non-Brahmin followers of Chaitanya become spiritual perceptors (gurus) not only of the three lower
castes but also of Brahmins.
• In Maharashtra Tukaram, a Sudra, and Madhavdev, who was Kayastha, had Brahmin disciples.
• But the Brahmin authors of the nibandhas tried to maintain the integrity of the ancient socio- religious
system (Varnasrama dharma) by regulating the life and conduct of all classes of Hindus in the minutest
details in conformity with traditional caste rules.

E
• Some writers of the Smriti nibandhas had royal patrons and their injunction carried political sanction. One
of them, Keshava Pandit, was judge under the Maratha King Sambhaji.
•
• OR
But there were eminent authors like Raghunandan and Ramnath of Bengal.
Pitambar of Kmarup and Kamalakar Bhatta of Maharashtra whose authority was accepted by the Hindu
society even though it was not backed by royal patronage. Their influence effectively counteracted the
liberal trends. They raised their voice against the usurping of the privileges of the Brahmins by the lower
castes.
SC
Position of Women
• Strict veiling of women was the common practice among the Muslim in their native land. Naturally in
a foreign country like India, greater stress was laid upon it.
• The Hindus adopted purdah as a protective measure. The tendency to imitate the ruling class was another
GS

factor which operated in favour of introducing purdah among the Hindu families.
• Seclusion thus became a sign of respect and was strictly observed among the high-class families of both
communities.
• In the Vijayanagar Empire, purdah was confined only to the members of the royal household. No such
coercive purdah system was observed among the Hindu middle class and certainly not among the Hindu
masses.
• The custom, in those days, did not allow girls to remain in their parents’ home for more than six to eight
years after birth. The rigidity of the custom together with the celebration of the marriage at a very early
age left no room whatsoever for either the bride or bridegroom to have time to think of a partner of their
own choice.
• Dowry was demanded while in some castes and localities the bride-price was also known to be prevalent.
• Monogamy seems to have been the rule among the lower strata of society in both communities during
the medieval period.
• In spite of the decision of ulema in the Ibadat Khana in Adbar’s times, that a man might marry any
number of wives by mutah but only four by nikah. Akbar had issued definite orders that a man of
ordinary means should not possess more than one wife unless the first proved to be barren.
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• Polygamy was the privilege of the rich.

• Divorce and remarriage, common among Muslims, were prohibited for Hindu women.
• Widow-remarriage, except amongst the lower caste people, had completely disappeared in Hindu society
during the medieval age.
• The custom of sati was prevalent. Even betrothed girl had to commit sati on the funeral pyres of their
would-be-husbands. Those widows who would not burn themselves with their husbands were treated
harshly by society.
• Some of the Delhi Sultans did try to discourage the custom of sati which prevailed among a large section
of the Hindu population, particularly the upper classes and the Rajputs.
• Though sati was only voluntary in the south and not enjoined upon widows, it is difficult to account for
its wide popularity in the Viajayanagar Empire, whose rules do not seem to have put up any restriction
on its observance.
• Muhammad Tughluq was, in all probability, the first medieval ruler who place restrictions on sati.
•

E
Though Akbar did not forbid the sati altogether, he had issued definite orders to the kotwals that they
OR
should not allow a woman to be burnt against her inclination.
• Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders (1664) forbidding sati in his realm altogether.
• Economically, a Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance with absolute right to dispose
it off. Unlike her Hindu sister, she retained the right even after marriage.
SC

• Mehr, or entente nuptial settlement, was another safeguard for Muslim women whereas a Hindu woman
had no right to the property of her husband’s parents.
• A Hindu woman was only entitled to maintenance and residence expenses besides movable property like
ornaments, jewellery, etc. Thus, from the legal point of view, women were reduced to a position of
dependency in every sphere of life.
GS

• The women in the south under the Cholas (8th to 13th century), however, had the right to inherit property.
Growth of Trade
• The Indian trading classes were large in numbers and spread throughout the country. They were well
organized and highly professional.
• Seth, bohra traders specialized in long distance trade while local traders were called banik.
• Another class of traders was known as banjaras, who specialized in carrying bulk goods. The banjaras used
to move to long distances with their goods on the back of oxen.
• Bulk goods were also taken through rivers on boats.
• The trading community did not belong to one caste or religion. The Gujarathi merchants included the
Hindus, Jains and Muslims. Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis conducted trade with central Asia.
• In south India, the Chettis on the Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were the most
important trading communities.
• Bengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk.
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• The Coramandal coast became a centre of textile production.

• Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods. From there, fine textiles and silk were taken to north India.
• Indigo and food grains were exported from north India through Gujarat. It was also the distribution centre
for the luxury products of Kashmir such as shawls and carpets.

• The major imports into India were certain metals such as tin and copper, war horses and luxury items such
as ivory.
• The balance of trade was maintained by the import of gold and silver.

• The growth of foreign trade resulted in the increased import of gold and silver in the seventeenth century.

• The Dutch and English traders who came to Gujarat during the seventeenth century, found that Indian
traders were alert and brisk.

E
Items of Trade and Commerce

• Exports : Textiles, especially various kinds of cotton fabrics, indigo, raw silk, salt petre, pepper, opium and

•
various kinds of drugs and miscellaneous goods.

OR
Imports : Bullion, horses, metals, perfumes, drugs, China goods especially porcelain and silk, African
slaves and European wines.

Mughal Coinage
SC
• The standard gold coin of the Mughals was the muhar, of about 170 to 175 grains, the equivalent of nine
rupees in Abul Fazl’s time.
• Half and quarter muhars are known to have been issued by several emperors, and a very few smaller
pieces, also.
GS

• The rupee, adopted from Sher Shah’s currency, is the most famous of all Mughal coins.
• In addition to the regular gold and silver currency, special small pieces were occasionally struck for largess;
the commonest of these is the nisar, struck in silver by Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• Jahangir also issued similar pieces, which he called nur afshan and khair qabul.

• The Mughal copper coinage is based on Sher Shah’s dam which with its half, quarter and eighth, continued
to be struck until the fifth year of Aurangzeb.

• The most distinctive feature of the Mughal coinage is the diversity of mints. There were seventy six mints
in operation during Akbar’s reign. Copper was struck in fifty nine of these, the largest number recorded
for any emperor, while silver is known from thirty nine.
• Aurangzeb’s conquests in the Deccan raised the silver mints to seventy, whereas copper mints sank to
twenty four.

• Mughals maintained the high standard and purity of its gold and silver for three hundred years. Considering
its variety, the number of its mints, the artistic merit of some of its series, the influence it exerted on
contemporary and subsequent coinages, and the importance of its standard coin-the rupee- in the commerce
of today, the Mughal currency surely deserves to rank as one of the great coinages of the world.
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E
OR
SC
GS

Language and Literature

• Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar’s reign.
• Abul Fazl was a great scholar and historian of his period. He set a style of prose writing and it was
followed by many generations.
• Many historical works were written during this period. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama
authored by Abul Fazl.
• The leading poet of this period was Abul Faizi. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language
was done under his supervision.
• Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets.
• Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for its style.
• Jahangir patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah.
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• Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah
Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
• Shah Jahan’s son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language.
• Many historical works were written during the reign of Aurangazeb.
• Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Gujarathi had also developed during this period.
• Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into regional languages.
• From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential Hindi poet
was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the Ramcharitmanas.
Art and Architecture under the Mughals
• The Mughal period witnessed large scale architectural activities that represented the peak of Islamic art
in India.

E
• It was also a period where there was a great exchange of ideas and styles that led to the creation of a
style that was very different from the Sultanate period and that had many features of local or regional

•
styles.
OR
The architecture of the Mughals includes the magnificent forts, palaces, public buildings, mosques and
mausoleums.
• The Mughals were fond of laying gardens with running water.
SC

• Some of the Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and the
Pinjore garden in the Punjab have survived even today.
• Among the early structures of this period are the two mosques built by Babur at Sambhal and Panipat
in 1526.
GS

• Babur is also credited with the laying out of gardens at Dholpur and at Ram Bagh and Zahra Bagh at Agra.
• Two mosques one at Agra and the other at Hissar belong to the reign of the second Mughal emperor
Humayun.
• During the reign of Sher Shah, the mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar and the Purana Qila near Delhi were
built. These two monuments are considered as the architectural marvels of medieval India.
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• Large scale construction of buildings started with the advent of Akbar. He built many forts and the most
famous one was the Agra Fort. It was built in red sandstone. His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad.
• The climax of fort-building reached its climax during the reign of Shah Jahan. The famous Red Fort at
Delhi with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas was his creation.
• Akbar also built a palace cum- fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory). Many buildings in
Gujarathi and Bengali styles are found in this complex. Gujarathi style buildings were probably built for
his Rajput wives. The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called
Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate. The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate
Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodh Bai’s palace and Panch
Mahal with five storeys.
• During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi. The grandness of Mughal architecture
began with the construction of Humayun’s tomb and its design by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas from Persia. This
tomb is the earliest specimen of a garden enclosure and is raised on an arcaded sandstone platform. The
tomb is octagonal and crowned by a high dome. The dome is a double dome, which is built in two layers

E
one which provides the ceiling to the interior of the building and the other, which provides the outer layer
that crowns, the building. It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
OR
SC
GS

• Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.

• Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra. It was constructed wholly of white marble with floral
designs made of semi-precious stones on the walls. This type of decoration was called pietra dura.
• Pietra dura became more popular during the reign of Shah Jahan. The pietra dura method was used on
a large scale in the Taj Mahal by Shah Jahan. Taj Mahal is considered a jewel of the builder’s art. It
contains all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals. The chief glory of the Taj is the massive
dome and the four slender minarets. The decorations are kept to the minimum.
• Mosque building had reached its peak during Shah Jahan’s reign. The Moti Masjid at Agra was built
entirely in white marble. The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red stone.
• The Mughal architectural traditions continued in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century. Their influence
in the provincial kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden
Temple at Amritsar.
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Paintings and Music

• The contribution of Mughals to the art of painting was remarkable.
• They introduced new themes depicting the court, battle scenes and the chase and added new colours and
new forms.
• They created a living tradition of painting which continued to work in different parts of the country long
after the glory of the Mughals had disappeared.
• The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was staying in Persia.
• He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India. These two painters became
famous during Akbar’s reign.
• Under the leadership of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad, during the reign of Akbar, painting was
organized in one of the imperial establishments (karkhanas).

E
• A large number of painters from different parts of the country were invited, many of them from lower
castes. From the beginning, both Hindus and Muslims joined in the works.
•
•
OR
Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts.
Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akabar’s court artists.
• Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in miniature form.
SC
• Many other Indian fables became the miniature paintings in the Art Studio established by Akbar.
• Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the main themes of Mughal paintings.
• The most important work is Hamznama,
which consisted 1200 paintings.
GS

• Indian colours such as peacock blue,

Indian red began to be used.
• Under Akbar, European painting was
introduced at the court. Under its
influence, the principles of
foreshortening, whereby near and distant
people and things could be placed in
perspective was quietly adopted.
• Mughal paintings reached its climax
during the reign of Jahangir. He
employed a number of painters like
Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu,
Anant, Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad Mansur. A
• part from painting the scenes of hunting, battles and royal courts, progress was made in portrait painting
and paintings of animals.
• Many albums containing paintings and calligraphy were produced during the Mughal period. Later, the
influence of European painting could be seen.
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Music
• Music also developed under the Mughals. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
• Tansen composed many ragas. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.
• Raja Mansingh is said to have played an important role in the perfection of the Dhrupad style of North
Indian Music.
• In the south a system of ragas known as the Janaka and Janya ragas existed during this period.
• The Swaramela Kalanidhi by Ramamatya of Kondavidu written in 1550 describes 20 Janan and 64 Janya
ragas.
• By the 18th century several new forms of music like Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal had come into existence.

E
OR
SC
GS
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REGIONAL POWER-CENTERS
• The states that arose in India during the phase of Mughal decline and the following century varied greatly
in terms of resources, longevity, and essential character.
• Some of them-such as Awadh in the north and Hyderabad in the south were located in areas that had
harboured regional states in the immediate pre-Mughal period and thus could hark back to an older local
or regional tradition of state formation.
• Others were states that had a more original character and derived from very specific processes that had
taken place in the course of the late 16th and 17th centuries. In particular, many of the post-Mughal states
were based on ethnic or sectarian groupings - the Marathas, the Jats, and the Sikhs, for instance-which had

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no real precedent in Indian history.
KINGDOM OF BENGAL
•

•
Khan, made Bengal virtually independent. OR
Taking advantage of the growing weakness of the central authority Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi

Even though Murshid Quli Khan was made Governor of Bengal as late as 1717, he had been its effective
ruler since 1700, when he was appointed its Dewan.
SC
• He soon freed himself from central control, though he sent regular tribute to the Emperor.
• He established peace by freeing Bengal of internal and external danger.
• Bengal was now also relatively free of uprisings by zamindars.
• The only three major uprisings during his rule were first by Sitaram Ray, Udai Narayan and Ghulani
Muhammad, and then by Shujat Khan, and finally by Najat Khan.
GS

• After defeating them, Murshid Quli Khan gave their zamindaris to his favourite, Ramjivan.
• Murshid Quh Khan died in 1727, and his son-in-law Slmja-ud-din ruled Bengal till 1739.
• In that year, Alivardi Khan deposed and killed Shuja-ud-din’s son, Sarfaraz Khan, and made himself the
Nawab.
• These three Nawabs gave Bengal a long period of peace and orderly administration and promoted its trade
and industry.
• Mursliid Quli Khan effected economies in the administration and reorganized the finances of Bengal by
transferring large parts of jagir lands into khahsah lands by carrying out a fresh revenue settlement, and
by introducing the system of revenue-farming.
• Mursliid Quli Khan also granted agricultural loans (taccavi) to the poor cultivators to relieve their distress
as well as to enable them to pay land revenue in time. He was thus able to increase the resources of the
Bengal Government.
• But the system of revenue-farming led to increased economic pressure on the peasant. Moreover, even
though he demanded only the standard revenue and forbade illegal cesses, he collected the revenue from
the zamindars and the peasants with utmost cruelty.
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• Another result of his reforms was that many of the older zamindars were driven out and their place taken
by upstart revenue-farmers.
• Murshid Quli Khan and the succeeding Nawabs gave equal opportunities for employment to Hindus and
Muslims.
• They filled the highest civil posts and many of the military posts with Bengalis, most of whom were
Hindus.
• In choosing revenue farmers Murshid Quli Khan gave preference to local zamindars and mahajans (money-
lenders) who were mainly Hindus. He thus laid the foundations of a new landed aristocracy in Bengal.
• All the three Nawabs recognized that expansion of trade benefited the people and the Government, and,
therefore, gave encouragement to all merchants, Indian or foreign.
• They provided for the safety of roads and rivers from thieves and robbers by establishing regular thanas
and chowkies.
• They checked private trade by officials and prevented abuses in the customs administration.

E
• At the same time they made it a point to maintain strict control over the foreign trading companies and
their servants and prevented them from abusing their privileges.
OR
• They compelled the servants of the English East India Company to obey the laws of the land and to pay
the same customs duties as were being paid by other merchants.
• Alivardi Khan did not permit the English and the French to fortify their factories in Calcutta and
Chandranagar.
SC

• The Bengal Nawabs proved, however, to be short-sighted and negligent, by not firmly putting down the
increasing tendency of the English.
• Initially they had the power to deal with the Company’s threats, but they continued to believe that a mere
trading company could not threaten their power.
• They failed to see that the English Company was no mere company of traders but was the representative
GS

of the most aggressive and expansionist colonialism of the time.

• The Nawabs of Bengal neglected to build a strong army and paid a heavy price for it. The army of
Murshid Quh Khan consisted of only 2000 cavalry and 4000 infantry.
• Alivardi Khan was constantly troubled by the repeated invasions of the Marathas and, in the end, he had
to cede a large part of Orissa to them.
• When, in 1756-57, English East India Company declared war on Siraj-ud-Daulah, the successor of Alivardi,
the absence of a strong army contributed much to the victory of the Company.
• The Bengal Nawabs also failed to check the growing corruption among their officials. Even judicial
officials, the qazis and muftis, were taking bribes.
• The foreign companies took full advantage of this weakness to undermine official rules and regulations
and policies.
AUTONOMOUS KINGDOM OF AVADH
• The founder of the autonomous kingdom of Avadh was Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed
Governor of Avadh in 1722.
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• He was an extremely bold, energetic, iron-willed, and intelligent person.

• At the time of his appointment, rebellious zamindars had raised their heads everywhere in the province
and they refused to pay the land tax, organized their own private armies, erected forts, and defied the
Imperial Government.
• Saadat Kha succeeded in suppressing lawlessness and disciplining the big zamindars and thus, increasing
the financial resources of his government.
• Most of the defeated zamindars were, however, not displaced. They were usually confirmed in their
estates after they had submitted and agreed to pay their dues (land revenue) regularly. Moreover, they
continued to be refractory. Whenever the Nawab’s military hold weakened or he was engaged in some
other direction, they would rebel, thus weakening the Nawab’s power.
• As Safdar Jang, Saadat Khan’s successor, made out a fresh revenue settlement in 1723. He is said to
have improved the lot of the peasant by levying equitable land revenue and by protecting them from
oppression by the big zamindars.

E
• Like the Bengal Nawabs, he too did not discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. Many of his commanders
and high officials were Hindus, and he curbed refractory zamindars, chiefs, and nobles irrespective of their

•
•
religion.
OR
His troops’ were well-paid, well-armed, and well-trained. His administration was efficient.
Before his death in 1739, he had become virtually independent and had made the province a hereditary
possession.
SC
• He was succeeded by his nephew Safdar Jang, who was simultaneously appointed the wazir of the Empire
in 1748 and granted in addition the province of Allahabad.
• Safdar Jang gave a long period of peace to the people of Avadh and Allahabad before his death in 1754.
• He suppressed rebellious zamindars and made an alliance with the Maratha sardars so that his dominion
was saved from their incursions.
GS

• He carried on warfare against the Rohelas and the Bangash Pathans. In his war against the Bangash
Nawabs in 1750-51, he secured Maratha military help by paying a daily allowance of Rs. 25,000 and Jat
support by paying Rs. 15,000 a day.
• Later, he entered into an agreement with the Peshva by which the Peshwa was to help the Mughal Empire
against Ahmad Shah Abdali and to protect it from such internal rebels as the Indian Pathans and the
Rajput rajas.
• In return the Peshwa was to be paid Rs. 50 lakhs, granted the chauth of the Punjab, Sindh, and several
districts of northern India, and made the Governor of Ajmer and Agra. The agreement failed, however,
as the Peshwa went over to Safdar Jang’s enemies at Delhi who promised him the governorship of Avadh
and Allahabad.
• Safdar Jang also organized an equitable system of justice.
• He too adopted a policy of impartiality in the employment of Hindus and Muslims. The highest post in
his Government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai.
• The prolonged period of peace and of economic prosperity of the nobles under the government of the
Nawabs resulted in time in the growth of a distinct Lucknow culture around the Avadh court.
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• Lucknow, for long an important city of Avadh, and the seat of the Avadh Nawabs after 1775, soon rivaled
Delhi in its patronage of arts and literature. It also developed as an important centre of handicrafts.
• Safdar Jang maintained a very high standard of personal morality. All his life he was devoted to his only
wife.
• As a matter of fact all the founders of the three autonomous kingdoms of Hyderabad, Bengal, and Avadh,
namely, Nizam-uI-Mulk, Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan, and Saadat Khan and Safdar Jang, were
men of high personal morality.
• Nearly all of them led austere and simple, lives. Their lives give refute the belief that all the leading nobles
of the 18th century led extravagant and luxurious lives. It was only in their public and political dealings
that they resorted to fraud, intrigue and treachery.
THE SIKHS
• The origins of the Sikhs, a religious group initially formed as a sect within the larger Hindu community,
lie in the Punjab in the 15th century.

E
• The Sikh founder, Guru Nanak (1469-1539), was roughly a contemporary of Babur, and belonged to the
Khatri community of scribes and traders.
OR
• From an early career as a scribe for an important noble of the Lodi dynasty, Nanak became a wandering
preacher before settling down at Kartarpur in the Punjab at about the time of Babur’s invasion.
• By the time of his death, he had numerous followers, albeit within a limited region, and, like many other
religious leaders of the time, founded a fictive lineage (i.e., one not related by blood) of Gurus who
succeeded him.
SC

• His immediate successor was Guru Angad, chosen by Nanak before his death. He too was a Khatri, as
indeed were all the remaining Gurus, though of various subcastes.
• In practice, the essential teachings of Nanak, collected in the Adi Granth (Punjabi: “First Book”), represented
a syncretic melding of elements of Vaishnava devotional Hinduism and Sufi Islam, with a goodly amount
of social criticism thrown in.
GS

• No political program is evident in the work, but religious movements in the period had a tendency to
assume political overtones, by virtue of the fact that they created bonds of solidarity among their
adherents, who could then challenge the authority of the state in some fashion.
• The Sikh challenge to the Mughal state could be seen as prefigured in Nanak’s own critical remarks
directed at Babur, but in reality it took almost three-quarters of a century to come to fruition.
• It was in the early 17th century-when under somewhat obscure circumstances Guru Arjun was tortured
and killed by Mughal authorities-that the first signs of a major conflict appeared.
• Guru Arjun was accused of abetting a rebel Mughal prince, Khusraw, and, more significantly, found
mention in Jahangir’s memoirs as someone who ran a “shop” where religious falsehoods were sold
(apparently a reference to the Khatri origins of the Guru).
• His successor, Hargobind (1595-1644), then began the move toward armed assertion by constructing a
fortified centre and holding court from the so-called Akal Takht (“Throne of the Timeless One”).
• After a brief imprisonment by the Mughals for these activities, Hargobind was released, and he once more
entered into armed conflict with Mughal officials. He was forced to spend the last years of his life in the
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Rajput principality of Hindur, outside direct Mughal jurisdiction, where he maintained a small military
force.
• Under Hargobind’s son Tegh Bahadur, who became ninth Guru in 1664, conflicts with the Mughals once
again increased, partly as a result of Tegh Bahadur’s success as a preacher and proselytizer and partly
because of the rather orthodox line of Sunni Islam espoused by Aurangzeb.
• In 1675 Tegh Bahadur was captured and executed upon his refusal to accept Islam, thus laying the path
for the increased militancy under the last of the Gurus, Gobind Singh (1675-1708).
• It should be stressed that it was the very success of the Sikh Gurus in attracting followers and acquiring
temporal power that prompted such a response from the Mughals. However, rather than suppressing
Sikhism, the policy of Aurangzeb backfired.
• Guru Gobind Singh assumed all the trappings of a chieftain, gave battle to Mughal forces on more than
one occasion, and founded a new centre at Anandpur in 1689.

E
• His letters also suggest the partial assumption of temporal authority, being termed hukmnamas (loosely,
“royal orders”). However, he still chose to negotiate with the Mughals, first with Aurangzeb and then, after
the latter’s death, with Bahadur Shah I.
•
OR
Ironically, with Gobind Singh’s death, the Sikh threat to Mughal dominance increased. In a further twist,
this resulted from the assumption of leadership in the Punjab by Banda Singh Bahadur, a Maratha who
had come under the Guru’s influence during the latter’s last days at Nanded in Maharashtra.
• Between 1709 and late 1710 the Sikhs under Banda enjoyed dramatic successes in the sarkars (districts)
SC
of Sirhind, Hisar, and Saharanpur, all of them ominously close to Delhi.
• Banda set up a capital at Mukhlispur, issued coins in the names of the Gurus (a particularly bold lèse-
majesté), and began to use a seal on his orders even as the Mughals did.
• In late 1710 and 1711 the Mughal forces counter-attacked, and Banda and his forces retreated.
• Expelled from Sirhind, he then moved his operations west into the vicinity of Lahore. Here too he was
GS

unsuccessful, and eventually he and his forces were forced to retreat to the fort of Gurdas Nangal. There
they surrendered to Mughal forces after a prolonged siege, and Banda was executed in Delhi in 1716.
• This phase of activity is especially important for two reasons.
– First, as distinct from the sporadic militancy exhibited under Hargobind and then Gobind Singh, it
was in this period that a full-scale Sikh rebellion against Mughal authority broke out for the first time.
– Second, Banda’s role in the matter itself, which was somewhat enigmatic, lends the affair a curious
flavour. Some of Banda’s letters speak of orthodox Islam as an enemy to be rallied against, thus
suggesting that the Sikhs at this time were moving somewhat away from their initial orientation as
mediators between popular Hinduism and Islam.
• The quelling by Mughal forces of the Sikhs under Banda did not mean an end to Sikh resistance to Mughal
claims.
• In the 1720s and ’30s Amritsar emerged as a centre of Sikh activity, partly because of its preeminence
as a pilgrimage centre.
• Kapur Singh, the most important of the Sikh leaders of the time, operated from its vicinity and gradually
set about consolidating a revenue-cum-military system, based in part on compromises with the Mughal
governors of the province.
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• Other Sikhs were, however, less willing than Kapur Singh to deal with the Mughal authorities and took
the paths of social banditry and raiding.
• These activities served as a damper on the attempts by the Mughal governors of Lahore subah to set up
an independent power base for themselves in the region.
• First Abd al-Samad Khan and then his son Zakariyya Khan attempted the twin tracks of conciliation and
coercion, but all to little avail. After the latter’s demise in 1745, the balance shifted still further in favour
of the Sikh warrior-leaders, such as Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, later the founder of the kingdom of Kapurthala.
• The mushrooming of pockets under the authority of Sikh leaders was thus a feature of the two decades
preceding Durrani invasion of the Punjab and took place not merely in the eastern Punjab but in the Bari
Doab, not far from Lahore itself.
• A unique centre was yet to emerge, and the end of the line of Gurus with Gobind Singh ensured that
spiritual and temporal authority could not be combined in a single person as before.
• Nevertheless, the principal opposition faced by Durrani in his campaigns of the 1750s and ’60s in the
Punjab came from the Sikhs, even if the Mughal forces and Marathas played a role of significance on

E
occasion.
OR
• These were sanguinary engagements, which cost the Sikhs many thousands of lives, as the Afghan chroniclers
themselves testify.
• Eventually, by the mid-1760s, Sikh authority over Lahore had been established, and the Afghans had been
unable to consolidate their early gains.
• Under Ahmad Shah’s successor, Timur Shah (ruled 1772-93), some of the territories and towns that had
SC

been taken by the Sikhs (such as Multan) were recovered, and the descendants of Ahmad Shah continued
to harbour ambitions in this direction until the end of the century.
• But by the 1770s they were dealing with a confederation of about 60 Sikh chieftains, some of whom
founded what were to remain princely states under the British-such as Nabha and Patiala.
• However, rather as in the case of the Marathas, the confederate structure did not mean that there were
GS

never differences or conflicts between these chiefdoms. Nevertheless, at least in the face of their major
adversary, the Durrani’s clan and its allies, these chiefdoms came together to present a united front.
• The Sikh chiefdoms continued many of the administrative practices initiated by the Mughals.
• The main subordinates of the chiefs were given Jaagir assignments, and the Persianized culture of the
Mughal bureaucracy continued to hold sway.
• Unlike the Gurus themselves, who, as has been noted, were exclusively drawn from Khatri stock, the bulk
of the Sikh chieftains tended to be of Jat origin. Thus, besides the states set up in other regions, such as
Bharatpur, the Jats can be said to have dominated state building in the Punjab in this period as well.
• It was one such chief, Ranjit Singh, grandson of Charhat Singh Shukerchakia, who eventually welded these
principalities for a brief time into a larger entity.
• Ranjit Singh’s effective rule lasted four decades, from 1799 to 1839, and was realized in a context already
dominated by the growing power of the English East India Company.
• Within 10 years of his death, the British had annexed Punjab, and so this period can be seen as the last
gasp of the old-regime polities in India.
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• His rise to power was based on superior military force, partly serviced by European mercenaries and by
the strategic location of the territories that he had inherited from his father.
• Ranjit Singh’s kingdom combined disparate elements. On the one hand, it represented the culmination of
nearly a century of Sikh rebellions against Mughal rule. On the other hand, it was based on intelligent
application of the principles of statecraft learned from the Afghans.
• This emerges from the fact that he used as his capital the great trading city of Lahore, which he captured
in 1799, in the aftermath of invasions by Shah Zaman, the successor of Timur Shah.
• Having gained control of the trade routes, he imposed monopolies on the trade in salt, grain, and textiles
from Kashmir to enhance his revenues. Using the cash he was able to collect by these means, he built up
an army of 40,000 cavalry and infantry, and by 1809 he was undisputed master of most of Punjab.
• Over the remaining three decades of his rule, Ranjit Singh continued to consolidate his territories, largely
at the expense of Afghan and Rajput, as well as lesser Sikh, chieftains.

E
• In 1818 he took Multan, and in1819 he made major gains in Kashmir. At the time of his death, the
territory that he controlled sat solidly astride the main trade routes extending from north India to Central
Asia, Iran, and western Asia.
•

•
authority. OR
In a number of areas, he established tributary relations with chieftains, thus not wholly subverting their

The model around which the Sikh state was built bears a striking resemblance to that of the Mughals.
• Jagirs remained a crucial form of remuneration for military service, and, in the directly taxed lands,
SC
officials bearing the title of kardar (agent) were appointed at the level of a unit called-as elsewhere in
Mughal domains-the ta’alluqa (district, today known as taluka) (district).
• However strong the state of Ranjit Singh might have appeared, it was in fact based on a fragile system
of alliances, as became apparent soon after his death.
• At the level of the palace, a dispute broke out in the early 1840s between two factions, one supporting
GS

Chand Kaur, daughter-in-law of Ranjit Singh, who wished to be regent, and the other supporting Shir Singh.
• But such disputes could scarcely have been the real reason for the collapse of Sikh power within a decade.
• Rather, it would appear that the state created by Ranjit Singh never really made the transition from being
a conquering power to being a stable system of alliances between conflicting social groups and regional
interests.
• In any event, the process of disintegration was accelerated and given a helping hand by the British between
1845 and 1849.
AREAS AROUND DELHI
Rajput States
• The principal Rajput states took advantage of the growing weakness of Mughal power to virtually free
themselves from central control while at the same time increasing their influence in the rest of the Empire.
• In the reigns of Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad Shah the rulers of Amber and Marwar were appointed
governors of important Mughal provinces such as Agra, Gujarat, and Malwa.
• The Rajputana states continued to be as divided as before. The biggest among them expanded at the cost
of their weaker neighbours, Rajput and non-Rajput.
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• Most of the larger Rajput states were constantly involved in petty quarrels and civil wars.
• The internal politics of these states were often characterized by the same type of corruption, intrigue, and
treachery as prevailed at the Mughal court. For example, Ajit Singh of Marwar was killed by his own son.
• The most outstanding Rajput ruler of the 18th century was Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber (1681-1743).
– He was a distinguished statesman, law-maker, and reformer and a man of scientific temper in an age when
Indians were oblivious to scientific progress.
– He founded the city of Jaipur in the territory taken from the Jats and made it a great seat of science
and art.
– Jaipur was built upon strictly scientific principles and according to a regular plan. Its broad streets are
intersected at right angles.
– Jai Singh was above everything a great astronomer. He erected observatories with accurate and
advanced instruments, some of them of his own invention are at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and
Mathura.

E
– His astronomical observations were remarkably accurate. He drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij-i-
Muhammad Shahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations.
OR
– He got ‘Elements of Geometry”, translated into Sanskrit as well as several works on trignometry, and
Napier’s work on the construction and use of logarithms.
– Jai Singh was also a social reformer. He tried to enforce a law to reduce the lavish expenditure which
a Rajput had to incur on a daughter’s wedding and which often led to infanticide.
SC

– He ruled Jaipur for nearly 44 years from 1699 to 1743.

The Jats
• The Jats, a caste of agriculturists, lived in the region around Delhi, Agra and Mathura.
• Oppression by Mughal officials drove the Jat peasants around Mathura to revolt.
GS

• They revolted under the leadership of their Jat zamindars in 1669 and then again in 1688.
• These revolts were crushed but the area remained disturbed.
• After the death of Aurangzeb, they created disturbances all around Delhi.
• Though originally a peasant uprising, the Jat revolt, led by zamindars soon became predatory.
• They plundered all and sundry, the rich and the poor, the jagirdars and the peasants, the Hindus and the
Muslims.
• They took active part in the Court intrigues at Delhi, often changing sides to suit their own advantage.
• The Jat state of Bharatpur was set up by Churaman and Badan Singh.
• The Jat power reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763 and who was an
extremely able administrator and soldier and a very wise statesman.
• He extended his authority over a large area which extended from the Ganga in the East to Chambal in
the South, the province of Agra in the West to the province of Delhi in the North. His state included
the districts of Agra, Mathura, Meerut, and Aligarh.
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THE SOUTHERN STATES

• In the south several states did make a determined bid in this period to consolidate their power by the use
of maritime outlets and principal among these were Travancore in Kerala under Martanda Varma and
Rama Varma, and Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan.
• These states rose to prominence, however, only in the latter half of the 18th century, or at least after 1740.
Before that, the southern Indian scene had been dominated by a group of Muslim notables who had
accompanied the Mughal expansion into the region in the 1680s and 90s or else had come in a second
wave that followed immediately after 1700.
• Among these notables, many of whom set themselves up as tribute-paying chiefs under Mughal authority,
can be counted the relatively petty nawabs (deputies) of the Balaghat, or northern Karnataka (such as
Abdul-Rasul Khan of Sira), but there were also far more substantial men, such as the Nizam-ul-Mulk and
Said Allah Khan at Arcot.
• The Nizam-ul-Mulk consolidated his position in Hyderabad by the 1740s, whereas the Arcot principality

E
emerged some three decades earlier.
•

•
OR
Neither of these rulers, while establishing dynastic succession, claimed full sovereignty, and thus they
continued to cast themselves as representatives of Mughal authority.
Southern Indian politics in the 1720s emerged, therefore, as a game with many petty players and three
formidable ones: the Marathas (both at Thanjavur and elsewhere), the Nizam, and the Arcot (or Karnatak).
In the second half of the 18th century, the power of all three of these centres declined.
SC
Hyderabad
• Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state, was one of the most powerful members at the
court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
• He was entrusted first with the governorship of Awadh, and later given charge of the Deccan.
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• As the Mughal governor of the Deccan provinces, Asaf Jah already had full control over its political and
financial administration.
• Taking advantage of the turmoil in the Deccan and the competition amongst the court nobility, he
gathered power in his hands and became the actual ruler of that region.
• He brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India who welcomed the new opportunities
in the south and appointed them mansabdars and granted jagirs to them.
• Although he was still a servant of the Mughal emperor, he ruled quite independently without seeking any
direction from Delhi or facing any interference.
• The Mughal emperor merely confirmed the decisions already taken by the Nizam.
• The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas to the west and with
independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau.
• The ambitions of the Nizam to control the rich textile-producing areas of the Coromandel coast in the
east were checked by the British who were becoming increasingly powerful in that region.
• When the British and French took hold over most of India, the Nizams played a delicate game of balance
and subterfuge.
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• They allied themselves with each side at different times, playing an important role in the wars involving
Tipu Sultan, the French, and the British.
• The Nizams eventually won the friendship of the Western invaders without giving up their powers. As
a result, Hyderabad was ruled by a Nizam till independence of India, and became the largest princely state
of India.
Mysore
• The rise of Mysore to importance dates to the mid-17th century, when rulers of the Vadiyar dynasty, such
as Kanthirava Narasaraja and Cikka Deva Raja, fought campaigns to extend Vadiyar control over parts of
what is now interior Tamil Nadu (especially Dharmapuri, Salem, and Coimbatore).
• Until the second half of the 18th century, however, Mysore was a landlocked kingdom and dependent
therefore on trade and military supplies brought through the ports of the Indian east coast.
• As these ports came increasingly under European control, Mysore’s vulnerability increased.
• A cavalry commander of migrant origin, Hyder Ali, assumed effective power in the kingdom in 1761,

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reducing the Vadiyars to figureheads and displacing the powerful Kalale family of ministers.
• First Hyder Ali and then, after 1782, his son, Tipu Sultan, made attempts to consolidate Mysore and make
OR
it a kingdom with access to not one but both coasts of peninsular India.
• Against the Kodavas, the inhabitants of the upland kingdom of Kodagu (Coorg), they were relatively
successful.
• Coastal Karnataka and northern Kerala came under their sway, enabling Tipu to open diplomatic and
SC

commercial relations on his own account with the Middle East.

• Tipu’s ambitions apparently greatly exceeded those of his father, and he strove actively to escape the all-
pervasive shadow of Mughal suzerainty, as discussed above.
• However, as in the Sikh kingdom of Ranjit Singh, the problem with the Mysore of Hyder and Tipu was
their inability to build an internal consensus.
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• Their dependence on migrants and mercenaries for both military and fiscal expertise was considerable, and
they were always resisted by local chiefs, the so-called Poligars.
• More crucial was the fact that by the 1770s Mysore faced a formidable military adversary in the form
of the English East India Company, which did not allow it any breathing room.
• It was the English who denied Mysore access to the relatively rich agricultural lands and ports of the
Coromandel coastal plain in eastern India, and, equally as significant, it was at the hands of an English
attacking force that Tipu finally was killed in 1799 during the fourth of the Mysore Wars.
Arcot
• The Nawabdom of the Carnatic was established by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, who in 1692 appointed
Zulfikhar Ali Khan as the first Nawab of the Carnatic, with his seat at Arcot as a reward for his victory
over the Marathas led by Rajaram.
• With the Vijayanagara Empire in serious decline, the Nawabdom of the Carnatic controlled a vast territory
south of the Krishna river.
• The Nawab Saadatullah Khan I (1710-1732) moved his court from Gingee to Arcot. His successor Dost
Ali (1732-1740) conquered and annexed Madurai in 1736.
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• In 1740, the Maratha forces attacked the Nawab, Dost Ali Khan, in the pass of Damalcherry.
• In the war that followed, Dost Ali, one of his sons Hasan Ali, and a number of prominent persons lost
their lives. This initial success at once enhanced Maratha prestige in the south.
• From Damalcherry the Marathas proceeded to Arcot, which surrendered to them without much resistance.
Chanda Saheb and his son were arrested and sent to Nagpur.
• Chanda Sahib was the son-in-law of the Nawab of Carnatic Dost Ali Khan, under whom he worked as
a Dewan.
• Chanda Sahib was an ally of the French and annexed the Madurai Nayak and was declared as the Nawab
of Tanjore. He was weakened by constant Maratha attacks and was defeated by Muhammed Ali Khan
Wallajah who was allied to Nasir Jung.
• After his forces were defeated by Robert Clive and the Maratha Empire he attempted to recuperate his
losses but was beheaded in a mutiny by Hindu subjects in the Tanjore army.

E
• After 1749 the growing influences of the English and the French and their colonial wars had a huge impact
on the Carnatic.
•

•
OR
Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah supported the English against the French and Hyder Ali, placing
him heavily in debt. As a result he had to surrender much of his territory to the East India Company.
The thirteenth Nawab, Ghulam Muhammad Ghouse Khan (1825-1855), died without issue, and the
British annexed the Carnatic Nawabdom, applying the doctrine of lapse.
SC
• Ghouse Khan’s uncle Azim Jah was created the first Prince of Arcot (Amir-e-Arcot) in 1867 by Queen
Victoria, and was given a tax free-pension in perpetuity.
GS
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THE MARATHA
• The emergence and growth of the Maratha state during the 17th century was an important episode in the
history of India.
• The Territory which includes modern state of Bombay Konkan, Kandesh, Berar, part of Madhya Pradesh,
and part of Hyderabad state was Maratha state.

E
OR
SC
GS

• The physical environment of the Maratha country shaped certain peculiar qualities among the Marathas.
The mountainous region and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt guerilla tactics. The
Marathas built a number of forts on the mountains.
• The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among them.
The spiritual leaders like Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered social unity.
• The political unity was conferred by Shivaji. The Marathas held important positions in the administrative
and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. There were a number of influential
Maratha families such as the Mores and Nimbalkers. But the credit of establishing a powerful Maratha
state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji.
SHIVAJI (1627-1680)
• Shivaji was born at Shivner in 1627.
• His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai.
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• He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.

• After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of his jagir. Even
before that he conquered Raigarh, Kondana and Torna from the ruler of Bijapur.
• He captured Javli from a Maratha chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the master of Mavala region.
• In 1657, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the Konkan region.
• The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji, but Afzal Khan was murdered by Shivaji in 1659
in a daring manner.
• The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb sent the Mughal governor of the Deccan, Shaista Khan against Shivaji.
Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces and lost Poona. But Shivaji once again made
a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at Poona in 1663, killed his son and wounded Khan. This
daring attack affected the prestige of Khan and he was recalled by Aurangazeb.
• In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and plundered it. This time Aurangazeb

E
sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji. He made elaborate preparations and succeeded in
besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji lodged his family and treasure.
•
OR
Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purander was signed in 1665. According to
the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts held by him. The remaining
12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to Mughal empire.
• On the other hand, the Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold certain parts of the Bijapur
SC
kingdom. As Shivaji asked to exempt him from personal service to the Mughals, his minor son Shambaji
was granted a mansab of 5000.
• Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there, but, he managed to escape from prison and made
military preparations and renewed his wars against the Mughals.
• Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670. He also captured all his lost territories by his
conquests.
GS

• In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chatrapathi.
• He led an expedition into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and Vellore. After his return from this
expedition, Shivaji died in 1680.
Shivaji’s administration
• Shivaji had laid the foundation of a sound system of administration and his administrative system was
largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan state.
• Like all other medieval rulers, Shivaji was a despot with all powers concentrated in his hands. He possessed
all executive and legislative power.
• Shivaji was a great organizer and constructive civilian administrator. The one of the novelty of Shivajis
administration was the introduction of Maratha language as the state language.
(1) Central Administration
• The king was at the helm of the affairs.
• The administration was divided into eight departments headed by ministers who are sometimes called
Ashtapradhan.
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• The eight ministers were:

(i) Peshwa who looked after the finances and general administration.
(ii) Sari-Naubat who was the Senapati.
(iii) Majumdar looked after the accounts.
(iv) Waqai navis looked after the intelligence, post and household affairs.
(v) Surnavis or Chitnis looked after official correspondence.
(vi) Dabir looked after foreign affairs.
(vii) Nyayadhish looked after justice.
(viii) Pandit Rao looked after ecclesiastical affairs.
• The ashtapradhan was not a creation of Shivaji and many of these officers like Peshwa, Majumdar, Waqai
navis, Dabir and Surnavis had existed under the Deccani rulers also.

E
• All the members of the asthapradhan except Pandit Rao and Nyaydhish were asked to lead military
campaigns.
OR
• Under Shivaji these offices were neither hereditary nor permanent and held the office at the pleasure of
the king. They were also frequently transferred.
• Each of the ashtapradhan was assisted by eight assistants diwan, Majumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis; Karkhanis,
Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis. Chitnis dealt with all diplomatic correspondences and wrote all royal letters.
SC

• The Fadnis used to respond to the letters of commanders of the forts.

• The Potnis looked after the income and expenditure of the royal treasury.
(ii) Provincial and Local Administration
• The provincial administration was also organized on the Deccani and Mughal system.
GS

• All the provincial units already existed under the Deccani rulers. Shivaji reorganized and in certain cases
renamed them.
• The provinces were known as Prants. The Prants were under the charge of Subedar.
• Over a number of Subedar there were Sarsubedar to control and supervise the work of Subedar.
• Smaller than Prant were Tarfs which were headed by a Havaldar.
• Under Tarfs there were Mauzas or villages which were the lowest unit of administration.
• At the level of village, Kulkarni used to keep accounts and maintained records while Patil had legal and
policing power.
• At the level of Pargana, Deshpande used to keep account and maintain records while Deshmukh had legal
and policing powers.
• The Police officer in rural area was called Faujdar and in urban area was called Kotwal.
• The Maratha polity did not have unified civilian-cum-military rank.
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• Under the Marathas performance based Brahmin elites manned the central bureaucracy and the local
administration. In this capacity they were called Kamvishdar who enjoyed wide powers of tax assessment
and collection. They adjudicated cases, provided information about local conditions and kept records.
Later on, the British District collector was modelled on this Maratha officer only.
Army
• Cavalry and infantry constituted the primary part of the army.
• The Paga cavalrymen were called the Bargirs. They were provided horses by the state while the Silahdars
purchased their armies and horses themselves.
• The Paga cavalry was well organized. Twenty five horsemen formed a unit which was placed under a
Havildar.
• Shivaji preferred to give cash salaries to the regular soldiers, though some time the chief received revenue
grants.

E
• Strict disciplines was maintained in the army. The plunder taken by each soldiers during campaign was
strictly accounted for in the army organization of Shivaji.
•
OR
Shivaji maintained a navy as well. The navy was divided into two parts and each part was commanded
by Darive Nayak and Mai Nayak respectively.
Finance and Revenue
• The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the system of Malik Ambar land revenue; Trade
SC
Tax etc. were the primary source of the fixed income of Shivaji.
• But income from these sources was not sufficient to meet the expenditure of the state. Therefore Shivaji
collected the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the territory which was either under his enemies or under
his own influence.
• The chauth was 1/4 part of the income of the particular territory while the Sardeshmukhi was 1/10.
GS

Shivaji collected these taxes simply by force of his army. These taxes constituted primary source of the
income of Shivaji and after wards helped in the extension of the power and territory of the Marathas.
• The revenue system of Shivaji was Rytowari in which the state kept direct contact with peasants.
• Shivaji mostly avoided the system of assigning Jagir to his officers and whenever he assigned Jagir to
them, the right of collecting the revenue was kept with state officials.
Successors of Shivaji
• There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his sons, Shambaji and Rajaram and
Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals.
• Rajaram succeeded the throne but the Mughals made him to flee to the Ginjee fort. He died at Satara.
• Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II with his mother Tara Bai as regent.
• The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power.
THE PESHWAS (1713-1818)
Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720)
• Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official and became Peshwa in 1713.
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• As Peshwa, he made his position the most important and powerful as well as hereditary.
• He played a crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the Maratha ruler.
• He sought the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu.
• In 1719, Balaji Viswanath got certain rights from the then Mughal emperor, Farukh Siyar.
– First, the Mughal emperor recognized Shahu as the Maratha king.
– Second, he allowed Shahu to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal provinces of
the Deccan including the Carnatic and Mysore.
Baji Rao I (1720-1740)
• Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath and he succeeded his father as Peshwa at the age young
of twenty.
• The Maratha power reached its zenith under him.

E
• He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this system, each Maratha chief
was assigned a territory which could be administered autonomously.
OR
• As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in different parts
of India.
• They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior,
and the Peshwas at Poona.
SC

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

• Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of nineteen.
• The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue. His nominated successor Ramraja was imprisoned
by the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao at Satara.
• The full control of the Maratha kingdom came under the Peshwa.
GS

• Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor in 1752. According to it, the Peshwa gave
assurance to the Mughal Emperor that he would protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external
enemies for which the Chauth of the northwest provinces and the total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer
provinces would be collected by the Marathas.
• Thus when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the Marathas to protect
India. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the third Battle of Panipat in
1761. But they got defeated. Many Maratha leaders and thousands of soldiers died in this battle.
• Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the news of defeat at the battle of Panipat. Also, this battle gave a
deadly blow to the Maratha power. Thereafter, the Maratha confederacy weakened due to internal conflicts
among the Maratha chiefs.
The Bhonsles
• The line at Nagpur Bhonsles was subordinate to the Satara rulers.
• A crucial figure from this line was Raghuji Bhonsle (ruled 1727-55), who was responsible for the Maratha
incursions on Bengal and Bihar in the 1740s and early 1750s.
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• The relations of his successors, Janoji, Sabaji, and Mudhoji, with the Peshwas and the Satara line of
Bhonsles were varying, and it is in this sense that these domains can be regarded as only loosely
confederated, rather than tightly bound together.
• Other subordinate rulers who emerged under the overarching umbrella provided by the Satara ruler and
his Peshwa were equally somewhat opportunistic in their use of politics.
The Gaikwads
• The Gaikwads, gathered prominence in the 1720. Initially they were subordinate not only to the Bhonsles
but also to the powerful Dabhade family.
• However, it was only after the death of Sahu, when the power of the Peshwas was further enhanced, that
the position of the Gaikwads truly improved.
• By the early 1750s, their rights on large portion of the revenues of Gujarat were recognized by the
Peshwa.

E
• The expulsion of the Mughal governor of the Gujarat province from his capital of Ahmadabad in 1752
set the seal on the process.
•

•
of trade and consumption in the area. OR
The Gaikwads preferred, however, to establish their capital in Baroda, causing realignment in the network

The rule at Baroda of Damaji (1768) was followed by a period of some turmoil.
SC
• The Gaikwads still remained partly dependent on Pune and the Peshwa, especially to intervene in moments
of succession crisis.
• The eventual successor of Damaji, Fateh Singh (ruled 1771- 89), did not remain allied to the Peshwa for
long in the late 1770s and early 1780s, and chose to negotiate a settlement with the English East India
Company, which eventually led to increased British interference in his affairs.
GS

• By 1800, the British rather than the Peshwa were the final arbiters in determining succession among the
Gaikwads, who became subordinate rulers under them in the nineteenth century.
The Holkars
• Initially the Holkars had very little political power. However by 1730s their chief Malhar Rao Holkar
consolidated his position. He was granted a large share of the chauth collection in Malwa, eastern Gujarat,
and Khandesh.
• Within a few years, Malhar Rao consolidated his own principality at Indore, from which his successors
controlled important trade routes as well as the crucial trading centre of Burhanpur.
• After Malhar Rao, control of the dynastic fortunes fell largely to his son's widow, Ahalya Bai, who ruled
from 1765 to 1794 and brought Holkar power to great glory.
The Sindhias
• The Sindhias carved a prominent place for themselves in North Indian politics in the decades following
the third battle of Panipat (1761).
• The Sindhias were based largely in central India, first at Ujjain, and later (from the last quarter of the 18th
century) in Gwalior.
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• During the long reign of Mahadaji Sindhia (1761-94) family's fortunes were truly consolidated.
• Mahadaji, proved an effective and innovative military commander. He employed a large number of
European soldiers in his force. His power grew rapidly after 1770.
• He managed to make substantial inroads into North India that had been weakened by Afghan attacks.
• He intervened with some effect in the Mughal court during the reign of Shah Alam II. The Mughal king
made him the "deputy regent" of his affairs in the mid-1780s.
• His shadow fell not only across the provinces of Delhi and Agra but also on Rajasthan and Gujarat,
making him the most formidable Maratha leader of the era.
• The officials of the East India Company were very cautious in dealing with him. His relations with the
acting Peshwa, Nana Fadnavis at Pune were fraught with tension.
• Eventually, the momentum generated by Mahadaji could not be maintained by his successor Daulat Rao
Sindhia (1794-1827), who was defeated by the British and forced by treaty in 1803 to surrender his
territories both to the north and to the west.

E
• The careers of some of these potentates, especially Mahadaji Sindhia, illustrate the potency of Mughal
symbols even in the phase of Mughal decline. For instance, after recapturing Gwalior from the British,
OR
Mahadaji took care to have his control of the town sanctioned.
After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged as a great power in India but they could not
succeed in preventing the establishment of British power in India. The important causes for the downfall were
that there was lack of unity among the Maratha chiefs like Holkar, Scindia and Bhonsle. Also, the superiority
of the British army and fighting methods ultimately won.
SC
GS
Notes

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INDIAN STATES AND SOCIETY IN

THE 18TH CENTURY
• With the decline of Mughal central authority, the period between 1707 and 1761 witnessed a resurgence
of regional identity that promoted both political and economic decentralization.
• In due course, the enrichment of the regions emboldened local power-holders to take up arms against the
central authority.
• However, parochial goals prevented these rebels from consolidating their interests into an effective challenge
to the empire. They relied on support from kinsfolk, peasants, and smaller zamindars.
• In conditions of conflict and the absence of coordination among the local elements, the Mughal nobles

E
assumed the role of mediating between Delhi and the localities; as the imperial group weakened further,
the nobles found themselves virtually independent, if collectively so, controlling the centre from outside.
•
• OR
The necessity of emphasizing imperial symbols was inherent in the kind of power politics that emerged.
As each of the contenders in the regions, in proportion to his strength, looked for and seized opportunities
to establish his dominance over the others in the neighbourhood, each also apprehended and resisted any
such attempt by the others.
SC
• They all needed for their spoliations a kind of legitimacy, which was conveniently available in the long-
accepted authority of the Mughal emperor. They had no fear in collectively accepting the symbolic
hegemony of the Mughal centre, which had come to coexist with their ambitions.
ECONOMIC CONDITION IN 18TH CENTURY
• The Indian villages were largely self-sufficient and imported little from outside and the means of
GS

communication were backward.

• Indian agriculture was technically backward and stagnant. The techniques of production had remained
stationary for centuries.
• The peasant tried to make up for technical backwardness by working very hard. Even though it was his
produce that supported the rest of the society, their condition was miserably inadequate.
• The state, the zamindars, the jagirdars, and the revenue-farmers tried to extract the maximum amount
from them. This was as true of the Mughal state as of the Maratha or Sikh chiefs or other successors
of the Mughal state.
• Since India was on the whole self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural products, it did not import
foreign goods on a large scale.
• On the other hand, its industrial and agricultural products had a steady market abroad.
• Consequently, it exported more than it imported and its trade was balanced by import of silver and gold.
In fact, India was known as a sink of precious metals.
• Extensive trade within the country and between India and other countries of Asia and Europe was carried
on under the Mughals.
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• India imported pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose water from the Persian Gulf region;
coffee, gold, drugs, and honey from Arabia; tea, sugar, porcelain, and silk from China; gold, musk and
woolen cloth from Tibet; tin from Singapore; spices, perfumes, arrack, and sugar from the Indonesian
islands; ivory and drugs from Africa; and woolen cloth, metals such as copper, iron, and lead, and paper
from Europe.
• India's most important article of export was cotton textiles which were famous all over the world for their
excellence and were in demand everywhere. India also exported raw silk and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo,
saltpetre, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices, precious stones, and drugs.
• As the old commercial centres of Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka degenerated, colonial port cities like
Bombay, Madras and Calcutta centres of prominence.
• But the decline of the Mughal capitals of Delhi and Agra was offset by the rise of regional capitals,
including Lucknow, Hyderabad, the various Maratha cities, and Seringapatam.
• The level of urbanization was higher in 1800 than a century before. What had changed in the urban centres
was the relative balance of power between rulers and merchants. In some instances, commercial and

E
financial magnets were arrogating to themselves the powers of the state.
• Constant warfare and disruption of law and order in many areas during the 18th century harmed the
OR
country's internal trade and disrupted its foreign trade to some extent and in some directions.
• Moreover, with the rise of autonomous provincial regimes and innumerable local chiefs, the number of
custom houses or chowkies grew by leaps and bounds.
• Every petty or large ruler tried to increase his income by imposing heavy customs duties on goods entering
SC

or passing through his territories. All these factors had an injurious effect on trade though much less than
generally believed.
• The impoverishment of the nobles, who were the largest consumers of luxury products in which trade was
conducted, also injured internal trade.
• Political factors which hurt trade also adversely affected urban industries. Many prosperous cities, centres
GS

of flourishing industry, were sacked and devastated.

• Delhi was plundered by Nadir Shah; Lahore, Delhi and Mathura by Ahmad Shah Abdali; Agra by the Jats;
Surat and other cities of Gujarat and the Deccan by Maratha chiefs; Sarhind by the Sikhs, and so on.
• Similarly, artisans catering to the needs of the feudal class and the court suffered as the fortunes of their
patrons declined. The decline of internal and foreign trade also hit them hard in some parts of the country.
• Nevertheless, some industries in other parts of the country gained as a result of expansion in trade with
Europe due to the activities of the European trading companies.
• Even so India remained a land of extensive manufactures. Indian artisans still enjoyed fame all the world
over for their skill.
• The important centres of textile industry during this period were Dacca and Murshidabad in Bengal, Patna
in Bihar, Surat, Ahmedabad and Broach in Gujarat, Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh, Burhanpur in Maharashtra,
Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, and Agra in U.P., Multan and Lahore in the Punjab, Masulipatam, Aurangabad,
Chicacole and Vishakhapatnam in Andhra, Bangalore in Mysore, and Coimbatore and Madurai in Madras.
• Kashmir was a centre of woolen manufactures. Ship-building industry flourished in Maharashtra, Andhra,
and Bengal.
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• Writing about the great skill of Indians in this respect, an English observer wrote: "in ship-building they
probably taught the English far more than they learnt from them."
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE
• The society was divided into multi layered identities on the basis of religion, region, tribe, language, class
and caste.
• Caste was the central feature of the social life of the Hindus. Apart from the four varnas, Hindus were
divided into numerous castes (Jatis) which differed in their nature from place to place.
• The caste system rigidly divided people and permanently fixed their place in the social scale and was the
major divisive force and element of disintegration in the India of 18th century. It often split Hindus living
in the same village or region into many social atoms.
• It was, of course, possible for a person to acquire a higher social status by acquisition of high office or
power, as did the Holkar family in the I8th century. Sometimes, though not often, an entire caste would

E
succeed in raising itself in the caste hierarchy.
• Muslims were no less divided by considerations of caste, race, tribe, and status, even though their religion

•
•
enjoined social equality.
OR
The Shia and Sunni nobles were sometimes at loggerheads on account of their religious differences.
The Irani, Afghan, Turani, and Hindustani Muslim nobles and officials often stood apart from each other.
SC
• A large number of Hindus converted to Islam carried their caste into the new religion and observed its
distinctions, though not as rigidly as before.
• Moreover, the Sharif Muslims consisting of nobles, scholars, priests, and army officers, looked down upon
the Ajlaf Muslims or the lower class Muslims in a manner similar to that adopted by the higher caste
Hindus towards the lower caste Hindus.
GS

• A friendly relation between Hindus and Muslims was a very healthy feature of life in 18th century India.
Even though the nobles and chiefs of the time fought each other incessantly, their fights and their alliances
were seldom based on distinctions of religion. In other words, their politics were essentially secular.
• All people, high or low, respected one another's religion and a spirit of tolerance, even harmony, prevailed.
This was particularly true of the common people in the villages and towns who fully shared one another's
joys and sorrows, irrespective of religious affiliations.
• Hindus and Muslims cooperated in non-religious spheres such as social life and cultural affairs. The
evolution of a composite Hindu-Muslim culture, and of common ways and attitudes, continued unchecked.
• Hindu writers often wrote in Persian while Muslim writers wrote in Hindi, Bengali, and other vernaculars,
often dealing with subjects of Hindu social life and religion, such as Radha and Krishna, Sita and Ram,
and Nal and Damyanti.
• The development of Urdu language and literature provided a new meeting ground between Hindus and
Muslims.
• Even in the religious sphere, the mutual influence and respect that had been developing in the last few
centuries as a result of the spread of the Bhakti movement among Hindus and Sufism among Muslims
continued to grow.
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• A large number of Hindus worshipped Muslim saints and many Muslims showed equal veneration for
Hindu gods and saints.
• Muslim rulers, nobles, and commoners paricipated in the Hindu festivals such as Holi, Diwali, and Durga
Puja, just as Hindus participated in the Muharram processions.
• It is noteworthy that Raja Ram Mohan Roy, was influenced in an equal measure by the Hindu and the
Islamic philosophical and religious systems.
• People of one region had far greater cultural synthesis irrespective of religion than people following the
same religion spread over different regions. People living in the villages also tended to have a different
pattern of social and cultural life than that of the town dwellers.
• The family system in the 18th century India was primarily patriarchal, that is, the family was dominated
by the senior male member and inheritance was through the male line.
• In Kerala, however, the family was matrilineal.
• Women were subjected to nearly complete male control. They were expected to live as mothers and wives

E
only, though in these roles they were shown a great deal of respect and honour. Even during war and
anarchy women were seldom molested and were treated with respect.
OR
• But the women, of the time possessed little individuality of their own. There were also exceptions to this
rule like Ahilya Bai administered Indore with great success from 1766 to 1796. Many other Hindu and
Muslim ladies played important roles in 18th century politics.
• While women of the upper classes were not supposed to work outside their homes, peasant women
SC

usually worked in the fields. A women of the poorer classes often worked outside their homes to supplement
the family income.
• The purdah was common mostly among the higher classes in the North. It was not practiced in the South.
• Women were expected to marry only once in her life-time. The custom of early marriage prevailed all over
the country. Sometimes children were married when they were only three or four years of age.
GS

• Among the upper classes, the evil customs of incurring heavy expenses on marriages and of giving dowry
to the bride prevailed. The evil of dowry was especially widespread in Bengal and Rajputana. In Maharashtra
it was curbed to some extent by the energetic steps taken by the Peshwas.
• Two great social evils of the 18th century India, apart from the caste system, were the custom of sati
and the condition of widows.
• Sati was mostly prevalent in Rajputana, Bengal and other parts of northern India. In the South it was
uncommon and the Marathas did not encourage it. Even in Rajputana and Bengal it was practiced only
by the families of rajas, chiefs, big zamindars and upper castes.
• Widows belonging to the higher classes ould not remarry, though in some regions and in some castes, few
examples, among non-Brahmins in Maharashtra, the Jats and people of the hilly regions of the North,
widow remarriage was quite common.
• In general, she was expected to renounce all the pleasures of the earth and to serve selflessly the members
of her husband's or her brother's family, depending on where she spent the remaining years of her life.
• Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and the Maratha General Prashuram Bhau tried to promote widow
remarriage but failed.
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• Cultural continuity with the preceding centuries was, of course, maintained but at the same time culture
remained wholly traditionalist.
• Cultural activities of the time were mostly financed by the Royal Court, rulers, and nobles and chiefs
whose impoverishment led to their gradual neglect.
• The most rapid decline occurred precisely in those branches of arts which depended on the patronage of
kings, princes, and nobles.
• This was true most of all of Mughal architecture and painting. Many of the painters of the Mughal school
migrated to provincial courts and flourished at Hyderabad, Lucknow, Kashmir, and Patna.
• At the same time new schools of painting were born and achieved distinction. The paintings of Kangra
and Rajput Schools revealed new vitality and taste.
• In the field of architecture, the Imambara of Lucknow reveals proficiency in technique but decadence in
architectural taste. The city of Jaipur and its buildings give an example of continuing vigour.

E
• Music continued to develop and flourish in the 18th century. Significant progress was made in this field
in the reign of Muhammad Shah.
•

•
OR
The main weakness of Indian culture lay in the field of science. Throughout the 18th century India
remained far behind the West in science and technology.
The Indians who had in earlier ages made vital contributions in the fields of mathematics and natural
sciences, had been neglecting the sciences for several centuries.
SC
• The Indians remained almost wholly ignorant of the scientific, cultural, political, and economic achievements
of the West.
• The 18th century Indian rulers did not show any interest in things western except in weapons of war and
techniques of military training.
• This weakness in the realm of science was to a large extent responsible for the total subjugation of India
GS

by the most advanced country of the time.

LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION
• Indian languages lost its touch with life and became decorative, artificial, mechanical and traditional.
• Its pessimism reflected the prevailing sense of despair and cynicism, while its content reflected the
impoverishment of the spiritual life of its patrons, the feudal nobles and kings.
• A noteworthy feature of the literary life of the 18th century was the spread of Urdu language and the
vigorous growth of Urdu poetry.
• Urdu gradually became the medium of social intercourse among the upper classes of northern India.
While Urdu poetry shared, in common the weaknesses of the contemporary literature in other Indian
languages, it produced brilliant poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir, and in the 19th century, the great genius Mirza
Ghalib.
• Similarly, there was a revival of Malayalam literature, especially under the patronage of the Travancore
rulers, Martanda Varma and Rama Varma.
• One of the great poets of Kerala, Kunchan Nambiar, who wrote popular poetry in the language of daily
usage, lived at this time.
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• The 18th century Kerala also witnessed the full development of Kathakali literature, drama and dance.
The Padmanabhan Palace with its remarkable architecture and mural paintings was also constructed in the
18th century.
• Tayaumanavar (1706-44) was one of the best exponents of sittar poetry in Tamil in line with other sitar
poets, he protested against the abuses of temple-nile and the caste system.
• In Assam, literature developed under the patronage of the Ahom kings.
• Dayaram, cue of the great lyricists of Gujarat, wrote during the second half of the 18th century.
• Heer Ranjha, the famous romantic epic in Punjabi, was composed-at this time by Waris Shah.
• For Sindhi literature, the 18th century was a period of enormous achievement. Shah Abdul Latif composed
his famous collection of poems, Shah Jo Risalo. Sachal and Sami were the other great Sindhi poets of the
century.
• Education was not completely neglected in 18th century India, but could not change according to the
requirements of the time.

E
• It was traditional and out of touch with the rapid developments in the West. The curriculum was confined
to literature, languages, law, religion, philosophy and logic and excluded the study of physical and natural
OR
sciences, technology and geography.
• Nor did it concern itself with a factual and rational study of society. In all fields original thought was
discouraged and reliance placed on ancient learning.
• The centers of higher education were spread all over the country and were usually financed by nawabs,
SC

rajas, and rich zamindars.

• Interestingly enough, the average literacy was not less than what it was under the British later.
• Though the standard of primary education was inadequate by modern standards, it sufficed for the limited
purposes of those days.
• A very pleasant aspect of education then was that the teachers enjoyed high prestige in the community.
GS

• A bad feature of it was that girls were seldom given education, though some women of the higher classes
were an exception.
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ADVENT OF EUROPEANS
• Before the beginning of the formal rule of the British in India, there was a background of Indo-European
economic relationship.
• The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route either through the
Oxus valley or Syria or Egypt.
• But, the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and
thereafter, many trading companies came to India and established their trading centres.
• The British East India Company was a Joint- Stock Company established in 1600, as the Company of

E
Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies.
• During this time, other trading companies, established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were

•
similarly expanding in the region.
OR
The British Company gained footing in India in 1612 after Mughal emperor Jahangir granted the rights
to establish a factory (a trading post) in Surat to Sir Thomas Roe, a representative diplomat of Queen
Elizabeth Ist of England.
SC
• They entered India as traders at the outset but by the passage of time indulged in the politics of India
and finally established their colonies.
• The commercial rivalry among the European powers led to political rivalry. Ultimately, the British succeeded
in establishing their rule India.
THE DUTCH
GS

• In March, 1602, by a charter of the Dutch parliament the Dutch East India Company was formed with
powers to make wars, concluded treaties, acquire territories and build fortresses.
• The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam (1641),
Karikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Negapatam (all in 1658) and
Cochin (1663).
• In the 17th century, they supplanted the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with
the East, including India.
• Pulicat was their centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it.
• In the middle of the 17th century (1654) the English began to emerge as a formidable colonial power.
• After 60-70 years of rivalry with the English, the Dutch power in India began to decline by the beginning
of the 18th century.
• Their final collapse came with their defeat by the English in the battle of Bedera in 1759.
• One by one the Dutch lost their settlement to the English and their expulsion from their possessions in
India by the British came in 1795.
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THE PORTUGUESE
• The Portuguese traveler Vasco da Gama reached the port of Calicut on 17 May 1498 and he was warmly
received by Zamorin, the ruler of Calicut. He returned to Portugal in the next year.
• Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived in 1500 and Vasco da Gama also made a second trip in 1502.
• They established trading stations at Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin.
• The first governor of the Portuguese in India was Francis de Almeida.
• Later in 1509 Albuquerque was made the governor of the Portuguese territories in India.
• In 1510, he captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur. Thereafter, Goa became the capital of the Portuguese
settlements in India.
• Albuquerque captured Malacca and Ceylon. He also built a fort at Calicut.
• Albuquerque encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women.

E
• Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India.
• The successors of Albuquerque established Portuguese settlements at Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the
OR
west coast and at Santhome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
• However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the sixteenth century. They lost all their
possessions in India except Goa, Daman and Diu in the next century.
THE DANES
SC

• Denmark also established trade settlements in India and their settlement at Tranquebar was founded in
1620.
• Another important Danish settlement in India was Serampore in Bengal.
• Serampore was their headquarters in India.
GS

• The Danes failed to strengthen themselves in India and they sold all their settlement in India to the British
in 1845.
THE FRENCH
• The French East India Company was formed by Colbert under state patronage in 1664.
• The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668. Later Maracara set up a
factory at Masulipatam in 1669.
• A small village was acquired from the Muslim governor of Valikondapuram by Francois Martin and
Bellanger de Lespinay in 1673. The village developed into Pondicherry and its first governor was Francois
Martin.
• Also Chandernagore in Bengal was acquired from the Mughal governor in 1690.
• The French power in India declined between 1706 and 1720 which led to the reconstitution of the
Company in 1720.
• The French power in India was revived under Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 and 1742.
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• They occupied Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal (both in 1725) and Karikal in Tamil Nadu
(1739).
• The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo French conflict
(Carnatic wars) resulting in their final defeat in India.
THE ENGLISH
• The English East India Company (also known as the East India Trading Company, and, after the Treaty
of Union, the British East India Company) was formed by a group of merchants known as 'Merchant
Adventures' in 1599.
• The Company was granted an English Royal Charter, under the name Governor and Company of Merchants
of London Trading into the East Indies, by Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, making it the oldest among
several similarly formed European East India Companies, the largest of which was the Dutch East India
Company.

E
• In 1608, the company decided to open a factory (the name given to a trading depot) at Surat.
• The English ambassador Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangir's Court to seek permission for trade with

•
Imperial Government. OR
India. But initially it was turned down due to Portuguese intrigue. This convinced the English of the need
to overcome Portuguese influence at the Mughal Court if they were to obtain any concessions from the

The Company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally near Surat in 1612,
where two English naval ships under Captain Best defeated a Portuguese naval squadron.
SC
• These victories led the Mughals to hope that in view of their naval weakness they could use the English
to counter the Portuguese on the sea. Moreover, the Indian merchants would certainly benefit by competition
among their foreign buyers.
• Captain Bust succeeded in getting a royal firman by Jahangir permitting the English to build a factory in
Surat, Cambaya, Ahmedabad and Goa in 1613.
GS

• The English were not satisfied with this concession and in 1615 their ambassador Sir Thomas Roe reached
the Mughal Court. They also exerted pressure on the Mughal authorities by taking advantage of India's
naval weakness and harassing Indian traders and ship from the Red Sea and to Mecca.
• Thus, combining entreaties with threats, Roe succeeded in getting an Imperial farman to trade establish
factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire.
• Roe's success further angered the Portuguese and a fierce naval battle between the two countries began
in 1620 which ended in English victory. Hostilities between the two came to an end in 1630.
• In 1662 the Portuguese gave the Island of Bombay to King Charles II of England as dowry for marrying
a Portuguese Princess. Eventually, the Portuguese lost all their possessions in India except Goa, Daman
and Diu.
• The Company, benefiting from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations,
eclipsing the Portuguese Estado da India, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong and Bombay.
• The Company created trading posts in Surat (where a factory was built in 1612), Madras (1639), Bombay
(1668), and Calcutta (1690).
• By 1647, the Company had 23 factories, each under the command of a factor or master merchant and
governor if so chosen, and had 90 employees in India.
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• The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and
the Bombay Castle.
• In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of Bengal, and
in 1717 completely waived customs duties for the trade.
• The company's mainstay businesses were by then in cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre and tea.
• By a series of five acts around 1670, King Charles II provisioned it with the rights to autonomous
territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war
and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.
IMPACT OF EUROPEANS ON INDIA’S FOREIGN TRADE
• With the arrival of the Europeans, particularly the Dutch and the English, there was a tremendous increase
in the demand for Indian textiles for both the Asian markets and later the European market.
• The Asian markets for Indian textiles were developed over a long period. There markets were extensive
and widespread and there was great diversity in their demand.
•

E
There was a bilateral trade between the Coromandal and various parts of South East Asia such as
Malacca, Java and the Spice Islands. In this trade, the Coromandal textiles acted as a link in a multilateral
OR
trade, embracing the Coromandal, South-East Asia, West Asia, and the Mediterranean. In this trade,
Coromandal textiles were exchanged for South-East Asian spices which were in turn meant for the West
Asian and Mediterranean markets.
• The European market for Indian textiles actually developed around the middle of the 17th century, and
SC

thereafter it grew by leaps and bounds.

• The intra-Asian trade witnessed severe competition among the various groups of merchants, such as the
Portuguese, the Dutch, the English, the Danes, and the Indians consisting of both the Moors and the
Chettis, whereas the European market for Indian textiles was dominated entirely by the European companies,
particularly the English and the Dutch, with the Indian merchants acting essentially as middleman.
• European participation in the foreign trade of India showed a marked increase in the second half of the
GS

17th century. This increase can be seen clearly in the sharp rise in their investments, a large part of which
was in textiles meant for the Asian markets as well as the European market.
• Though initially European investment in Indian textiles considerably exceeded those ordered for the
European market, by the end of the 17th century the situation was reversed with two-thirds of it going
for the European market and only one-third for the Asian market.
• Among the various European companies competing for Indian textiles, the main rivalry was between the
Dutch and the English, with the former initially having an edge but the latter gradually gaining supremacy
by the turn of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century.
• With regard to the textile varieties that were exported from the Coromandal to South East Asia and other
Asian markets, and later to Europe, the European records give a very long list.
• The various types, in order of importance, were long-cloth, salempors, moris (chintz), guinea-cloth, bethiles,
allegias, sarassas, tapis, and the like.
• All these varieties were being exported even during earlier periods to several Asian markets such as the
Moluccan Spice Islands, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Tenasserim, Pegu, Arakan,
Persia, Arabia, and the Red Sea ports.
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• But the specialty of the period under study was the increased European orders which, though matching
the already existing varieties, demanded measurements large than those in the Asian markets.
• Consequently, the Indian weavers had to change their methods and their looms to accommodate this
European demand.
• Many of them did so quite profitably, but it necessitated long-term contracts and rendered spot orders
improbable.
• The Indian economy, more specifically its textile trade and industry, during the second half of the 17th
century, was a seller (i.e. producers) market. For, when the three European companies- English, Dutch and
French were competing in the open market, making large orders from India, and these were supplemented
by European private trade and Indian trade, the weavers had greater flexibility and large freedom of
operation.
• The interchangeability of goods ordered by these various buyers, who were aiming at broadly the same
export market, made it possible for weaver produced was bought up by one or the other eager customers.

E
• If, for instance, any cloth produced by the weaver was rejected by the companies, then the weaver could
sell it to English private traders. This situation existed in many parts of the country where the three

OR
companies as well as the other buyers were in free competition.
SC
GS
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BRITISH EXPANSION IN INDIA

APPROACH OF EAST INDIA COMPANY IN INDIA
• The English East India Company had very humble beginnings in India and Surat was the centre of its trade
till 1687. Throughout this period the English remained petitioners before the Mughal authorities but
always tried to combine trade and diplomacy with war and control of the territory where their factories
were situated.
• In 1625 the Companys’ authorities at Surat made an attempt to fortify their factory but the chiefs of the
English factory were immediately imprisoned by the local authorities of the Mughal Empire.
• Similarly, when the Company's English rivals made piratical attacks on Mughal shipping, in relaliation the
Mughal authorities imprisoned the President of the Company at Surat and members of his Council and

E
released them only on payment of £18,000.
OR
• Conditions in the South were more favourable for them as they did not have to face a strong Indian
Government there. As Vijayanagar Kingdom had been overthrown in 1565 and its place taken by a
number of petty and weak states, it was easy to appeal to their greed or overawe them with armed
strength.
• The English opened their first factory in the South at Masulipatam in 1611, but they soon shifted the
SC

centre of their activity to Madras, the lease of which was granted by the local Raja in 1639.
• Madras was then a strip of coastal territory six miles long and one mile broad. Here the English built a
small fort around their factory called Fort St. George.
• By the end of the 17th century the English Company was claiming full sovereignty over Madras and was
ready to fight in, defence of the claim.
GS

• In Bombay, the English found a large and easily defended port and because English trade was threatened
at the time by the rising Maratha power. Bombay soon superseded Surat as the headquarters of the
Company on the West Coast.
• In Eastern India, the English Company had opened its first factory in Orissa in 1633.
• In 1651 it was given permission to trade at Hugli in Bengal and soon opened factories at Patna, Balasore,
and other places in Bengal and Bihar.
• Their easy success in trade and in establishing independent and fortified settlements at Madras and at
Bombay, and the pre-occupation of Aurangzeb with the anti-Maratha campaigns led the English to abandon
the role of humble petitioners.
• Hostilities between the English and the Mughal Emperor broke out in 1686 after the former had sacked
Hugli and declared war on the Emperor. The war ended disastrously for them and they were driven out
of their factories in Bengal. Their factories at Surat, Masulipatam, and Vizagapataoi were seized and their
fort at Bombay besieged. The English once again became humble petitioners and pleaded for pardon.
• The Mughal authorities pardoned them on the pretext that foreign trade carried on by the Company
benefited Indian artisans and merchants and thereby enriched the States treasury.
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• Moreover, the English, though weak on land, were, because of their naval supremacy, capable of completely
ruining Indian trade to Iran, West Asia, Northern and Eastern Africa and East Asia.
• Aurangzeb therefore permitted them to resume trade on payment of Rs. 150,000 as compensation.
• In 1691 the Company was granted exemption from the payment of custom duties in Bengal in return for
Rs. 3,000 a year.
• In 1698, the Company acquired the zamindari of the three villages Sutanati, Kalikata, and Govindpur
where it built Fort William around its factory.
• In 1717 the Company secured from Emperor Farrukh Siyar a farman confirming the privileges granted in
1691 and extending them to Gujarat and the Deccan.
• During the first half of the 18th century Bengal was ruled by strong Nawabs such as Murshid Quli Khan
and Alivardi Khan. They exercised strict control over the English traders and prevented them from
misusing their privileges. Nor did they allowed them to strengthen fortifications at Calcutta or to rule the

E
city independently. Here the East India Company remained a mere zamindar of the Nawab.
• Even though the political ambitions of the Company were frustrated, its commercial affairs flourished. Its

•
OR
imports from India into England increased from 1708 to 1740. This increase was recorded in spite of the
fact that the English Government forbade the use of Indian cotton and silk textiles in England in order
to protect the English textile industry and to prevent export of silver from England to India.
Thus at a time when the English were pleading for free trade in India they were restricting freedom of trade
in their own country and denying access to Indian manufactures.
SC

• Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta contained fortified English settlements; they also had immediate access to
the sea where English naval power remained far superior to that of the Indians.
• In case of conflict with any Indian authority, the English could always escape from these cities to the sea.
And when a suitable opportunity arose for them to take advantage of the political disorders in the country,
they could use these strategic cities as spring-boards for the conquest of India.
GS

• British settlements in these three cities became the nuclei of flourishing cities. Large numbers of Indian
merchants and bankers were attracted to these cities. This was due partly to the new commercial opportunities
available in these cities and partly to the unsettled conditions and insecurity outside them, caused by the
break-up of the Mughal Empire.
CONTEST FOR TRADE MONOPOLY IN INDIA
• The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish
sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The Company developed a lobby in the
English parliament.
• Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the Company (pejoratively termed
Interlopers by the Company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was
passed in 1694. This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of
parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years.
• By an act passed in 1698, a new "parallel" East India Company (officially titled the English Company
Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state-backed indemnity of £2 million. The powerful
stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £315,000 in the new concern, and dominated
the new body.
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• The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant
share of the trade. It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original Company faced scarcely any
measurable competition.
• The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under
this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £3,200,000, in return for exclusive
privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated
company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
• In the following decades there was a constant see-saw battle between the Company lobby and the
Parliament.
• The Company sought a permanent establishment, while the Parliament was not willing to grant greater
autonomy and so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the Company's profits.
• In 1712, another act renewed the status of the Company. By 1720, 15% of British imports were from
India, almost all passing through the Company, which reasserted the influence of the Company lobby. The
license was prolonged till 1766 by yet another act in 1730.
BENGAL

E
OR
• During the short period of eight years (1757 to 1765) three nawabs, Siraj-ud- Daula, Mir Jafar and Mir
Qasim ruled over Bengal but they failed to uphold the sovereignty of the nawab and ultimately the reign
of control passed into the hands of the British.
• Bengal was the most fertile and the richest province of India and its industries and commerce were well
developed.
SC

• In the beginning, the East India Company and its servants had highly profitable trading interests in the
province.
• The Company secured valuable privileges in 1717 under a royal farman by the Mughal Emperor, which
had granted the Company the freedom to export and import their goods in Bengal without paying taxes
and the right to issue passes or dastaks for the movement of such goods.
GS

• The Company's servants were also permitted to trade but were not covered by this farman. They were
required to pay the same taxes as Indian merchants.
• This farman was a perpetual source of conflict between the Company and the Nawabs of Bengal. First
it meant loss of revenue to the Bengal Government. Secondly, the power to issue dastaks for the Company's
goods was misused by its servants to evade taxes on their private trade.
• All the Nawabs of Bengal, from Murshid Quli Khan to Alivardi Khan, had objected to the English
interpretation of the farman of 1717. They compelled the Company to pay lump sums to their treasury,
and firmly suppressed the misuse of dastaks.
• The Company had been compelled to accept the authority of the Nawabs in the matter, but its servants
had taken every opportunity to evade and defy this authority.
• By the time Siraj-ud-Daula succeeded Alivardi Khan as nawab of Bengal in 1756 trade privileges and their
misuse by the Company and its officers had already become an issue of conflict.
• Other factors like the repeated defiance of the nawab's authority along with sheltering the offenders of
the nawab were the acts on the part of the English Company which provoked the nawab.
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• The Company officials also suspected that nawab was going to have an alliance with the French in Bengal.
• The breaking point came when, without taking the Nawab's permission, the Company began to fortify
Calcutta in expectation of the coming struggle with the French, who were stationed at this time at
Chandernagore.
• Siraj-ud-Daula's prevented the English from fortifying Fort William. However the English refused to stop
the new fortification which prompted the Nawab to attack their factory at Casim Bazar.
• The Nawab captured Fort William, taking 146 Englishmen prisoners. Holed up in a very small room 123
died on 20th June, 1756 out of suffocation and only 23 survived. English historians describe this incident
as the Black Hole Tragedy.
• This incident instigated the English at Chennai to send a relieving force under Robert Clive alongwith
Admiral Watson to Bengal.
• The British retaliation started with hatching a conspiracy against the nawab in alliance with his Mir

E
Bakshi Mir Jafar, Manik Chand, the Officer-in-Charge of Calcutta, Amichand, a rich merchant, Jagat Seth,
the biggest banker of Bengal, and Khadim Khan, who commanded a large number of the Nawab's troops
and Rai Durlabh.
•
•
OR
Clive marched towards Plassey on 23rd June, 1757; which was near the Nawab's capital of Murshidabad.
As agreed earlier, Mir Jafar, the Commander-in-chief of Siraj-ud-daula did not take up arms against the
English army and on the other hand the Nawab's soldiers fled from the battlefield.
SC
• Later the Nawab was killed by, Mir Jafar's son Miran.
• Mir Madan and Mohan Lal, who were loyal to the Nawab fought bravely but were killed due to treachery
of Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh.
• English victory in the battle of Plassey (23 June, 1757) was pre-decided. It was not the superiority of the
military power but the conspiracy that helped the English in winning the battle.
GS

• Mir Jafar, the commander-in-chief of the Nawab was awarded the Nawabship by Clive for his support to
the English.
• Mir Jafar responded to this favour by paying a sum of Rs. One Crore and Seventy Seven lakhs to the
Company and large sums to the Company officers as bribe.
• But Mir Jafar could not support the ever increasing demands of the English who were also suspicious
about his collaboration with the Dutch Trading Company.
• Mir Jafar was deposed in 1760 and Mir Qasim was placed on the throne by the British. The new Nawab
assigned English the district of Burdawan, Midnapore and Chittagong for the expenses of the British army
which was to help him.
• This alliance was of great help to the British in their campaign against the French in 1760-1761; the
money paid by Mir Qasim helped the Calcutta Council to finance their war in South.
• The Nawab succeeded in establishing a better system of administration. But he came into conflict with
the British in Bengal on the question of a privilege, i.e., duty free private trade of the Company.
• Mir Qasim's proposed plan about equal trade duties for British and Indian traders was turned down by
the British Council at Calcutta.
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• Mir Qasim, in the circumstances, remitted all duties on Indians and the British alike for two years. This
measure deprived the British private traders of the privileged position they had created for themselves,
they could not compete with Indian traders on equal terms.
• The Nawab's attempts to reorganize the army and shifting of capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr were
also taken as unforgivable offences by the Company.
• The war broke out between Mir Kasim and the Company in 1763. Mir Qasim escaped to Oudh to
organise a confederacy with Shuja-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II
in a final bid to oust the English from Bengal.
• The combined armies of the three powers fought the battle of Buxar with English army commanded by
Major Munro on October 22, 1764.
• With a decisive victory at Buxar, the British army overran Awadh.
• The Nawab of Awadh fled to the Rohilla country, but Shah Alam II came to terms with the British.
• Lord Clive, then British Governor in Calcutta, also concluded treaty of Allahabad with the Shuja-ud-

E
Daula, Nawab of Awadh, who was to pay fifty lakhs of rupees for the expenses of the war and was given
back his dominions.
OR
• He entered into defensive alliance with the Company. Awadh became for the British a buffer state.
• The British gave emperor Shah Alam II possession of Kara and Allahabad, while he granted them the
Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in return for a regular annual payment of twenty-six lakhs of rupees.
• The Battle of Buxar made the English virtually the masters of Bengal as it also proved their military
SC

superiority and unchallenged power.

• As a result of his success in Bengal, Robert Clive was appointed the first Governor General of Bengal
and he consolidated the British power both in Bengal and in the Deccan.
• The Company acquired Diwani functions from Emperor Shah Alam II (12th August 1765) and Nizamat
functions from Subedar of Bengal.
GS

• For the exercise of Diwani functions, the company appointed two Deputy Diwans, Mohammad Reza
Khan for Bengal and Raja Shitab Roy for Bihar. Mohammad Reza Khan acted as deputy Nizam.
• This arrangement was known as Dual Government wherein the administration of Bengal was carried out
by two heads with the Nawab of Bengal being the nominal head and the Company, as the Diwan
controlled the revenue as well as police and judicial powers.
ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY
• In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the English and the French were competing with each other
to establish their supremacy in India.
• Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire
in their favour and indulged in internal politics.
• The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal.
First Carnatic War (1746-1748)
• The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ul-Mulk. The
Carnatic region also formed part of the Nizam’s dominion.
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• The ruler of the Carnatic accepted the suzerainty of the Nizam.

• In 1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe. In that war England and France were in
the opposite camps. They came into conflict in India also.
• The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and thus began the
First Carnatic War (1746-1748).
• The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar Uddin. But the French concluded a treaty
with his rival Chanda Sahib.
• The English army crushed a defeat on the French in the Battle of Adyar, near Madras.
• In the meantime, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle was concluded in 1748 to end the Austrian Succession
War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end.
Second Carnatic War (1749-1754)

E
• But the English and French continued to take opposite sides in the internal politics of India which resulted
in the Second Carnatic War (1749-1754).
•

•
Chanda Sahib, an aspirant for the throne of Arcot.
OR
Dupleix supported the cause of Muzafar Jang, who wanted to become the Nizam of Hyderabad and

The troops of these three defeated Anwar Uddin, who was with the British in the First Carnatic War, and
killed him in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
SC
• After this victory, Muzafar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of Arcot.
• Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar Uddin escaped to Tiruchirappalli. The English sent troops in support of
him.
• In the meantime, the British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot. He also inflicted a severe defeat
on the French at Kaveripakkam.
GS

• Chanda Sahib was captured and beheaded in Tanjore. Meanwhile Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as
the French governor.
• The war came to an end by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
Third Carnatic War (1758-1763)
• The outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe led to the Third Carnatic War (1758-1763).
Count de Lally was the commander of the French troops.
• The British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated him at Wandiwash in 1760.
• In 1761, Pondicherry was captured and destroyed by the British troops.
• The Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in 1763 and with it the third Carnatic War
also ended.
• The French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam.
• Thus the Anglo-French rivalry came to a close with British success and French failure.
Causes for the French failure
• The English were commercially and as a naval power were superior to French.
Notes

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• There was lack of support to the French’s from their government and there was difference of opinion
between the French Generals.
• French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a strong base in Bengal.
• English had three important ports – Calcutta, Bombay and Madras but French had only Pondicherry.
• England’s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India.
ANGLO-MYSORE WARS
• Hyder Ali strengthened his army by including French soldiers into his service.
• In 1755, established modern arsenal in Dindigul with French help.
• He extended his territories by conquering many areas in South India including Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara,
and Malabar to gain access to Indian Ocean.
• In 1766 Mysore began to be drawn into territorial and diplomatic disputes between the Nizam of Hyderabad
and the British East India Company, which had by then become the dominant European colonial power

E
on the Indian east coast.
First Mysore War (1767-1769)
OR
• The first Anglo-Mysore war started with attack of Marathas on Mysore in 1766, but Hyder Ali made
peace with Marathas paying them 35 lakh Rupees.
• After Marathas returned, Nizam attacked Mysore with the assistance of British. But even before the war
could be concluded, the Nizam changed the side and came towards Hyder Ali.
SC

• The English forces could not retaliate and retreated to Trichinopoly under Col. Smith.
• Later Col. Wood joined the British army and amid confusion, Hyder Ali retreated from the battle. Now
the British threatened to attack Hyderabad.
• This forced the Nizam to sign a treaty in 1768. As per the terms of this treaty the Nizam agreed to abide
GS

by the treaty signed with British in context with the Northern Circars.
• Hyder Ali was regarded as usurper and was refused to be acknowledge as ruler of Mysore, Nizam agreed
to help the British to punish Hyder Ali. The important aspect of this treaty was that Nizam agreed to give
the British Diwani Rights of Mysore when Hyder Ali was ousted and Mysore is won by him.
• Hyder Ali was defeated at Changam and Tiruvannamalai in 1767. At the same time Tipu Sultan, son of
Hyder Ali advanced towards Madras and the English were forced to enter into an agreement.
• The result was the Treaty of Madras in April 1769 and it maintained the status quo. As per the Treaty
of Madras: Both the Parties returned the areas won by each other. The District of Arcot was given to
Nawab of Arcot British & Hyder Ali promised that they would support each other if there is any foreign
invasion.
Second Mysore War (1780-84)
• Hyder Ali in the impression that as per the terms of this treaty, British would come to help in if there
is a conflict with the Marathas.
• He started demanding tributes from the smaller states on the border of Maratha and Mysore.
• The Marathas responded this in 1770 with a force of over 30 thousand.
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• Hyder Ali requested the British to help, but British did not turned up.
• The result was that all the territories of Hyder were confiscated by the Marathas.
• Hyder again begged the British for the help, but the British placed some conditions which were not
acceptable to him. The result was that Hyder requested for peace with Marathas.
• There was an outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French (an ally of Haider) during the
American War of Independence.
• Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas against the British
in 1779.
• When Mahe, a French possession in the dominion of Hyder Ali was attacked by the English, he declared
war on the English in 1780.
• Hyder Ali defeated Colonel Braithowaite in Arcot and made the English surrender and occupied almost
the whole of Carnatic.

E
• Later,the English under Sir Eyre Coote, defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo in 1781.
•

•
British for two more years.
OR
In the meantime Hyder Ali died in 1782. After his death his son Tipu Sultan continued the war with the

The war came to an end with the Treaty of Mangalore signed in 1784. Both sides agreed to exchange
the captured territories and war prisoners and thus the war ended up without any concrete results.
SC
Third Mysore War (1790-92)
• The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength of Mysore, exposed English weaknesses
and increased Tipu's strength. Further, Tipu strengthened his position by undertaking various internal
reforms.
• All above mentioned factors created worries to the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas.
GS

• Moreover, Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and Turkey by sending envoys to those
countries. He also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbours, particularly the Raja of Travancore,
who was an ally of the British.
• In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu.
• Lord Cornwallis who had been made the Governor General of Bengal and the Commander-in-Chief of
the English army then declared a war on Tipu in 1790.
• Cornwallis himself assumed command of the war in December 1790.
• Cornwallis captured Bangalore in March 1791, but Tipu's brilliant strategies prolonged the war and he was
forced to retreat to Mangalore due to lack of provisions.
• In the mean time aid from the Marathas helped Cornwallis to resume his campaign attack against
Srirangapattinam again. Swiftly the English forces occupied the hill forts near Srirangapattinam and seized
it in February 1792.
• Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the British. As per treaty Tipu had to give
up half of his dominions. He had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees and surrender two of his
sons as hostages to the English.
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• The British secured a large territory on the Malabar Coast. In addition they obtained the Baramahal district
and Dindugal.
Fourth Mysore War (1799)
• The Treaty of Srirangapattinam failed to bring peace between Tipu Sultan and the British. Tipu Sultan sent
emissaries to Kabul, Constantinople, Arabia and France to get their support.
• At this juncture that Wellesley tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1790 with the Marathas. Though his
proposal was not accepted by the Marathas, they promised to remain neutral.
• However, a Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam was concluded by the British and as a consequence, the
French force at Hyderabad was disbanded.
• Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of subsidiary alliance and wrote letters requesting the
Tipu to dismiss the French, to receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the Company and its
allies.
• Tipu refused the proposal and in response the the British declared war on him once again in 1799.

E
• The war was short and decisive. The Bombay army under General Stuart invaded Mysore from the west.
The Madras army, which was led by the Governor-General's brother, Arthur Wellesley, forced Tipu to
OR
retreat to his capital Srirangapattinam.
• Tipu Sultan died in battle while his family was deported first to Vellore and later to Calcutta.
• A five year old boy, Krishnaraja III, a descendant of the dethroned Hindu Raja, was enthroned at Mysore.
• Purnaiya, the previous minister, became Diwan.
SC

• The remaining parts of the kingdom were divided between the British and the Nizam. The whole of
Kanara, Wynad, Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Srirangapattinam were retained by the British whereas the
Nizam was given the areas around Gooty and a part of Chittoor and Chitaldurg districts.
• A British Resident was stationed at Mysore.
GS

ANGLO MARATHA WARS

• The third Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao was unable to bear the shock of the defeat of the Marathas in the Third
Battle of Panipat and died on June 23, 1761.
• He was succeeded by his son Madhav Rao who kept in check the ambition of his brother Raghunath Rao,
maintained unity among the Maratha chiefs and nobles and very soon recovered the power and prestige
of the Marathas which they had lost in the Third Battle of Panipat.
• The English became conscious of the growing power of the Marathas and got the opportunity to crush
their re-establishment soon after the death of Madhav Rao in 1772.
• The internal conflict among the Marathas was best utilized by the British in their expansionist policy
First Maratha War (1775-1782)
• The primary cause of the first Maratha war was the interference of the English in the internal affairs of
the Marathas.
• After the death of fourth Peshwa Madhav Rao in 1772 internal dissensions among Marathas left them
weakened.
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• His younger brother, Peshwa Narayan Rao succumbed to the intrigues of his ambitious uncle Raghunath
Rao, another claimant for the post of Peshwa.
• Raghunath Rao was opposed by a strong party at Poona under Nana Phadnavis who proclaimed Narayan
Rao's posthumous son as Peshwa.
• The British authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in March 1775.
Rahunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British but later when he was unwilling to
fulfill his promise, the British captured them.
• This action of the Bombay Government was not approved by Warren Hastings.
• In 1776, Warren Hastings sent Colonel Upton to settle the issue. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and
concluded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis, another Maratha leader.
• According to this treaty Madhava Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa and the British retained Salsette
along with a heavy war indemnity.

E
• However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of Purander. Warren Hastings also considered the

OR
Treaty of Purandar as a 'scrap of paper' and sanctioned operations against the Marathas.
• In the meantime, the British force sent by the Bombay Government was defeated by the Marathas.
• In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of Captain Popham. He defeated
the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of small battles and captured Gwalior.
SC
• The Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and Majadji Scinida in 1782. Under this treaty
Salsette and Bassein were given to the British and Raghunath Rao was pensioned off.
• The treaty established the British influence on Indian politics. It provided the British twenty years of
peace with the Marathas.
• The Treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in
GS

recovering their territories from Haider Ali.

• Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved themselves from the combined opposition of Indian powers and
on the other, succeeded in dividing the Indian powers.
Second Maratha War (1803-1805)
• The only power that remained outside the purview of the subsidiary system was the Marathas.
• Nana Fadnavis provided the leadership to the Marathas. He was responsible for the preservation of
independence of his country from the onslaught of the British.
• By extending a helping hand to Cornwallis against Tipu he was able to acquire a large slice of territory
as the share of the Marathas from the kingdom of Mysore.
• After the death of Nana Fadnavis in 1800 the infighting among the Maratha leaders proved to be self-
destructive.
• Jaswant Rao Holkar and Daulat Rao Scindia fought against each other. The Peshwa Baji Rao II supported
Scindia against Holkar. Holkar marched against the Peshwa and defeated the combined forces of Scindia
and the Peshwa.
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• Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to Bassein where he signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802. It was
a subsidiary treaty and the Peshwa was recognized as the head of the Maratha kingdom. Treaty of Bassein
is regarded as a very important step towards the establishment of the English dominance over India.
• The main provisions of Treaty of Bassein were the recognition of Peshwa's claim in Poona, acceptance
of Subsidiary Alliance by Baji Rao II and relinquishing of all rights to Surat by Baji Rao to the British.
• For Marathas, Treaty of Bassein was nothing short of surrender of national honour. Holkar and Scindia
stopped fighting. Scindia and Bhonsle combined but Holkar and Gaikwad remained aloof.
• The British army's led by Arthur Wellesley defeated the combined armies of Scindhia and Bhonsle at
Assaye in September 1803, and at Aragon in November 1803.
• In North, Lord Lake routed Scindia's army at Laswari and occupied Aligarh, Delhi and Agra.
• Both Scindia and Bhosle accepted the sovereignty of the English and entered into the Subsidiary Alliance
by concluding the Treaty of Sarji-i-Arjangaon and the Treaty of Deogaon respectively.
• Holkar alone was left in the field who still avoided their supremacy. Wellesley turned his attention towards

E
Holkar, but Yeshwant Rao Holkar proved more than a match for the British.
• Wellesley was called back from India and Sir George Barlow concluded with Holkar the treaty of Rajpurghat
OR
(1805) whereby the Maratha Chief gave up all claims to places North of Chambal, Bundelkhand and over
Peshwa and other allies of the Company while the latter got back greater part of his territories.
Suppression of the Pindaris
• The first reference about the Pindaris is during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra.
SC

• Pindaris did not belong to any particular caste or creed. They used to serve the army without any payment
but instead were allowed to plunder.
• During the time of Baji Rao I, they were irregular horsemen attached to the Maratha army. It is worth
mentioning that they never helped the British.
• They were mostly active in the areas of Rajputana and the Central Provinces and subsisted on plunder.
GS

• Their leaders belonged to both the Hindu as well as the Muslim communities. Chief amongst them were
Wasil Muhammad, Chitu and Karim Khan.
• In 1812, the Pindaris plundered the districts of Mirzapur and Shahabad and in 1815 they raided the
Nizam's dominions.
• In 1816, they plundered the Northern Circars.
• Lord Warren Hastings himself took command of the force from the north while Sir Thomas Hislop
commanded the force from the south against the Pindaris.
• By 1818, the Pindaris were completely suppressed and all their bands disintegrated.
• Karim Khan was given a small estate in the Gorakhpur district of the United Provinces.
• Wasil Muhammad took refuge in the Scindia's camp but the latter handed him over to the British.
• Wasil committed suicide in captivity and Chitu escaped to the forest, where a tiger killed him. Thus, by
1824, the menace of the Pindaris came to an end.
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Third Maratha War (1817-1819)

• Final phase of struggle began with coming of Lord Hastings as Governor General in 1813.
• He resumed the aggressive policy abondened in 1805. Hastings action against Pindaris transgressed the
sovereignty of Maratha Chiefs and two parties were drawn into war.
• Hastings forced humiliating treaties on the Raja of Nagpur (27th May 1816) on Peshwa (13th June 1817)
and Scindhia (5th Nov 1817).
• Greatly annoyed by the humiliating treaty, the Peshwa made a last bid to throw off the British yoke in
course of the third Maratha War and attacked British Residency at Poona in November 1817. He was
defeated at Kirkee.
• Similarly, the Bhonsle chief, Appa Sahib also refused to abide by the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had
signed with the British on 17 May 1816. According to this treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the
Company.

E
• Appa Sahib fought with the British in the Battle of Sitabuldi in November 1817, but was defeated.
•

•
at Baroda.
OR
The Peshwa turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21 December 1817

Therefore, by December 1817 the dream of a mighty Maratha Confederacy was finally shattered.
THE SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE SYSTEM
SC
• The Indian rulers were persuaded by Wellesley to sign a friendly treaty with the British according to which
they would have to follow certain conditions:
– Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with the British has to maintain a contingent
of British troops in his territory which was commanded by a British officer.
– The Indian state was called 'the protected state' and the British hereinafter were referred to as 'the
GS

paramount power'.
– It was the duty of the British to safeguard that state from external aggression and to help its ruler
maintain internal peace and in lieu of this the protected state should give some money or give part of
its territory to the British to support the subsidiary force.
– The protected state has to cut off its connection with European powers other than the English and with
the French in particular.
– The state was forbidden to have any political contact even with other Indian powers without the
permission of the British.
– A British Resident has to be stationed at the court of protected state.
– The protected state has to disband his own army and was not permitted to employ Europeans in his
service without the sanction of the paramount power.
– The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs of the protected state.
• Wellesley's Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the masterstrokes of British imperialism.
• It increased the military strength of the Company in India at the expense of the protected states.
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• The territories of the Company were free from the ravages of war thereby establishing the stability of the
British power in India.
• The position of the British was strengthened against its Indian and non-Indian enemies.
• Under the system, expansion of British power became easy.
• Thus Wellesley's diplomacy made the British the paramount power in India.
• The immediate effect of the establishment of subsidiary forces was the introduction of anarchy because
of the unemployment of thousands of soldiers sent away by the Indian princes.
• The freebooting activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in central India where the menace of
Pindaris affected the people.
• Initially, Wellesley compelled the friendly rulers to accept this alliance and the first victim of the policy
of subsidiary alliance of Wellesley was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Wellesley neutralized the Nizam by getting him to sign the subsidiary alliance to replace his French

E
detachments. He also forbade Nizam to correspond with the Marathas without British consent.
• The Nawab of Oudh entered into this arrangement in 1801 (Treaty of Lucknow) and ceded half of
OR
Awadh to the British East India Company and also agreed to disband his troops in favor of a hugely
expensive, British-run army. After this, the British were able to use Oudh's vast treasuries, repeatedly
digging into them for loans at reduced rates. They also got revenues from running Oudh's armed forces.
Last, but not least, the subsidiary alliance made Oudh a "buffer state", which gave strategic advantage to
the British.
SC

• Wellesley assumed the administration of Tanjore, Surat and the Karnatak by concluding treaties with the
respective rulers of these states also.
GS
Notes

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SECOND PHASE OF BRITISH EXPANSION IN INDIA

• Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to visualise a Russian threat to India and because
of this, he was eager to negotiate friendly relations both with the rulers of Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit Singh
and also with the Amirs of Sind.
• His earnest desire was that Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and any possible
invader.
• As an initial measure, an exchange of gifts took place between Lahore, the capital of Punjab and Calcutta,
made the seat of Governor-General.

E
• It was then followed by the meeting of Bentinck and Ranjit Singh on 25 October, 1831 at Rupar on the
bank of the river Sutlej amidst show and splendor.
•

•
Treaty was concluded between them. OR
The Governor-General was successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus Navigation

This treaty opened up the Sutlej for navigation. In addition, a commercial treaty was negotiated with
Ranjit Singh. A similar treaty was also concluded with the Amirs of Sind.
SC
THE CONQUEST OF SINDH
• The conquest of Sindh occurred as a result of the growing Anglo-Russian rivalry in Europe and Asia and
the consequent British fears that Russia might attack India through Afghanistan or Persia.
• To counter Russia, the British Government decided to increase its influence in Afghanistan and Persia.
GS

• It further felt that this policy could be successfully pursued only if Sindh was brought under British
control. The commercial possibilities of the river Sindh were an additional attraction. The road and rivers
of Sindh were opened to British trade by a treaty in 1832.
• The chiefs of Sindh, known as Amirs, were made to sign a subsidiary treaty in 1839 and finally, in spite
of previous assurances that its territorial integrity would be respected, Sindh was annexed in 1843 after
a brief campaign by Sir Charles Napier who had earlier written in his diary: 'we have no right to seize Sind,
yet we shall do so, and a very advantageous, useful humane piece of rascality it will be'.
ANGLO-SIKH WARS
• The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in June 1839 was followed by political instability and rapid
changes of government in the Punjab.
• Selfish and corrupt leaders came to the front and ultimately, power fell into the hands of the brave and
patriotic but utterly indisciplined army.
• This led the British to look greedily across the Sutlej upon the land of the five rivers even though they
had signed a treaty of perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh in 1809.
• The British officials increasingly talked of having to wage a campaign in the Punjab.
Notes

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• Sikh Wars, (1845-46; 1848-49), two campaigns fought between the Sikhs and the British. They resulted
in the conquest and annexation by the British of the Punjab in northwestern India.
First War (1845-1846)
• The British pursued the policy of encirclement of Punjab from 1833 onwards by occupation of Ferozepur
in 1835 and Sikharpur in 1836, and appointment of British Residents in Ludhiana and in Sindh in 1838
and their military preparations fuelled the animosity between the British and the Sikhs.
• The annexation of Sindh by the British in 1843 confirmed the suspicions of the Sikh and the first Anglo-
Sikh War started soon after in 1845.
• The Sikh army was soon defeated under Lal Singh (P.M.) by Sir Hugh Gough at Mudki in 1845.
• The British also defeated the Sikh army under Tej Singh, Commander-in-Chief at Ferozepur in 1845.
• However, the British under Harry Smith suffered a blow at the hands of Ranjur Singh Majhithia at
Buddewal in 1846.

E
• Finally the Sikhs were defeated by Smith at Aliwal and Sobroan (1846) on the crossing of the Sutlej and
Lahore was occupiered by the British.
OR
• The War ended with the Treaty of Lahore in 1846. Jullundar Doab was ceded to the British and payment
of a war indemnity of Rs. 1.5 crore was also imposed on the Sikhs. But they were able to pay only half
of this amount and for the rest the British got Kashmir which they sold to Gulab Singh.
• A British resident, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed at Lahore and Dalip Singh was recognized as the
SC

ruler of Punjab with Rani Jindan as his regent.

• The Sikh army was reduced and its ruler was prohibited from employing any European without the prior
consent of the British.
• Also, the British troops were permitted to pass through Sikh territory whenever the need arose.
GS

• Soon after the Treaty of Bhairowal was signed in December 1846 which resulted in the removal of Rani
Jindan and setting up of a Council of Regency for Punjab (consisting of 8 Sikh Sardars and presided over
by Sir Henry Lawrence.)
• A British force was stationed at Lahore for which the Sikhs had to pay Rs. 22 Lakhs.
• Power was conferred to the Governor General of India to undertake and garrison any fort in Punjab.
Second War (1848-1849)
• Desire of the Sikh army to avenge their humiliation of the first war and the discontentment of the Sikh
Sardars with the British control over Punjab was the underlying cause of second Anglo-Sikh war.
• Treatment of Rani Jindan by the British - her transportation to Shaikpur first and then to Benaras and the
drastic reduction in her pension also fuelled the Sikh sentiments.
• The Second Sikh War began with the revolt of Mulraj, Governor of Multan, in April 1848 and became
a national revolt when the Sikh army joined the rebels on September 14.
• Indecisive battles characterized by great ferocity and bad generalship were fought at Ramnagar (November
22) and at Chilianwala (Jan. 13, 1849) before the final British victory at Gujarat (February 21).
Notes

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• The Sikh army surrendered on March 12, and Punjab was annexed by Lord Dalhousie and Dalip Singh
disposed and pensioned off to England along with Rani Jindan.
• A Board of Three Commissioners consisting of the Lawrence brothers - Henry and John and Charles G.
Mansel was constituted in 1849 to administer Punjab.
• Soon afterwards the Board was abolished and a Chief Commissioner for Punjab, Sir John Lawrence was
appointed in 1853.
DOCTRINE OF LAPSE
• Lord Dalhousie became the Governor General of the East India Company in 1848. His period of
Governor Generalship witnessed the stupendous growth of British Empire at the cost of army of the
Indian states.
• Dalhousie was a sweeping annexationist and he annexed a large number of Indian states in pursuance of
his policy of Doctrine of lapse.

E
• There were a number of Indian states within the limits of the British Indian Empire. The rulers of these

OR
states had recognised British Political supremacy since the time of Lord Wellesley.
• These Indian states were completely independent to conduct their internal administration. These rulers
who were under British protection did not take any interest in the administration of their territories.
• Dalhousie annexed a number of Indian states by applying the policy of Doctrine of lapse.
SC
• The policy of Doctrine of lapse meant that in the dependent state or those who owed their very existence
to the British power, the sovereignty when the natural heirs of the royal line came to end, passed back
or lapse to the supreme power."
• In other words this doctrine means that the sovereignty of the dependent states or of those held on a
subordinate tenure would pass back to the British government, in case of the failure of the natural line
GS

of succession.
• The British government had acquired the position of the paramount power after the fall of the Mughal
Empire and also of the Marathas.
• This doctrine was based on three principles:
– Firstly the British Government was the paramount power of the British Indian Empire.
– Secondly the rulers of the dependent states could adopt sons with the sanction of the paramount power.
These adopted sons could inherit the throne only with the consent of the British government.
– Thirdly, the British government as the paramount power could withhold the succession of the adopted
sons.
• During that period there were three categories of Hindu states in India:
– There were independent states which were not and never had been subordinate to a paramount power.
– Secondly, there were states which owed subordination to the British government as their suzerain power.
– Thirdly, there were Hindu States which owed their creation to the British Government. Ever since the
Mughal rule the practice was that the paramount power used to sanction the succession to the throne.
Notes

21
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• The system of adoption was prevalent among the Hindus and incase of the failure of natural heir they
used to adopt sons.
• After the death of a native ruler his adopted son used to perform the funeral rites and succeed to the
throne. But Dalhousie proceeded to annex the native states setting aside the claims of the adopted sons.
• Dalhousie annexed a number of native states by applying the policy of Doctrine of lapse.
• However no precise distinction was made between independent, allied, dependent and subordinate states.
• Dalhousie annexed Karauli on the ground that it was a dependent state but this was over ruled by the
Directors of the company on the ground that Karauli" was a protected ally.
• Dalhousie was not the real founder of this Doctrine.
• As early as 1834, the Court of Directors of the Company had asserted that the permission to adopt on
the failure of the natural heirs should be the exception and not the rule and should never are granted but
as a special mark of favour or approbation."

E
• Earlier the Doctrine of lapse had been applied to the state of Mandavi in 1839 and to Kolaba and Jalaur
in 1840.
OR
• In 1842 the titular dignity of the Nawab of Surat was abolished.
• But Lord Dalhousie applied the Doctrine of lapse in a vigorous manner.
• But his predecessors had acted on the general principle of avoiding annexations if it could be avoided.
SC

• Dalhousie acted on the general principle of annexing if he could do so legitimately".

• He annexed Satara in 1848; Jaipur and Sambalpur in 1849; Bhaghat in 1850; Udaipur in 1852; Jhansi
in 1853 and Nagpur in 1854 by the application of this policy.
• The first victim of the Doctrine of Lapse was the Maratha Kingdom of Satara, in 1848 the Raja of Satara
Appasahib died.
GS

• Narayan Singh Raja of Sambalpur died without adopting a son. So Dalhousie annexed Sambalpur in 1849.
• In 1853 Gangathar Rao died without leaving a male heir. Dalhousie set aside the claim of his adopted
son Anand Rao and declared the state as an escheat. Dalhousie infact annexed Jhansi considering it to be
a creation of the company. For this reason the widow Queen Laxmi Bai became an arch enemy of the
English and played a leading part in the great revolt of 1857.
• The Doctrine of Lapse was also applied to the removal of titles and Pensions. Peshwa Baji Rao II was
enjoying an annual pension of eight lakhs of rupees. But after his death his adopted son Nana Saheb was
deprived of his pension and title. For this reason Nana Saheb took a leading part in the revolt of 1857.
• After the death of the Titular Nawab of Carnatic Dalhousie did not recognise any one as his successor.
• On the death of the Maratha Raja Tanjore in 1855 without any male issue the regal title was abolished.
• The Doctrine of Lapse of Dalhousie created a feeling of uncertainty and uneasiness in the mind of the
native rulers. The adopted sons of the deceased rulers resented the policy of the British government.
• The princes who lost their throne took active part in the revolt of 1857.
Notes

22
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• Thus by 1857 the whole of the Indian sub-continent came under the British rule.
• The Marathas and the Rajputs ceased to make History after 1818.
• The rise of the Sikhs after 1839 was of little impact. The East India Company became the paramount
power on the soil of India.
ANNEXATION OF OUDH
• The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
• Right from Warren Hastings, many Governor-Generals advised the Nawab of Oudh to improve the
administration. But, misrule continued there and the Nawab was under the assumption that the British
would not annex Oudh because of his loyalty to them.
• In 1851, William Sleeman, Resident at Lucknow, reported of human misery and careless misrule. But
Sleeman was against the policy of annexing Oudh.

E
• After surveying the situation in Oudh, Dalhousie annexed it in 1856.
•

•
the control of a Chief Commissioner.
OR
Nawab Wajid Ali was granted a pension of 12 lakhs rupees per year. The annexed territory came under

Dalhousie's annexation of Oudh, the last one among his annexations, created great political danger. The
annexation offended the Muslim elite.
SC
• More dangerous was the effect on the British army's Indian troops, many of whom came from Oudh.
They had occupied a privileged position before its annexation.
• Under the British Government they were treated as equals with the rest of the population. This was a loss
of prestige for them.
• In these various ways, the annexation of Oudh contributed to the Mutiny of 1857.
GS
Notes

23
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ADMINISTRATION BEFORE 1857

• The East lndia Company began as a trading corporation. Its early organisation was suitable to that of a
purely trade organisation.
• Each Chief "factory" or trading establishment was under the control of a President, later called Governor,
and a Council, consisting of the senior servants of the company in the factory.
• New and less important factories were put under the charge of a senior merchant or "factor".
• The Commercial factories which had a President as head came to be called Presidencies, such as those
of Madras, Bombay and Calcutta.
• The jurisdiction and control of the company grew by different processes, namely the acquisition of

E
Zamindari rights, conquest or cession of territory and assumption of the Diwani.
OR
• In 1698 the company bought the Zamindari rights of the villages of Sutanati, Calcutta and Govindpur.
• In 1757 the company acquired rights in the twenty-four parganas on the basis of a quit rent which was
subsequently assigned to the company.
• In 1760 Mir Qasim ceded to the company the district of Burdwan, Chittagong and Midnapur and this was
confirmed by the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.
SC

• Over Englishmen the company relied upon its Chartered Rights while over Indians the authority of the
Company was that of a Zamindar under a local fauzdar.
• After the battle of Buxar in 1764 the British became the supreme power in Bengal.
• When the British took control of Bengal, they tried to establish administration according to their
GS

requirements.
• Before 1765 the Nawab of Bengal was looking after the administration. Theoretically he was working as
an agent of the Mughal Emperor, but in practice he had absolute authority.
• As Nawab he was incharge of law and order, military power and criminal justice and as Diwan he was
responsible for the revenue collection and administration of civil justice.
• In 1764 after the Battle of Buxar the British became supreme power in Bengal. Open annexation would
have created political complication both for the company in India and the home government.
• The company therefore procured an order from the Mughal emperor granting them the diwani (rights to
collect land revenue) for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• Even in the exercise of its powers as diwan, the actual collection of revenue initially remained in the
hands of the Nawab's deputies. The nizamat remained in the hands of the Nawab.
• The dual nature of administration came to an end in 1772, when the company decided to take actual
control of revenue collection.
• The company had now grown from a predominantly commercial into a predominantly territorial power.
Notes

24
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• With the expansion of political power of the company misuse of power by its officials also increased and
the acquisition of political power by the company was questioned in England and there was pressure on
parliament to intervene.
• Continuous wars and mis-management by the company officials landed it in deep financial crisis.
• The company requested parliament for financial help. The parliament agreed on the - condition that it will
regulate the administration of company in England and India.
• For this purpose the Regulating Act of 1773 was passed.
The Dual System
The early mechanism of the establishment of Company rule in Bengal followed the administrative system
under the Mughals. The Mughal provincial administration had two main heads - nizamat and diwani.
• Nizamat - administration of law and order and criminal justice.

E
• Diwani was the revenue administration and civil justice.
• The provincial Subadar was in charge of nizamat (also called nazim) and the diwan was in charge of

•
revenue administration.
OR
After the treaty of Allahabad the English East India Company was made the Diwan of Bengal but Lord
Clive choose not to take over the administration of Bengal directly. This responsibility was left to the
Nawab's Naib Diwan and Naib Nazim Muhammad Raza Khan.
SC
• As Naib Nazim he was to represent the Nawab and as Naib Diwan he was to represent the Company.
• Thus, the Nawab had to handle the entire responsibility for the civil and criminal justice administration.
However, he had to function through Muhammad Raza Khan who was placed under the superintendence,
direction and control of the British Company.
• As the Diwan, the Company directly collected its revenue, while through the right to nominate the Deputy
GS

Nazim, it controlled the nizamat or the Police or Judicial powers.

• This arrangement is known as 'Dual or Double Government'. Under this system British had power and
resources without responsibility while the Nawab had the responsibility of the administration without
power to discharge it.
• Thus the Nawab had to take all responsibility for bad governance.
• The revenue remained the sole earning of the Company in lieu of a meager annual payment to the Mughal
emporer.
THE CHARTER ACTS
• The Charter Acts were passed by the British Parliament to govern the activities of the East India Company,
endowed it with enormous Commercial privileges and granted them the powers to rule India up to 1858.
• The Charter Acts issued enabled the East India Company, commercial privileges in several series, for
twenty years each.
• The first Charter Act was granted in 1793, granting the company provision of 20 years.
• Later the Charter Act was renewed in the year 1813, 1833 and 1853 respectively.
Notes

25
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Regulating Act of 1773

• The Regulating Act of 1773 might be regarded as the first serious attempt by the British Parliament to
regulate Indian affairs. It constituted for the first time:
– A supreme government, headed by a Governor General of Fort William in Bengal and four Councillors,
having the supervisory authority over the presidencies of Bombay and Madras.
– The presidencies were forbidden to make war or peace with Indian states without the consent of
Governor General and Council, except in cases of imminent necessity and also in the cases where they
had received direct orders from the court of Directors.
– Provision for the establishment of a Supreme Court at Calcutta.
– The Act recognized the right of Parliament to regulate the civil, military and revenue affairs of the
company's territories in India and registers the first concern in the intervention of the Indian affairs.
• The Act suffered from certain fundamental defects which contributed to the difficulties of Warren Hastings
who was opposed by his councillors.

E
• The Act was also vague about the jurisdiction control over subordinate presidencies and the jurisdiction
between the Supreme Council and the Supreme Court.
OR
• As a consequence of the defects of the Act, Warren Hastings found himself unable to carry out his
administrative responsibilities and one crisis often developed after another in the council.
Pitt India Act 1784
SC

• On assumption of office of the Prime Minister, William Pitt introduced an India Bill and it was passed
into a law in August 1784. According to this Act:
– Distinction between territories and commerce was to be maintained.
– Territorial administration was to be placed under a representative body of Parliament while the Company
was to continue to control commerce.
GS

– The government in India however, would still be run in the name of the company but political and
revenue matters would be subject to the control and supervision of the proposed parliamentary body.
• Pitt's India Act established an effective instrument of control, direction and supervision which worked
with slight alterations till 1858, and the control of the Crown was now complete over India.
• With such expansion of the British territories and the increasing administrative responsibilities, a bureaucracy
was also required to control British possessions.
• In 1785, Lord Cornwallis created Indian Civil Service.
• It consist of a professional cadre of Company servants who had generous salaries, had no private trading
or production interests in India, enjoyed the prospect of regular promotion and were entitled to pensions.
• All high-level posts were reserved for the British, and Indians were excluded.
• Cornwallis appointed British judges, and established British officials as revenue collectors and magistrates
in each district of Bengal.
• From 1806 the Company trained its young recruits in Haileybury College near London. Appointments
were organized on a system of patronage.
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26
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• In 1829 the system was strengthened by establishing districts throughout British India small enough to be
effectively controlled by an individual British official who henceforth exercised a completely autocratic
power, acting as revenue collector, judge and chief of police.
• After 1833 the Company selected amongst its nominated candidates by competitive examination.
• After 1853, selection was entirely on merit and the examination was thrown open to any British candidate.
• In the first half of the nineteenth century the character of legislation for the administration of British
territories was to some extent influenced by Utilitarian thought and principles.
Charter Act of 1813
• The renewal of the Charter in 1813 was marked by expression of liberal principles. The Charter Act of
1813 renewed the charter issued to the British East India Company, and continued the Company's rule
in India.

E
• However, the Company's commercial monopoly was ended, except for the tea trade and the trade with
China.
• According to Charter Act of 1813:

OR
– Administration of the company was left in its hands but the monopoly of the Company's Indian trade
was abolished.
– The Act expressly asserted the Crown's sovereignty over British India.
SC
– It allotted Rs 100,000 to promote education in Indian masses.
– This act permitted Christian missionaries to propagate English and preach their religion.
– The power of the provincial governments and courts in India over European British subjects was also
strengthened by the Act.
GS

– Financial provision was also made to encourage a revival in Indian literature and for the promotion of
science
Charter Act of 1833
• By the Act of 1833, the Company surrendered all its personal property in India and held it in trust for
the crown.
• The company disappeared as a commercial agency in India, remaining as a political agent for the crown.
• Now the government of India was reconstituted on a new model which gave it in all India character. It
contained the following provisions:
– It re-designated the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India. Under this provision
Lord William Bentinck became the first Governor-General of India.
– It deprived the Governors of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers.
– The Governor-General was given exclusive legislative powers for the whole of British India.
– It ended the activities of the British East India Company as a commercial body and became a purely
administrative body.
Notes

27
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– In particular, the Company lost its monopoly on trade with China and other parts of the Far East.
– It attempted to introduce a system of open competitions for the selection of civil servants. However
this provision was negated after opposition from the Court of Directors who continued to hold the
privilege of appointing Company officials.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
• The early Charters of the Company gave it authority to make reasonable laws, 'constitutional orders' and
'ordinances' and within limits to punish offences committed by its servants, but they gave no territorial
powers of jurisdiction.
• In 1661 Charles II authorised the Governor and Council of each factory to exercise criminal and civil
jurisdiction, not only over the Company's servants, but over all persons under the said Governor or
Company.
• After the assumption of Diwani the Company to some extent, became responsible for civil justice.
• In criminal matters Muhammadan law was followed, but in civil cases the personal law of the parties was

E
applied.
• In civil suits appeals lay to the Sadar Diwani Adalat which in effect meant the President and members
OR
of Council while criminal appeals lay with Sadar Nizamat Adalat which was under the Nawab.
• However, the first concrete step in organizing judicial administration was taken up by Warren Hastings.
He for the first time made the district as a unit of judicial administration.
– In each district civil and criminal courts were established.
SC

– In each district collectors were to preside civil courts, and in criminal courts an Indian officer worked
with the help of two maulvis.
– Over the district courts were created the courts of appeal at Calcutta.
– The Sadar Diwan Adalat consisted of the Governor and two members of the council assisted by the
GS

Diwan of the exchequer, the head Qanungo etc.

– Sadar Nizamat Adalat was presided over by the Nazim's deputy, a muslim officer, who was assisted by
Maulvis.
• In 1773 the Regulating Act set up the Supreme Court in Bengal which derived its power from the Crown.
• The establishment of the Supreme Court led to the emergence of two rival sets of judicial authorities:
The Supreme Court, and Sadar Diwani Adalat.
• A temporary solution was found with the appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as
President of the Sadar Diwani Adalat.
• In 1790 criminal appeals were transferred to the Governor-General and Council who was assisted by Chief
Qazi and two muftis. This was part of the general policy of Cornwallis in replacing Indians by Europeans
in all higher posts.
• Cornwallis established District courts under British judges.
• He separated the posts of civil judge and the collector from whom appeals lay to four new appellate courts
set up at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad and Patna.
Notes

28
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• Below the district courts were Registrar's courts, headed by Europeans and a number of subordinate courts
headed by Indian judges known as Munsifs and Amins.
• In 1801 the judicial authority of the Governor General Council came to an end and three judges were
appointed to form the Sadar Diwani Adalat or Civil Appellate Court.
• The principle of duality between the courts of the Crown and the Zamindari Courts ended in 1861 when
the Indian High Court Act established High Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in place of the
Supreme Court as well as the Sadar Court.
• The important features of the new judicial set up were the rule of law, equality before law, recognition
of the right to be judged by his personal law and the growth of the professional and trained judicial
hierarchy.
• However, the new judicial system suffered from certain serious weaknesses. In criminal cases the Europeans
had separate courts and even laws. They were tried by European judges who at times gave them undue
protection.

E
• In civil matters the situation was quite serious. The courts were situated at distant places. The procedures
were long and time consuming. Getting justice was very expensive. Village committees and Panchayats
lost importance even in the village matters.
IMPACT OF BRITISH ADMINISTRATION
•
OR
The benefits of British Administration could be seen in the maintenance of peace and order, belief in
liberty and ushering in a process of modernization.
SC

• A common system of law and uniform court of government produced a large measure of unity.
• However, the remote and impersonal nature of administration proved to be both a source of weakness
and strength. Its defect was that it produced a lack of sensitiveness to the feelings of the people.
• The British administrative policies resulted in the disappearance of indigenous institutions of local self
GS

government and exclusion of Indians from higher ranks of administration.

• The effects of subordination of Indian economy to British interests were many, such as the ruin of
artisans and craftsmen, impoverishment of the peasantry, ruin of old zamindars and rise of a class of new
landlords, stagnation and deterioration of agriculture.
• The general discontent which began to brew up among the Indians as a consequence of British policies,
ultimately led to the outbreak of 1857.
Notes

29
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ECONOMIC POLICIES OF THE BRITISH

• The economic policies followed by the British led to the rapid transformation of India's economy into a
colonial economy.
• The structure and nature of India's economy were determined by the needs of the British economy.
• The previous conquerors had made no basic changes in the country's economic structure.
• The peasant, the artisan, and the trader had continued to lead the same type of existence as before. The
basic economic pattern (the self-sufficient rural economy) had been perpetuated.
• Change of rulers had merely meant change in the personnel who appropriated the peasant's surplus.

E
• But the British conquerors were entirely different. They totally disrupted the traditional structure of the
Indian economy. Moreover, they never became an integral part of Indian life and always remained
foreigners in the land, exploiting Indian resources and carrying away India's wealth.
OR
• The economic policy of the British government led to a rapid transformation of India's economy into a
colonial economy, whose nature and structure were determined by British needs.
• From 1600-1757 the East India Company's role was of a trading corporation which brought goods or
precious metals into India and exchanged them for Indian goods like textiles.
SC

• After the Battle of Plassey the Company's commercial relations underwent a qualitative change and now
the company used its political control to push its Indian trade.
After 1757 colonial exploitation was carried on broadly through three phases:
• Phase of Mercantilism (1757-1813) - Surplus Indian revenues were used to buy Indian finished goods to
be exported to England.
GS

• Phase of Free Trade (1813-1858) - India was converted into a source of raw material and a market for
British manufactured goods.
• Phase of Finance Imperialism (1858 onwards) - British capital controlled banks, foreign trading firms and
managing agencies in India.
Phase of Mercantilism (1757-1813)
• After the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company completely monopolised trade and began the direct
plunder of Indian wealth.
• Twin aims of the merchant companies were:
– To have a favourable balance of trade; and
– To promote flow of bullion into the home country.
• The Merchant Companies aimed at large profit margin and it was made possible through monopoly
control over trade and elimination of all possible rivals and purchase of goods at cheap rates and sale of
commodities at very high rates.
Notes

30
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• The Company used its political power to dictate terms to weavers of Bengal who forced to sell their
products at a cheap and dictated price. Many of them were compelled by the Company to work for them
and were forbidden to work for Indian merchants.
• The servants of the Company monopolised the sale of raw cotton and made the Bengal weaver pay
exorbitant prices for it.
Phase of Free Trade (1813-1858)
• In a bid to acquire greater control over the Company's earnings, the Parliament started attacking individual
Company officials with charges of 'misconduct'.
• The 'Free Traders', dominant in the Parliament demanded free access to India, which led to the passing
of the Charter Act of 1813, thus ending the monopoly enjoyed by the Company in India, while subordinating
its territorial possessions to the overall sovereignty of the British crown.
• 'Free Trade' changed the nature of the Indian colony completely, through following strategy:

E
– Firstly it threw open Indian markets for the entry of cheap, mass-produced, machine-made British
goods, which enjoyed little or almost no tariff restrictions.

was obstructed by prohibitive tariff rates. OR

– The passage of expensive, hand-crafted Indian textiles to Britain, which had been very popular there,

– British-Indian territory was developed as a source of food stuff and raw material for Britain, which
fueled rapid growth in its manufacturing sector, crucial to the emergence of a powerful capitalist
economy. (Indian exports consisted of raw cotton, jute, silk, oilseeds, wheat, indigo and tea.)
SC

• After 1813, all policies were guided by the needs of British industry. These changes reversed the favourable
balance of trade that India had enjoyed earlier. This phase laid the foundations of a classic colonial
economy within India through the complex processes of commercialization of agriculture and
deindustrialization.
• After 1813 in addition to export surplus, the company extracted wealth of India as Home Charges to
GS

England. These Home Charges included besides other forms of expenditure, payment of interest on the
Indian debt. By 1858 Indian debts stood at 69.5 million. India got no adequate economic or material return
for this export of wealth to Britain.
Phase of Finance Imperialism (1858 onwards)
• This phase begun from the 1860s, when British India came directly under the control and sovereignty of
the British crown.
• British capital was invested in India in diverse economic fields in the latter half of the 19th century.
• Finance capital became the new most powerful mode of colonial exploitation.
• Investment were in the form of loans which were raised in England by the Secretary of State on behalf
of Indian Government and by semi - public organisation mostly for investment in railways, irrigation,
development of ports, hydro electric projects, etc. and also as foreign business investment in India.
Although, this capital was invested in the colonies to sustain the rapid inflow of raw materials to fuel
further expansion of industrial production.
• In this phase, on the one hand indigenous handicrafts faced impoverishment, on the other hand, there were
few attempts at developing modern industries in the colony. British capital was initially invested in railways,
jute industry, tea plantations and mining.
Notes

31
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LAND REVENUE POLICY

• After assuming control in different parts of India, the company followed a number of methods for the
collection of land revenue depending on the local conditions. Mostly it was in the form of revenue
farming.
• Gradually the company acquired the knowledge about the land revenue system prevalent in India and
devised long term policies in different regions. The main aim was to increase the tax collections with little
concern for the peasantry or age long practices followed in India.
• Mainly three types of settlements were followed in different parts of the country.
Permanent Settlement
• Lord Cornwallis' most conspicuous administrative measure was the Permanent Land Revenue Settlement
of Bengal. In 1793 Permanent Settlement for Bengal, Bihar and Orissa was introduced. Its special features
were:
(a) The zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners of land as long as they paid the revenue to

E
the East India Company regularly.
(b) The amount of revenue that the zamindars had to pay to the Company was firmly fixed and would
OR
not be raised under any circumstances. In other words the Government of the East India Company
got 89% leaving the rest to the zamindars.
(c) The ryots became tenants since they were considered the tillers of the soil.
(d) This settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions of the zamindars.
SC

• The Permanent Settlement by declaring Zamindars as owners of land brought into existence a wealthy
and privileged class of zamindars which owed its existence to British rule.
• This class was therefore compelled by its own basic interests to support British rule.
• The Permanent Settlement was later extended to parts of Banaras and North Madras.
GS

• With the Permanent Settlement, the company lost all contact with the peasants who were now at the
mercy of the zamindars.
• The fixation of revenue had no scientific basis and was adhoc.
• The long standing ties between peasant and zamindars were arbitrarily annulled.
• The burden of land revenue was very high.
• The Zamindars also faced problems. Their zamindaries were auctioned for non-payment of revenue. This
encouraged a new group of people to become Zamindars.
• The urban based merchants, speculators, money lenders, etc. bought zamindaries. This group had no
permanent interests in the development of land or the welfare of peasantry.
• As a result a number of peasant uprisings took place in this region. The prominent were in 1795 in
Panchet, 1798 in Raipur, 1799 in Balasore and in 1799-1800 in villages around Midnapore.
• Bengal once known as the granary of the East became almost barren. Hunger and famine, death and
disease stalked the country.
Notes

32
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Ryotwari Settlement
• The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras, Berar, Bombay and Assam. Sir Thomas
Munro introduced this system in the Madras Presidency.
Under this settlement:
– The peasant was recognised as the proprietor of land.
– There was no intermediary like a Zamindar between the peasant and the government.
– As long as the peasant paid the revenue in time, he was not evicted from the land.
– The land revenue was fixed for a period from 20 to 40 years at a time.
• Here the British also recognised the mirasdars (i.e. members of village communities) and peasants who
paid tax direct to state. These mirasdars became small landlords.

E
• The ryots right of ownership was however negated by three factor:
(a) Exorbitant land revenue;

OR
(b) Government's right to enhance land revenue at will; and
(c) They had to pay revenue even when their produce was partially or wholly destroyed.
• The pasture and wasteland which belonged to the village communities were now appropriated by the state.
The burden of revenue also increased.
SC

Mahalwari Settlement
• In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Punjab, the Central Provinces and parts of North
Western Provinces.
• Under this system, the basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or the Mahal. As the village lands
GS

belonged jointly to the village community, the responsibility of paying the revenue rested with the entire
Mahal or the village community. So the entire land of the village was measured at the time of fixing the
revenue.
• Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the government and the village community
and brought about improvement in irrigation facility, yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government.
IMPACT OF BRITISH POLICY ON INDIAN HANDICRAFTS
• During eighteenth century India was far ahead in traditional handicraft industry and the production of
objects of art.
• The textiles were the most important among the Indian industries. Indian cotton, silk and woolen products
were sought after all over the world. Particularly, the muslin of Dacca, carpets of Lahore, shawls of
Kashmir, and the embroidery works of Banaras were very famous.
• Ivory goods, wood works and jewellery were other widely sought after Indian commodities.
• Other important centres of textile production were Krishnanagar, Chanderi, Arni and Banaras.
• Dhotis and dupattas of Ahmedabad, Chikan of Lucknow, and silk borders of Nagpur had earned a
worldwide fame.
Notes

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• Some small towns of Bengal besides, Malda and Murshidabad were very famous for their silk products.
• Kashmir, Punjab and western Rajasthan were famous for their woolen garments.
• Besides textiles, India was also known widely for its shipping, leather and metal industries.
• Indian fame as an industrial economy rested on cutting and polishing of marble and other precious stones
and carving of ivory and sandalwood.
• Moradabad and Banaras were famous for brass, copper, bronze utensils. Nasik, Poona, Hyderabad and
Tanjore were famous for other metal works. Kutch, Sind and Punjab were known for manufacturing arms.
• Kolhapur, Satara, Gorakhpur, Agra, Chittor and Palaghat had likewise earned a reputation for their glass
industries.
• Making of gold, silver and diamond jewellery was another important industrial activity in which many
places in India were specialized.
• These entire handicrafts industry indicated a vibrant economy in India.

E
• The Indian handicraft industry begun to decline by the beginning of the 18th century.
• The policies followed by the English East India Company proved to be highly detrimental to the Indian
OR
handicrafts industry. The Indian market was flooded with the cheap finished goods from Britain. It resulted
in a steep decline in the sale of Indian products both within and outside of the country.
• In 1769, the Company encouraged the cultivation of raw silk in Bengal while imposing restrictions on the
sale of its finished products.
SC

• In 1813 strategies were devised by the Company to enhance the consumption of finished goods from
Britain. In this respect the tariff and octroi policies were suitably modified to suit the British commercial
interests.
• Moreover, goods from England could only be brought by the English cargo ships. As a result of all these
policies, the Indian textiles could not enter the British market, whereas the Indian market was flooded with
British goods.
GS

• With the rise of British paramountcy in India, the process of decline in the power and status of Indian
rulers started diminishing. Thus, the demands for the domestic luxury goods like royal attires, armory and
objects of art by the Indian royalty also reduced drastically. With the disappearance of the traditional
dynasties, their nobility also passed into oblivion. This led to a sharp decline in the demand for traditional
luxury goods.
• The Industrial Revolution led to the invention of new machinery in Europe. Power looms replaced
handlooms. In India also the advent of machines led to the decline of handicrafts as the machine-made
products were available at cheaper rate and more goods could be produced in much lesser time.
DEVELOPMENT OF INDIGENOUS INDUSTRIES (DURING FINANCE IMPERIALISM PHASE)
• During the phase of Finance Imperialism, the Indian money market was dominated by European banking
houses.
• While British entrepreneurs had easy access to capital made available by this banking network, Indian
traders had to depend on family or caste organizations for their capital needs.
• Before the First World War, British Managing agencies controlled 75% of industrial capital, and most of
the profits from this limited industrialization were also sent back to Britain.
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• Inspite of heavy odds, Indian entrepreneurs found opportunities to expand and grow, whenever Britain
underwent periods of economic hardship. During the First World War, G.D.Birla and Swarup chand
Hukumchand invested in the jute industry. Gradually their control started expanding into other areas like
coal mines, sugar mills and paper industry, and bought some European companies.
• The greatest success of Indian capital was seen in the cotton industry in western India, which took
advantage of high demands during the war years (1914-18) to consolidate its successes, and eventually was
in competition with Lancashire.
• Traditional trading communities like Gujarati, Banias, Parsis, Bohras and Bhatias became important in this
sector.
• The Tata Iron and Steel Company under government patronage provided leadership to the fledgling iron
and steel company of India.
• After the first world war, links with the foreign market was re-established, but again in the Depression
years (1929-1933), the domestic market became relatively free to be exploited by indigenous industry, as

E
foreign trade declined.
• The colonial government also provided some protection to the sugar and cotton industries, in the face of

•
falling prices in the agricultural sector.
OR
Low prices forced capital from land into the manufacturing sector. Indians also ventured into the field of
insurance and banking.
• During the Second World War (1939-45), with the decline of influence of foreign economies, Indian
SC
entrepreneurs managed to make huge profits. Strengthened by its limited success, the Indian capitalist class
strengthened their links with the nationalist movement.
• Indian entrepreneurs demanded for the establishment of heavy industries under state ownership and
organized themselves to resist the entry of foreign capital.
DRAIN OF WEALTH THEORY
GS

• The potential for growth remained depressed given the massive poverty of the Indian people.
• Early Indian nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade and R.C. Dutt had expected Britain to
undertake capitalist industrialization in India, but were deeply disillusioned with the results of colonial
industrial policies.
• Consequently, they formulated a strong economic critique of colonialism in the late nineteenth century.
• Dadabhai Naoroji put forward the drain of wealth theory. He mentioned this theory in his book ‘Poverty
and Un-British Rule in India’. He put forward the idea that Britain was draining and bleeding India and
that, too, for nothing.
• Poverty in India, according to them, was the result of a steady drain of Indian wealth into Britain-a result
of British colonial policy.
• This drain occurred through the interest that India paid for foreign debts of the East India Company,
military expenditure, guaranteed returns on foreign investment in railways and other infrastructure, importing
all stationery from England, 'home charges' paid for the Secretary of State in Britain and salaries, pensions
and training costs of military and civilian staff employed by the British state to rule India.
• According to them, even if small fraction of it be invested within the country it could have helped to
generate a surplus to build a capitalist economy.
Notes

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SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS

• India in the 19th century witnessed a series of reform movements undertaken in various parts of the
country which were oriented toward a re-structuring of the Indian society along modem lines.
• Impact of modern Western culture soon gave birth to a new awakening in India.
• Western conquest exposed the weakness and decay of Indian society.
• Thoughtful Indians began to look for the defects of their society and for ways and means of removing
them.
• While large number of Indians refused to come to terms with the West and still put their faith in
traditional Indian ideas and institutions, others gradually came to hold that modern Western thought

E
provided the key to the regeneration of their society.
• They were impressed in particular by modem science and the doctrines of reason and humanism.
OR
• The new social groups-the capitalist class, the working class, the modern intelligentsia-demanded
modernisation since their own interests demanded it.
• Attempts to explore India's past by the first generation of British rulers helped to sharpen educated classes'
consciousness of their own existence.
SC

• Early reformers were groping to find suitable answers. But the agenda for the modernization was not set
by the western influence because the logic for reform was sought to be located within India's past.

HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS/ BENGAL RENAISSANCE

GS

• Reform movements which took deep roots within Bengal have often been also termed as Bengal Renaissance.
• Bankim Chandra Chatterji and Bipin Chandra Pal referred to developments in the 19th century Bengal
as a period of Renaissance.
• It may not be proper to compare European Renaissance with developments in Bengal as the context was
entirely different and the patterns not too similar.
• The features which were referred to while talking of a Bengal Renaissance may be clubbed under three
major categories, i.e. historical rediscovery, linguistic and literary modernization and socio-religious reforms.
Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj
• Raja Rammohan Roy from Bengal was the most notable reformer of the modern times.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in 1772 in Radhanagar in Burdwan districtin West Bengal and died in
Bristol in England.
• He is considered as the first 'modern man' as he was the pioneer of socio-religious and political
reformmovements in modern India.
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• He studied numerous languages - Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, English, French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, etc. in
order to study the various religious scriptures in their original.
• He believed in monotheism i.e. doctrine of the unity of God-head and opposed idol-worship.
• In 1803 he published a Persian treatise named 'Tuhfat-ul Muwahidin' or 'A Gift to Monotheists' wherein
he explains his concept of monotheism.
• He was among the first to bring political questions in the ambit of public debate.
• His Atmiya Sabha, founded in 1814, discussed important social and political questions of the time. In
1828, its enlarged edition was called the Brahmo Sabha which was renamed Brahmo Samaj later on.
• He started touching upon many burning social issues of the time including the widely-prevalent practice
of becoming sati.
• He rallied support to the efforts of William Bentinck (Governor General) for abolition of this custom and

E
wrote extensively for the cause.
• In 1829, the custom of sati was formally abolished. He also condemned polygamy and many other forms

•
of subjugation of women.

OR
Roy was also an advocate of modern education. He opened an English school as well as a Vedanta college
(1825).
• He was a firm believer in the concept of one God. He was opposed to idolatry and found Upanishads
SC
as the basis of true Hinduism.
• He wished to purify Hinduism by removing all kinds of evils that had crept into it over centuries.
• After Roy's death in 1833, the Brahmo Samaj started getting disorganized.
Debendranath Tagore
GS

• Brahmo Samaj was given a definite shape and popularized beyond the city of Calcutta under the leadership
of Debendranath Tagore who joined in 1842.
• A year later, he wrote Brahmo Covenant. This Covenant was a statement of the creed of the Samaj and
made a list of the duties and obligations of its members.
Keshab Chandra Sen
• Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84) who joined the Samaj in 1858 took the activities of the Samaj beyond
Bengal and into UP, Punjab, Madras and Bombay.
• Keshab Chandra Sen radicalized the Samaj by attacking caste system, underlining women's rights, promoting
widow remarriage and raising the issue of caste status of Brahmo preachers which was earlier reserved
for Brahmans.
• He laid stress on universalism in religion.
• His radicalism brought him into opposition with Debendranath.
• In 1866, the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj (headed by Debendranath) and the
Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by Keshab Chandra).
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Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar
• Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, a Bengali reformer actively raised the issues related to women.
• He was an active proponent of education of girl child as he believed that lack of education was the real
cause underlying all their problems.
• With the help of an Englishman named Bethun, he set up many schools devoted especially to girl child.
• He forcefully attacked child marriage and polygamy.
• He was a strong advocate of widow remarriage.
• It was due to his active mobilization of support that the Widows' Remarriage Act was passed in 1856
legalizing all widow remarriages. He arranged many such remarriages.
• He set a personal example when his son Narayan also married a widow.
Ramakrishna Mission

E
• During the late 19th century, another notable reform movement in Bengal, which soon spread to other
parts of the country, was the Ramakrishna Mission.
OR
• The movement began under an ascetic and priest Gadadhar Chatterjee or Swami Ramakrishna Paramhansa
(1836-86).
• He preached universality of all religions and favoured preserving beliefs and rituals of Hinduism.
• Among his important disciples was Narendra Nath or Swami Vivekananda who accepted Ramakrishna
SC

as his guru in 1885.

Swami Vivekananda
• He spread the message of spiritual Hinduism in America and Europe during his tour of 1893-97.
• He established Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 and set up a Math at Belur.
GS

• He died at a young age of forty in 1902.

• Vivekananda was opposed to degeneration in religion, manifold divisions, caste rigidities, practice of
untouchability, superstitions etc.
• He pointed out that the present condition of Hindus was due to their ignorance which was helped by their
being a subject race.
• He attempted to establish Hindu spiritual supremacy vis-à-vis the selfish civilization of the West.
• He believed that India had to learn work ethics, forms of organization and technological advances from
the West.
Arya Samaj
• The most profound reform movement which can be also termed as revivalist movement in the late 19th
century India was the Arya Samaj.
• It started in the western India and the Punjab, and gradually spread to a large part of the Hindi heartland.
• It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati (1824-83).
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• In 1875, he wrote Satyarth Prakash (or the light of truth) and in the same year founded the Bombay Arya
Samaj.
• The Lahore Arya Samaj was founded in 1877. Subsequently, Lahore became the epicentre of the Arya
movement.
• Dayanand opposed a ritual-ridden Hindu religion and called for basing it on the preaching of the Vedas.
Only Vedas, along with their correct analytical tools, were true.
• He attacked puranas, polytheism, idolatry and domination of the priestly class.
• He adopted Hindi for reaching out to the masses.
• He also opposed child marriage.
• He was fiercely opposed to multiplicity of castes which he thought was primarily responsible for encouraging
conversion of lower castes into Christianity and Islam.

E
• After Dayanand's death in 1883, the Samaj lay scattered.
• Most important attempt to unite the Samaj and its activities was the founding of the Dayanand Anglo

•
Vedic Trust and Management Society in Lahore in 1886.
OR
In 1886, this society opened a school with Lala Hansraj as its principal. However, some leaders of the
Samaj like Munshi Ram (Swami Shraddhanand), Gurudatt, Lekh Ram and others were opposed to Anglo
Vedic education.
SC
• They argued that the Arya Samaj's educational initiative must focus on Sanskrit, Aryan ideology and Vedic
scriptures and should have little space for English learning.
• This militant wing thought that Dayanand's words were sacrosanct and his message in Satyarth Prakash
could not be questioned.
• While the moderate wing led by Lala Hansraj and Lajpat Rai pointed out that Dayanand was a reformer
GS

and not a rishi or sadhu.

• Conflicts also arose over the control of the DAV Management Society.
• These differences finally led to a formal division of the Arya Samaj in 1893 when Munshiram broke away
along with his supporters to initiate a gurukul-based education. Therefore, after 1893 the two wings of the
Arya Samaj were - DAV group and Gurukul group.
• Munshi Ram and Lekh Ram devoted themselves to popularizing of the teachings of the Vedas and began
an Arya Kanya Pathsala at Jalandhar to safeguard education from missionary influence.
• In 1902, Munshi Ram founded a Gurukul at Kangri in Haridwar. This institute became the centre of the
gurukul education wing of the Arya Samaj in India. It was here that Munshi Ram adopted sanyas and
became Swami Shraddhanand.
• The two wings of the Arya Samaj, i.e. DAV wing and the Gurukul wing had differences on the question
of education but were united on important political and social issues of the time.
• The Arya Samaj as a whole opposed conversion of Hindus to Islam and Christianity and therefore
advocated re-conversion of recent converts to Hinduism. This process was called shuddhi.
• They also advocated greater usage of Hindi in Devanagari script.
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• In the 1890s, the Arya Samaj also raised the issue of cow slaughter and formed gaurakshini sabhas (or
the cow protection societies) for protection of cows.
• The Arya Samaj led a prolonged movement against untouchability and advocated dilution of caste
distinctions.
Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Name of Organisation Founder Year Place
1. Atmiya Sabha Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1815 Calcutta
2. Brahmo Samaj Raja Ram Mohan Roy 1829 Calcutta
3. Dharma Sabha Radhakant Dev 1830 Calcutta
4. Tatvabodhini Sabha Devendranath Tagore 1834 Calcutta
5. Paramahansa Mandali Dadoba Panderung 1849 Bombay

E
6. Rahnumai Mazdyasan Sabha Dadabhai Naoroji 1851 Bombay
7. Radhaswami Satsang Tulsi Ram also known of 1861 Agra
OR
Shiv Dayal Saheb
8. Brahmo Samaj of India Keshav Chandrasen 1866 Calcutta
9. Prarthna Samaj Dr. Atmaram Pandurang 1867 Bombay
10. Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand 1875 Bombay
SC

11. Theosophical Society H.P. Blavatsy & Colonell 1875 New York
Olcott
12. Sadharan Brahmo Samaj Anand Mohan Bose 1878 Calcutta
13. Deccen Educational Society G.G. Agarkar 1884 Pune
GS

14. Indian National Social Conference M.G. Ranade 1887 Bombay

15. Dev Samaj Shivnarayan Agnihotri 1887 Lahore
16. Ram Krishna Mission Swami Vivekanand 1897 Belur
17. Servants of India Society Gopal Krishna Gokhale 1905 Bombay
18. Pune Seva Sadan Mr. Ramabai Ranade & 1909 Pune
G.K. Deodhar
19. Social Service League N.M. Joshi 1911 Bombay
20. Seva Samiti H.N. Kunjru 1914 Allahabad
PRARTHANA SAMAJ
• The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang.
• It was an off-shoot of Brahmo Samaj.
Notes

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• It was a reform movement within Hinduism and Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in
1870 and infused new strength to it.
• Mahadev Govind Ranade, also ran the Deccan Education Society.
• Several members of the Prarthana Samaj had earlier been active in the Paramhansa Mandali.
• This Samaj denounced idolatry, priestly domination, caste rigidities and preferred monotheism.
• It also concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage, widow remarriage and uplift of
women and depressed classes.
• Apart from Hindu sects, it also drew upon Christianity and Buddhism.
• It sought truth in all religions.
• Drawing inspiration from the Maratha Bhakti saints of the medieval period, Ranade sought to establish
the concept of one compassionate God.

E
PARAMHANSA MANDALI
•
•
•
OR
Many important reform movements arose during the 19th century western India.
Reformers like KT Telang, VN Mandalik and RG Bhandarkar glorified India's past.
There were some who led a direct attack on social evils like caste system and encouraged widow remarriage,
e.g., Karsondas Mulji and Dadoba Pandurang. They formed Manav Dharma Sabha in 1844 and Paramhansa
Mandali in 1849.
SC

• The Mandali carried its activities secretly.

• Its members took a pledge that they would abandon all caste distinctions.
• The Mandali declined after 1860 as its membership and activities lost secrecy.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
GS

• Madam H.P. Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in the Unites States in 1875 and later
Colonel M.S. Olcott joined her.
• In 1882 they shifted their headquarters to India at Adyar.
• The members of this society believe that a special relationship can be established between a person's soul
and God by contemplation, prayer, revolution.
• The theosophical movement came to be allied with Hindu renaissance.
• The society believes in re-incarnation, Karma and draws from the philosophy of the upanishads and
Samkhya, yoga and vedanta schools of thought.
• After the death of Olcott in 1907 Annie Besant was elected as its President. She had joined the society
in 1889.
• The society under Besant concentrated on the revival of Hinduism and its ancient ideas and in order to
provide Hindu religious instruction.
• She founded the Central Hindu University at Varanasi in 1898 which was later developed into the Benaras
Hindu University by Madan Mohan Malaviya.
Notes

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YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT

• Its founder was Henry Vivian Derozio, who taught at the Hindu college between 1826 and 1831.
• His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement as the Young Bengal Movement.
• The movement attacked old traditions and decadent customs, advocating women's rights and education
and educating the public on the current socio-economic and political questions through press and public
associations.
• They carried on public agitation on public questions like freedom of the press, trial by jury and protection
of peasants, etc.
OTHER REFORM MOVEMENTS IN BRIEF
• In Western India Prof D.K. Karve took up the cause of widow remarriage and in Madras Veerasalingam
Pantulu made Herculean efforts in the same direction.
• Prof. Karve opened a widow's home in Poona in 1899. He set up the Indian Womens University at
Bombay in 1916.
•

E
B.M. Malbari started a crusade against child marriage and his efforts were crowned by the enactment of
OR
the age of consent Act, 1891.
• In 1849 J.E.D. Bethune founded a girl's school in Calcutta.
• All India women's conference was organised in 1936.
• Radha Soami Satsang was founded by Tulsi Ram.
SC

• Deva Samaj was founded by Shiva Narain Agnihotri.

• Nadwah-ul-ulama was founded by Maulana Shibli Numani in 1894 in Lucknow.
• Justice movement was started in 1915-16 by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja Chetti in Madras.
It was against the predominance of the Brahmins in education, government services and politics.
GS

• Ezhava movement was launched by Sri Narayan Guru. He started the movement of untouchable Ezhava
against the Brahmin dominance in Kerala. He rejected the caste system and developed the concept of one
caste, one religion and one God for mankind. His disciple Ayappan made it into no religion, no caste and
no God for mankind.
• In Kerala, the Nairs started movement against the dominance of Nambudari Brahmins. C.V. Raman Pillai
organised the Malyali Memorial. He wrote a novel Martanda Verma to show the military glory of the
Nairs. Padmanabha Pillai founded the nair service society in 1914.
• In 1873, Satya Sodhak movement was launched by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra to save the lower castes
from the Brahmins. He wrote 'Gulamgiri' and 'Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak'. His theory of exploitation
of lower castes was focused on cultural and ethnic factor rather than on political and economic one.
• The Mahars were organised by Gopal Baba Walangkar in late 19th century against Brahmins in Maharashta.
Baba Bhim Rao Ambedkar became their leader in the 20th century. Under his leadership the Mahars
started burning Manusmriti and tried to break with the Hinduism.
• In 1932 Gandhiji founded the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
• Ambedkar founded the Scheduled Castes Federation.
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REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG MUSLIMS

• There was a sense of loss of power among educated and elite Muslims of India. This happened mainly
because of-
• Transfer of power from Mughals to British, and
• Replacement of Persian by English as the language of employment and advancement in the new bureaucracy.
Farazis Movement
• The movement of the Farazis which arose among the peasants of early 19th century Bengal advocated
return to pure Islam.
• They followed the teachings of Shah Walliullah of Delhi (1703-63) who had, a century earlier, talked
about regaining purity of Islam and objected to infiltration of non-Islamic customs among Muslims.
• Founding leader of the Farazis, Shariat Ullah (1781-1839) preached religious purification and advocated

E
return to the faraiz, i.e. obligatory duties of Islam, namely - kalimah (profession of faith), salat (or namaz),
sawn ( or rozah), zakat (or alms to poor) and Hajj. He also preached tawhid or monotheism.
•

•
OR
Another movement which arose among Muslims of Bengal was the Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah under the
leadership of Titu Mir who was initiated by Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi. This movement also talked about
return to past purity.
Another movement which was more concerned about the decline in power of the ulema class (Muslim
priestly class) arose at Deoband in the United Provinces.
SC
• Delhi School of Islamic Thought was derived from the Delhi College (currently Zakir Husain College)
which had begun imparting a parallel education - Islamic as well as English.
• Beginning 1830s, the college helped to foster a modern consciousness in the Muslim community.
• The revolt of 1857 and consequent crackdown by the British forces ended this intellectual excitement.
However, the urge for modernization could easily be felt among a section of Muslims.
GS

The Wahabi Movement

• The Muslims lost their political power with the replacement of the Mughals by the East India Company.
• The spread of Christianity and the Western culture were viewed as a threat to Islam. They resisted English
education and remained aloof from Western influences.
• The Wahabi movement was introduced in India by Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh.
• The Wahabi movement aimed at the purification of Islam and to return to the simplicity of religion.
• In India the Wahibis did not restrict to the religious reforms only.
• They aimed at the replacement of the British rule by the rule of the true believers.
• The Wahabi movement took the nature of the political revolt.
Sayyid Ahmad Khan
• According to Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-98) modern education was the most important path for
improvement in the condition of Indian Muslims.
• He called for the study of European science and technology.
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• In 1866, he formed the British Indian Association.

• He stayed in England for more than a year during 1869-70.
• On his return, he asked his Muslim brethren to adopt some positive features of the English society like
its discipline, order, efficiency and high levels of education.
• He pointed out that there was no fundamental contradiction between Quran and Natural Science and the
new circumstances demanded dissemination of English language within an Islamic context.
• He founded the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which went on to become the
most important seminary for modern higher education among Muslims.
• At the elementary level, students followed the standard government curriculum in a carefully constructed
Islamic environment. In 1878, the college classes were also started and non-Muslims were also enrolled.
• In 1886, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded also the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental Educational Conference.
• The Muslim graduates of Aligarh who numbered 220 during 1882-1902, provided lot of excitement to

E
the Muslim intellectual world and in due course of time provided an able and modern leadership to the
community.
OR
The Deoband School
• The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Moovement. It was a revivalist
movement whose twin objectives were:
• To propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koranand the Hadisand.
SC

• To keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.

• The new Deoband leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and intellectual
content to the religious ideas of the school.
• The liberal interpretation of Islam created a political awakening among its followers.
GS

Ahmadiya Movement
• The Ahmadiya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahamad of Qadiyan (1839-1908) in 1889, who
began his work as a defender of Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries.
• In 1889, he claimed to be Masih and Mahdi and later also to be an incarnation of the Hindu god Krishna
and Jesus, returned to earth.
• The movement was really a heresy well within the bounds of Islam as Ghulam Ahamad, though he called
himself a minor prophet, regarded Muhammad as the true and great prophet whom he followed.
• The Ahmadiya movement based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of at universal religion
of all humanity.
• Ghulam Ahmad was greatly influenced by western liberalism theosophy, and the religious reform movements
of the Hindus.
• The Ahmadiyas opposed Jihad or sacred war against non-Muslims and stressed fraternal relations among
all people.
• The movement spread western liberal education among Indian Muslims and started a network of schools
and colleges for that purpose.
Notes

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Ahrar Movement
• It was a movement founded in 1910 under the leadership of Maulana Muhammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal
Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khar and Mazhar-ul-Haq in opposition to the loyalist policies of
the Aligarh movement.
• Moved by modern ideas of self-government its members advocated active participation in the nationalist
movement.
SIKH REFORM MOVEMENT
Nirankaris
• Baba Dayal Das (1783-1855) was the founder of this movement of purification and return.
• In 1840s he called for the return of Sikhism to its origin and emphasized the worship of one God and
nirankar (formless).

E
• Such an approach meant a rejection of idolatry and also prohibition of eating meat, drinking liquor, lying,
cheating, etc.
•

OR
It laid emphasis on Guru Nanak and on Sikhism before the establishment of Khalsa by Guru Gobind Sing
at Anandpur and this separated them from the Namdaris.
Namdharis
• It was founded by Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885) in 1857, who in 1841 became a disciple of Balak Singh
SC
of the Kuka movement.
• The movement was founded on a set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh's founding of the Khalsa
with the requirement of wearing the five symbols but instead of the sword the followers were supposed
to carry a stick.
• The movement required the followers to abandon the worship of gods, idols, tombs, trees, snakes, etc. and
GS

abstain from drinking, stealing, falsehood, slandering, backbiting, etc.

• Further the consumption of beef was strictly forbidden as protection of cattle was important.
Singh Sabha
• To strengthen Sikhism, a small group of prominent Sikhs led by Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani Gian
Singh founded the Singh Sabha of Amritsar on October 1, 1873.
• The objectives of the Sabha were to restore Sikhism to its pristine purity, to publish historical religious
book and periodicals, to propagate knowledge, sing Punjabi, to return Sikh apostles to their faith and to
involve Englishmen in educational programme of the Sikhs.
• Later the Singh Sabha Amritsar was emulated by a new organization, the Lahore Singh Sabha more
democratic in nature.
• After a while, the Singh Sabhas were overwhelmed by other organisation such as Khalsa Diwani and in
1920, by a struggle for control over Sikh places of worship.
Gurudwara Reform Movements
• Before 1920 the Sikh Gurudwara were governed by the Udasi Sikh mahants, who treated the Gurudwara
offerings and other income of the Gurudwaras as their personal income.
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• The British government supported these mahants as a counterpoise to the rising tide of nationalism among
the Sikhs.
• Matter came to such a pass that the priest of the golden temple issued a hukmnama (injunction) against
Ghadarites, declaring them renegades, and then honored General Dyer, the butcher of Jalianwala massacre
with a saropa.
• The Gurudwara Reform Movement launched an agitation for freeing the Gurudwaras from these corrupt
mahants and for handing over the Gurudwaras to a representative body of Sikhs.
• Under the growing pressure of the nationalist and Gurudwara agitators, the Gurudwaras came under the
control of an elected committee known as the Shiromani Gurudwara Prablandhalk Committee, in November
1920.
• The movement for liberation of Gurudwaras soon turned into Alkali movement, which later on got
divided into three streams, namely moderate nationalist reformers, pro-government loyalists and political
organ of Sikh communalism.
PARSI REFORM MOVEMENT
•

E
The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee
OR
in 1851 with funds provided by K.N. Kama.
• Furdunji Naoroji became its President and S.S. Bengali its secretary.
• Naroji Furdunji edited in 1840s the Fam-i-Famshid, a journal aimed at defending the cause of Zoroastrianism.
• He also wrote a number of pamphlets and published the book Tarika Farthest in 1850.
SC

• All these events led to the formation of a socio-religious movement designed to codify the Zoroastrian
religion and reshape Parsi social life.
• In 1851 a small group of educated Parsis formed the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsi Reform
Society)
• In 1850 Bengali started publishing a monthly journal Jagat Mitra and the Jagat Premi in 1851.
GS

• The sabha's journal Rast Goftar was the main voice of the movement.
• The leaders criticized elaborate ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and funerals and opposed infant
marriage and the use of astrology.
• But the activities of the sabha divided the Parsis into two groups: those who advocated radical change and
those who wished only limited altercations in rituals and customs, organized under the Raherastnumi
Mazdayasnan in opposition to the radicals.
SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT AND PERIYAR E.V. RAMASWAMY
• Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy, a great social reformer took an active part in the anti-liquor movement and
Vaikam Satyagraha in 1924.
• He was the leader of the self-respect movement. It was a popular movement, which occurred in Tamil
Nadu in 1925.It had two aims:
• Demanding the sanction of more concessions and privileges (which would cause discrimination against the
Brahmins) to surpass Brahmins in education and social status.
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• Achieving 'Swayam Maryada' or self-respect.

• This movement formed a part of the many social reforms occurred during that period.
• Its main approach was to improve upon the socio-economic conditions of the low castes Tamils. Later
it had profound implications.
• The main objectives of this movement were inculcation and dissemination of knowledge of political
education; Right to lead life with dignity and self-respect and do away with the exploitative system based
on superstitions and beliefs.
• Abolition of the evil social practices and protection of women rights. Establishment and maintenance of
homes for orphans and widow and opening of educational institutions for them.
• This movement gained popularity in no time and became a political platform.
• He attacked the laws of Manu, which he called the basis of the entire Hindu social fabric of caste.

E
• He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and Viduthalai to propagate his ideals.
• In 1938 the Tamil Nadu Women's Conference appreciated the noble service rendered by E.V.R. and he

•
was given the title "Periyar".

OR
On 27th June 1970 by the UNESCO organisation praised and adorned with the title "Socrates of South
Asia"
IMPACT OF REFORM MOVEMENTS
SC
• These reformist played a prominent role in the social life of the 19th century.
• One may mention such names as Pandita Ramabai in western part, Sister Subbalaksmi in Madras and
Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain in Bengal.
• Reform movements helped the growth of a modern middle class which was conscious of its rights.
GS

• Some Indian reformers also protested British attempts to pass those laws which they thought interfered
with their religion and society.
• This was evident in the case of the Age of Consummation of marriage by raising the age of consent from
10 to 12.
• Some of these reform movements, by raising issues which were in conflict with interests of other
communities or were revivalist in nature, also worked towards polarization along communal lines.
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PEASANT AND TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

PEASANT REVOLT
• The Permanent Settlement made the zamindar the owner of the land, but this land could be sold off if
he failed to pay the revenue on time and this forced the zamindars and the landlords to extract money
from the peasants even if their crops failed.
• The peasants often borrowed money from the moneylenders, who were also called mahajans.
• The impoverished peasants could never pay back this borrowed money. This led to many hardships like
extreme poverty and were forced to work as bonded labourers. Hence the lower and exploited classes
often attacked their exploiters.

E
• Failure to pay by the zamindars also meant that the land would be taken away by the Britishers. The
British then auctioned the land to the highest bidder, who often came from the urban areas.
OR
• The new zamindars from the urban areas had little or no interest in the land. They did not invest money
in seeds or fertilizers to improve the fertility of the land but only cared to collect as much revenue as they
could. This proved destructive for the peasants who remained backward and stagnant.
• To get out of this situation, the peasants started producing commercial crops like indigo, sugarcane, jute,
SC

cotton, opium and so on. This was the beginning of commercialisation of agriculture.
• The peasants depended on merchants, traders and middlemen to sell their produce during harvest time.
As they shifted to commercial crops, food grain production went down. Less food stocks led to famines.
All these forced the peasantry to revolt.
• Peasant movements varied in nature:
GS

– Prior to the commencement of mass movements of the freedom struggle, these peasant movements
were localized based on religion, caste and social consciousness.
– Later on, some secular trends were observed in these movements which became national level mass
movements resulting in formation of platforms such as Kishan Sabha, Congress Socialist Party, etc.
Some of the important peasant revolts are discussed below:
a) The Mappila Uprisings (1836-1854)
• The Mappilas were the Muslim cultivating tenants, landless labourers and fishermen of Malabar region.
• British occupation of Malabar region and their new land laws along with the atrocities of the landlords
(mainly Hindus) led the Mappilas to revolt against them in 1836.
b) Farazi Movement (1838-1848)
• This was the first ever no-tax campaign against the British Government led by Shariatullah Khan and
Dadu Mian.
• Their band of volunteers fought heroically with the armed group of Indigo planters and zamindars.
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• It brought together all the cultivators of Bengal against the tyranny and illegal extractions by the landlords.
c) Wahabi Movement (1830's-1860's)
• The leader of the movement was Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly who was greatly influenced by the
teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah Waliullah, a Delhi saint.
• The movement was primarily religious in its origin.
• It soon assumed the character of a class struggle in some places, especially in Bengal. Irrespective of
communal distinctions, peasants united against their landlords.
d) Indigo Revolt (1859-1860)
• The peasants were forced to grow indigo in their lands by the European factory owners which exploded
into a revolt in Govindpur village of Nandia district in Bengal under the leadership of Digamber Biswas
and Vishnu Biswas.

E
• Others who played an important role included Harish Chandra Mukherjee (editor of the newspaper Hindu
Patriot), Dinbandhu Mitra and Michael Madhusudan Dutta.
•

e)
of the indigo cultivation.
The Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellions (1770-1820s)
OR
As a result the government appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860 and removed some of the abuses

• The establishment of British control over Bengal after 1757 led to increase in land revenue and the
SC
exploitation of the peasants.
• The Bengal famine of 1770 led peasants whose lands were confiscated, displaced zamindars, disbanded
soldiers and poor to come together in a rebellion. They were joined by the Sanyasis and Fakirs.
• The Faqirs were a group of wandering Muslim religious mendicants in Bengal.
• Two famous Hindu leaders who supported them were Bhawani Pathak and a woman, Devi Choudhurani.
GS

They attacked English factories and seized their goods, cash, arms and ammunition.
• Maznoom Shah was one of their prominent leaders. They were finally brought under control by the British
at the beginning of the 19th century.
• The Sanyasi Uprisings took place in Bengal between the periods of 1770-1820s.
• The Sanyasis rose in rebellion after the great famine of 1770 in Bengal which caused acute chaos and
misery.
• However, the immediate cause of the rebellion was the restrictions imposed by the British upon pilgrims
visiting holy places among both Hindus and Muslims.
f) Pabna Agrarian Unrest
• Peasants unrest broke out due to the efforts of the zamindars to enhance rent beyond legal limits &
prevent the tenants from acquiring occupancy right under Act X of 1859.
• As a result in May 1873, an agrarian league was formed at Yusuf Shahi Pargana in Pabna district of East
Bengal to resist the zamindari oppression.
• Like the Indigo Revolt, the Pabna Movement was non-communal despite the fact that majority of the
zamindars were Hindus and the peasants from Muslim background.
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• However, many newspapers of the region, like Hindu Patriot and Anand Bazar, being pro-landlord,
opposed the peasant's limited demands and even tried to portray it as a communal struggle of Muslim
tenants against Hindu zamindars.
• This movement led by Ishan Chandra Roy, Shambhu Pal and Khoodi Mollah lasted till 1885, when the
Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 was passed.
g) Deccan Riots
• A major agrarian revolt occurred in Pune and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra in 1875 due to the
difficulty which the peasants faced in paying land revenue in the Ryotwari System.
• Peasants were forced to look towards the money-lenders, mostly Marwaris and Guajratis for the payment
of revenue.
• The money-lenders began to tighten the grip on the peasants and their lands.
• In December 1874 peasants organised a social boycott to money-lenders & other outsiders.

E
• The boycott soon transformed into agrarian riots and the peasants started attacking the houses and shops
of these money-lenders which soon spread to other areas of the region.
OR
• Though this revolt had localized character and limited objectives with no anti-colonial features, it got
supports of the intelligentsia of Maharashtra.
• The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha led by Justice Ranade rallied with the peasants' cause.
• With the passing of the Deccan Agriculturist Relief Act of 1879, the movement came to an end.
SC

h) Uprising of Vasudev Balwant Phadke

• Vasudev Balwant Phadke, an educated clerk, raised a Ramosis peasants force during 1879, and organized
social banditry on a large scale.
• He was deeply stirred by the devastation caused in western India by the famine of 1876-77.
GS

• He was arrested in 1880 and died three years later (1883) in prison.
i) Champaran Satyagraha
• This satyagraha formed the base of the transition of peasant movement from a localized one to mass
movement.
• The cultivation of indigo on tinkathia system was in existence in Champaran earlier.
• In the 20th century, with the declining market of indigo in the face of synthetic dyes, the planters were
now willing to release the farmers from their irksome crop, but only by recurring increase in revenue and
other dues.
• In 1917, Gandhiji offered civil disobedience in Champaran on the persuasion of Raj Kumar Shukla.
• The Government ordered an enquiry involving men like Rajendra Prasad and J. B. Kriplani and recording
statements of peasants.
• Ultimately, the first experiment of Mahatma Gandhi in India succeeded with the abolition of the tinkathia
system.
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j) Kheda Satyagraha
• Again led by Gandhiji, this Satyagraha was directed against the distress of the Kunbi Patidars peasants
of Kheda in Gujarat.
• It was well-supported by leaders like Indu Lal Yagnik and Vallabbhai Patel.
• Gandhiji urged the peasantry to withhold the revenue.
• At the end, Gandhiji withdrew the movement in 1918, with the government passing orders that revenue
should be recovered only from those peasants who could pay.
k) Kisan and Eka Movements (Awadh)
• The grievances of the peasantry and the outbreak of the First World War instigated the problems and
misery of the peasants to a new height.
• During this period, sharp increase in the price of food grains, benefiting middlemen and money-lenders and

E
the government's encouragement to talukdari and zamindari increased the peasants' problem in Uttar
Pradesh.
•

•
OR
The members of Home Rule League, Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi, with the support
of Madan Mohan Malviya, started organising the peasants of Uttar Pradesh into Kishan Sabhas in 1918.
The U.P. Kisan Sabha demonstrated considerable activity, and by June 1919 had established at least 450
branches in 173 tehsils of the province.
SC
• Towards the end of 1919, first signs of grass-root level were evident in the reports of a Nai-Dhobi band
(a form of social boycott) on an estate in Pratapgarh district.
• These movements started moving towards a religious character when a Maharashtrian Brahman, Baba
Ramchandra initiated the process of organising peasants against the zamindars. He wandered around as
a Sadhu, quoting verses from the Ramcharitmanas to awaken the peasantry to a sense of dignity.
GS

• In June 1920, Ramchandra persuaded Gauri Shankar Mishra and Jawahar Lal Nehru to visit the village
and to see the living condition of the tenants. Thus, the peasant movement got associated with the
national movement.
• But, differences in the group led to the formation of Awadh Kisan Sabha at Pratapgarh in October 1920.
• A marked feature of the Kisan Sabha movement was the participation of both high as well as low caste
peasants.
• The pattern of activity involved the looting of bazaars, houses, granaries and clashes with the police. These
activities were not carried out by recognized Kisan Sabha activitsts, but by local figures, Sadhus, holy men
and disinherited ex-proprietors.
• The government tried to uproot the movement with the Seditious Meetings Act and Awadh Rent
(Amendment) Act.
• But, the discontent surfaced again in the districts of Hardoi, Bahraich and Sitapur under the new banner
i.e., Eka movement. It was purely religious in nature and soon developed its own grass-root leadership in
the form of Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders who were not particularly inclined to accept the
discipline of non-violence of the Congress.
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• The Eka movement also included many small zamindars, discontent with the British agrarian policy. By
March 1922, however, severe repression in the part of the authorities succeeded in bringing the Eka
movement to its end.
l) Bardoli Satyagraha
• It was one of the important satyagrahas fully based on the Gandhian method of struggle.
• It started in 1928 at Bardoli in Surat district, it incorporated both the land owning peasants as well as the
low caste untouchables and tribes like Kali-praja (dark people).
• These tribes were given the name of Ranipraja (inhabitants of the forest).
• When the Bombay government announced an enhanced revenue by 22% in spite of the fall in the prices
of cotton, the followers of Gandhiji, like the Mehta brothers persuaded Vallabbhai Patel to organize a
sustained no-revenue campaign.
• Skillful use of caste associations, social boycott, religious appeals and bhajans made Bardoli Satyagraha
a national issue which forced the government to reach a settlement on the basis of a judicial enquiry and

E
return of the confiscated lands.

List of Peasant Movements

OR
Movements Area Leaders Course & Consequence
Rangpur Rangpur, Dinajpur Dhiraj Narayan Against enhanced revenue,
1783 Bengal parallel govt. & attack on colonial symbols
SC

Moplah Malabar coast ... Land Revenue based on Janami system

was resented, military operations
Indigo Bengal Digambar Viswas Peaceful protest, ban on Indigo
1859 Vishnu Viswas plantation in 1860
Pabna Bengal Ishanchandra Rai Legal protest against revenue enhancement
GS

1873-76 Sambhu Pal

Deccan Riots Puna, Satara ... Social buycot of Mahajans, Act of 1879
1875 Ahmednagar passed
Bijolia Mewar Sitaram Dass No Tax Movement, protest against
1905-13 Bhop Singh Jagirdars
Champaran Champaran Mahatma Gandhi Successful protest against Tinkathia system
1917 Bihar
Kheda Gujarat Mahatma Gandhi Against revenue collection after
1918 destruction of crops
Awadh Pratapgarh, Jhinguri Singh Protest against illegal rent & land disposal
1919-22 Rai Barelly Baba Ram Chandra Act, social buycot of Jagirdars
Eka Barabanki, Hardoi, Madari Passi Participation of small Zamindars, crushed
1920 Sitapur, Bahraich
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Moppila Malabar coast Yakub Hassan Attack on police stations, govt. offices
1921 Gopal Menon & zamindars, on communal line, crushed
Bardoli Surat, Gujarat Ballabh Bhai Patel Against Hali system, decreased revenue rent
1928
Andhra Andhra Pradesh N.G. Ranga Against enhanced revenue, farmers got
1923-38 relief
Malabar Malabar coast R. Ram Chandra Relief after Malabar Tenancy Act
1934-40 T. Prakasham
Kisan Sabha Bihar Swami Sahajanand Land Tenancy Act
1929-39
Tebhaga Bengal Krishna Vinod Rai Peaceful Movement centred on farming
1946 Avani Lahiri

E
Punnapra Vayalar Travancore Panam thanu 800 rebel were killed for an independent
1946 Pillai Travancore state
Telengana
1946-51
Andhra Pradesh Sandraiya

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS
OR Gurilla warfare of farmers against Nizam
& traders
SC
• The tribal groups were an important and integral part of Indian life.
• Before their annexation and subsequent incorporation in the British territories, they had their own social
and economic systems. These systems were traditional in nature and satisfied the needs of the tribals.
• They also enjoyed independence regarding the management of their affairs. The land and forests were their
main source of livelihood. The forests provided them with basic items which they required for survival.
GS

• The tribal communities remained isolated from the non-tribals.

• The British policies proved harmful to the tribal society. This destroyed their relatively self-sufficient
economy and communities.
• The tribal groups of different regions revolted against the Britishers.
• These movements were basically directed to preserve the tribal identity which was thought to be in danger
due to intrusion of external people affecting the social, political and geo-economical position of the tribes.
• These movements were mostly violent, isolated and frequent.
Factors Responsible for Tribal Movements
• Resentment of the tribes against the extension of the British rule to their areas.
• The introduction of general administration & laws in their areas which were considered by them as
intrusions into the traditional political system of the tribal community.
• Reaction against the penetration of tribal areas by peoples from plains in form of money lenders, traders,
contractors etc.
• Protection given to the outsiders in tribal areas by British government.
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• The tightening of British control over their forest zones, creation of reserved forests and attempts to
monopolize forest- wealth through curbs on the use of timber and grazing facilities.
• The activities of Christian missionaries in their areas were looked upon by them as anti-religious and hence
resented.
• British attempts to suppress certain tribal traditions and practices like infanticide, human sacrifices etc
hurted the tribal social beliefs.
• The British colonialism devoid the tribal people of their traditional economic set up and hence they were
forced to serve as menial labourers, coolies in plantation, mines and factories.
• However, not all outsiders were targeted as enemies. The non-tribal poor and service castes were spared
and sometimes seen as allies.
• The movements began normally when the tribes felt oppressed and had no alternatives but fight. This led
to clashes with the outsiders and colonial authorities.
• The tribes organised themselves for an armed resistance.

E
• Generally there was one or other religious leaders-Messiahas whom the tribes looked as divine power who
could end up their sufferings & hence followed them.
OR
Some of the important movements are discussed below:
a) Bhil Uprising
• The Bhils were largely concentrated in Khandesh (present day Maharashtra & Gujarat). Khandesh came
under British occupation in 1818.
SC

• The Bhils considered them as outsiders. On the instigation of Trimbakji, rebel minister of Baji Rao II they
revolted against the Britishers.
• Their struggle lasted for thirty years which was finally suppressed after large scale military operations
combined with conciliatory measures.
b) The Kol Uprising
GS

• The Kols of Singhbhum in the Chhotanagpur area enjoyed autonomy under their chiefs but the entry of
the British threatened their independence.
• Later the transfer of tribal lands and the coming of moneylenders, merchants and British laws created a
lot of tension. This prompted the Kol tribe to organise themselves and rebel(1831-1832).
• The impact was such that the British had to rush troops from far off places to suppress it.
c) The Santhal Rebellion
• The area of concentration of the Santhals was called Daman-i-Koh or Santhal Pargana.
• It extended from Bhagalpur in Bihar in the north to Orissa in the south stretching from Hazaribagh to the
borders of Bengal.
• They cultivated their land and lived a peaceful life which continued till the British officials brought with
them traders, moneylenders, zamindars and merchants.
• They were made to buy goods on credit and forced to pay back with a heavy interest during harvest time.
As a result, they were sometimes forced to give the mahajan not only their crops, but also plough, bullocks
and finally the land.
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• Very soon they became bonded labourers and could serve only their creditors.
• The peaceful tribal communities revolted (1855-57) under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanu were Santhal
rebel leaders.
• The British government started a major military campaign to suppress the rebellion.
• Sidhu was killed in August 1855 and Kanhu was arrested in 1856.
• It was one of the most deadly suppressed rebellions of Indian history.
• A separate Santal Pargana district was created cutting from the parts of Birbhum (Jamtara and Deoghar)
and Bhagalpur districts.
d) Jaintia and Garo Rebellion Rebellion
• After the First Anglo-Burmese War, the British planned the construction of a road connecting Brahmaputra
Valley (present day Assam) with Sylhet (present day Bangladesh).

E
• The Jaintias and the Garos in the North-Eastern part of India (present day Meghalaya) opposed the
construction of this road which was of strategic importance to the British for the movement of troops.
•

•
British burnt several Jaintias and Garo villages. OR
The Jaintias tried to stop work and soon the unrest spread to the neighbouring Garo hills. Alarmed, the

The Jaintias leader U Kiang Nongbah was captured and publicly hanged and the Garo leader Pa Togan
Sangma was defeated by the British.
SC

e) Rampa Rebellion
• The hill tribes, Koya and Khonda Dora of Rampa region of Chodavaram revolted in March 1879 against
the depredation of the government supported zamindars and the new restrictive forest regulations.
• It was led by Tomma Sora who was later shot dead by the Police.
GS

• The authorities launched military campaigns against the rebellious people and several other ways were
used for suppression of the movement.
f) Munda Rebellion
• The Mundas traditionally enjoyed certain rights as the original clearer of the forest which was not given
to the other tribes. But this land system was getting destroyed in the hands of the merchants and
moneylenders long before the coming of the British.
• When the British actually came into these areas they helped to destroy this system with a rapid pace when
they introduced contractors and traders. These contractors needed people to work with them as indentured
laborers.
• This dislocation of the Mundas at the hands of the British and their contractors gave birth to the Munda
Rebellion.
• The most prominent leader of this rebellion was Birsa Munda who encouraged his tribe people to keep
the tradition of worshipping of the sacred groves alive. This move was very important to prevent the
Britishers from taking over their wastelands.
• He attacked Police Stations, Churches and missionaries.
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• The rebels were defeated and Munda died in prison soon after in 1900. But his sacrifice did not go in vain.
The Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 provided some land ownership rights to the people and banned
bonded labour of the tribal.
g) Khonda Dora Uprisings
• It was also against the colonial exploitation which was led by a religious leader Korra Mallaya who
claimed to be an Avatar of the Pandavas.
• Large scale police suppression ended the revolt.
h) Bastar Rebellion
• Tribal resentment against the imposition of forest laws and feudal system led to the rise of the revolt of
the tribes of Jagdalpur region in modern Chhattisgarh.
• The rebels disrupted communication system, attacked symbols of colonial power and tried to seize
Jagdalpur town.

E
• The British military operation in 1910 suppressed the rebellion.
i) Tana Bhagat Movement
OR
• In the second decade of the 20th century, Tana Bhagat movement started initially in a religious form but
later transformed into a political one under the impact of the Indian National Congress.
• This movement was centred on the Oran tribes of Chhotangapur in Jharkhand.
• The resistance of the local grievances and problems was amalgamated with the National movement.
SC

• There were a number of these Bhagat movements like that of Jatra Bhagat, Balram Bhagat, Gau Rakshini
Bhagats, and even woman Bhagat named Devamenia.
• These movements were local in character inside and national outside.
• Internally it was called as movements for Kurukh dharma or the real religion which emphasized on
GS

celibacy and pure living, devoid of meat, liquor etc.

• Externally, it was under the impact of the Congress, holding demonstration, Satyagrahas, Dharanas etc.
• Like other tribal movements, the British government acted harshly on these rebels. They were imprisoned
and their properties were seized.
j) Forest Satyagraha
• Just like the Tana Bhagat movements, these forest satyagrahas were widespread acquiring political character
under the influence of the Congress and national movements.
• During the Non-cooperation movement, the Chenchu tribals of Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh started
a strong forest satyagraha.
• Though these movements were inspired by the Congress, it often surpassed the limit of Gandhian process
of satyagraha.
• Like other movements of the phase, stress was laid on righteous and virtuous living in conformation with
the Gandhian method
Notes

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List of Tribal Movements

Revolts Area Leaders Course & Consequence
Chuars Manbhum & Chuar Leaders Defiance of authorities, suppressed by force
1768 and 1832 Barabhum
Pahariyas Rajmahal Pahariya Sardars Resentment against British encroachment,
1778-85 crushed
Bhils Khandesh Sevaram British occupation, mediatary &
1818-48 concilliatory measures
Hos Singhbhum Ho Leaders British occupation, military operations
1820-32
Khond Orissa Chakra Bisayi Forceful suppression of rebellious leaders
1846-1914

E
Khasis Meghalaya Tirut Singh & Forceful implementation of a linking road,
1829-32 Barmanik Tirut captured
Kolis
1824-48
Singhpos
Syhyadari
Gujarat
Assam
Koli Leaders

Singhpo Leaders
OR Repeated revolts, all leaders were captured

Against British encroachment, suppressed

1830-39 badly
SC
Kols Chhotanagpur Buddho Bhagat Against land revenue, killed outsiders,
1831-32 ruthlessly crushed
Koyas Rampa Region Alluri Sitaram Raju Revenue policy & ban on forest products,
1840-58, 1922-24 Noma Dara Raju was killed
GS

Santhals Rajmahal Hills Sidhu & Kanu Resentment against outsiders, money
1855-56 lenders, leaders killed
Naikdas Panchmahal Roop Singh Peace treaty (1859), later on Roop Singh
1858-68 Gujarat Joria Bhagat and Joria killed
Kherwar Rajmahal Hills Bhagirath Religio - tribal resentment, Bhagirath died
1870-80 in Jail
Bhuyan & Juang Orissa Ratna Nayak & Suppressed by local zamindars & British
1867-93 Shami Dhar
Kacha Nagas Assam Sambhudan Uncertain attacks on British, suppressed
1882 ruthlessly
Mundas Chhotanagpur Birsa Munda Forced-labour, outsiders Birsa Munda died
1899-1900 in Jail
Bhils Banswara Govind Guru Religio-political, attempts to set up Bhill
raj 1913 Rajasthan failed
Oraons Chhotanagpur Jatra Bhagat Monotheistic movement, adopted
Gandhian 1914-15 styles
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Chenchu Nallamale Hills Hanumanth Against forest regulation

1921-22 Andhra Pradesh
Kukis Manipur Rani Gaidiulliu Against forced-labour, Gurilla warfare,
1917-19 suppressed

E
OR
SC
GS
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THE REVOLT OF 1857

• The revolt of 1857 was though a regional manifestation yet the causes and the events that instigated the
revolt were surely having a Pan-Indian characteristic.
• The revolt of 1857 was the outburst of people's feelings against, social, economic and political exploitation
and hence people participated from almost every field, i.e. social, economical (represented by peasants)
and political (deposed rulers) in the revolt.
• It was the first major attempt by the Indians to free themselves from the clutches of British Raj, but
Anglo-Indian historians have greatly emphasized the importance of military grievances and the greased
cartridges affair as the most potent causes which led to the uprising of 1857.

E
• The greased cartridges and the mutiny of soldiers was merely the match-stick which exploded the
inflammable material which had gathered in heap on account of a variety of causes - political, social,

•
religious and economic.
OR
Prior to this revolt also, the resentment of the Indians were expressed in both violent mutinies as well as
peaceful protests.
• The mutiny at Vellore (1806), at Barrackpore (1824), at Ferozpur (1842), mutiny of the 7th Bengal cavalry,
SC
mutiny of 22nd N.I. in 1849, Revolt of the Santhals (1855-56), Kol uprising (1831-32) etc. were among
the high degree of protests by the people that culminated in the revolt of 1857.
POLITICAL CAUSES
Conquest
• The East India Company created a lot of discontent and disaffection among the dispossessed ruling
GS

families and their successors by her conquest.

• A large number of dependents on the ruling families who lost their means of livelihood and other
common people were disillusioned and disaffected with the alien rule.
• Lord Dalhousie annexed the Punjab and added humiliation to the ruling family. Dalip Singh, the minor
son of Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab, was deposed, and exiled to England.
The properties of the Lahore Darbar were auctioned.
Doctrine of Lapse
• By applying the Doctrine of Lapse, Dalhousie annexed the principalities of Satara, Jaipur, Sambhalpur,
Bhagat, Udaipur, Jhansi, and Nagpur.
• Doctrine of Lapse manifested the lack of sensitivity of the British towards the ancient right of adoption
among the Hindus.
• Lord Dalhousie annexed the kingdom of Oudh in 1856 on the pretext of mismanagement. The
dethronement of Wajid Ali Shah sent a wave of resentment and anger of throughout the country.
• The kingdom of Oudh was exploited economically and the Nawabs were reduced to a position of
complete dependency on the British. The Nawabs, negligence towards the administration of the state, was
used as an excuse by Dalhousie to merge it with the British Empire.
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Humiliation of the Mughals

• Since 1803, the Mughal emperors had been living under the British protection. His claims to honour and
precedence were recognized.
• The seal of Governors General bore the inscription humble servant.
• Amherst made it clear to the emperor, that his Kingship was nominal; it was merely out of courtesy that
he was addressed as King.
• The emperor was forced to give up residence in the Red Fort, and abandon his prerogative of naming his
successor.
• The treatment meted out by the governors-general to the Mughal emperor greatly alienated the Muslims
who felt that the British wanted to humble their emperor.
Suspension of Pension
• The annual pension of Rani Jindan the Queen of Maharaja Ranjit Singh was reduced from 15,000 pounds

E
to 1,200 pounds.
• The pension to Nana Sahib and of Lakshmi Bai, of Jhansi was suspended.
OR
• The titular sovereignty of the Nawab of Carnatic and Tanjore was also abolished.
ADMINISTRATIVE AND ECONOMIC CAUSES
Rule of Law
SC

• The British introduced the Rule of Law, which implied the principle of equality in the eyes of the law
irrespective of the high and the low, the rich and the poor, the weak and the strong.
• The poorer and the weaker sections did not get any benefit from the new system due to complicated
procedure of the British administration.
Unpopular British Administration
GS

• The English officials were not accessible to the people. Thus, the people could not place their grievances
before them, as they did during the period of the Mughals.
• The people also disliked the new system of British administration which functioned as a machine and
lacked personal touch.
• The English laws were quite strange and the common people could not understand them.
Exclusion of lndians from Administrative Posts
• The British were of the opinion that the Indians were not suitable for the higher posts in their administrative
structure. They lacked faith in the sincerity of the Indians.
• Contempt for Indian and racial prejudice were other reasons why the Indians were denied higher positions
in the administration.
• Complete exclusion of Indians from all position of trust and power in the administration, and the manning
of all higher offices both in the civil government and the military forces by the British brought forth
discontent and a sense of humiliation among the people.
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ECONOMIC CAUSES
Ruin of the Mercantile Class
• The British deliberately crippled Indian trade and commerce by imposing high tariff duties against Indian
goods. On the other hand they encouraged the import of British goods to India. As a result by the middle
of the nineteenth century Indian exports of cotton and silk goods practically came to an end.
Destruction of Indian Manufacturers
• The British policy of promoting the import of cotton goods to India from England destructed all Indian
manufacturers, in the cotton textile industry.
• When British goods flooded Indian market and threatened the outright destruction of Indian manufacturers,
the East India Company's government that ruled India did not take any step to prevent the tragedy.
• Free trade and refusal to impose protective duties against machine-made goods of England ruined Indian
manufacturers.

E
Pressure on Land
•

•
OR
The millions of ruined artisans and craftsmen, spinners, weavers, smelters, smiths and others from town
and villages, had no alternative but to pursue agricultural activity that led to a pressure on land.
India was transformed from being a country of agriculture into an agricultural colony of British Empire.
Impoverishment of peasantry
SC
• Land being the chief source of income for Indians, the East India Company introduced various experiments
and measures to extract the maximum share of agricultural produce.
• Various methods of revenue settlement led to the impoverishment and misery of the peasants.
• Peasants were exploited by moneylenders, who usually confiscated their land for failure to repay their
debt.
GS

• English settlers monopolized plantation industries like indigo and tea.

• The inhuman treatment of the indigo cultivators by the European plantation owners was one of the
darkest and most tragic episodes in the history of British rule in India.
• The economic policies of the British affected the interests of the Indian traders, the manufacturers,
craftsmen and the peasants.
SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CAUSES
Social Legislation
• Lord William Bentinck abolished the practice of Sati in 1829, with the support of educated and enlightened
Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Lord Canning enacted the Widow Remarriage Act, drafted by Lord Dalhousie in 1856.
• These legislation were viewed by the orthodox sections in the society as interference by the British in their
social and religious practice
• The two laws of 1832 and 1850, removing disabilities due to change of religion, particularly conferring
the right of inheritance to change of religion, particularly conferring the right of inheritance to Christian
converts, were quite unpopular among the Hindus.
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Missionary Activities
• There was a strong movement grew in England to spread Christianity in India and convert its Hindus and
Muslims subjects to that faith.
• By the Charter Act of 1813, Christian missionaries were permitted to enter the Company's territories in
India to propagate their religion and spread Western education.
• The Christian missionaries took every opportunity to expose the abuses in the Hindu as well as the Islamic
religion.
• They denounced idolatry, ridiculed the Hindu gods and goddesses and criticized the philosophy and
principals of Hinduism and Islam.
• The teaching of Christian doctrines were made compulsory in educational institutes run by the missionaries.
• Thus, the interference of the British authorities in social customs and practices through social legislation
and the encouragement given by the government to Christian missionaries in their proselytizing activities
created a sense of apprehension and hatred in the minds of Indians.

E
MILITARY CAUSES
OR
Service Conditions
• The sepoys of the Bengal army, were Brahmins and Rajputs had special grievances of their own. Among
them were unsatisfactory conditions of service, encroachment upon their religious customs, and offences
against their dignity and self-respect.
SC

• They had a strong sense of resentment, as their scale of salary was very low compared to their English
counterparts.
• In the guise of enforcing discipline, the British authorities prohibited the Hindus and the Muslim sepoys
displaying their religious marks.
• The Hindu sepoys were forbidden to wear vermilion mark on their forehead, or turban on their head. The
Muslims sepoys were forced to shave off their beard. These restrictions wounded the religious sentiments
GS

of the sepoys.
Withdraw of Allowances
• The British authorities used to withdraw the allowances after the conquest and annexation of a province
and post the same troops in those very provinces on reduced salaries. These measures demoralized the
sepoys.
• In 1844 four Bengal regiments refused to move to Sindh till extra allowance was sanctioned. Mutinous
spirit was also displayed in 1849 by the sepoys in various provinces.
The General Service Enlistment Act
• The Hindu soldiers nursed grievances against the British as they were forced to go on expedition to Burma
and Afghanistan, which violated their religious beliefs.
• To live among Muslims and to take food and water from them was disliked to their ancient customs.
• Besides, crossing the seas was prohibited by the religion as the one who crossed the forbidden seas was
bound to lose his caste.
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• In order to prevent any kind of resistance from the sepoys against their deployment abroad, Lord Canning's
government passed the General Service Enlistment Act in 1856.
• By this act all future recruits to the Bengal army were required to give an undertaking that they would
serve anywhere their services required.
THE BEGINNING AND SPREAD OF THE MUTINY AND REVOLT
• Above mentioned factors prepared a general ground for discontent and disaffection among different
section of the Indian people, which required a mere spark to explode into a conflagration.
• The greased cartridges provided this spark.
• In 1856, the government decided to replace the old fashioned muskets by the Enfield rifles. In order to
load the Enfield rifle, the greased wrapping paper of the cartridge had to be bitten off by the soldier.
• In January 1857, a rumor began to spread in the Bengal regiments that the greased cartridges contained
the fat of cows and pigs.

E
• The sepoys became convinced that the introduction of the greased cartridge was a deliberate attempt to

•
•
defile their religion.

OR
The cow was sacred to the Hindus, and the pig was a taboo for the Muslims.
On March 29, 1857, the Indian soldiers at Barrackpore refused to use the greased cartridges and one sepoy,
Mangal Pandey, attacked and killed a British officer.
SC
• At Meerut, in May 1857, the sepoys of the 3rd cavalry regiment at Meerut also refused to use the greased
cartridges and broke out in open rebellion on 10th May and shot their officer and headed towards Delhi.
• General Hewitt, was then the commanding officer at Meerut.
• On 12 May 1857, the rebels seized Delhi and overcame Lieutenant Willoughby, the incharge of the
magazine at Delhi.
GS

• Bahadur Shah-II was proclaimed the Emperor of India.

• Very soon the rebellion spread throughout Northern and Central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur,
Bareilly, Banaras, Jhansi, parts of Bihar and other places.
• Unfortunately, a majority of Indian rulers remained loyal to the British and the educated Indians and
merchants class kept themselves aloof from the rebels.
• India, south of the Narmada remained undisturbed.
• At Lucknow, Henry Lawrence, the British resident, was ousted and killed.
• Kanpur was lost to the British on 5th June 1857 and Nana Sahib was proclaimed the Peshwa.
• General Huge Wheeler surrendered on June 27.
• Rani Lakshmi Bai, the widow of late Gangadhar Rao, was proclaimed the ruler of the state after the
troops at Jhansi mutinied in June 1857.
• In Bihar a local zamindar, Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur revolted.
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CENTERS OF THE REVOLT

• Delhi: A rebellion was led by Bakht Khan. In September 1857, Delhi was recaptured by the English in
which John Nicholson, the commander was wounded and later died. The emperor was arrested and his
two sons and grandsons were publicly shot by Lieutenant Hudson himself.
• Kanpur: Nana Saheb was the leader at Kanpur. General Huge Wheeler surrendered on June 27. Nana
Saheb was joined by Tantia Tope. Sir Campbell occupied Kanpur on December 6th. Tantia Tope escaped
and joined Rani of Jhansi.
• Lucknow: Rebellion here was led by Begum Hazrat Mahal and Ahmaddullah. Henry Lawrence and other
Europeans at the British residency were killed by the rebels. The early attempts of Havelock and Outram
to recover Lucknow met with no success. It was finally rescued by Colin Campbell in March 1858.
• Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai led the revolt who was defeated by Huge Rose and she fled to Gwalior and
captured it. She was supported by Tantia Tope. Gwalior was recaptured by the English in June 1858 and
the Rani of Jhansi died on 17th June. Tantia Tope escaped southward. In April, one of the Sindhia's
feudatory captured him and handed to the English who hanged him.

E
• Bareilly: Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed himself the Nawab Nazim of Bareilly, however, the rebellion
was crushed by Colin Campbell in May 1858 and Bareilly was recaptured.
OR
• Arah: Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh led the rebellion. They were defeated by William Taylor
and Vincent Ayar. Kunwar Singh was killed on 8th May, 1858.
• Faizabad: Maulavi Ahmeddullah led the rebellion but was defeated by the English.
• Allahabad & Banaras: The rebellion at Banaras and adjoining areas was mercilessly suppressed by Colonel
SC

Neill who put to death all rebels suspected and even disorderly boys.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF THE REVOLT
• The revolt of 1857 was poorly organized, restricted in its scope and there was lack of unity among the
rebel leaders. There was no impact of the rebellion in the South. Even in North India, Rajasthan, the
Punjab, Sind, Sindhia's dominion of Gwalior, etc. remained quite.
GS

• The leaders of the rebellion did not have any common ideals and were 'wrapped up' in their own individual
grievances. The only common bond of unit among them was their anti-British sympathies.
• The resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels who were poorly organized
and lacked resources.
• The Indian princes such as the Schindhia, the Nizam of Hyderabad, Gaekwad of Vadodara and the Princes
of Rajasthan remained loyal to the British.
• Educated Indians were repelled by the rebels due to their appeals to superstitions and their opposition to
progressive social measures and were mistaken to take Britishers as their helpers in accomplishing the task
of modernization.
IMPACT OF THE REVOLT
• The control of Indian administration was transferred from the East India Company to the crown by the
Government of India Act, 1858.
• It ended the era of annexation and expansion and the Queen's proclamation declared against any desire
for "extension of territorial possessions" and promised to respect the rights of dignity and honour of native
princes as their own.
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• The Act of 1858 ended the dualism in the control of Indian affairs and made the crown directly responsible
for management of Indian affairs. Following this, fundamental changes in the administrative set up were
made in the executive, legislative and judicial administration of India by passing the Indian Councils Act
of 1861, the Indian High Court Act of 1861 and the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861.
• The British policies towards Indian States changed radically and the states were now treated as the bulwark
of the empire against future contingencies.
• The Indian army was thoroughly reorganized and the number of European troops in India was increased.
All the superior posts in the armed forces were reserved for the Europeans.
• The policy of associating Indian members with legislative matters and administration was started. A
humble beginning in this direction was made by the Indian Councils Act of 1861.
• The revolt left a legacy of racial bitterness. The entire Indian people were dubbed as unworthy of trust
and subjected to insults, humiliations and contemptuous treatment.

E
• The era of territorial expansion gave place to the era of economic exploitation in a more subtle way. The
policy of 'divide and rule' between Hindus and Muslims was started.
•

OR
The attitude of the British towards social reforms contrary to what it was before 1857. They now sided
with orthodox opinion and stopped encouraging social reformers.
NATURE OF THE REVOLT
• Historians are of different opinions regarding the nature of the Revolt of 1857.
SC
• British historians interpreted the revolt as a mutiny of the sepoys.
• Ignoring the grievances of the local people and their participation in the movement, the British historians
felt that the rebellion was engineered by the sepoys, and some landholders and princes having vested
interest.
• Recent researches on 1857 however argue that self-interested motives did not have much significance
GS

before the combined opposition to the unpopular British regime.

• Some historians view the Revolt of 1857 as the first war of Indian independence.
• Those who don't agree with this interpretation argue that the rebel leaders did not make an attempt to
establish a new social order. They tried to restore the old Mughal rule by inviting Bahadur Shah II.
• It is said that "Although Indian initiatives and priorities were so central in the experience of change there
was no national revolt in 1857. The discontented were fractured in loyalty and intention, often looking
back to a society and a policy which were no longer viable". Thus, it was not revolution but just a
restoration.
• Recent studies on the Revolt of 1857, however, focus on the popular participation in the revolt.
• Besides the sepoys and Taluqdars, rural peasantry participated in large numbers in the revolt. In the case
of Awadh, it has been shown that taluqdars and peasants jointly launched the attack.
• Even in many places when taluqdars made peace with the British, peasants continued their movement.
• The sepoys had linkage with their kinsmen in the villages and the revolt of the sepoys influenced the
civilian population to ventilate their grievances against the British rule. Thus the Revolt of 1857 took the
character of a popular uprising.
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Historians on the Nature of the Revolt.

Sir J. Lawrence and J. Seeley 1857 was a mutiny led by selfish army
Ler Rees War of fanatic religionalists against Christians.
J.G. Medley A war between blacks and black supported whites.
T.R. Helmes Conflict between civilization and barbarism.
J. Outram and W. Taylor A Hindu-Muslim conspiracy.
S.N. Sen Inherited in the constitution of British Rule.
Disraeli A national revolt
V.D. Savarkar First War of Indian Independence
V. Smith Discontent and unrest widespreadly prevalent.

E
Participants to the Revolt
Ahmadullah An Adviser of the ex-king of Avadh, Faizabad
OR
Nana Saheb Kanpur
Rani Jhansi Jhansi
Kunwar Singh Jagdishpur (Bihar)
SC

Mangal Pande Barrackpore

Hazrat Mahal Lucknow
Tantia Tope Gwalior
Hakim Ahsanullah Chief Adviser to Bahadur Shah during 1857
GS

Firuz Shah Relative of Bahadur Shah

Henry Lawrence Chief Commissioner of Avadh died
Maj. Gen. Havelock Defeated Tantia Tope at Bithnur
John Lawrence Suppressed revolt in Punjab
Major Hudson Beheaded Bahadur Shah's son.
Maj. Gen. Wyndham Defeated by Tantia Tope near Kanpur
Calen Campbell Reoccupied Lucknow in March, 1858
Hugh Rose Defeated Rani Jhansi
General Neil Died at Lucknow
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INTRODUCTION AND EVOLUTION OF

ENGLISH EDUCATION
• The educational system which the British introduced in India is known as the modern education.
• Under this system greater emphasis was laid on the teaching of English language and its literature and the
study of Indian languages were generally neglected.
• The study of languages such as Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit was left to the people themselves. Moreover,
the modern education was based on logic and scientific research rather than on faith and ritualism.
Causes or objectives for the Introduction of Modern Education:

E
The Britishers introduced the modern education in India to fulfil their various objectives. The chief among
them are the following:
•

OR
To reduce the expenditure on administration: The English introduced the Modern education in India with
the sole object of reducing the expenditure incurred on administration. In different departments they
needed a large number of such employees who could not be brought from England. This demand could
be met only by employing the educated Indians who could be recruited at far less expense than the
Europeans.
SC
• To encourage the study of the English language: The Britishers were now the master of India and like
all masters (alien rulers) they too wished that the people under their rule should learn their language which
they must use in communicating with them. Besides they thought that as a result of the learning of
English, Indian people would easily accept the British rule.
• To expand Market for English goods: The English capitalists thought that after learning the English
language and acquiring Western education, the Indians would become semi-English. According to Macaulay
GS

the Indian would then remain Indians only in their colour while in their interest, ideas, morals and
intelligence they would become English. In such conditions the market for British goods would automatically
expand.
• Spread of Christianity: The Christian missionaries believed that the modern education would make
Indians to be attracted towards Christianity.
• In the beginning the company never took it as its duty to give education to the Indians and only few
British officers in their individual capacity tried to break some ice in this direction.
• In 1781 A.D Warren Hastings laid the foundation at the Calcutta & Madras.
• Sir William Jones, a judge of the Supreme Court founded the Asiatic society of Bengal in 1784 A.D.
• In 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was
established to promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
• In 1792 A.D. the Resident of Benares took special interest in spreading education and started several
English schools and colleges where English was taught.
• The missionaries started for the same purpose the Wilson College at Bombay, the Christian college at
Madras and the St. John College at Agra.
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• Some progressive Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy also started English schools. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
laid the foundation of a school at Calcutta in 1816 A.D.
• The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the sphere of education. It discouraged the
prevalent system of oriental education and gave importance to western education and English language.
• The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of
education in India.
• Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education during the course of a general discussion
on the Act of 1813 in the British Parliament, yet the matter continued to generate debate for the next
20 years. Consequently, not even a single penny out of the allocated funds could be spent on education.
• The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups on the issue of development of education
in India. One group, called the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through Indian
languages. The other group, called the Anglicists, argued the cause of western sciences and literature in
the medium of English language.
• In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized

E
on the medium of English language in Indian education.
OR
• In the beginning of 1835, the 10 members of the General Committee of Public Instruction were clearly
divided into two equal groups.
• Five members including the Chairman of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting
English as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour of oriental languages.
• The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835 when the Chairman of the committee, Lord Macaulay
SC

announced his famous Minute advocating the Anglicist point of view.

• Consequently, despite fierce opposition from all quarters, Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7 March
1835 which declared that henceforth, government funds would be utilized for the promotion of western
literature and science through the medium of English language.
WOOD'S DISPATCH
GS

• In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as a grand plan on education.
• It was considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India (formed a landmark in the history
of modern education in India).
• It rejected the 'filtration theory' and laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of
vernaculars, favoured secularism in Education.
Its Major Recommendations were:
• An education department was to be established in every province.
• Universities on the model of the London University are established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras.
• At least one Government school is opened in every district.
• Affiliated private schools should be given grant-in-aid.
• The Indian natives should be given training in their mother-tongue also.
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• In accordance with the Wood's despatch, Education Departments were established in every province and
universities were opened at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857 A.D.-and in Punjab in 1882 A.D. and
at Allahabad in 1887 A.D.
Drawbacks of the Company's System of Education:
• Even the meagre amount of one lakh set aside for educational purposes could not be spent till 1833 A.D.
• The Company never took a serious interest in the field of education. By educating the members of the
higher and the middle classes only they created a serious gap between various classes of the Indian people.
• The only object of their educational system was to prepare clerks who would carry on the work of the
company's administration smoothly. It simply shows the selfishness of the company.
• All the subjects were taught through English and study of Indian languages were neglected.
• All those who got their training in English considered themselves superior to others and thus classes of
people were born who were Indians only in blood and colour but they considered themselves English in

E
thought and in their way of living.
• No funds were set aside for the education of women, as women's education had no utility for the English.

•
OR
On the other hand, they were afraid of hurting the sentiments of the India of the Indian people as the
conservative Indian opinion was against giving any education to their women folk.
The English government never paid any attention towards imparting scientific and technical education. By
1857 A.D only three medical Colleges, one each at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and one Engineering
SC
College at Roorkee were opened. Admission to these Colleges were open only for the Europeans; as such
the Indians were almost neglected.
EFFORTS AFTER 1857
Hunter Commission
• Hunter Commission officially known as the Indian Education Commission, 1882, was the first education
GS

commission in the history of modern India.

• The commission was presided over by Sir William Wilson Hunter, a Bengal Civilian.
• Appointed by the Government of India, it was to review in depth, the state of education in India since
wood's education despatch of 1854, and to recommend necessary measures for further progress.
• The other consideration, which prompted the Government to launch this enquiry, was the agitation of the
missionaries, particularly in England, accusing lapses of the Government in implementing the provisions
of the Despatch of 1854.
• Because of the great importance, which the Government attached to primary and secondary education,
higher education was excluded from the Commission's purview and instead was directed to concentrate
chiefly on primary and secondary education.
• The Commission submitted its report in October 1883 and its major recommendations were:
– Local bodies (district boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the management of primary
schools.
– Government, should maintain only a few schools and colleges; others to be left to private hands.
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Raleigh Commission
• Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy's
Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his recommendations, Indian Universities Act of 1904 was
passed.
• It enabled the universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies),
periodic inspection of institutions, speedier transaction of business, strict conditions for affiliation, etc.
• It was criticized by the nationalists for its tightening government, control over universities.
Saddler Commission
• The Saddler Commission was appointed by Lord Chelmsford to review the working of Calcutta University
which included two Indians Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed. Its main recommendations
were:
˜ Secondary Education by a Board of Secondary education and duration of degree course should be
3 yrs.

E
– 7 new universities were opened (Total 12 now) at Banaras, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Dhaka, Lucknow
and Osmania.
OR
– Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia were established.
– University course divided into pass course and Honours.
Hartog Committee 1929
SC

• The Committee was appointed to survey the growth of education in British India which submitted its
report in 1929.
• It "devoted far more attention to mass education than Secondary and University Education".
• It suggested the following important measures for the improvement of primary education:
GS

– Adoption of the policy of consolidation in place of multiplication of schools.

– Fixation of the duration of primary course to four years.
– Improvement in the quality, training, status, pay, service condition of teachers.
– Relating the curricula and methods of teaching to the conditions of villages in which children live
and read.
– Adjustment of school hours and holidays to seasonal and local requirements.
– Increasing the number of Government inspection staff.
• In the sphere of secondary education the Committee indicated a great waste of efforts due to the immense
number of failures at the Matriculation Examination. it suggested:
• Introduction of diversified course in middle schools meeting the requirements of majority of students.
• Diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle stage.
• The Committee also suggested for the improvement of University Education, Women Education, Education
of Minorities and Backward classes, etc.
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• The suggestions of the Committee could not be implemented effectively and the educational progress
could not be maintained due to worldwide economic depression of 1930-31.
• Most of the recommendations remained mere pious hopes.
WARDHA SCHEME OF EDUCATION
It envisaged:
• Inclusion of a basic handicraft in the syllabus.
• First seven years education should be an integral part of a free and compulsory nationwide education
system (thought mother tongue).
• Teaching to be in Hindi from II to VII and in the English only VIII.
• Ways to be devised to establish contact with the community around schools through service.
• A suitable technique to be devised with a view to implementing the main idea of basic education-

E
educating the child through the medium of productive activity of a suitable handicraft.

OR
SARGEANT PLAN OF EDUCATION 1944
It envisaged:
• Establishment of elementary schools and high school.
• Universal and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 - 11.
SC
• High schools of 2 types :
– Academic.
– Technical and Vocational.
• Intermediate courses were to be abolished.
GS
Notes

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PRESS UNDER BRITISH RULE

• In 1550 first press was established by Portuguese.
• The greatest impact on the development or foundation of English in India came when the commercial
monopoly of the Company was ended in 1813, and the British in India assumed, police functions,
educative and civilizing or administrative functions as well.
• Missionaries began to enter, and they helped established printing press which served printing of grammar
books, dictionaries, and translations etc.
• In 1780 James Augustus Hicky started the first newspaper weekly in India called Bengal Gazette. It was
the first news paper in South Asian sub-continent.

E
• Bengal Gazette could not survive more than two years due to sharp confrontation with Governor-General
Warren Hastings and Chief Justice Elijah Impey.
OR
• Indian Gazette as a rival to Bengal Gazette, published in the same year (1780) by Peter Read, a salt agent
(backing by Hastings).
• After Bengal Gazette, other publications from India were Madras Courier weekly (1785), Bombay Herald
weekly (1789) merged into Bombay Gazette in 1791, Hurukaru weekly (1793), Calcutta Chronicle (1818),
SC

Bengal Journal, Indian world, Bengal Harkarer etc.

• The first newspaper in an Indian language was in Bengali, named as the 'Samachar Darpan'.
VERNACULAR JOURNALISM
• The era of Hindi Journalism started in 1826 with 'Uddanta Martanda' from Kolkata, then Bangdoot,
Banaras Akhbaar, Gyandeepak, Malwa Akhbaar, Gwalior Gazette, Payam-e-Azadi, Samachar Sudha Varshan,
GS

Lokhit, Marwaad Gazette, Jodhpur Government Gazette etc. were introduced with the mission of
independence, self-rule and social reforms.
• 1860's witnessed a boom in the Indian Language Press in the country and several Newspapers made their
appearance in this period.
• Many English Newspapers which evolved at that time are flourishing even today like The Times of India
(1861), The Pioneer (1861), The Statesman (1875) and The Hindu (1878).
• Number of acts and restrictions like The Vernacular Press Act, Gagging Act etc tried to overrule the power
of Print Media in India but the then social reformers and freedom fighters like Mahatma Gandhi, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Aurbindo Ghosh, Annie Beasant, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Lala Lajpat Rai, Ganesh
Shankar Vidyarthi and many others recognized the power of pen and used it as a tool for propagating the
feeling of nationalism and brotherhood.
• They also used their Newspapers to remove the socio-religious evils of the society. Thus, the history of
Journalism in India is inseparably linked with the development of social awareness, national consciousness
and the progress of freedom movement.
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• Also the Newspapers like Kesari, Pratap, Maratha, Yugantar, Sudarshan, Samalochak, Maryada, Swadesh,
Abhyudaya, Karmaveer, Karmyogi, Gadar etc. brought revolution in the Hindi Journalism of India.
GANDHI AND JOURNALISM
• Mahatma Gandhi, who was considered as the greatest Journalist of his times used his Newspapers - Indian
Opinion, Young India, Navjivan, Satyagrah and Harijan, to expose the flaws of the society and to stimulate
social awakening.
• He advocated that a Newspaper is a powerful tool in bringing positive changes in the society but at the
same time, he feared that this power can be misused for commercial interests as many publications started
looking for the revenue attached to the advertisements.
• He once said that a Newspaper is a great power but just as an unchained torrent of water brings devastations,
similarly an uncontrolled pen can also fetch destruction for the entire humanity.
• He suggested that the sole aim of Journalism should be service to the people.

E
• The first newspaper under Indian administration appeared in 1816. It was also called Bengal Gazette and
was published by Gangadhar Bhattacharjee. It was a liberal paper which advocated the reforms of Raja

•
Ram Mohan Roy.

OR
Raja Ram Mohan Roy himself brought out a magazine in Persian called Mirat-ul-Ukhbar. He also published
The Brahmanical Magazine, an English periodical to counteract the religious propaganda of the Christian
missionaries of Serampore.
SC
• Standard, The Bombay Times and Telegraph merged into Times of India in 1861, Robert Knight was the
owner, he was also owner of Statesman daily (1875) from Calcutta, Indian Economist monthly and
Agriculture Gazette of India, his editorials and writings were balanced and impressive.
• Other major publications- Indu Prakash weekly, Gyan Prakash, Lokhitavadi (all 1861), Amrit Bazar
Patrika (1868 Cacutta), Pioneer (1872 Allahbad), The Hindu (1878 Chennai), Keshari (marathi) and The
Maratha (English) (both in1878 from Pune by veteran freedom fighter Balgangadhar Tilak).
GS

• Pioneer Indian Journalists- Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahadev Govinda Ranade, Dadabhoi Naoroji, Gopal
Rao Hari Deshmukh, Vishu Shastri Pandit, Karsondas Mulji, Bal Sashtri Jambhekar etc.
• Around the same time, Amrita Bazar Patrika was able to establish itself in Kolkata. Starting out as a
vernacular paper, it was constantly in trouble due to its outspokenness. In order to circumvent the strict
provision of the Vernacular Press Act, Amrita Bazar Patrika converted itself overnight into an English
newspaper.
• Amrita Bazar Patrika inspired freedom fighter Lokmanya Tilak to start Kesari in Pune. He used Kesari
to build anti-cow killing societies, Ganesh mandals and reviving the Chhatrapati Shivaji cult. He used mass
communication as a powerful political weapon.
CENSOR ACT 1799 BY LORD WELLESLEY
• For the safety of the Englishmen in India, for the supremacy; Wellesly had imposed censorship on all
newspapers. Its provisions were:
– Every newspaper should print the names of printer, editor and proprietor.
– Before printing any material it should be submitted to the secretary of Censorship.
• The censorship was extended to journals, Books and even pamphlets. This Act was abolished by Hastings.
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REGULATIONS OF 1823
• It was based on recommendations of Thomas Munroe. Its provisions were:
– Every publisher should get a license from the government for publishing book, defaulters would be
fined Rs 400 and the press would be ceased by the government.
– Government has right to cancel the license.
– Magistrates were authorized to seal such presses.
• Charles Metcalf abolished the Act.
• Under Metcalf tough norms were relaxed and only declaration was taken from publisher.
• Undue interference in the publication was stopped. They could seize to function by declaration only.
VERNACULAR PRESS ACT 1878
• Vernacular press criticized British rule, therefore British Govt. came down heavily on vernacular press.

E
• The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878 under the Governor Generalship and Viceroyalty of Lord
Lytton, to Indian language newspapers.
OR
• The purpose of the Act was to control the printing and circulation of seditious material, specifically that
which could produce disaffection against the British Government in India in the minds of the masses.
• According to the provisions of this Act:
– The magistrates of the districts were empowered, without the prior permission of the Government,
SC

to call upon a printer and publisher of any kind to enter into a Bond, undertaking not to publish
anything which might "rouse" feelings of disaffection against the government.
– The magistrate was also authorized to deposit a security, which could be confiscated if the printer
violated the Bond.
– If a printer repeated the violation, his press could be seized.
GS

• Thus the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 is also known as 'The Gagging Act'.
• The act was later repealed by Lord Ripon.
NEWSPAPER (INCITEMENT TO OFFENCES) ACT 1908
• The Newspaper Act, of 1908 laid down several principles, terms and condition. According to its provisions:
– The magistrates were empowered to confiscate printing press, property connected thereto of newspapers,
which published objectionable materials serving as incitement to murder or acts of violence.
– The Local government was authorized to terminate any declaration made by the printer and publisher
of the newspaper, which had been found offender under the Press and Registration of Books Act of
1867.
– The newspapers editors and the printers were given the option to appeal to the High Court within
fifteen days of the order of the penalty of the Press.
INDIAN PRESS (EMERGENCY POWERS) ACT 1931
• In 1931, the government enacted the Indian Press Act, which gave the sweeping powers to the provincial
government in suppressing the propaganda for the civil disobedience movement.
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– Section 4 (1) of the Act sought to punish the words, signs or visible representations, which incite or
encourage the commission of any offence or murder or any cognizable offence.
– These cognizable offence included violence or directly or indirectly expressing approval or admiration
of any such offence.
– Any person, real or fictitious, who had committed or alleged or represented to have committed the
offence, would be punished.
– In 1932 the Press Act of 1931 was amplified in the form of Criminal Amendment Act of 1932.
– Section 4 was made very comprehensive and expanded to include all possible activities calculated
to undermine the Government's authority.
PRESS REGULATING ACT 1942
• Registration of journalists was made mandatory.

E
• Limitations were imposed on the messages regarding civil disturbances and on headlines and space given
to news on disturbances.
•
• Government had the authority on arbitrary censorship.OR
Prohibition of news was imposed regarding acts of sabotage.

WW- II SCENARIO
• During the Second World War (1939-45), the executive exercised exhaustive powers under the defence
SC
of India Act.
• The Press Emergency Act and the Official Secrets Act was reinforced.
• At the same time the publication of all news relating to the Congress activities declared illegal.
• The special powers assumed by the Government during the war ended in1945.
GS

Newspaper Journal Founder / Editor

Bengal Gazette (1780) J.K. Hikki (India’s first newspaper)
Indian Gazette Peter Read
Essays in Indian Economics M.G. Ranade
Samvad Kaumudi Ram Mohan Roy (Bengali)
Mirat - ul - Akhbar Ram Mohan Roy (first Persian newspaper)
Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore
Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra
Udbodhana & Prabudha Bharat Swami Vivekananda
Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Tahzib - ul - Akhlaq Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan
Al - Hilal & Al - Balagh Abdul Kalam Azad
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Rast Goftar Dadabhai Naoroji (First newspaper in Gujarati)

Statesman Robert Knight
Kesari & Maharatta B.G. Tilak
Sudharak G.K. Gokhale
New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh & Motilal Ghosh
Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh
Native Opinion V.N. Mandalik
Hindu Vir Raghavacharya & G.S. Aiyar
Sandhya B.B. Upadhyaya
Vichar Lahiri Krishnashastri Chiplunkar
Hindu Patriot

E
Girish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish Chandra Mukherji)
OR
Indian Socialist Shyamji Krishna Verma
Talwar (in Berlin) Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya
Free Hindustan (in Vancouver) Tarak Nath Das
SC

Hindustan Times K.M. Pannikar

Kranti Mirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate
Yugantar Bhupendranath Datta & Barinder Kumar Ghosh
Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta
GS

Hindustan M.M. Malviya

Mooknayak B.R. Ambedkar
Comrade Mohammed Ali
Independent Motilal Nehru
Punjabi Lala Lajpat Rai
Commonwealth & New India (Daily) Annie Besant
Pratap Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
Nav Jeevan; Young India; & Harijan M.K. Gandhi
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EVOLUTION AND GROWTH OF NATIONALISM

• The latter half of the 19th century witnessed the rise and growth of Indian Nationalism and from then
onwards an organised national movement started in India.
• The year 1885 marks the beginning of a new epoch in Indian history. In that year All Indian Political
Organization was set on foot under the name of the Indian National Congress.
• The Indian mind became increasingly conscious of its political position.
• Indian masses, under the National congress fought one of the longest non-violent (to some extent violent
also) struggle to get their freedom on 15th August 1947.

E
The following causes were responsible for the origin and growth of nationalism in India:
•

•
OR
Political Unity: For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically and administratively
under a single power (the British rule). It introduced a uniform system of law and government.
Development of Communication and Transport: The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal
services and the construction of roads and canals facilitated communication among the people. All these
brought Indians nearer to each other and provided the facility to organise the national movement on an
SC
all India basis.
• English Language and Western Education: The English language played an important role in the growth
of nationalism in the country. The English educated Indians, who led the national movement, developed
Indian nationalism and organised it. Western education facilitated the spread of the concepts of liberty,
equality, freedom and nationalism and sowed the seeds of nationalism.
GS

• The Role of the Press: The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused the national
consciousness.
• Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth Century: The leaders of various organisations like the
Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated a feeling of
regard for and pride in the motherland.
• Economic Exploitation by the British: A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic
policy pursued by the British government in India. The English systematically ruined the Indian trade and
native industries. Therefore, economic exploitation by the British was one of the most important causes
for the rise of Indian nationalism.
• Racial Discrimination: The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and suspicion between
the British and the Indians. The English feeling of racial superiority grew. India as a nation and Indians
as individuals were subjected to insults, humiliation and contemptuous treatment.
• Administration of Lytton: Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger part of India
was in the grip of famine. He passed the Vernacular Press Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian Press.
His Arms Act was a means to prevent the Indians from keeping arms. All these measures created
widespread discontent among the Indians.
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• The Ilbert Bill controversy: The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central Legislature during the Viceroyalty
of Lord Ripon. The Bill tried to remove racial inequality between Indian and European judges in courts.
This Bill was opposed by the British residents in India. Ultimately the Bill was modified.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first Indian leader to start an agitation for political reforms in India.
• After 1836, there was rise of many political associations in various parts of India.
• All these associations were headed by 'elites' and were regional and local.
• What distinguished these new political associations from earlier religions and caste associations of the
country were the secular interest that bonded together the new classes.
• They worked for reform of administration, association of Indians with the administration, and spread of
education, and sent long petitions, putting forward Indian demands, to the British Parliament.
• The earliest public association in modern India was the Landholders' Society - an association of the
landlords of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, founded in 1837 with the purpose of promoting the class interests
of the landlords.

E
• In 1843, was organised the Bengal British Indian Society to protect and promote general public interests.
OR
• Landholders' Society and Bengal British Indian Society were merged in 1851 to form the British India
Association.
• This association was dominated by members of the landed aristocracy and its primary objective was
safeguarding their class interest.
SC

• However, the Association struck a liberal note and when the time came for the renewal of the charter of
the East India Company, it sent a petition to the Parliament praying for establishment of a separate
legislature of a popular character, separation of judicial and executive functions, reduction in the salaries
of higher officers, abolition of salt duty, abkari and stamp duties etc.
• The prayers of the Association were partially met and the Charter Act of 1853 provided for the addition
of six members to the governor-general's council for legislative purpose.
GS

• Similarly, the Madras Native Association and the Bombay Association were established in 1852.
• Similar, though lesser known clubs and associations, such as the Scientific Society founded by Sayyid
Ahmad Khan, were established in different towns and parts of the country.
• The period after 1858 witnessed a gradual widening of the gulf between the educated Indians and the
British Indian administration.
• As the educated Indians studied the character of British rule and its consequences for the Indians, they
became more and more critical of British policies in India.
• The discontent gradually found expression in political activity and the existing associations no longer
satisfied the politically-conscious Indians.
• In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji organised the East India Association in London to discuss the Indian question
and to influence British public men to promote Indian welfare. Later he organised branches of the
Association in prominent Indian cities.
• Two other Associations namely National Indian Association, founded by Mary Carpenter in 1867 and
Indian Society, founded by Anandmohan Bose in 1872 were also formed in London.
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• Justice Ranade and others organised the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha in the 1870. The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
brought out a quarterly journal under the guidance of Justice Ranade. This journal became the intellectual
guide of new India particularly on economic questions.
• The Madras Mahajan Sabha was started in 1881 and the Bombay Presidency Association in 1885. The
Bombay Presidency Association was organized by the popularly called brothers in law - Mehtas, Telang
and Tyabji, representing the three chief communities of Bombay town. These organisations were mainly
devoted to criticism of important administrative and legislative measures.
• Sisir Kumar Ghose founded the Indian league in 1875 with the objective of "stimulating the sense of
nationalism amongst the people" and of encouraging political education. Within a year of its foundation,
the Indian league was superseded by the Indian Association.
The Indian Association
• The most important of the pre-Congress nationalist organization was 'The Indian Association of Calcutta'.

E
• The younger nationalists of Bengal had been gradually getting discontented with the conservative and pro-
landlord policies of the British India Association. They wanted sustained political agitation on issues of
wider public interest.
•

•
Association in July 1876. OR
Led by Surendranath and Anandamohan Bose, the younger nationalists of Bengal founded the Indian

The Indian Association set before itself the aims of creating a strong public opinion in the country on
political questions and the unification of the Indian people on a common political programme.
SC
• In order to attract large numbers of people to its banner, it fixed a low membership fee for the poorer
classes.
• The first major issue it took up for agitation was the reform of the Civil Service regulations and the raising
of the age limit for its examination, Surendranath Banerjee toured different parts of the country during
1877-78 in an effort to create an all-India public opinion on this question.
GS

• The Indian Association also carried out agitation against the Arms Act and the Vernacular Press Act and
in favour of protection of the tenants from oppression by the zamindars.
• During 1883-85 it organised popular demonstrations of thousands of peasants to get the Rent Bill changed
in favour of the tenants.
• It also agitated for better conditions of work for the workers in the English-owned tea plantations where
conditions of near-slavery prevailed.
• Many branches of the Association were opened in the towns and villages of Bengal and also in many
towns outside Bengal.
• The existing organizations had served a useful purpose but they were narrow in their scope and functioning.
They dealt mostly with local questions and their membership and leadership were confined to a few
people belonging to a single city or province.
• Even the Indian Association had not succeeded in becoming an all-Indian body.
• The Indian Association sponsored an all-India National Conference at Calcutta in December 1883. This
Conference was attended by several leaders from outside Bengal. It adopted a programme very similar to
the one adopted by the Indian National Congress with which it merged in 1886.
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Political and Nationalist Organizations

Year Organization Founder Place
1839 British India Society William Adams London
1843 British India Society — Calcutta
1851 British India Association Devendranath Tagore Calcutta
1852 Madras Native Association — Madras
1852 Bombay Association Jagannath Shankar Bombay
1862 London India Committee C.P. Mudaliar London
1866 East India Association Dadabhai Nauroji London
1867 National India Association Mary Carpenter London
1872 Indian Society Anand Mohan Bose London
1876 Indian Association

E
Anand Mohan Bose and Calcutta
OR
S.N. Banerjee
1883 Indian National Society Shishir Chandra Bose Calcutta
1884 Indian National Conference S.N. Banerjee Calcutta
1885 Bombay Presidency Association Feroz Shah Mehta and Telang Bombay
SC

1885 Indian National Congress A.O. Hume Bombay

1888 United Indian Patriotic Association Sir Saiyad Ahmad Aligarh
1905 Servants of India Society G.K. Gokhale Bombay
1915 Home Rule League Annie Besant and Tilak Pune
GS

1918 U.P. Kisan Sabha Malviya, Gauri Shankar and Lucknow

Indra Narayan
1920 Communist Party of India M.N. Roy
1920 Servants of People Society Lala Lajpat Rai Tashkent
1920 Awadh Kisan Sabha Nehru, Ramchandra and Pratapgarh
Gauri Shankar
1920 Indian Trade Union Congress N.M. Joshi (Founder), Lucknow
Lala Lajpat Rai (President)
1921 Communist Group of India Nalini Gupta Calcutta
1923 Swaraj Party Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das Delhi
1924 All India Communist Party Satyabhakta Kanpur
1925 Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh K.V. Hedgewar —
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1927 All India Womens Conference Lady Sadashiva Iyer Madras

1928 Labour Swaraj Party Qazi Nazrul Islam —
1929 Khudai Khidmatgar Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan Peshawar
1934 Congress Socialist Party Acharya Narendra Dev and
Jaiprakash Narayan
1936 Progressive Writers Group Munshi Premchand Lucknow
1936 All Indian Kisan Sabha Swami Sahjanand and Lucknow
N.G. Ranga
1936 All India Student Federation Minoo Masani, Ashok Mehta —
1939 Forward Bloc Subhash Chandra Bose Calcutta

E
1939 Indian Bolshevik Party N.D. Majumdar Calcutta
1940 Radical Democratic Party M.N. Roy Calcutta
1941
1942
Indian Bolshevik Lenin Party
Revolutionary Socialist Party OR
Ajit Rai and Indrasen
Satyendra Nath Tagor
Calcutta
Calcutta
SC
GS
Notes

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INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

• The credit for organizing the first meeting of the Indian National Congress goes to a retired government
servant A.O. Hume.
• He was on very good terms with Lord Ripon and shared his view that the emergence of the educated class
should be accepted as a political reality and that timely steps should be taken to provide legitimate outlets
to the grievances of this class and efforts be made to satisfy its ambitions.
• He got in touch with prominent Indian leaders and organised with their cooperation the first session of
the Indian National Congress at Gokul Singh Tejpal Sanskrit School, Bombay in Decemeber 1885. It was
presided over by W.C. Banerjee and attended by 72 delegates.

E
The aims and objects of the Congress described in the first session as:
• Promotion of personal intimacy and friendship amongst the countrymen,
OR
• Eradication of all possible prejudices relating to race, creed or provinces,
• Consolidation of sentiments of national unity,
• Recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing problems of the day, and
SC

• Laying down lines for future course of action in public interest.

• This organization initially fought for reforms in the country, and subsequently for the freedom of India
from the foreign yoke.
• The history of the Indian National Movement can be categorized in three important phases:
• The phase of 1885-1904; Phase of moderate nationalism when the Congress continued to be loyal
GS

to the British crown.

• The phase of 1905-1917; Swadeshi Movement, rise of militant nationalism and the Home Rule
Movement.
• The phase of 1918-1947; Known as the Gandhian era.

THE MODERATE CONGRESS (1885-1905)

• The Indian National Congress founded in 1885, provided common platform for the nationalist leaders to
meet & voice their grievances & place their demands before the British government.
• The early leaders of the Indian National Congress were Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, Sir P.M. Mehta,
G.K. Gokhale, W.C. Banerjee & S.N. Banerjee.
• They were staunch believers in liberalism and Moderate politics.
• They came from the upper strata and were the product of western education.
• The moderates had a fascination for British Parliamentary institutions.
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• They were reformers and believed in the British justice.

• They wanted a balanced and lucid presentation of their needs before the Englishmen and their parliament.
• They used the methods of constitutional agitation.
• They believed that their main task was to educate the people in modern politics & arouse national
consciousness, create a united public opinion on political questions.
• They hold public meetings; they passed resolutions setting forth popular demands, and sent petitions to
the British authorities in India and to the parliament in England.
• The moderates believed that the British were unaware of the real conditions of India.
• They therefore made all efforts to enlighten the British public opinion through memorials, petitions and
political propaganda in England.
• The Moderates considered the coming of the British as beneficial and providential.

E
• They wanted to use the British in their attempts to reform contemporary Indian society.
•
•
OR
The early nationalist leaders did not expect the Congress to function as a political party.
A.O. Hume wanted it to function on the model of the Irish Home Rule League, which sought autonomy
in internal affairs under the British suzerainty. Thus, the Western concept of self-government, was the
political goal of the moderates. This goal was to be achieved through a gradual process.
Opinion Against Economic Exploitation
SC

• The Moderates linked the poverty in India to the economic exploitation of the country by the British.
• Dadabhi Naoroji pointed out the root cause of India's poverty & traced it to the drain of India's wealth.
• The Moderates suggested the development of modern industry as a remedy for the eradication of poverty.
• They popularized the concept of swadeshi as a means of promoting Indian industries.
GS

• They carried on agitation for the reduction in land revenue and asked for a radical change in the existing
pattern of taxation & expenditure.
• They urged the government to provide cheap credit to the peasants through agricultural banks and to make
available large scale irrigation facilities.
• They demanded improvement in the condition of plantation laborers, abolition of salt tax & other taxes.
• They were critical of the high government expenditure on the army that was employed in Asia & Africa.
Administrative Reforms
• The Moderates demanded for increasing Indianization of administrative services; criticized the oppressive
& tyrannical behavior of the police & government officials towards the common people and demanded
the separation of the executive from the judiciary.
• They opposed the official policy of disarming the people.
• They emphasized the need for the spread of education, extension of medical facilities to the people,
improvement of the public system and demanded freedom of speech & abolition of press censorship.
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Constitutional Reforms
• They were also extremely cautious, lest the Government suppress their activities. From 1885 to 1892 they
demanded the expansion and reform of the Legislative councils.
• The British Government was forced by their agitation to pass the Indian Councils Act of 1892. By this
Act the number of members of the imperial Legislative Council as well as the provincial councils was
increased. Some of these members could be elected indirectly by Indians, but the officials' majority
remained.
• The nationalists were totally dissatisfied with the Act of 1892 and declared it to be a hoax.
• By the beginning of the 20th century, the nationalist leaders advanced further and put forward the claim
for swarajya of self-government within the British Empire on the model of self-governing colonies like
Australia and Canada. This demand was made from the Congress platform by Gokhale in 1905 and by
Dadabhai Naoroji in 1906.
Weaknesses

E
• The Moderates lacked confidence in the masses.
• They came from the cities and were sympathetic towards the people of the country side but could not
OR
keep close contact with them.
• They did not realize that a prolonged struggle against imperialism could be waged through a mass movement
only.
• The Moderates apprehended that if they led a mass movement, the British Government would easily
SC

break the Congress. The Moderates, therefore, did not organize a mass movement on a large scale.
Evaluation
• The Moderates were the most progressive in Indian society at that time and they were true patriots.
• They desired all-round progress and modernization of India and wished the betterment of the Indian
society.
GS

• The Moderates succeeded in creating a wide political awakening in India and arousing among the Indians
the feeling of belonging to one common nation.
• They popularized the ideas of democracy & civil liberty.
• They also trained a large number of political workers in the art of modern politics.
• In spite of their loyalty to the British crown, they exposed the true character of the British imperialism
in India and blamed British rule for the poverty of the Indian people.
THE EXTREMIST (1905-1920)
• The younger group of nationalists in the Indian national Congress, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala
Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal; was known as the Extremist Congress.
• This group was extremely critical of the ideology and methodology of the Moderate leadership.
• They believed in radical programmes for the attainment of their demands.
• According to the extremists the Moderates with their elitist background did not succeed in making any
effective impact on the masses.
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Reasons for the Rise of Extremists

• The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other than the expansion of the legislative
councils by the Indian Councils Act (1892).
• The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole country and the suffering of the masses.
• The economic conditions of the people became worse.
• The ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of colour.
• The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 in which Japan defeated the European power Russia. This encouraged
Indians to fight against the European nation, Britain.
• Other then above mentioned causes the viceroyalty of Curzon & his reactionary policies contributed to
the rise of extremist movement.
• Curzon considered that the main objective of his mission was to strengthen the roots of the British empire

E
in India
• He curtailed the number of Indians in the Calcutta Corporation & increased the official control over the

•
•
Indian universities in the name of educational reforms.

OR
He spent Indian money lavishly on foreign missions, the Delhi Durbar and the Tibetan expedition.
Curzon's highhanded action forcing the partition of Bengal against the will of the people, earned unpopularity
& alienated the educated classes from the British rule.
SC
Course of Action
• Consequently, the extremist leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, and
Aurobindo Ghosh advocated stronger agitation and mass action.
• The extremists differed in ideology and action from the moderates. They rejected prayer and petition
method of moderates.
GS

• The new leadership sought to create a passionate love for liberty, accompanied by a spirit of sacrifice and
readyness to suffer for the cause of country.
• They advocated boycott of foreign goods, use of swadesi goods, national education and passive resistance.
• They had deep faith in mass and they planned to achieve swaraj through mass action.
• The leaders of this wing gave up the soft approach of appeals and petitions.
• Instead, they made radical demands and adopted strong ways of political agitation.
• They had no faith in good intentions of the British government. The extremist aimed at achiveing 'swaraj'
that meant complete independence from British rule.
• They considered that the demand of the moderate leaders for Swaraj was for colonial self government.
• Tilak remarked, 'Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it'.
• Aurobindo Ghosh said "political freedom is the life breath of a nation".
• The most outstanding leader among the Extremists was Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He started a school &
founded two newspapers, the Maratha in English and the Kesari in Marathi. Both the newspapers, by their
fearless criticism of the government attained great popularity.
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• In 1890, Tilak opposed the Age of Consent Bill, on the ground that a foreign government had no right
to interfere with Hindu religion and social matters and in 1893, also sponsored the cow-protection movement.
• Tilak reorganized the festival of Ganapati, and started the Shivaji festival to revive the spirit of adventure
& liberate the country from foreign domination.
• Tilak advised the peasants to withhold payment of land revenues when their crops failed because of
draught or famine. He called for Swadeshi and boycott of British goods.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE MODERATES AND THE EXTREMISTS
• The differences between the Moderates & the Extremists were that the moderates were against the idea
of boycott as a general political weapon, though they welcomed swadeshi.
• G.K. Gokhale recommended the use of the word swadeshi to describe the anti partition movement.
• These differences centred round two main points, namely the political goal and the method to achieve it.
• As regards the goal, Tilak summed up his idea in one sentence 'Swaraj is my birth right and I will have

E
it'.
• The Extremists interpreted Swaraj to mean complete autonomy without any dependence on the British
OR
rule. But G.K. Gokhale, did not expect that. He said that there was no alternative to British rule, for a
long time to come.
• The differences between the Moderates and the Extremists had become irreconcilable and in 1906 the
Calcutta Congress proposed the name of Tilak for the Presidents of the Congress. However, the moderates
opposed this proposal.
SC

• A split was avoided by choosing Dadabhai Naoroji; under his president ship four compromise resolutions
on Swadeshi, boycott, national education, and self-government demands were passed.
THE SPLIT IN THE SURAT CONGRESS
• In 1907, the annual session of the Congress proposed to be held at Nagpur, which was considered as the
Extremist stronghold. However, due to the Moderates, the venue was shifted to Surat.
GS

• The final showdown between the two factions in the Congress was staged at Surat. The Extremists wanted
Lala Lajpat Rai as the president of the Congress. However, the Moderates chose Rashbehari Ghose as
the president.
• The Surat Congress of 1907 ended in a split between the Moderates and the extremists led by Gokhale
and Tilak respectively.
Congress Sessions and Presidents
Year President Venue
1885 W.C. Bannerjee Bombay
1886 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta
1887 Badruddin Tyabji Madras
1888 George Yule Allahabad
1889 Sir William Wedderburn Bombay
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1890 Ferozshah Mehta Calcutta

1891 P. Ananda Charlu Nagpur
1892 W.C. Bannerjee Allahabad
1893 Dadabhai Naoroji Lahore
1894 Alfred Webb Madras
1895 S. N. Bannerjee Poona
1896 Rahimtull M. Sayani Calcutta
1897 C. Sankaran Nair Amravati
1898 Anand Mohan Bose Madras
1899 R. C. Dutt Lucknow

E
1900 N. G. Chandavarkar Lahore
1901
1902
1903
D. E. Wacha
S. N. Banerjee Ahmedabad
Lal Mohan Ghose
Calcutta

Madras
OR
1904 Sir Henry Cotton Bombay
SC
1905 G. K. Gokhale Benares
1906 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta
1907 Dr. Rash Bihari Ghosh Surat
1908 Dr. Rash Bihar Ghosh Madras
GS

1909 Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya Lahore

1910 Sir William Webberburn Allahabad
1911 Pandit B. N. Dhar Calcutta
1912 R. N. Modholkar Bankipore
1913 Nawab Syed Md. Bahadur Karachi
1914 Bhupendranath Basu Madras
1915 Sir Satender Prasad Sinha Bombay
1916 Ambika Charan Majumdar Lucknow
1917 Mrs. Annie Besant Calcutta
1918 Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya Delhi
1919 Motilal Nehru Amritsar
1920 Lala Lajpat Rai Calcutta
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C. Vijayraghavachariar (annual) Nagpur

1921 C. R. Das Gaya
1923 Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad
(Suspended)
Maulana Mahammad Ali
(Annual) (Cocanda)
1924 Mahatma Gandhi Belgaum
1925 Mrs. Sarojini Naidu Cawnpore
1926 S. Sarojini Lyengar Guwahati
1927 Dr. M. A. Ansari Madras
1928 Pandit Motilal Nehru Calcutta
1929 Jawaharlal Nehru Lahore
1930 (No session) but Independence
Day Pledge was adopted on
E
OR
26th Jan, 1930.
1931 Vallabhabhai Patel Karachi
1932 R. Amritlal (session was banned)
SC

1933 Mrs. J. M. Sen Gupta

(session was banned) Calcutta
1934-35 Rajendra Prasad Bombay
1936 Jawaharlal Nehru Lucknow
1937 Jawaharlal Nehru Faizpur
GS

1938 S. C. Bose Haripura

1939 S. C. Bose (Re-elected for 1939) Tripuri
1940 Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad Ramgarh
1941-45 (No session, due to arrests and
jailing because of WW-II.)
1946 Acharya J. B. Kripalani Meerut
1947 B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya Jaipur
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REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISM

• In the first half of the 20th century, revolutionary groups sprang up mainly in Bengal, Maharashtra, and
Punjab.
• The revolutionaries were not satisfied with the methods of both the moderates and extremists. Hence,
they started many revolutionary secret organizations.
REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES IN MAHARASHTRA
Vasudeo Balwant Phadke

E
• Phadke was influenced by the vision of Justice Ranade.
• He held the British government to be responsible for the sufferings of the people during the famine in the

•
•
Deccan in 1876-77.

OR
Phadke denounced the British policy of ruthless exploitation of India.
The government ordered the army to suppress the uprising.
• Avoiding pitched battle; Phadke recognized his force &started guerilla warfare against the British.
SC
• He was ultimately captured and was sentenced to transportation for life. He was deported to Aden where
he died in 1883 in jail.
The Chapekar Brothers, Damodar, Vasudev and Balkrishan
• They established the Hindu Dharma Sanrakshini Sabha in 1894.
GS

• During the Ganapati festivals of 1894, they circulated leaflets in Poona, and asked the Hindus to rise in
arms against that rule as Shivaji had done against the Muslim rule.
• On 22 June 1897, W.C. Rand & Lieutenant C.E. Ayearst were shot dead by Damodar & Bal Krishna
Chapekar.
• Damodar was arrested immediately after and was sentence to death.
• Bal Krishna was later arrested in Hyderabad and sentenced to death.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
• Savarkar joined the Abhinav Bharat Society founded by his elder brother Ganesh Damodar.
• At the time of his departure from India, Savarkar and his brother were also leaders of an association
known as the Mitramela, started around 1899.
• Savarkar later proceeded to London in 1906, but his organization continued to flourish in India.
REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES IN BENGAL
• The revolutionary activity in Bengal was the outcome of the failure of constitutional agitation to prevent
the partition of Bengal in 1905.
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Anushilan Samiti
• The first revolutionary organization in Bengal was the Anushilan samiti.
• The Anushilan Samiti was established by Pramathanath Mitra, a barrister from Calcutta.
• The people associated with this samiti were Sri Aurobindo, Deshabandhu Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath
Tagore, Jatindranath Banerjee, Bagha Jatin, Bhupendra Natha Datta, Barindra Ghosh etc. Bhupendra Nath
Datta was brother of Swami Vivekananda.
• Barindra Ghosh was sent to Paris to learn the science of Bomb Making and here he came in touch were
Madam Bhikaji Cama.
• Madam Cama was already associated with the India House and the Paris India Society.
• Its members Kudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki were entrusted with the task of assassination of Kingsford
the vindictive judge who had sentenced many political prisoners to heavy terms of punishment.
• On 30th April 1908, they threw a bomb at the carriage in which they believed Kingsford to be travelling.

E
But unfortunately, two British ladies who were in the carriage were inadvertently killed. Kudiram was
arrested and hanged on 11th August 1908.
OR
• They published a periodical named Jugantar, which openly preached armed rebellion in order to create the
necessary revolutionary mentality among the people. Both Sandhya and Jugantar openly preached the cult
of violence.
The Alipore Conspiracy
SC

• The government's search for illegal arms in Calcutta led to the arrest of thirty-four persons including the
Ghosh brothers and their trial came to be known as Alipore conspiracy case.
• One of the arrested persons Narendra Gosain became the approver, but he was shot dead in jail before
giving evidence.
• Of the accused in the Alipore conspiracy case, fifteen were found guilty and some of them including
Barindrakumar Ghosh were transported to life.
GS

• After the Alipore conspiracy case, Rash Behari Bose planned a nationwide-armed uprising with the help
of Indian soldiers of the British army. However following the discovery of the plot by the police, Rash
Behari Bose escaped to Japan & continued his revolutionary activities there.
REVIVAL OF REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISM
• After the First World War, the British government, released some of the revolutionaries to create a more
harmonious atmosphere.
• On the plea of Gandhiji, C.R. Das and other leaders, most of the revolutionary nationalists either joined
the Indian national movement or suspended their own activities.
• The non-cooperation movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi was suddenly suspended following
the mob violence at Chauri chaura in U.P.
• Many young people began to question the very basic strategy of the national leadership & its emphasis
on non-violence and began to look for alternatives. Some of them were convinced with the idea that
violent methods alone would free India.
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• Gradually two separate groups of revolutionary nationalism developed one in Punjab, U.P., and Bihar and
the other in Bengal.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association before 1928 was known as the Hindustan Republican
Association.
• Bhagat Singh, Yogendra Shukla and Chandrasekar Azad were the key functionaries of Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association.
• The group is also considered one of the first socialist organizations in India.
• HSRA was rejuvenated by the ideologies of the Bolsheviks involvement in the Russian Revolution of
1917.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was first launched during a meeting in Bholachang village,
Brahamabaria subdivision of East Bengal. Freedom fighters like Pratul Ganguly, Narendra Mohan Sen and

E
Sachindra Nath Sanyal were present at the meeting.

OR
• The association was formed as an outgrowth of the Anushilan Samiti.
• The name Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was implicative after a similar revolutionary body
in Ireland.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was always in the forefront of revolutionary movements in
the northern parts of India.
SC

• The association consisted of younger generations of U.P, Bihar, Punjab, Bengal and Maharashtra.
• The group possessed ideals, which were directly opposite to Mahatma Gandhi's Congress.
The Kakori Conspiracy Case
GS

• The revolutionaries under Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterji, and Sachindranath Sanyal met in Kanpur
in October 1924 and founded the Hindustan Republic Association.
• Its aim was to over throw the British rule from India. For all these activities, money was required.
• To achieve this objective the Hindustan Revolutionary Army stopped the down train at Kakori, a village
in Lucknow district on 9th August 1925 and looted the railway cash.
• The government arrested large number of young men and tried them in the Kakori conspiracy case.
• The chief leaders of the robbery, Ashfaqulla Khan, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshanlal were sentenced to
death.
• HSRA in non-violent protest advancement against the Simon Commission at Lahore decided to support
Lala Lajpat Rai.
• But in the protest procession, the police plunged into a mass lathi charge and the wounds imposed on
Lalaji proved life-threatening to him.
• To avenge the death of Lajpat Rai; Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Chander Shekhar Azad, and Jai Gopal were
given the charge to assassinate J.A. Scott, who had ordered the unlawful lathi-charge but unfortunately a
British official J. P. Saunders, got killed in confusion.
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• The association adjudicated to burst a blank bomb in the Central Assembly in Delhi, in order to express
opposition against the tyrannical legislation and arouse public opinion.
• The ideology behind the bombing was 'to make the deaf government hear the voices of its oppressed
people'.
• Bhagat Singh also believed that 'the only way to successfully convey his message to the public of India
was to propaganda from Court.
• On April 8th 1929 a bomb was detonated near the empty treasure benches, followed by another bomb
explosion in the Central Assembly.
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt carried out the bombing and got arrested.
• After the Assembly Bomb Case trial on 23rd March 1931 Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were
hanged.
• Baikuntha Shukla was also hanged for murdering Phanindrananth Ghosh who had become a government
approver which later on led to the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.

E
• Another key revolutionary of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, Chandrasekar Azad was killed
on 27th February 1931 in a gunfight with the police.
OR
Trial and execution of Bhagat Singh
• Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt were tried in the Assembly Bomb Case.
• While in Delhi jail, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar demanded that they be treated not as criminals, but
SC

as political prisoners.
• Jatindranath Das, who went on fast on similar grounds, died on 13th of September 1930, on the sixty-
fourth day of the fast in the Lahore prison.
• The trail and subsequent execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru on 23rd March 1931 become
a political issue.
GS

• A resolution was passed by the Karachi session of the congress in1931 commending their brave contribution
to the freedom struggle of India.
Surya Sen
• In the later part of 1920's, the most active & famous of the Bengal revolutionary groups was the
Chittagong Group led by Surya Sen.
• He had actively participated in the non-cooperation movement and had become a teacher in a national
school in Chittagong.
• A group led by Surya Sen captured the government armory on 18th April 1930, and for a while took
control over Chittagong and proclaimed a provisional revolutionary government. However, it was not
possible for this small group of revolutionaries to put up resistance against the army.
• They escaped to the Chittagong hills and continued to wage guerilla warfare for another three years.
LIMITATIONS OF REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALISTS
• They were not successful in politically activating the masses.
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• Their contact with masses was lacking.

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES OUTSIDE INDIA
Shyamji Krishnavarma
• He was a member of Mitramela Abhinav Bharat revolutionary group.
• He left Bombay in 1897 and went to London.
• He started a monthly journal, the Indian sociologist; an organ of freedom struggle of India in 1905.
• Shyamji established the Indian Home Rule society and a hostel for Indian students living in London,
popularly known as the Indian House.
• The most important revolutionaries associated with him were V.D. Savarkar, Madanlal Dhingra, Madame
Cama, and Lala Hardyal.

E
• In 1907 Shyamji shifted his head quarters to Paris and Savarkar took up the political leadership of the
Indian House in London.
Madanlal Dhingra
• OR
In 1909 Madanlal Dhingra, an associate of Savarkar assassinated Curzon-Wylie an A.D.C.to the Secretary
of State for India. He was spying on Indian students.
• Madanlal Dhingra was arrested and brought to trial, and was hanged on 1st August1909.
SC
Madame Cama
• Madame Cama had been popularly described as the Mother of Indian Revoluation. She left India in 1902.
• She took active part in editing the Indian sociologist and represented India at the Stuttgart conference of
socialists in 1907.
• At the confrence, Madame Cama unfurled for the first time Indian national flag on the foreign soil.
GS

• Due to her anti-British activities, she was forced to shift her residence from London to Paris.
• After thirty years of patriotic service in London, Paris and other cities of Europe, her friends succeeded
in repatriating her to India in November 1936. She died on 12thAugust 1937.
The Indian Independence Committee in Berlin
• After the outbreak of the First World War, Hardyal and other Indians abroad moved to Germany and set
up the Indian independence committee at Berlin.
• The committee planned to bring about a general insurrection in India and for this purpose foreign arms
were to be sent to India from abroad; expatriated Indians were to return to mother country, where they
were to be joined by Indian soldiers and by the waiting revolutionaries.
• The policy and activities of the Berlin committee and the Ghadar party had greatly influenced the
revolutionaries of Bengal.
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT - I (1905-1918)

PARTITION OF BENGAL
• The partition of Bengal was done by Lord Curzon, on 16 October 1905, through a royal proclamation,
reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
• The government said that it was done to stimulate growth in the eastern region.
• But motives were to break the growing strength of Bengali nationalism since Bengal was the base of
Indian nationalism and to divide the Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
• On the same day when the partition came into effect, the people of Bengal orgainsed protest meetings
and observed a day of mourning.
•

E
The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was observed on 16th October, 1905 where Hindus and Muslims tied
rakhis to each other to show solidarity.
OR
• The whole political life of Bengal underwent a change. Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song
‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was later adopted as the national anthem of Bangladesh in
1971 after liberation from Pakistan.
• Gandhi wrote that the real awakening in India took place only after the Partition of Bengal.
SC

• The anti-partition movement culminated into the Swadeshi Movement and spread to other parts of India.
SWADESHI MOVEMENT
• Lokamanya Tilak took the movement to different parts of India, especially Poona and Bombay; Ajit Singh
and Lala Lajpat Rai spread the Swadeshi message in Punjab and other parts of northern India.
GS

• Syed Haidar Raza led the movement in Delhi; Rawalpindi, Kangra, Jammu, Multan and Haridwar witnessed
active participation in the Swadeshi Movement; Chidambaram Pillai took the movement to the Madras
presidency, which was also galvanized by Bipin Chandra Pal’s extensive lecture tour.
• The Indian National Congress took up the Swadeshi called and the Banaras Session, in 1905, which was
presided over by G.K. Gokhale.
• It supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement for Bengal.
• The militant nationalists led by Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lajpat Rai and Aurobindo Ghosh were, however,
in favour of extending the movement to the rest of India and carrying it beyond the programme of just
Swadeshi and boycott to a full fledged political mass struggle.
• Afterwards Naoroji in his presidential address of Congress 1906 declared that the goal of the Indian
National Congress was ‘self-government or Swaraj like that of the United Kingdom or the Colonies.’
Course of Action during Swadeshi Movement
• Great emphasis was given to self-reliance or ‘Atmasakti’ as a necessary part of the struggle against the
Government.
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• Self reliance in various fields meant the re-asserting of national dignity, honor and confidence.
• Further, self-help and constructive work at the village level was envisaged as a means of bringing about
the social and economic regeneration of the villages and of reaching the rural masses. In actual terms this
meant social reform and campaigns against evils such as caste oppression, early marriage, the dowry
system, consumption of alcohol, etc.
• One of the major planks of the programme of self-reliance was Swadeshi or national education.
• Taking a cue from Tagore’s Shantiniketan, the Bengal National College was founded, with Aurobindo as
the principal.
• Scores of national schools sprang up all over the country within a short period.
• In August 1906, the National Council of Education was established.
• The Council, consisting of virtually all the distinguished persons of the country at the time, defined its

E
objectives as to organize a system of Education Literary; Scientific and Technical - on National lines and
under National control from the primary to the university level. The chief medium of instruction was to

OR
be the vernacular to enable the widest possible reach.
• For technical education, the Bengal Technical institute was set and funds were raise to send students to
Japan for advanced learning.
• The Swadeshi period also saw the creative use of traditional popular festivals and melas as a means of
SC
reaching out to the masses. The Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, popularized by Tilak, became a medium
for Swadeshi propaganda not only in Western India but also in Bengal.
• Traditional folk theatre forms such as jatras i.e. extensively used in disseminating the Swadeshi message
in an intelligible form to vast sections of the people.
• The newspapers also played a significant role in the movement. The main newspapers were K.K. Mitra’s
GS

Sanjeevani, S.N. Banerjee’s Bengali, Motilal Ghosh’s Amrit Bazaar Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya’s Yugantar,
Bipin Chandra Pal’s New India, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Mataram and Ajit Singh’s Bharat Mata.
MUSLIM LEAGUE, 1906
• In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met at Dacca for the Muslim Educational
Conference.
• Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting up of an organisation to look after the Muslim interests.
• The All-India Muslim League was set up on December 30, 1906.
• Like the Indian National Congress, they conducted annual sessions and put their demands to the British
government.
• They enjoyed the support of the British.
• Their first achievement was the separate electorates for the Muslims in the Minto-Morley reforms.
SURAT SESSION OF INC, 1907
• Controversy rose over the elected president, Ras Bihari Ghosh, as extremists didn’t accept him. Extremists
wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen.
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• The moderates also wanted to modify the Congress resolutions on Swadeshi and boycott passed in the
1906 session.

• They wanted to insert a clause in the Congress constitution that Swaraj was to be achieved only through
constitutional means and by reforms in Administration. Whereas the extremists were in favour of direct
agitation through the Swadeshi and boycott movements.
• The INC split into two groups - The Extremists and the Moderates, at the Surat session in 1907.
Extremists were led by Bal, Pal, Lal while the Moderates by G.K. Gokhale.
• Immediately after the Surat Congress, the British Government decided to crush the revolutionary movement
- also known as the Extremist movement - led by the Indian Nationalist Congress.
• The British introduced repressive measures such as: The Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act; The
Explosive Substance Act; The Criminal Law Amendment Act; The Newspapers (Incitement to Offences)
Act.
• Sri Aurobindo was arrested in May 1908, in the Alipur Conspiracy Case as implicated in the doings of

E
the revolutionary group led by his brother Barindra; but no evidence of any value could be established
against him.
OR
• At the same time, Lala Lajpat Rai was deported, Tilak was arrested on July 22 and sentenced to six years
in prison and Chidambaram Pillai and other leaders from South India were also arrested.
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT (MORLEY-MINTO ACT) 1909
The Act was introduced during Secretary of State Morley and Viceroy Minto tenure. Major features of this
SC

Act were:
• The maximum number of nominated and elected members of the Legislative Council at the Center was
increased from 16 to 60. The number did not include ex-officio members.
• The maximum number of nominated and elected members of the provincial legislative councils under
GS

a governor or lieutenant-governor was also increased.

• It was fixed as 50 in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, United Provinces, and Eastern Bengal and Assam, and 30
in Punjab, Burma, and any lieutenant-governor province created thereafter.
• The right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims. Thus communal representation was introduced
which aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the
Government’s side.
• Official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-official members would be in majority.
• The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the amendments
and even to vote on them; excluding those items that were included as non-vote items. They were also
entitled to ask supplementary questions during the legislative proceedings.
• The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the number of the Executive Councils of
Madras and Bombay from two to four.
• Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.
• The Governor-General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his Executive Council.
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GHADAR PARTY, 1913

• Ghadar Party was formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
• Its name was taken from a weekly paper, Ghadar, which had been started on November 1, 1913 to
commemorate the 1857 revolt.
• Its headquarters was at San Francisco.
• The outbreak of the First World War provided the Ghadarites with an opportunity to free India from a
Government which was indifferent to their cause.
• They began to return to India in thousands for a co-ordinated revolt in collaboration with the Bengal
revolutionaries.
KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT 1914
• Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which carried a shipload of Sikh and Muslim immigrants from

E
Punjab to Vancouver, Canada.
• The Canadian immigration authorities turned them back after months of uncertainty.
•

•
OR
The ship finally anchored at Calcutta on September 29, 1914. But the inmates refused to board the Punjab
bound train and there was a clash with the police in which 22 persons died.
This incidence fired up the revolutionary activities which sought to avenge the death of the innocents.
THE LUCKNOW PACT (1916)
SC

• Two major events occurred during Lucknow session of Congress:

– The divided Congress became united, and
– An understanding for joint action against the British was reached between the Congress and the Muslim
League and it was called the Lucknow Pact.
GS

• The signing of the Lucknow Pact by the Congress and the Muslim League in 1916 marked an important
step in the Hindu-Muslim unity.
The reasons responsible for the pact were:
• Cancellation of the Partition of Bengal:- Lord Curzon had partitioned Bengal in 1905 and the cancellation
was done in 1911. The Muslims, therefore, lost faith in the British government.
• The Turko-Italian War of 1911:- The Turkish Sultan was the Khalifa of Islam, means the religious head
of all Muslims in the world. In the Turko-Italian war of 1911, Turkey was defeated by Italy. The British,
who often projected as friend of the Muslims did not help Turkey. This event led Muslims in India to
go against the British Government.
• The World War I (1914-18):- Turkey fought against the British in the World War I. The Indian Muslims
considered that it was their duty to help Turkey in the holy war against the British. The Muslims started
the Khilafat Movement against the British in India. The Indian National Congress supported the Muslims.
That brought them to collaborate with each other.
HOME RULE MOVEMENT
• Home Rule League, was two short-lived organizations of the same name in India established in April and
September 1916, respectively, by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant.
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• The term was borrowed from a similar movement in Ireland, referred to the efforts of Indian nationalists
to achieve self-rule from the British Indian government.
• Tilak’s League was set up in April 1916 and was restricted to Maharashtra (excluding Bombay city),
Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar. It had six branches and the demands included swarajya, formation
of linguistic states and education in the vernacular.
• Besant’s League was set up in September 1916 in Madras and covered the rest of India (including Bombay
city). It had 200 branches, was loosely organised as compared to Tilak’s League and had George Arundale
as the organising secretary. Besides Arundale, the main work was done by B.W. Wadia and C.P. Ramaswamy
Aiyar.
• The Home Rule agitation was later joined by Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Chittaranjan
Das, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Tej Bahadur Sapru and Lala Lajpat Rai.
• Many of the Moderate Congressmen who were disillusioned with Congress inactivity, and some members
of Gokhale’s Servants of India Society also joined the agitation.

E
• However, Anglo-Indians, most of the Muslims and non- brahmins from South did not join as they felt
Home Rule would mean rule of the Hindu majority, mainly the high caste.
OR
Objectives:
• The League campaign aimed to convey to the common man the message of Home Rule as self government.
• It carried a much wider appeal than the earlier mobilisations did and also attracted the hitherto ‘politically
backward’ regions of Gujarat and Sindh.
SC

• The aim was to be achieved by promoting political education and discussion through public meetings,
organising libraries and reading rooms containing books on national politics, holding conferences, organising
classes for students on politics, propaganda through newspapers, pamphlets, posters, illustrated post-cards,
plays, religious songs, etc., collecting funds, organising social work, and participating in local government
activities.
• The Russian Revolution of 1917 proved to be an added advantage for the Home Rule campaign.
GS

AUGUST DECLARATION, 1917

• On 20 August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State in England, made a declaration in the Parliament
of England on British Government’s policy towards future political reforms in India.
• He promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions in India.
• This August Declaration led to the end of the Home Rule Movement.
• It was attributed to the Hindu-Muslim unity exhibited in the Lucknow Pact.
• The Montague Chelmsford reforms or the Act of 1919 was based on August declaration.
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT -II (1918-1929)

• The decisive phase of the Nationalist Movement [1917-1947] began when Gandhiji returned to India from
South Africa in January 1915. This phase is also known as the Gandhian Era.
• During this period Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the National Movement.
• His principles of non-violence and Satyagraha were employed against the British Government. Gandhi
made the nationalist movement a mass movement.
• Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the works of Leo Tolstoy’s Civil Disobedience and Ruskin’s ‘unto to
the last’.

E
• Tolstoy’s ideal of non-possession was developed by Gandhiji in his concept of ‘trusteeship’.
•
•
•
OR
He was also influenced by the life and teachings of Swami Vivekananda.
His political Guru Gokhale and Dadabhai Naroji also influenced him.
Besides he had an experience of struggle in South Africa during (1894-1914). He came to India in 1915.
• His non-violent satyagraha involved peaceful violation of specific laws.
SC
• He resorted to mass courting arrest and occasional hartals and spectacular marches.
• He had readiness for negotiations and compromise.
• His struggle against foreign rule is popularly known as ‘struggle-truce-struggle’.
During the course of 1917 and early 1918, Gandhiji was involved in three significant struggles:
GS

A. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• Gandhi’s first great experiment in satyagraha came in 1917 in Champaran, a district in Bihar.
• The peasantry on the indigo plantations in the district was excessively oppressed by the European planters
and were compelled to grow indigo on at least 3/20th of their land and so sell it at prices fixed by the
planters.
• This system was popularly known as ‘Tin-Kathia system’.
• Several peasants of Champaran invited Gandhi to come and help them.
• Accompanied by Babu Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Huq, J.B. Kripalani, Narhari Parekh and Mahadev
Desai, Gandhji reached Champaran in 1917 and through his method and efforts, the disabilities from
which the peasantry was suffering were reduced and Gandhiji won his first battle of civil disobedience in
India.
B. Ahmadabad Mill Strike (1918)
• Gandhiji did his second experiment at Ahmadabad in 1918 when he had to intervene in a dispute between
the workers and the mill-owners.
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• He advised the workers to go on strike and to demand a 35 per cent increase in wages.
• He insisted that the workers should not use violence against the employers during the strike.
• He undertook a fast unto death to strengthen the workers’ resolve to continue the strike.
• This put pressure on the mill owners who relented on the fourth day and agreed to give the workers a 35
per cent increase in wages.
C. Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
• The farmers of Kheda district in Gujarat were in distress because of the failure of crops.
• The government refused to remit land revenue and insisted on its full collection.
• As part of the experiment, Mahatma Gandhi advised the peasants to withhold payment of revenue till
their demand for its remission was met.
• The struggle was withdrawn when it was learnt that the government had issued instructions that revenue

E
should be recovered only from those peasants who could afford to pay.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the follower of Gandhiji during the Kheda movement.
OR
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919
• In order to give effect to the August Declaration of 1917, Montague along with the viceroy, Lord
Chelmsford prepared a scheme of constitutional reforms, which came to be known as Montague Chelmsford
Reforms.
SC

• On the basis of the Montague Chelmsford Reforms, the British Parliament passed the Government of
India Act, 1919. Its major provisions were:
– Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer
of power to the Indians). The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two
categories: Transferred and Reserved.
GS

– The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible
to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved
subjects without any responsibility to the legislature.
– Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided into two categories – Central and Provincial.
Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central,
while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.
– The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative Council).
– The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was raised to three in a Council
of eight. The Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health
and Industries.
– The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It actually happened after 1935
Act.
– Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo – Indians, etc. Secretary of State to be
henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.
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ROWLATT ACT AND JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE (1919)

• In 1917, a committee was set up under the presidentship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look into the militant
Nationalist activities.
• On the basis of its report the Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 by the Central Legislative Council.
• The Rowlatt Act curtailed the liberty of the people and was called the Black Act.
• The Bill provided for speedy trial of offences by a special court of 3 High court judges. There was to be
no appeal.
• The provincial government had powers to search a place and arrest a suspected person without warrant.
These gave unbridled powers to the government to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years
maximum.
• This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had the foundation of
civil liberties in Britain.

E
• It caused a wave of anger in all sections spreading a country-wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked the

•
1919.
On 8th April, 1919 Gandhiji was arrested.
OR
foundation of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji organised the Satyagraha on 14th February,

• In Punjab, there was an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

SC
• Two prominent leaders of Punjab, Dr Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested in Amritsar.
• Facing a violent situation, the Government of Punjab handed over the administration to the military
authorities under General Dyer who banned all public meetings and detained the political leaders.
• On 13th April, the Baisakhi day (harvest festival), a public meeting was organized at the Jallianwala Bagh.
GS

• Dyer marched in and without any warning opened fire on the crowd which continued for about 10 to 15
minutes and it stopped only after the ammunition exhausted.
• According to official report 379 people were killed and 1137 wounded in the incident.
• There was a nationwide protest against this massacre and Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood
as a protest.
• The Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into the matter.
• On 13 March, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’ Dyer when the latter was addressing a meeting in
Caxton Hall, London.
• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre gave a tremendous impetus to the freedom struggle and became a turning
point in the history of India’s freedom movement.
KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
• Turkey was defeated in the First World War and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt
by the Muslims as a great insult to them.
• The whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was the
religious head of the Muslims all over the world.
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• The main objective of the Khilafat movement was to force the British government change its attitude
towards Turkey and restore the Khalifa to his former position.
• The Muslims in India were upset over the British attitude against Turkey and launched the Khilafat
Movement which was jointly led by the Khilafat leaders and the Congress.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were the prominent
leaders of this movement.
• A Khilafat Committee was formed and on 19th October 1919, the whole country observed the Khilafat
day.
• On 23 November 1919, a joint conference of the Hindus and the Muslims held under the chairmanship
of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims
together to achieve the country’s independence.
• In February 1920, Gandhiji suggested to Khilafat Committee that it adopt a programme of nonviolent
non-cooperation to protest the Government’s behavior.

E
• On 9 June, 1920 the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion of non-
cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement.
OR
• Four stages of non-cooperation were surrender of titles and honorary positions, resignation from civil
services under the Government, resignation from Police and Army services and non-payment of taxes.
• Gandhiji pressed the Congress to adopt a similar plan of action, although it was initially opposed by C.R.
Das, but was later accepted by all.
SC

• Mean while, the Khilafat movement lost its relevance because Mustafa Kamal Pasha abolished Khilafat
and made Turkey a secular state.
• Subsequently, the Khilafat Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma
Gandhi in 1920.
THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (1920-22)
GS

• The movement was launched formally on 1 August, 1920, by Gandhiji.

• He announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation with the government as a sequel to the Rowlatt Act,
Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat Movement.
• The main resolution on non-cooperation was moved by C.R. Das and approved by the Indian National
Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.
The programs of the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
• Surrender of titles and honors
• Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges
• Boycott of law courts
• Boycott of foreign cloth
• Resignation from government service
• Mass civil disobedience
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• Non-payment of taxes
• National schools and colleges were to be set up
• Panchayats were to be established for settling disputes
• Hand-spinning and weaving was to be encouraged
• People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity
• Give up untouchability
• Observe strict non-violence
Course of Action
• The Nagpur session, thus, committed Congress to a programme of extra-constitutional mass action.

E
• Many groups of revolutionary terriorists, especially in Bengal, also pledged support to the movement.
• The educational boycott was particularly successful in Bengal, where the students in Calcutta triggered off

•
OR
a province-wide strike to force the managements of their institutions to disaffiliate themselves from the
Governments.
C.R. Das played a major role in promoting the movement and Subhas Bose became the principal of the
National College in Calcutta.
SC
• Punjab, too responded to the educational boycott and was second only to Bengal, Lala Lajpat Rai playing
a leading part here despite his initial reservations about this item of the programme.
• Other areas that were active were Bombay, U.P., Bihar, Orissa and Assam. Madras remained lukewarm.
• Many leading lawyers of the country like C.R.Das. Motilal Nehru, M.R. Jayakar, Saifudding Kitchlew,
Vallabhbhai Patel, C Rajagophlachari, T.Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their practices.
GS

• The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth. Picketing of shops selling
foreign cloth was also a major form of the boycott.
• Another feature of the movement which acquired great popularity in many parts of the country, even
though it was not part of the original plan, was the picketing of toddy shops.
• The Prince of Wales visited India during this period but he was greeted with empty streets and downed
shutters when he came on 17 November, 1921.
• In Malabar in Kerala Non-cooperation and Khilafat propaganda helped to rouse the Muslims tenants
against their landlords.
• In Assam, laborers on tea plantations went on strike.
• There were strikes on the steamer service and on the Assam-Bengal Railway as well.
• In Midnapur, a cultivators strike against a White zamindari company was led by a Calcutta medical
student in defiance of forest laws became popular in Andhra.
• Peasants and tribals in some of the Rajasthan states began movements for securing better conditions of
life.
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• In Punjab, the Akali movement for wresting control of the gurdwaras from the mahants was a part of the
general movement of Non-cooperation, based on strict non-violence in the face of tremendous repression.
• By December, the Government announced the Congress and the Khilafat Committees as illegal and
arrested all those who participated in the movement.
• The Congress Session at Allahabad in December 1921 decided to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Gandhiji was appointed as its leader. But before it could be launched a mob of people at Chauri Chaura
(near Gorakhpur) clashed with the police and burnt 22 policemen on 5th February, 1922.
• On hearing of the incident, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement. He also persuaded the Congress
Working Committee to ratify his decision and thus, on 12 February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement
came to an end.
• Gandhiji‘s decision to withdraw the movement in response to the violence at Chauri Chaura raised a
controversy.
• Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Bose, and many other recorded their utter bewilderment

E
on hearing the news.
Outcomes of the Non-Cooperation Movement
OR
• It was the real mass movement with the participation of different sections of Indian society such as
peasants, workers, students, teachers and women.
• It witnessed the spread of nationalism to the remote corners of India.
SC

• It also marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of the merger of Khilafat movement.
• It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to endure hardships and make sacrifices.
NAGPUR SESSION OF CONGRESS
• The Nagpur session of Congress is also memorable for the new Congress Constitution that was adopted.
GS

It brought about a revolutionary change in Congress organization.

• The Congress aim of swaraj was reaffirmed but now explained to mean “Self-Government within the
Empire if possible and outside if necessary”.
• Further, the earlier emphasis on the use of ‘constitutional means’ was substituted by “all peaceful and
legitimate methods”.
• The organizational changes in the Congress included:
– Formation of working Committee of fifteen members. This working Committee was to act as the chief
executive of the party.
– Formation of an All-India Committee of 350 members to discuss important issues. It was also to be
the apex body having the power to review the decision and working of the working Committee.
– Formation of Congress Committees from towns to village level.
– Reorganization of Provincial Congress Committees on linguistic basis. This was done to popularize the
ideas of Congress in local language. Congress, also, as far as possible emphasized on the case of Hindi
so that the gap between the educated groups and the masses may be filled up.
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– Opening of Congress member-ship to all men and women of age twenty-one or more on payment of
four Annas as annual subscription.
The Nagpur session of the Congress in December 1920 is important because of:
• Changed Aim: though the Congress aim of Swaraj was reaffirmed but now explained, to mean Self-
Government.
• Changed Methods: The earlier emphasis on the use of ‘constitutional means’ was substituted by ‘all
peaceful and legitimate methods’.
• Changed Leadership: After the death of Tilak in August 1920, the leadership went into the hands of
Gandhi and it marked the beginning of Gandhian era in Indian Politics.
• Structural Change: The Congress party was organised on modern lines with local Congress Committees
at the grass root village level through sub-divisional, district and provincial Committees with the All-India
Congress Committee at the apex.

E
SWARAJ PARTY
•

•
of the Congress in December 1922.
OR
The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a split within Congress in the Gaya session

Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan Das formed a separate group within the Congress known as
the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923.
SC
• The Swarajists wanted to contest the council elections and wreck the government from within. Motilal
Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar (called Pro-changers) demanded that the Nationalists should end the
boycott of the legislative councils, enter them and expose them.
• No-changers like Rajendra Prasad and Rajagopalachari adhered to the Gandhian programme of Boycott
of legislatures.
GS

• Elections to Legislative Councils were held in November 1923 in which, the Swaraj Party gained impressive
successes.
• In the Central Legislative Council Motilal Nehru became the leader of the party whereas in Bengal the
party was headed by C.R. Das.
• The Swaraj Party demanded the setting up of responsible government in India with the necessary changes
in the Government of India Act of 1919.
• The party could pass important resolutions against the repressive laws of the government.
• When a Committee chaired by the Home Member, Alexander Muddiman considered the system of
Dyarchy as proper, a resolution was passed against it in the Central Legislative Council.
• After the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925, the Swarj Party started weakening.
• The Swarajists were split by communalism. The ‘responsivist’ group including Madan Mohan Malviya,
Lala Lajpat Rai and N.G. Kelkar offered cooperation to the government to safeguard Hindu interests.
• The Swarajists finally walked out of legislature in 1930 as a result of the Lahore congress resolution and
the beginning of the civil disobedience movement. The two sections were reunited in 1930 after the
Lahore session.
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• The great achievement of Swaraj Party lay in their filling the political void at a time when the National
Movement was recouping its strength and this they did without getting co-opted by the colonial regime.
• They worked in the legislatures in an orderly disciplined manner and withdrew from them whenever the
call came.
• Above all, they showed that it was possible to use the legislatures in a creative manner even as they
promoted the politics of self-reliant anti-imperialism.
• They also successfully exposed the hollowness of the Reforms Act of 1919 and showed the people that
India was being ruled by ‘Lawless Laws’.
• The time when the No-Changers were busy in the constructive programme and Gandhi was leading an
isolated life, the Swarajists took over the command of the National Movement.
• Even the Simon Commission, accepted that, at that time it was only the Swaraj Party which was an
organised and disciplined party having well defined objectives and programmes.
SIMON COMMISSION (1927)
•

E
In 1927, the British government appointed Simon Commission to look into the working of the Government
OR
of India Act, 1919. All its seven members were Englishmen.
• Almost all the political parties including the Congress opposed the Commission because there was no
Indian member in the commission.
• On 3 February 1928 when the Commission reached Bombay, a general hartal was observed all over the
country and were greeted with black flags and the cries of ‘Simon go back’.
SC

• At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-Simon Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928 under
the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in the police
lathi charge and he passed away after one month.
• The report of the Simon Commission was published in May 1930.
GS

• It was stated that the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy was unsuccessful and in its place the report
recommended the establishment of autonomous government.
• The Simon Commission Report became the basis for enacting the Government of India Act of 1935.
NEHRU REPORT (1928)
• The Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead, challenged the Indians to produce a Constitution that would be
acceptable to all.
• The challenge was accepted by the Congress, which convened an all party meeting on 28 February 1928.
• A committee consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the future Constitution of
India.
• It was headed by Motilal Nehru.
• The committee comprised of Tej Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Shoaib Querishi,
G.R. Pradhan and Subash Chandra Bose.
• The Report favoured:
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– Dominion Status as the next immediate step.

– Full responsible government at the centre.
– Autonomy to the provinces.
– Clear cut division of power between the centre and the provinces.
– A bicameral legislature at the centre.
• The report had a different chapter on minority rights apart from the Fundamental Rights.
• During the presentation of the report before the All Parties Convention in Calcutta, a violent clash took
place between Jinnah (representing the Muslim League) and M.R. Jayakar (who put forth the Hindu
Mahasabha viewpoint) on the former’s demand of one-third of the total seats in the central legislatures
for Muslims.
• Consequently, Jinnah’s proposed amendments were overwhelmingly out-voted and the Report proved to

E
be a non-starter and became a mere historical document.
• The leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the interests of

•
the Muslims.
OR
Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he drew up a list of Fourteen Points as
Muslim League demand.
JINNAH’S FOURTEEN POINTS
SC

• At a meeting of the Muslim league in Delhi in March 28, 1929, M. A. Jinnah announced his ‘fourteen
Points.’
• Rejecting the Nehru Report, he maintained that no scheme for the future Government of India would be
acceptable to the Muslims until and unless following basic principle were given effect to:
GS

– India required a federal system and Constitution in which the Provinces would have complete autonomy
and residuary powers.
– All legislatures and other elected bodies should be constituted on the principle of adequate representation
of minorities in every Province.
– A uniform measure of autonomy should be granted to all Provinces.
– In the Central legislature, Muslim representation should not be less than one-third.
– The Representation of communal groups through the system of electorate should continue as long as
rights and interests of Muslims were not safeguarded in the Constitution.
– Any future territorial redistribution should not affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and the
North-West Frontier Province.
– Full religious liberty should be granted to all communities.
– No bill should be passed in any elected body if three-fourth of the members of any community in that
particular body were to oppose such a bill.
– Sindh should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.
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– Reforms should be introduced in the North-West Frontier Provinces and Baluchistan as in other Provinces.
– Muslims should be given an adequate share in all the services.
– Adequate safeguards should be provided for the protection of Muslim culture.
– No Cabinet should be formed without at least one-third Muslim ministers.
– No change should be made in the Constitution except with-out the concurrence of the federation
States.
• The above mentioned demands suggested a total rejection of Nehru Report due to two reasons-
– A unitary Constitution was not acceptable because it would not ensure Muslim domination in any part
of India. A federal Constitution consisting of a Centre with limited power and autonomous Provinces
with residuary powers would enable the Muslims to dominate five Provinces-North-West Frontier
Province, Baluchistan, Sindh, Bengal and Punjab.
– The solution to the communal problem as suggested by Nehru report was not acceptable to the

E
Muslims.
LAHORE SESSION, 1929
OR
• Under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the INC at its Lahore session declared Poorna Swaraj as its
ultimate goal on 19 December 1929.
• The newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled on 31 December, 1929 and 26 January, 1930 was fixed
as the First Independence Day, which was to be celebrated every year.
SC
GS
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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT - III (1930-1947)

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930-1931)
• On 12th March 1930, Gandhi began March to Dandi with his chosen 79 followers and broke the salt law
at Dandi on 5 April 1930.
• Following the conclusion of the Salt March to Dandi, Mahatma Gandhi chose a non-violent raid of the
Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat as the next protest against British rule.
• Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 5th of May, 1930, just days before his projected raid on the Dharasana
Salt Works.

E
• Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Civil Disobedience Movement and brought into
question the legitimacy of British rule in India because of widespread newspaper coverage by American

•
journalist Webb Miller.
OR
Civil Disobedience included Indian raids on salt depots, refusal to pay taxes in chosen areas, spirits and
avoidance of business with all British firms, disobedience of forest laws and boycott of foreign cloth.
• The Salt Satyagraha movement was taken up by C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and the Vaikon
SC
Satyagraha by K. Kalappan in Malabar.
• In the North West, the Pathans under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, popularly known as Frontier Gandhi,
organized the society of ‘Khudai Khidmadgars’ which was also known as Red Shirts.
• In Bihar there was a protest against Chowkidari tax in Saran, Bhagalpur and Monghyr.
• On 18th of April, around one hundred revolutionaries attacked police and railway armories at Chittagong.
GS

Mahatma Gandhi condemned the raid.

• This movement even sparked off patriotism among the Indian soldiers in the British army. The Garhwali
soldiers refused to fire on the people at Peshawar.
• It continued for almost a year, ending with the release of Mahatma Gandhi from jail and after the
discussions at the Second Round Table Conference with Viceroy Lord Irwin.
• The movement had a significant effect on changing British attitudes toward Indian independence and
caused huge numbers of Indians to aggressively join the fight for the first time.
• The Salt March to Dandi and the flogging of hundreds of non-violent protesters in Dharasana, marked
the efficient use of civil disobedience as a method for fighting social and political injustice.
FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE, 1930
• The First Round Table Conference was convened in London on 31 October, 1929.
• Three basic principles were agreed in the Conference and the British Government was made to accept
those principles.
• It was held on to discuss the Simon Commission recommendations.
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• The conference was boycotted by the INC, but the Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and other
groups were present.
• It was attended by Tej Bahadur Sapru, B.R. Ambedkar, Md. Shafi, M.A. Jinnah, Fazlul Haq, Dr. Shafaat
Ahmad Khan, Sir Mirza Ismail, Sir Akbar Hydari, Maharaja of Bikaner, Raja Rajendra Nath and others.
• The conference was postponed to 2 January, 1931 because of the absence of Congress.
GANDHI-IRWIN PACT, 1931
• The moderate statesmen Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, Mukund Ramrao Jayakar and Srinivas Shastri initiated
efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
• On 25th of January 1931, Lord Irwin authorized Gandhi‘s release from prison and withdrew prohibition
of illegality against the Congress Working Committee. Following this the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed
on 5 March, 1931.
Salient features of the Pact:

E
– The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
– The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
OR
– The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress.
– The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses other than violent one. The Government
would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience
movement.
SC

• The INC called off the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to join the second Round Table
Conference.
• The government on its part released political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption
for villages along the coast.
• The Karachi session of 1931 endorsed the Pact.
GS

KARACHI SESSION OF 1931

• The Karachi session is known for its resolution on the Fundamental Rights and the National Economic
Programs.
• Even though the Congress had from its inception fought for the economic interests, civil rights and
political liberties of the people, this was the first time that the Congress defined what Swaraj would mean
for the masses.
• It also declared that in order to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include the real
economic freedom for the starving millions.
Some important features of these resolutions were:
– Basic civil rights of freedom of speech, Freedom of Press, Freedom of assembly, Freedom of association
irrespective of caste, creed or sex.
– Neutrality of state in regard to all religions.
– Equality before law.
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– Protection of Minorities and their culture, language and script and of different linguistic areas.
– Elections on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise.
– Free and compulsory primary education.
– Substantial reduction in rent and taxes.
– Better conditions for workers including a living wage, limited hours of work.
– Protection of women and peasants.
– Conferred the right to organize and form unions to workers and peasants.
– State ownership or control of key industries, mines and means of transport.
SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE, 1931
• The absence of the Congress representations in the First Round Table conference led to the Second

E
Round Table conference, in which the Congress representatives took part due to Gandhi-Irwin Pact of
1931.
•

•
Mohan Malaviya, etc. OR
Other Indians who part in the conference were Ambedkar, Sapru, Jayakar, Sarojini Naidu, Pt. Madan

Gandhi demanded immediate establishment of a full responsible government at the Centre as well as in
the provinces with complete control over defense, external affairs and finance.
SC
• The significant issue of the Second Round Table conference was to solve the communal problem, which
was not solved. This was because Jinnah inflexibility was secretly supported by the British statesman like
the Secretary of State for India Sir Samuel Hoare.
• The session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and demand of separate electorates.
• MacDonald ended the session with the announcement of creation of two new Muslim majority provinces,
GS

North West Frontier Province and Sindh.

• He also announced of setting up a committee on franchise, finance and states and held out the humiliating
and dangerous prospect of a unilateral British Communal Award.
• Gandhiji’s returned to India and on his arrival in Bombay, the Congress Working Committee decided to
resume the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• In 1932, INC was declared an illegal organization and all its leaders arrested.
• Gandhiji was sent to the Yeravada jail in Poona.
Communal Award
• On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement, which came
to be as then Communal Award.
• According to this award, the depressed classes were considered as a separate community and as such
provisions were made for separate electorates for them.
• Mahatma Gandhi protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death in the Yeravada
jail on 20 September 1932.
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POONA PACT, 1932

• After the announcement of the communal award and the subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meetings took
place everywhere.
• Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, B.R. Ambedkar and M.C. Rajah became active.
• Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and Gandhi and it was called the Poona Pact.
• The British Government also approved of it.
• Accordingly, 148 seats in different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed Classes in place
of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.
• Thus the Poona Pact agreed upon a joint electorate for the upper and the lower classes.
• Harijan upliftment now became the principal concern of Gandhiji.
• An All India Anti-Untouchability League was started in September 1932 and the weekly ‘Harijan’ in
1933.
•

E
On May 8, 1933 Gandhiji decided to begin a 21 day fast for the purification of himself and his associates
for the Harijan cause.
OR
• He started the Individual Civil Disobedience on 1 August, 1933.
• A White paper was issued in the year March 1933. The details of the working basis of the new constitution
of India were enumerated in the White Paper.
SC

• It was declared that according to the new constitution, there would be dyarchy and a responsible government
in the center.
• In February 1935, a bill was introduced in the House of Commons by the Secretary of State for India,
which subsequently passed and enacted as the government of India Act, 1935.
• The Government of India Act, 1935 drew its materials from the Simon Commission, the report of the
GS

All-Parties conference i.e. the Nehru Report, the discussions at the three successive Round Table
Conferences, the detail enumerated in the White Paper and the reports of the Joint Select Committees.
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935
The Government of India Act, 1935 was designed on the basis of the recommendation of Simon Commission.
It envisaged an administrative set-up for India such as:
Provided for the establishment of the All India Federation consisting of the British Provinces and the Princely
States. The joining of the Princely States was voluntary. (It did not come into existence since the Princely
States refused to give their consent for the union.)
• Introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre.
– The Governor-General and his councilors administered the “Reserved subjects”.
– The Council of Ministers was responsible for the “Transferred” subjects.
• The provinces were to be given complete autonomy and the administrative subjects divided into three lists
i.e.
– Federal List that included the subjects assigned to the Central Government;
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– The Provincial List that consisted of all the subjects under the sole jurisdiction of the provinces, and
– The Concurrent List upon whose subjects both the Centre and Provinces would exercise their combined
authority.
• Abolition of Dyarchy and the introduction of Provincial Autonomy in the provinces.
– The Governor was made the head of the Provincial Executive but he was expected to run the
administration on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
– The provincial government was entrusted to the elected Ministers.
– They were responsible to the popularly elected Legislative Assemblies.
• Provincial Legislatures of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar and Assam were made
bicameral.
• Establishment of a Federal Court at the Centre at Delhi with a Chief Justice and 6 judges.

E
• Extension of the principle of Separate Electorates to Sikhs, Europeans, Indian Christians and Anglo
Indians.
•
OR
Besides these main provisions, it also contained the provisions of the formation of the provinces of Sindh
and Orissa, separate and communal electorate system with reduction of the qualification of voters;
separation of Burma and Aden from India.
• Accordingly, the Home Government in England was reformed. The Indian Council was abolished and a
SC
few advisers varying from 3 to 6 were appointed to advise the Secretary of States in his policy formulation
towards India.
• The Secretary was normally not expected to interfere in the Indian affairs which were to be carried on by
Governors.
• The working of the provincial autonomy was not successful, because the Governors were not bound to
GS

accept the advice of the ministers. In reality, the real power in the Provincial Government was with the
Governor.
• Despite the drawbacks in the scheme, the Congress decided to take part in the elections to the Provincial
Legislatures with the consideration that it was an improvement over the previous Acts.
• In accordance with the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935, elections to the Provincial
Legislatures were held in February 1937.
• The Congress swept the polls and Congress gained majority in Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, U.P.,
Bihar and Orissa.
• In Assam and northwestern frontier, it became the largest single party.
• Similarly, the Muslim League got absolute majority in Sindh.
• On 7 July 1937, after the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, assured the Congress of his cooperation, the party
formed its ministries in seven provinces.
• The most important fact regarding the achievement of the Act can be stated that the political experience
ingenerated in the minds of the Indian leaders went a long way in making the people of India conscious
for their political liberty which they achieved in 1947.
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WORLD WAR II AND INDIAN NATIONALISM

• In September 1939, the Second World War broke out.
• Indian opinion was not sought but the British government dragged India in the war as a party.
• India cannot associate herself in a war said to be for democratic freedom, when that very freedom is
denied to her.
• The Congress demanded the establishment of an Indian government responsible to the Central Legislative
Assembly but the British government did not agree to this.
• In November 1939, the Congress resigned in protest. The Muslim League celebrated that day as the
Deliverance Day.
• In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.
• During the course of the Second World War in order to secure the cooperation of the Indians, the British
Government made an announcement on 8 August 1940, which came to be known as the ‘August Offer’.

E
• The August Offer envisaged that after the War a representative body of Indians would be set up to frame
the new Constitution.
OR
• Gandhi was not satisfied with the offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
• Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in nature and it was left to Mahatma Gandhi
to choose the Satyagrahis.
• In October 1940, the Individual Satyagraha was launched and Vinoba Bhave was chosen by Gandhiji as
SC

the first person to offer the Satyagraha.

• Jawaharlal Nehru was the second Satyagrahi and was imprisoned for four months.
• The individual Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
• Indian national leaders were opposed to fascism and condemned it as the enemy of the freedom.
GS

• Many countries allied against fascism and put pressure on the British government to concede the demand
of the Indian people.
CRIPPS MISSION (1942)
In March 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to hold talks with the Indian leaders.
Proposals of Cripps’ Mission
– Dominion status to be granted after the war.
– Setting up a Constitution making body for India after the war whose members would be elected by the
Provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in case of the Princely States.
• The British government undertook to accept and implement the Constitution so framed subject to two
conditions that if any province not willing to accept the new Constitution could form a separate union
and a separate Constitution.
• The new Constitution-making body and the British government would negotiate a treaty to sort out
matters arising out of transfer of powers to Indian hands.
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• The proposals were rejected by the Congress as it did not want to rely upon future promises. Gandhiji
termed it as a ‘post-dated cheque in a crashing bank’.
• At last, in August, 1942, Gandhiji gave forth the slogan ‘Quit India’.
• The Congress passed a resolution on 8th August 1942, which mentioned the ‘immediate ending of British
rule in India’.
• The day after the resolution was passed, the Congress was banned and all the important leaders were
pushed behind the bars.
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
• The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India
Resolution. On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.
• On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress.

E
• For once, this pre-planned action of the government left the Indian people without leadership and that is
why it is also called the Vardha Proposal and the Leaderless Revolt.
•
•
•
Mahatma Gandhi was kept in prison at Poona.
OR
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort.
At this time, leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta, S.M. Joshi, Jayaprakash Narain
and Aruna Asaf Ali who started consolidating underground networks.
SC
• An underground Congress Radio was establishment and its announcer was Usha Mehta.
• Parallel governments were set up at various places such as the one in Ballia in eastern U.P. under the
leadership of Chittu Pande. Others were in Satara, Talcher, parts of Eastern U.P. and Bihar.
• However, the Muslim League kept aloof from the movement and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the
movement.
GS

• The Communist Party of India also didn’t support the movement.

• In 1943, there were armed attacks on government buildings in Madras and Bengal.
• In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail.
• Quit India Movement was the final attempt for country’s freedom and paved the way for India’s freedom.
INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY
• Indian National Army, also known as the Azad Hind Fauj, was formed in South-East Asia in the year
1942 by pioneering Indian Nationalists and prisoners.
• The INA was initially formed under Mohan Singh, the captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the
British Army, after the fall of Singapore.
• However, it was in 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose came to Tokyo and then joined the I.N.A. at Singapore.
With his arrival the more vigorous phase of the I.N.A. began.
• Rash Behari Bose, who set up the Azad Hind Government (the Provincial Government of Free India),
adopted the tri-color flag and gave the slogan of ‘Jai Hind’ (victory of India), handed over the leadership
to him.
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• Bose also reorganized the Azad Hind Fauj (I.N.A.).

• In November 1943, the Japanese announced their decision to hand over the administration of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands to the I.N.A.
• On 6th July 1944, Subhash Bose made an appeal on the Azad Hind Radio, Singapore, to Gandhi and seek
his ‘blessings and good wishes’, calling him the ‘Father of Nation.’
• To the Indian recruits, he offered: ‘you give me blood and I will give you freedom’. His war slogan was
‘’Dilli Chalo’’ (on to Delhi).
• In May 1944, battalion I of I.N.A. captured Mowdok, (outpost situated southeast of Chittagaon) and
hoisted the tri-color flag on Indian soil.
• Another battalion under Shah Nawaz Khan joined the Japanese Army in their assault on Kohima in
Nagaland.
• The next target was Imphal in Manipur to be followed by a rapid advance across the Brahmaputra into
Bengal.

E
• Fighting side by side with the Japanese Armed forces, the I.N.A. crossed the Indian frontier on 18th March
1944. However, the campaign achieved only limited success.
OR
• The I.N.A. failed to capture Imphal due to two reasons:
– The Japanese failed to supply the necessary materials and air cover to the I.N.A.
– The monsoon prevented their advance. In the meantime the British were able to regroup their forces
SC

and made counter-attacks.

– With the fortunes of war turned against Japan and they had to withdraw from the Indo-Burma border
to meet American threat in the South Pacific I.N.A. too could not stand on its own.
– The retreat of the I.N.A. began in the middle of 1944 and ended by mid 1945, resulting in surrender
of I.N.A. troops to the British Army.
GS

– Subhash Chandra Bose disappeared. Some believed he died in an air crash while going to Tokyo, while
others refused to believe this.
I.N.A. TRIALS
• The British Government of India charged the captured I.N.A. soldiers of waging war against the King.
• The trials were held in Delhi Red Fort and the first three accused were Captain P.K. Sehghal, Captain
Shahnawaz Khan, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon.
• Wide protests were held and there were meetings and processions, angry outbursts and agitated speeches
everywhere, calling for the immediate release of I.N.A. prisoners.
• Leaders of all political parties, the Congress, the Muslim League and the C.P.I. demanded the release of
I.N.A. prisoners. .
• Bhulabhai Desai, T. B. Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf Ali worked as the Defense counsel for the I.N.A.
heroes.
• The court martial found all the three guilty of waging war against the King, but Lord Wavell, the Viceroy,
sensing the mood of the nation remitted their death sentences on 1st January 1946.
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• All the same, the Viceroy announced that the remaining trials would be restricted to such soldiers who
were accused of using brutal methods to force their fellow prisoners of war to join the I.N.A.
Evaluation of Azad Hind Fauz
• I.NA. Movement was in a way, more successful then the Ghadarites and other revolutionaries who tried
to use the First World War as a catalyst for Indian Independence.
• Though the I.N.A. had failed to achieve its goal but it made a significant impact on the freedom struggle.
It became clear to the British that they could no longer depend on the loyalty of Indian soldiers and
consider them as mercenaries.
• The struggles of the I.N.A. demonstrated that those who waged an armed struggle against the British were
not at all affected by communal divisions.
• There were Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in the I.N.A. who had fought as Indians.

E
• The action of the Rani Jhansi brigade—an exclusively women force-demonstrated the capabilities of
Indian women waging armed struggle against the British.
•

OR
The I.N.A. trials moreover brought various political parties on a common platform showing the anti-
British protest.
R.I.N. REBELLION
• The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny or the Bombay Mutiny was the revolt of the Indian sailors.
SC
• The sailors who belonged to the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay
harbor went for a strike and organised a mutiny on 18th February 1946.
• The whole mutiny involved 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.
• It started as a protest against their general conditions.
GS

• The immediate reason for the outbreak of the mutiny was their pay and food.
• In addition to that there were more elementary matters such as racist behavior by Royal Navy personnel
towards Indian sailors, and disciplinary measures taken against the sailors who demonstrated nationalist
sympathy.
• The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was widely supported by the Indian population.
• The one day strike spread to other cities from Bombay and the Royal Indian Air Force and local police
forces also joined this mutiny.
• Furthermore, in Madras and Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts within the ranks of the Indian
Army.
• The mutinying ships hoisted three flags which were tied together those of the Congress, Muslim League,
and the Red Flag of the Communist Party of India (CPI).
• The flags signified the unity and demarginalisation of communal issues among the mutineers.
• The rising, however, could not make any further headway on account of two reasons:
– The overwhelming military might of the British which was put into action.
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– The joint persuasion of Vallabhbhai Patel and M.A. Jinnah to the ratings to surrender on 23rd February.
• An undertaking was given by the Congress and the league that they would prevent any victimization of
the ratings but soon this assurance was forgotten. Thus, the Revolt of the Royal Indian Navy (R.I.N.)
ended.
• The mutiny of naval ratings demonstrated to the British rulers that they could no longer depend on the
loyalty of the armed force.
RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA, 1945
• Rajagopalachari in his formula proposed that plebiscite should be held in contiguous districts of North
West and East where Muslims were in absolute majority.
• If the majority decides in favor of forming a separate sovereign state, such decision could be accepted.
• Jinnah objected to the proposal as he wanted only Muslims of North West and East of India to vote in
the plebiscite.

E
CABINET MISSION (1946)
• After the Second World War, Lord Clement Atlee became the Prime Minister of England.
OR
• On 15 March, 1946 he made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and the
framing of a Constitution for India were conceded.
• Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Patrick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V.
Alexander - were sent to India.
SC

• This came to be known as the Cabinet Mission.

• The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the constitutional problem.
Major provisions of Cabinet Mission
– Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting Princely States was
GS

suggested. The union would deal into the following subjects: Foreign affairs, Defence and Communication
and would have the powers to raise the finances required for the above subjects. Full autonomy would
be enjoyed by the provinces in respect of all subjects other than the union subjects.
– There were to be three groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu majority provinces (Bombay,
United Province, Bihar, Central Province, Orissa, and Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces
(Sind, NWFP, and Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal). After the first general elections, a province
could come out of the group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group
or union constitution.
– The Union would consist of an executive and a legislature. The legislature would not be directly elected
by the people but by the provincial legislatures on the basis of communal electorates. Members of the
Princely States would be appointed by the rulers of the Princely States.
• A proposal was envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain in office till a new
government was elected on the basis of the new Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly.
• Both the Muslim League and the Congress accepted the plan.
• Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a Constituent Assembly.
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• The Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.
• An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.
• Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on
2 September 2, 1946.
• J.L. Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President.
• Muslim League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five members of the League
join the government on Oct 26, 1946.
JINNAH DIRECT ACTION RESOLUTION
• Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on Jul 29, 1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress
(Aug 16, 1946) which resulted in heavy communal riots.

E
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.
Formation of constituent Assembly of India
• OR
The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN OF JUNE 1947
• Lord Mountbatten on 3 Jun, 1947, put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s
SC
political problem.
• The British Govt., passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in Jul 1947, which contained the major
provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.
• The main provisions of the Plan were:
GS

– India to be divided into India and Pakistan.

– Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would
be held.
– There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
– The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
– Aug 15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.
INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT 1947
• The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan by enacting the Indian
Independence Act on 18 July 1947.
• The salient features of this Act were:
– The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from 15 August 1947.
– The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions.
– A Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal.
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– The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of the two Dominions,
which will have full authority to frame their respective Constitutions.
• The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line separating India and Pakistan.
• On 15th August 1947 India, and on the 14th August Pakistan came into existence as two independent
states.
• Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali
Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan.

E
OR
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CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

India Regulating Act 1773
• Subjected the Company’s actions to the supervision of the British Government.
• End of Dual government.
• Governor of Bengal to be the Governor - General of British territories of India.
• Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta.
• The servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade, accept presents or bribes, etc.

E
Pitts India Act of 1784
•

•
OR
The commercial and political activities of the Company were now separated. Board of Control of six
members (including two cabinet ministers) set - up to guide and supervise the affairs of the Company in
India.
Three members will be there in Governor - General’s Executive Council.
SC
• Secret Committee of three Directors were to look into political and military affairs. [Governor General
and the council were forbidden to declare war and make treaties without the sanction of secret committee].
• Madras and Bombay Presidencies were subordinated to the Governor - General - in - Council of Bengal
in all matters.
• This act gave the British Government a measure of control over the Company’s affairs. In fact, the
GS

Company became a subordinate department of the State.

• Act of 1786 : Governor General given the power to over - ride the council and was made Commander
- in - Chief also.
Charter Act of 1793
• Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.
• Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian revenue.
• The Governor General and the Governors could now over - ride the decisions of their respective Councils.
• All laws were to be translated in Indian languages.
• It laid the foundation of government, by written laws, interpreted by courts.
Charter Act of 1813
• Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China. This made the
Company more of an administrative body. All Englishmen could trade in India subject to few restrictions.
• A sum of 1 lakh earmarked annually for education of Indians.
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• Further, Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and preach their religion.
Charter Act of 1833
• End of Company’s monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company was asked to close its commercial
business at the earliest.
• All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land and property in India by them
were removed, legalizing European colonization of India.
• Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers, administrative and financial,
were centralized in the hands of the Governor - General - in - Council. (1st Governor General of India
- Lord William Bentinck).
• President of Board of Control became the minister for Indian affairs.
• A law member (without power to vote) was added to the Executive Council of the Governor General.
Macaulay was the first Law member. This increased the Council’s strength to four, with it began the Indian
Legislature.

E
• A law commission was constituted for codification of laws.
OR
• The Act threw open to ail, irrespective of religion, place of birth, descent and colour, services under the
Company.
Charter Act of 1853
• The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories
SC

in trust for the British Crown but not for any specified period.
• The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 of which 6 were to be
nominated by the Crown.
• The Law member was made a full member of the Governor General’s Executive Council.
• Legislation was treated for the first time as separate from executive functions.
GS

• Questions could be asked and the policy of the Executive Council could be discussed, though the
Executive Council could veto a bill of the Legislative Council.
• Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians).
Government of India Act 1858
• Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began.
• System of Dual government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished and substituted
them with a post of Secretary of State (a member of the British cabinet). He was assisted by a 15 -
member council (called Indian Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
• Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General.
• Governor General received the title of Viceroy. He represented Secretary of State and was assisted by an
Executive Council, which consisted of high officials of the Government.
• A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created.
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The Indian Council Act 1861

• A fifth member, who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• 6 - 12 additional members to be added to the Executive Council for legislation purpose. This implied that
Viceroy’s Executive Council, which was so long composed of officials, would now include certain additional
non - official members. Some of non - official seats were offered to natives of high ranks. Thus, a minute
element of ‘popular’ participation was introduced in the legislative process. The additional members,
though, had little powers.
• The Executive Council was now to be called Central Legislative Council.
• Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.
Indian Council Act 1892
• Two improvements in both the Central and the Provincial Legislative Councils were suggested.

E
• Though the majority of the official members was retained, the non - official members were to be
nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Provincial Legislative Councils. [The non - official

•
OR
members of the Provincial Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities,
district boards, municipalities]. Indian leaders like G.K. Gokhale, Ashutosh Mukherjee, Ras Bihari Ghosh
and S.N. Banerjee found their way in the Legislative Council.
The Councils were to have the powers to discuss the annual statement of revenue and expenditure (i.e.
the budget) and of addressing questions to the Executive). They could also put questions, within certain
SC
limits, to the Government on matters of public interest after giving six days notice.
Indian Council Act 1909 or Morley - Minto Reforms
• Morley was the Secretary of State, while Minto was the Indian Viceroy.
• Legislative Councils, both at the Centre and in the Provinces, were expanded.
GS

• With regard to Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the Executive Council of the
Governor General.
• The size of the Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged by including elected non - official members
so that the official majority was gone. Their functions were also increased. Now, they could move
resolutions on Budget and on some matters of public matters.
• An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority
was maintained.
• The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that Muslims were given separate representation.
Thus, communal representation was introduced.
Government of India Act 1919 or Montague - Chelmsford Reforms
• Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer
of power to the Indians). The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories
: Transferred and Reserved.
• The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible
to the Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved
subjects without any responsibility to the legislature.
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• Devolution Rules : Subjects of administration were divided into two categories - Central and Provincial.
Subjects of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central,
while matters relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.
• The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative Council).
• The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was raised to three in a Council of
eight. The Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and
Industries.
• The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It actually happened after 1935
Act.
• Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo - Indians, etc. Secretary of State to be
henceforth paid salary out of the British revenue.
Government of India Act 1935
• Provided for the establishment of All - India Federation consisting of the British provinces and the

E
Princely States. The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come
into existence.
OR
• Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g., Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for
the Governor General).
• The other Federal subjects were to be administered by the Governor General with the assistance and
advice of a Council of Ministers to be chosen by him (but to include representatives of Princely States
and minorities, and to be responsible to the Central Legislature). Residuary powers were to be with the
SC

Governor General only.

• The Federal Legislature (Central Legislature) was to have two chambers (bicameral) - the Council of State
and the Federal Assembly. The Council of State was to be a permanent body with one - third of its
membership being vacated and renewed triennially. The Federal Assembly’s duration was fixed for five
years.
• It made a 3 - fold division of powers: Federal (Central) Legisl1ative List Provincial Legislative List and
GS

the Concurrent Legislative List. Residuary legislative powers were subject to the discretion of the Governor
General. Even if a bill was passed by the Federal Legislature, the Governor General could veto it, while
even Acts assented to by the Governor General could be disallowed by the King - in - Council.
• Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces i.e., the distinction between Reserved and Transferred
subjects was abolished and full responsible government was established, subject to certain safeguards.
They were granted separate legal identity.
• The Governor was the head of the Provincial Executive and was expected to be guided by the advice of
the popular ministries. However, the Act gave arbitrary powers to the Governors to act in their ‘discretion’
in certain matters.
• The Act also provided for a Federal Court (which was established in 1937), with original and appellate
powers) to interpret the Constitution. A Federal Bank (the Reserve Bank of India) was also established.
The Indian Council of Secretary of State was abolished.
• Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo - Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.
• Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were separated from India and two new provinces Orissa and Sind were
created.
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GOVERNOR GENERALS DURING BRITISH INDIA

GOVERNOR OF BENGAL (BEFORE 1773)

Robert Clive (1754-1767)
• Founder of the British Indian Empire, popularly known as "Clive of India".
• He was British administrator and military leader to start with, however his destiny brought him to India
and he worked in various capacities for British East India Company.
• He was Governor of Bengal before "Regulating Act of 1773" - which actually marks beginning of Birtish

E
rule.
• He was involved in Battle of Plassey (1757) and consequent annexation of Bengal.
•
•
•
Civil Services were organized during Clive's tenure. OR
Started Dual administration in Bengal (1757-1722), the practice was stopped by Warren Hastings.

He prohibited employees of the company from undertaking any private or accept any gift.
SC
• During First Anglo-Mysore War (1766-69), Robert Clive was recalled during the course of war in 1767.
English were defeated by Haider Ali.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF BENGAL (1773-1833)
Lord Warren Hastings (1773-1785)
• Governor of Bengal was designated as Governor General of Bengal.
GS

• He annexed Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1772.

• He started modern western administration in India.
• He entered into business with Egypt, Tibet and Bhutan. He stopped annual pension to Mughal Emperor
and reduced the pension of the Nawab of Bengal.
• Overall administration including Civil Services was very corrupt during Hastings's tenure.
• He initiated the Rohilla War (1774) and annexation of Rohilkhand by Nawab of Awadh, with the help
of British.
• During his tenure Act of 1781 came under which the powers of jurisdiction between the Governor-
General-in-council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta were clearly divided.
• He led First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) followed by Treaty of Salbai as Marathas were defeated.
• Pitts India Act of 1784 was enacted.
• He was involved in Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), Haider All died and Mysore was defeated.
• During his tenure Judicial Murder of Nand Kumar in 1775 took place. Nand Kumar was critic of Warren
Hastings, indicted in false case and sentenced to death.
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Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)

• He was the founding father of 'Indian Civil Services'. (Reforms for purification of Administration).
• He was the father of modern police administration in India.
• He created the post of DSP. He believed in the separation of powers, therefore he deprived the District
Collector of judicial powers and created the new post of District Judge. He also carried out gradation of
courts.
• He proposed Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating several judicial reforms. He codified the personal laws
(IPC and CrPC are codified personal laws) and separation of revenue and civil administration.
• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) followed by Treaty of Seringapatnam (1792).
• Introduction of the Permanent Revenue Settlement that is Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar (1793).
It was the worst measure of Lord Cornwallis.
• Europeanization of administrative machinery and introduction of civil services.

E
He established Permanent revenue settlement with a class of revenue collectors (Zamindars under Zamindari
OR
rights).
Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
• First civil servant to become Governor-General. He played important role during the introduction of
Permanent revenue settlement that is Zamindari system in 1793.
SC

• Charter act of 1793 was enacted during his period.

• He defeated Nizam of Hyderabad who later on joined Subsidiary Alliance with British during Wellesley's
tenure.
Lord Arthur Wellesley (1798-1805)
GS

• During his tenure introduction of Subsidiary Alliance in 1798 occured. The rulers of the state of Nizam
of Hyderabad, Mysore, Tanjavore, Awadh, Jodhpur, Jaipur and finally Peshwas also signed Subsidiary
Alliance.

• During his tenure Fouth Anglo-Mysore war (1799) & Second Anglo-Maratha war (1803-05) occured.
Lord George Barlow (1805-1807)
• Pursued moderate policy, that is, the policy of non-intervention with princely states.
• Tried to establish peaceful relations with Marathas.
• White Mutiny at Vellore (1806) occured during his tenure.
Lord Minto-I (1807-1813)

• Concluded important Amritsar treaty (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh which decided later course of
Anglo-Sikh relations.

• Governor General of Bengal at the time of passage of Charter Act of 1813.

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Francis Rawdon Hastings (1813-1823): (Marques of Hastings)

• Renounced the policy of non-intervention followed by his predecessor and revived aggressive imperialistic
policy marking the beginning of second phase of British imperialism in India, so as to build large British
Asiatic Empire by conquering territories bordeting India.
• During his tenure Anglo-Nepal War; Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819) and Pindari War (1817-18)
occured.
Lord Amherst (1823-28)
• First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826) and signed Treaty of Yaudaboo in 1826 by which British merchants
were allowed to settle on southern coast of Rangoon.
• Capture of Barakhphr (1826) occured.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1832-1858)

E
Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
• Charter Act of 1833 was enacted.
•
•
OR
He was the most liberal British Governor-General of India.
Tenure coincides with socio-religious reform movements of 19th century (Abolition of Sati and other
cruel rights (1829) occured during his tenure.
SC
• Resolution of 1835 and Educational reforms.
• Suppression of `Thuge' that is highway robbery in 1830 by Colonel Sleeman.
• Raja of Mysore was deposed and territories of kingdom were annexed (1831).
• Annexation of Cachar (1834) and Jaintia (1832) and Coorg (1834) on the charges of mal-administration.
GS

• Formation of Agra province in 1834.

• Provincial courts of appeal and circuits were replaced by commissioners of revenue and circuit.
• Treaty of `Perpetual friendship' with Ranjit Singh took place.
Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)
• Brief tenure marked by the liberation of Indian press of prohibitory restrictions as new press law was
passed.
Lord Auckland (1836-1842)
• Disastrous First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842) occured during his tenure.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)
• Successfully completed Afghan war and annexed Sindh province for British in 1843.
• Became first Governor General of India to be recalled for defying the orders of the Court of Directors
of East India Company.
• War with Gwalior (1843) occured during his tenure.
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Lord Hardinge-I (1844-1848)

• Issued orders for prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the practice of human sacrifice
among the Goads of Central India.
• Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) occured during his tenure.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856 great imperialist and colonist)
• Application of 'Doctrine of Lapse' (one of the principle political reasons for "Revolt of 1857) annexed
Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854)
and Awadh (1856) under `Doctrine of Lapse'
• The introduction of Railways (first train Bombay to Thane), Telegraph and Postal systems (first telegraph
line - Calcutta - Agra) in India in 1853.
• Postal reforms (Post Office Act 1854) initiated during his tenure.
• Charter- Act of 1853 passed.

E
• Wood's Education Dispatch 1854 (Magna Carta of Modern Western Education in India) also passed.
• Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852) and annexation of lower Burma occured during his tenure.
OR
• Widow Remarriage Act (1856) enacted.
• Military headquarter of British India was moved to Shimla, where summer capital of British India was
also established. Headquarter of Bengal artillery was moved to Meerut.
• Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-56) and annexation of Punjab from Maharaja Dalip Singh (Maharaja Dalip
SC

Singh handed over Kohinoor diamond to British).

• Establishment of separate Public Works Department in every province.
• To bring more land under cultivation so as to earn more revenue, two canals (1854), upper Ganga canal,
in western Uttar Pradesh (originating in Haridwar) and Baridoad canal in Punjab were constructed. Similarly,
the harbors of Calcutta, Bombay and Karachi were modernized to receive large maritime ships.
GS

VICEROY AND GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1858-1947)

Lord Canning (1856-1857 and 1858-1862)
(Last Governor of East India Company and first viceroy and Governor General of India)
• Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857 occured during.
• Witnessed and suppressed the Revolt of 1857.
• 'Doctrine of Lapse' started by Lord Dalhousie was finally withdrawn in 1859.
• Two arms of British administration originated (Secretary of State of India, Viceroy and Governor General
of India to look after the administration of India)
• Regressive laws, such as Criminal Procedure Codes (CrPC) and Indian Penal Codes (IPC) were introduced.
• Introduction of new tax such as income tax, on experimental basis in 1859.
• `White Mutiny' by European troops in 1859 occured.
• Indian Councils Act of 1861 enacted.
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Lord Elgin-I (1862-1863)

• Wahabi movement occured during his tenure and get suppressed.
Lord Lawrence (1862-1869)
• Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Afghanistan called Policy of Masterly Inactivity.
• Setting up of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras (1865).
Lord Mayo (1869-1872)
• Opening of the Rajkot college in Kathiawar and the Mayo College at Ajmer for political training of Indian
princes.
• Establishment of Statistical Survey of India occured.
• Establishment of Department of Agriculture and Commerce.

E
• Introduction of State Railways.
Lord North Brook (1872-1876)
•
•
Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875 occured.
Trial of Gaelcwar of Baroda occured.
OR
• Kuka movement in Punjab occured during his tenure.
SC
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
• Famine of 1876-1878 affecting Madras,. Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad, parts of Central India and Punjab
occured. Famine commission under the presidency of Richard Strachey (1878) appointed.
• Royal Titles Act (1876), Queen Victoria assuming the title of ''Kaiser-i-hind" or "Queen Empress of
India".
GS

• The Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878) enacted.
• The Second Afghan War (1878-1880) took place.
Lord Rippon (1880-1884)
• Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882) took place.
• The first Factory Act, 1881, to improve labor conditions enacted.
• Government resolution on Local Self Government (1882) also passed.
• Continuation of Financial decentralization.
• Appointment of education commission under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter (1882).
• The IIbert bill controversy (1883-1884) occured.
Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)
• The third Burmese war (1885-86) and establishment of Indian National Congress occured during his
tenure.
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Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)

• Factory act (1891) enacted.
• Categorization of civil services as imperial, provincial and subordinate occured.
• Indian Council Act (1892) enacted.
• Setting up of Durand Commission (1893) to define the Durand line between India and Afghanistan (now
between Pakistan and Afghanistan).
Lord Elgin-II (1894-1999)
• Two British officials assassinated by Chapekar brothers (1897) during his tenure.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
• Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer to review police administration.
• Appointment of Universities Commission (1902) and passing of Indian Universities Act (1904)

E
Establishment of department of Commerce and industry.
• Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) enacted.
OR
• Ancient Monument Preservation act (1904) & Partition of Bengal (1905) enacted.
• Curzon-Kitchener controversy started.
• Partition Bangal (1905) of Bengal occured.
SC

• Younghusbands mission to Tibet (1904) started.

Lord Minto-II (1905-1910)
• Popularization of Anti-partion and Swadeshi movements.
• Split in Congress in the annual session of 1907 in Surat occured.
GS

• Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan (1906).

Lord Hardinge-11 (1910-1916)
• Creation of Bengal presidency (like Bombay and Madras) in 1911.
• Coronation Durbar of King George V held in Delhi 1911.
• Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi 1911.
• Establishment of Hindu Mabasabha (1915) by Madan Mohan Malavaya.
Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)
• Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant and Tilak (1916).
• Lucknow session of the Congress (1916).
• Lucknow pact between Congress and Muslim league (1916) signed.
• Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916) after Gandhiji's return; Launch of Champaran Satyagraha (1916),
Kheda Satyagaha (1918) and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918) occured.
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• Montague's August declaration (1917) proposed.

• Government of India's Act (1919) enacted.
• The Rowlatt Act (1919) enacted.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) took place.
• Launch of Non-cooperation and Khilafat movement occured.
• Foundation of women's university at Pune (1916) and appointment of Saddler's commission (1917) for
reforms in educational policy.
• Appointment of S.V. Sinha as Governor of Bihar (the first Indian to become a Governor).
Lord Reading (1921-1926)
• Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the subsequent withdrawal of non-cooperation movement.

E
• Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921) started.
• Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of 1919 occured.
•
•
OR
Criminal Law Amendment Act and Abolition of cotton exercise.
Communal riots in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, Aligarh, Arvi and Calcutta occured.
• Kakori train robbery (1925) also happened during his tenure.
SC
• Establishment of Swaraj party by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (1922).
• Decision to hold simultaneous examination for the ICS both in Delhi and London with effect from 1923.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
• Visit of Simon Commission to India (1928) and the boycott of the commission by the Indians occured.
GS

• An All Parties Conference held at Lucknow (1928) for suggestions for (future) Constitution of India, the
report of "Nehru Report" of the " Nehru Constitution" proposed.
• Appointment of Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission 1927.
• Murder of Saunders, the Assistant Superintendent of Police of Lahore; bomb blast in the assembly hall
of Delhi; the Lahore conspiracy case and the death of Jatin Das after prolonged hunger strike (1921) and
bomb accident on train in Delhi (1929).
• Lahore session of the Congress (1929); Puna Swami resolution.
• Dandi March (March 12,1930) by Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Deepavali declaration by Lord Erwin (1929).
• Boycott of the first round table conference, Gandhi-Irwin pact (1931) and the suspension of the civil
disobedience movement (March 1931).
Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)
• Second round table conference (1931) and failure .of the conference, presumption of civil disobedience.
• Announcement of communal award 1932 under which separate communal electorates were set up.
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• "Fast unto Death" by Gandhi in Yeravada prison, broken after the Pune pact (1932).
• Third round table conference (1932) occured.
• Launch of individual Civil Disobedience Movement (1933).
• The Government of India Act (1935) enacted.
• Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha (1936) and Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev
and Jayprakash Narayan (1934).
• Burma-separated from India (1935).
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)
• First general elections (1936-37); occured Congress gained majority in 5 provinces and formed coalition
in 3 other provinces.
• Resignation of the Congress ministries after the outbreak of the World War-II (1939).

E
• Subash Chandra Bose elected President of Congress at the 51st session of the Congress (1938).
OR
• Resignation of Bose in 1939 and formation of the Forward Bloc (1939) occured.
• Lahore resolution (March 1940) by the Muslim league demand for the separate state for Muslims.
• 'August offer' (1940) by the viceroy; criticism by the congress and the endorsement by the Muslim league.
• Vincent Churchill was elected Prime Minister of England (1940).
SC

• Escape of Subash Chandra Bose from India (1941) and organization of the Indian National Army.
• Cripps Mission, Cripps Plan to offer dominion status to India and setting up of a constituent assembly
and its rejection by the congress.
• Passing of the 'Quit India resolutions' by the congress (1942); outbreak of 'August Revolution'; or Revolt
GS

of 1942 after the arrest of National leaders.

• 'Divide and Quit' slogan at Karachi session (1944) of the Muslim League.
Lord Wavell (1944-1947)
• C.Rajagoapalachari's `C.R.Formula' (1944) was proposed.
• Failure of Gandhi-Jinnah pacts (1944) occured.
• Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference (1942) took place.
• End of World War-II (1945).
• Proposals of the Cabinet Mission (1946) and its acceptance by the Congress.
• Observance of 'Direct action day"(August 16, 1948) by the Muslim League.
• Elections to the constituent assembly, formation of interim government by the congress (September 1946)
• Announcement of the end of British rule in India by Clement Atlee (Prime Minister of England) on
February 20, 1947
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Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)

• June 3 Plan (June 3, 1947) announced.
• Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons.
• Appointment of two boundary commissions under Sir Cyril Radcliffe for the partition of Bengal and
Punjab.

E
OR
SC
GS
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PERSONALITIES
MAHATMA GANDHI
• Mahatma Gandhi was born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on October 2, 1869 at Porbandar, located
in the present day state of Gujarat.
• His father Karamchand Gandhi was the Diwan (Prime Minister) of Porbandar and mother Putlibai was
a pious lady and under her tutelage Gandhi imbibed various principles of Hinduism at an early age.
• After completing his college education Gandhi left for England on September 4, 1888 to study law at
University College, London.
• In 1893, went to South Africa as a legal adviser to an Indian firm in South Africa.

E
• As he descended in South Africa, Gandhi was left appalled at the rampant racial discrimination against
Indians and blacks by the European whites.
OR
• Soon Gandhi found himself at the receiving end of such abuse (thrown away from first class bogie of the
train) and he vowed to take up the cudgels on behalf of the Indian community.
• He organized the expatriate Indians and protested against the injustices meted out by the African
government.
SC

• After years of disobedience and non-violent protests, the South African government finally conceded to
Gandhi’s demands and an agreement to this effect was signed in 1914.
• Later, Gandhi realized the war that was to be waged against the British awaits his arrival in India and he
returned to India in 1915.
• After reaching India, Gandhi traveled across the length and breadth of the country to witness the atrocities
GS

of the British regime.

• He founded the Satyagraha Ashram and successfully employed the principles of Satyagraha in uniting the
peasants of Kheda and Champaran against the government. After this victory Gandhi was bestowed the
title of Bapu and Mahatma and his fame spread far and wide.
• In 1921, Mahatma Gandhi called for the non-cooperation movement against the British Government with
the sole object of attaining Swaraj or independence for India.
• Even though the movement achieved roaring success all over the country, the incident of mob violence
in Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh forced Gandhi to call off the mass disobedience movement. Consequent
to this, Mahatma Gandhi took a hiatus from active politics and instead indulged in social reforms.
• The year 1930 saw Gandhi’s return to the fore of Indian freedom movement and on March 12, 1930 he
launched the historic Dandi March to protest against the tax on salt.
• The Dandi March soon metamorphosed into a huge civil disobedience movement.
• The Second World War broke out in 1939 and as the British might began to wane, Gandhi called for the
Quit India movement on August 8, 1942.
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• Post World War, the Labour Party came to power in England and the new government assured the Indian
leadership of imminent independence. The Cabinet Mission sent by the British government proposed for
the bifurcation of India along communal lines which Gandhi vehemently protested.
• Eventually Gandhi had to relent and on the eve of independence thousands lost their lives in communal
riots.
• Gandhi urged for communal harmony and worked tirelessly to promote unity among the Hindus and
Muslims.
• But Mahatma’s act of benevolence angered Hindu fundamentalists and on January 13, 1948 he was
assassinated by Hindu fanatic Nathuram Godse.
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi
Truth: Gandhi strictly maintained that the concept of truth is above and beyond of all other considerations
and one must unfailingly embrace truth throughout one’s life.

E
Satyagraha: In the context of Indian freedom movement, Satyagraha meant the resistance to the British
oppression through mass civil obedience.

OR
Nonviolence: The principle of nonviolence or Ahimsa has been integral to many Indian religions and Mahatma
Gandhi espoused for total nonviolence in the Indian freedom struggle.
Khadi: Mahatma used the adoption of Khadi as a subtle economic tool against the British industrial might
and also as a means of generating rural employment in India.
SC
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
• Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889, to a wealthy Kashmiri Brahmin family in Allahabad,
Uttar Pradesh.
• His father Motilal Nehru was a renowned advocate and also an influential politician.
GS

• For higher education, young Nehru was sent to Harrow school and then later to Cambridge University in
England. After spending two years at the Inner Temple, London, he qualified as a barrister.
• During his stay in London, Nehru was attracted by the ideas of liberalism, socialism and nationalism.
• In 1912, he had returned to India and joined the Allahabad High Court Bar.
• In 1916, Nehru participated in the Lucknow Session of the Congress. There, after a very long time,
member of both the extremist and moderate factions of the Congress party had come. All the members
equivocally agreed to the demand for “swaraj” (self rule). Although the means of the two sections were
different, the motive was “common” - freedom.
• In 1921 Nehru was imprisoned for participating in the first civil disobedience campaign as general secretary
of the United Provinces Congress Committee. The life in the jail helped him in understanding the
philosophy followed by Gandhi and others associated with the movement. He was moved by Gandhi’s
approach of dealing with caste and “untouchablity”.
• In 1922, some of the prominent members including his father Motilal Nehru had left the congress and
launched the “Swaraj Party”. The decision, no doubt upset Jawahar but he rejected the possibility of
leaving the Congress party.
• He was elected as the president of the Allahabad municipal corporation in 1920.
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• In 1926, he traveled to the flourished European nations like Germany, France and the Soviet Union. Here,
Nehru got an opportunity to meet various Communists, Socialists, and radical leaders from Asia and
Africa.
• Nehru was also impressed with the economic system of the communist Soviet Union and wished to apply
the same in his own country.
• In 1927, he became a member of the League against Imperialism created in Brussels, the capital city of
Belgium.
• During the Guwahati Session in 1928, Mahatma Gandhi announced that the Congress would launch a
massive movement if the British authority did not grant dominion status of India within next two years.
It was believed that under the pressure of Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose, the deadline was reduced
to one year.
• Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the famous “Nehru Report” prepared by his father Motilal Nehru in 1928 that
favored the concept of a “dominion status for India within the British rule”.
• In 1930 Mahatma Gandhi advocated Nehru as the next president of the Congress. The decision was also

E
an attempt to abate the intensity of “communism” in the Congress. The same year, Nehru was arrested
for the violation of the Salt Law.
OR
• In 1936, Nehru was re-elected as the president of the Indian National Congress.
• Fifteen years after the Guwahati Session, on 15 August, 1947, the congress succeeded to overthrow the
influential British Empire. Nehru was recognized as the first Prime Minister of independent India.
• In the year 1949, Jawaharlal Nehru made his first visit to the United States, seeking a solution to India’s
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urgent food shortage.

• In 1951, Jawaharlal Nehru launched the country’s “First Five-Year Plan” emphasizing on the increase in
the agricultural output.
• He was also the chief framer of domestic and international policies between 1947 and 1964.
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• Nehru played a predominant roles in substantiating India’s role in the foundation of NAM. He advocated
the policy of Non-Alignment during the cold war and India, subsequently, kept itself aloof from being in
the process of “global bifurcation”.
• In 1964, Jawaharlal Nehru suffered a stroke and a heart attack and on 27 May 1964, Nehru passed away.
• Nehru was cremated at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, Delhi
VALLABHBHAI PATEL
• Vallabhbhai Patel was born on October 31, 1875 in Gujarat to Zaverbhai and Ladbai.
• He completed his law studies in 1913 and came back to India and started his law practice.
• For his Excellencies in Law, Vallabhbhai was offered many lucrative posts by the British Government but
he rejected all.
• Later, inspired by Gandhi’s work and philosophy Patel became a staunch follower of him.
• In 1917, Sardar Vallabhbhai was elected as the Secretary of the Gujarat Sabha. The next year, when there
was a flood in Kaira, the British insisted on collecting tax from the farmers. Sardar Vallabhbhai led a
massive “No Tax campaign” that urged the farmers not to pay their land.
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• The peaceful movement forced the British authority to return then land taken away from the farmers. His
effort to bring together the farmers of his area brought him the title of ‘Sardar’ to his name.
• In 1928, the farmers of Bardoli faced a similar problem of “tax-hike”. After prolonged summons, when
the farmers refused to pay the extra tax, the government in retaliation seized their lands. Under the
leadership of Vallabhbhai Patel the agitation took on for more than six months and after a deal struck
between the government and farmer’s representatives, the lands were returned.
• In 1930 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was imprisoned for participating in the famous Salt Satyagraha called by
Mahatma Gandhi.
• His inspiring speeches during the “Salt Movement” transformed the lives of numerous people, who later
played a major role in making the movement successful.
• Sardar Patel was freed in 1931 following an agreement signed between Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin,
the then Viceroy of India. The treaty was popularly known as the Gandhi-Irwin pact.

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• In 1931 Patel was elected as the president of Indian National Congress Party for its Karachi session.In
the Karachi session, the Indian National Congress Party committed itself to the defence of fundamental
rights and human rights and a dream of a secular nation. An agreement regarding this was also sanctioned.
•
OR
In 1934, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led the all-India election campaign for the Indian National Congress.
Though he did not contest a seat for himself, Sardar Patel helped his fellow party mates during the
election.
• At the time of independence, Indian territory was divided into three parts. First, the territories under the
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direct control of the British government, second were the territories over which the hereditary rulers had
suzerainty. The regions, which had been colonized by France and Portugal, formed the last. India, without
the integration of these different territories under one roof, could not be considered as a unified and total
country. Vallabhbhai Patel played a crucial role during the freedom struggle of India and was instrumental
in the integration of over 565 princely states into the Indian Union.
BAL GANGADHAR TILAK
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• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a social reformer and freedom fighter and was one of the prime architects of
modern India and strongest advocates of Swaraj (Self Rule).
• He was a great reformer and throughout his life he emphasized on the concepts of women education and
women empowerment.
• To inspire a sense of unity, he introduced the festivals like ‘Ganesh Chaturthi’ and Shivaji Jayanti’. In
present times Ganesh Chaturthi is considered as the prime festival of the Marathis.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak launched two newspapers called ‘Mahratta’ (English) and ‘Kesari’ (Marathi). Both the
newspaper stressed on making the Indians aware of the glorious past and empowered them to be self
reliant. The newspaper actively propagated the cause of national freedom.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak joined the Indian National Congress Party in 1890.
• Realizing that the constitutional agitation in itself was futile against the British, Tilak opposed the moderate
views of the party. This subsequently made him stand against the prominent leaders like Gopal Krishna
Gokhale.
• His movement was based on the principles of Swadeshi (Indigenous), Boycott and Education. But his
methods also raised bitter controversies within the Indian National Congress Party and the movement
itself.
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• As a result, Tilak formed the extremist wing of Indian National Congress Party. Tilak was well supported
by fellow nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab. The trio was referred
to as the Lal-Bal-Pal.
• A massive trouble broke out between the moderate and extremist factions of the Indian National Congress
Party in the 1907 session of the Congress Party. As a result of which, the Congress split into two factions.
• During 1908-1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak spent six years rigorous imprisonment in Mandalay Jail, Burma.
He was deported because of his alleged support to the Indian revolutionaries, who had killed British
people.
• Tilak returned to India in 1915 when the political situation was fast changing under the shadow of World
War I.
• Tilak decided to re-unite with his fellow nationalists and founded the All India Home Rule League in 1916
with Joseph Baptista, Annie Besant and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• In mid-July 1920, his condition worsened and on August 1, he passed away.

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GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale was one of the pioneers of the Indian Independence Movement and was a senior
OR
leader of the Indian National Congress.
• He was a leader of social and political reformists and one of the earliest and founding leaders of the Indian
Independence Movement and was respected widely in the Indian intellectual community.
• In 1884, after the completion of his graduation in arts at the Elphinstone College, Bombay, Gokhale joined
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as professor of history and political economy at the Fergusson College, Poona. He remained on the staff,
finally as principal, until 1902.
• Becoming actively identified with the National Congress movement, he was for some years the joint
secretary and in 1905 president at the Benares session.
• The higher education made Gokhale understand the importance of liberty, democracy and parliamentary
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system of the government.

• In 1985-86, Gopal Krishna Gokhale met a great scholar and a social reformer Mahadev Govind Ranade.
Ranade was a great leader, judge, scholar and above all social reformer. Gokhale regarded Mahadev
Govinda Ranade as his “Guru”.
• Ranade helped Gokhale in establishing the “Servants of India Society” in 1905. The main objective of
this society was to train Indians to raise their voices and serve their country.
• Gokhale also worked with Ranade in a quarterly Journal, called “Sarvajanik”. The Journal wrote about
the public questions of the day in frank and fearless manner.
• Gokhale was the secretary of the “Reception Committee” of the 1895 Poona session of Indian National
Congress and from this session, Gokhale became a prominent face of the Indian National Congress.
• For a while Gokhale was a member of the Bombay Legislative Council where he spoke strongly against
the then Government.
• In 1905, Gokhale was sent by the Congress on a special mission to England to spread India’s constitutional
demands among the British leaders.
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• Gokhale was instrumental in the formation of the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909, which was tabled. The
Reforms Act became law in 1909 but it was disappointing that despite Gokhale’s efforts, the people were
not given a proper democratic system.
• However, Gokhale’s efforts were clearly not in vain and Indians now had access to seats of the highest
authority within the government, and their voices were more audible in matters of public interest.
• Gokhale, during his visit to South Africa in 1912, met Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
• Gokhale made him aware of the issues confronting common people back in India.
• In his autobiography, Gandhi calls Gokhale his “mentor and guide”.
• Not only Gandhi, Gokhale also guide Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah.
SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE
• Subhash Chandra Bose was born into an affluent Bengali family on January 23, 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa.

E
• During the period of civil disobedience movement called by Mahatma Gandhi Bose resigned from the ICS
in April 1921 to join the freedom struggle.
•

•
eloquence and leadership skills. OR
He joined the youth wing of the Congress Party and soon rose up the party hierarchy by virtue of his

At an early stage of his life Subhas Bose accepted Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das as his political guru.
• Over a span of 20 years, Bose was imprisoned eleven times by the British, the first one being in 1921.
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In 1924, after a brief period of incarceration, Bose was exiled to Mandalay in Burma.
• Subhash Bose was imprisoned again in 1930 and deported to Europe. During his stay in Europe from 1933
to 1936, Subhash Bose zealously espoused the cause of Indian freedom while meeting a number of
prominent European statesmen.
• In 1937, Bose married Emilie Schenkl who was his secretary.
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• Subhash Bose was twice elected president of the Indian National Congress (1938 and 1939) but following
his disagreements with Mahatma Gandhi he relinquished his post and formed a progressive group known
as the Forward Block.
• The principles and the philosophy of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose were instrumental factors in his
embracing of armed revolution in the later part of his political career.
• Initially Bose was a follower of the Gandhian way of freedom movement but years of travel in European
countries during exile and the ripening of mental faculties with age made him disenchanted with the ways
of the Indian National Congress.
• Disappointed with the leniency shown by some Congress leaders towards the British, Bose became
increasingly convinced that the goal of achieving freedom would remain a pipedream as long as the British
held sway over the land and peaceful protests would never be able to throw the British out.
• While outlining his vision for a free India, Subhash Chandra Bose proclaimed that socialist authoritarianism
would be required to eradicate poverty and social inequalities from a diverse country like India.
• He openly espoused for an authoritarian state on the lines of Soviet Russia and Kemal Atatürk’s Turkey.
• Bose was also an exponent of socialism and opined that industrialization and Soviet-style five-year plans
held the key to a vibrant Indian nation.
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• The Second World War broke out in 1939 and Bose launched a campaign of mass civil disobedience to
protest against the Viceroy’s decision to declare war on India’s behalf.
• Bose was placed under house arrest. Taking advantage of the laxity of the house guards and aided by his
cousin Sishir Bose, Subhash managed to escape and traversing through enemy territories he reached
Moscow.
• Bose tried to garner the help Nazi Germany but due to the indifferent attitude of Hitler and other German
leaders he left for Japan and soon assumed the leadership of Indian National Army (INA) founded by
Rash Behari Bose.
• Bolstered by material assistance from the Japanese forces, the INA attacked the British forces in Manipur
and Nagaland in northeastern India and hosted the National Flag in the town in Moirang, in Manipur.
• But with the defeat of Japan, the invasion by the INA soon petered out and Netaji was forced to retreat
to Malaya.
• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose allegedly died in a plane crash over Taiwan, while flying to Tokyo on August
18, 1945.
LALA LAJPAT RAI

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OR
• Lala Lajpat Rai immensely contributed in attaining independence the nation and helped to establish the
nationalistic Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School and became a follower of Dayanand Saraswati.
• In 1888 and 1889 he was a delegate to the annual sessions of the National Congress.
• In 1895 Rai helped found the Punjab National Bank, demonstrating his concern for self-help and enterprise.
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• In 1897 he founded the Hindu Orphan Relief Movement to keep the Christian missions from securing
custody of these children.
• In the National Congress in 1900 he stressed the importance of constructive, nation-building activity and
programs for self-reliance.
• In October 1917, he founded the Indian Home Rule League of America in New York.
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• In 1920, after his return from America, Lajpat Rai was invited to preside over the special session of the
Congress in Calcutta, (now Kolkata).
• He plunged into the non-cooperation movement, which was being launched in response to the Rowlatt
Act, in principle.
• The movement was led by Lajpat Rai’s in Punjab and he soon came to be known as “Punjab Kesri” (The
Lion of Punjab).
• Lala Lajpat Rai was also a noted writer. The United States of America: A Hindu’s impressions and a
study, History of the Arya Samaj, Swaraj and social change, England’s Debt to India: India, The Problems
Of National Education In India were among the books, he had written.
• On October 30, 1928 he died after the police lathi-charged on the activists, protesting the arrival of Simon
Commission. .
MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was one of the foremost leaders of Indian freedom struggle. He was also a
renowned scholar, and poet.
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• Imbued with the pan-Islamic spirit, he visited Afghanistan, Iraq, Egypt, Syria and Turkey.
• In Iraq he met the exiled revolutionaries who were fighting to establish a constitutional government in Iran.
In Egypt he met Shaikh Muhammad Abduh and Saeed Pasha and other revolutionary activists of the
Arab world.
• He had a firsthand knowledge of the ideals and spirit of the young Turks in Constantinople. All these
contacts metamorphosed him into a nationalist revolutionary.
• On his return from abroad, Azad met two leading revolutionaries of Bengal- Aurobinto Ghosh and Sri
Shyam Shundar Chakravarty, and joined the revolutionary movement against British rule.
• Azad observed that the revolutionary activities were restricted to Bengal and Bihar, and within two years,
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad helped set up secret revolutionary centers all over north India and Bombay.
• During that time most of his revolutionaries were anti-Muslim because they felt that the British government
was using the Muslim community against India's freedom struggle. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad tried to

E
convince his colleagues to shed their hostility towards Muslims.
• In 1912, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started a weekly journal in Urdu called Al-Hilal to increase the

•
revolutionary recruits amongst the Muslims.
OR
Al-Hilal played an important role in forging Hindu-Muslim unity after the bad blood created between the
two communities in the aftermath of Morley-Minto reforms. Al-Hilal became a revolutionary mouthpiece
ventilating extremist views. 'The government regarded Al- Hilal as propagator of secessionist views and
banned it in 1914.
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• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started another weekly called Al-Balagh with the same mission of propagating
Indian nationalism and revolutionary ideas based on Hindu-Muslim unity. In 1916, the government banned
this paper too and expelled Maulana Abul Kalam Azad from Calcutta and put him in jail at Ranchi from
where he was released after the First World War 1920.
• After his release, Azad roused the Muslim community through the Khilafat Movement. The aim of the
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movement was to re-instate the Khalifa as the head of British captured Turkey. M
• aulana Abul Kalam Azad supported Non-Cooperation Movement started by Gandhiji and entered Indian
National Congress in 1920.
• He was elected as the president of the special session of the Congress in Delhi (1923).
• Maulana Azad was again arrested in 1930 for violation of the salt laws as part of Gandhiji's Salt Satyagraha.
He was put in Meerut jail for a year and a half.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad became the president of Congress in 1940 (Ramgarh) and remained in the
post till 1946.
• He was a staunch opponent of partition and supported a confederation of autonomous provinces with
their own constitutions but common defense and economy. Partition hurt him greaty and shattered his
dream of an unified nation where Hindus and Muslims can co-exist and prosper together.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad served as the Minister of Education (the first education minister in independent
India) in Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru's cabinet from 1947 to 1958.
• He was appointed as India’s first Minister for Education and inducted in the Constituent Assembly to draft
India’s constitution.
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• Under Maulana Azad’s tenure, a number of measures were undertaken to promote primary and secondary
education, scientific education, establishment of universities and promotion of avenues of research and
higher studies.
• For his invaluable contribution to the nation, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was posthumously awarded
India’s highest civilian honor, Bharat Ratna in 1992.
RAJENDRA PRASAD
• Rajendra Prasad was a great leader of the Indian Nationalist Movement and also one of the architects of
the Indian Constitution.
• He was elected as the first President of Republic of India.
• In 1911, during his stay in Calcutta (now Kolkata) as a legal practitioner, Rajendra Prasad joined the Indian
National Congress Party and was subsequently elected to the AICC.
• During the Champaran movement, Mahatma Gandhi asked Rajendra Prasad to visit Champaran along
with the other volunteers and partisans of the Indian National Congress.
•

E
Initially Rajendra Prasad was not impressed with Gandhiji’s appearance and conversation but deeply
moved by the dedication, conviction and courage of Gandhi.
OR
• Rajendra Prasad also responded to the call of Mahatma Gandhi to boycott Western education.
• He asked his son Mrityunjaya Prasad, a brilliant student to leave the University and enroll himself in Bihar
Vidyapeeth.
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• He wrote articles for magazines like “Searchlight” and “Desh”.

• Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Bombay session of the Indian National Congress
Party in October 1934.
• In July 1946, when the Constituent Assembly was established to frame the Constitution of India, Dr.
Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. And, eventually he was also elected as the first President of
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Republic of India.
• He was also awarded with Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.
• Following a brief illness, he passed away in 28 February, 1963.
SAROJINI NAIDU
• Sarojini Naidu was known by the sobriquet “The Nightingale of India” and her contribution was not
confined to the fields of politics only but she was also a renowned poet.
• Sarojini Naidu was moved by the partition of Bengal in 1905 and decided to join the Indian freedom
struggle.
• She met regularly with Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who later introduced her to the stalwarts of the Indian
freedom movement. She met Mahatma Gandhi, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, C. P. Ramaswami Iyer and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• Sarojini later moved on to become leader of the Indian National Congress Party. She traveled extensively
to the United States of America and many European countries as the flag-bearer of the Indian Nationalist
struggle.
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• During 1915, Sarojini Naidu travelled all over India and delivered speeches on welfare of youth, dignity
of labor, women’s emancipation and nationalism.
• In 1916, she took up the cause of the indigo workers of Champaran in the western district of Bihar.
• Mahatma Gandhi organized the Non-Cooperation Movement to protest against Rowlatt Act and Naidu
was the first to join the movement.
• Sarojini Naidu also actively campaigned for the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, the Khilafat issue, the
Sabarmati Pact, the Satyagraha Pledge and the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• In 1919, she went to England as a member of the all-India Home Rule Deputation.
• In January 1924, she was one of the two delegates of the Indian National Congress Party to attend the
East African Indian Congress.
• In 1925, she was elected as the President of the Indian National Congress Party.

E
• In 1905, her collection of poems was published under the title “Golden Threshold”. Later, she also
published two other collections called “The Bird of Time”, and “The Broken Wings”.
•

•
Conference in 1947 was highly-appraised.
OR
Sarojini Naidu was the first woman Governor of Uttar Pradesh. Her chairmanship of the Asian Relations

On 02 March 1949, Sarojini Naidu died at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI
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• Lal Bahadur Shastri (2 October 1904 – 11 January 1966) was the third Prime Minister of the Republic
of India and a leader of the Indian National Congress party.
• Shastri joined the Indian independence movement in the 1920s. Deeply impressed and influenced by
Mahatma Gandhi, he became a loyal follower, first of Gandhi, and then of Jawaharlal Nehru.
• During the “Salt Movement” Lal Bahadur lead a door-to-door campaign, urging people not to pay land
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revenue and taxes to the British authority.

• He was one of the leading and prominent faces that continued the Quit India movement, called by
Mahatma Gandhi.
• Lal Bahadur, in 1937, was elected to the UP Legislative Assembly.
• After Independence, he became the Minister of police in the Ministry of Govind Vallabh Panth in Uttar
Pradesh. His recommendations included the introduction of “water-jets” instead of sticks to disperse the
unruly mob.
• Impressed with his efforts in reforming the state police department, Jawaharlal Nehru, invited Shastri to
join the Union cabinet as a Minister for railways.
• He was a responsible man and known for his ethics and morality. In 1956, Lal Bahadur Shastri resigned
from his post, following a train accident that killed around 150 passengers near Ariyalur in Tamil Nadu.
• Nehru, had once said, “No one could wish for a better comrade than Lal Bahadur, a man of the highest
integrity and devoted to ideas”.
• In 1961, he became Minister for Home and formed the “Committee on Prevention of Corruption” headed
by of K. Santhanam.
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• Jawaharlal Nehru was succeeded by a mild-mannered and soft-spoken Lal Bahadur Shastri on 9 June,
1964.
• He was a follower of Nehruvian socialism. Shastri tackled many elementary problems like food shortage,
unemployment and poverty. To overcome the acute food shortage, Shastri asked the experts to devise a
long-term strategy. This was the beginning of famous “Green Revolution”.
• Apart from the Green Revolution, he was also instrumental in promoting the White Revolution. The
National Dairy Development Board was formed in 1965 during Shastri as Prime Minister.
• The 1965 Indo-Pak war took place during the tenure of Shastri which ended on 23 September 1965 after
the United Nations passed a resolution demanding a ceasefire.
• The Russian Prime Minister, Kosygin, offered to mediate and on 10 January 1966, Lal Bahadur Shastri
and his Pakistan counterpart Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Declaration.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri, who had earlier suffered two heart attacks, died of the third cardiac arrest on 11
January, 1966.

E
• He is the only Indian Prime Minister, to have died in office, overseas.
• Lal Bahadur Shastri was the first person to be posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, (India’s highest
OR
civilian award).
CHANDRASEKHAR AZAD
• Chandrasekhar Azad waged a valiant battle against the British and inspired the youth of the nation with
his heroics.
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• Chandrashekhar was deeply troubled by the Jalianwalabagh massacre in Amritsar in 1919 and at an age
of 15, got involved in the revolutionary activities.
• He was caught by the British police while participating in the non-cooperation movement and sentenced
to whip-lashes as punishment.
• When the magistrate asked him his name, he said “Azad” (independence). From that point onwards,
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Chandrashekhar assumed the title of Azad and came to be known as Chandrashekhar Azad.
• After the suspension of the non-cooperation movement by Mahatma Gandhi, Azad, along with Bhagat
Singh distanced themselves from the paths of Gandhi. They were more attracted by the aggressive and
violent revolutionary ideals and means.
• They formed the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association and trained the revolutionaries like Sukhdev,
Batukeshwar Dutt, and Rajguru.
• Azad was instrumental in carrying out numerous acts of violence which included the Kakori Train
Robbery in 1926, assassination of John Poyantz Saunders in 1928 at Lahore to avenge the killing of Lala
Lajpat Rai.
• On February 27, 1931, surrounded by police in the Alfred Park, Allahabad and all escape routes sealed,
Azad fought and ultimately took his life with the last bullet of his pistol.
BHAGAT SINGH
• Bhagat Singh joined the Hindustan Republican Association, a radical group, later known as the Hindustan
Socialist Republican Association.
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• He established contact with the members of the Kirti Kisan Party and started contributing regularly to
its magazine, the “Kirti”.
• In March 1926, the Naujawan Bharat Sabha was formed with Bhagat Singh, as its secretary.
• As an avenge to the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh and his associates plotted the assassination
of Scott, the Superintendent of Police, believed to have ordered the lathi charge.
• The revolutionaries, mistaking J.P. Saunders, an Assistant Superintendent of Police, as Scott, killed him
instead. Bhagat Singh quickly left Lahore to escape his arrest.
• In response to the formulation of Defence of India Act, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
planned to explode a bomb inside the assembly premises, where the ordinance was going to be passed.
• On April 8, 1929 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb onto the corridors of the assembly
and shouted ‘Inquilab Zindabad!’.The bomb was not meant to kill or injure anyone and therefore it was
thrown away from the crowded place. Following the blasts both Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt

E
courted arrest.
• Bhagat Singh along with other revolutionaries found responsible for the Assembly bombing and murder

•
of Saunders.

OR
On March 23, 1931, Bhagat Singh was hanged in Lahore with his fellow comrades Rajguru and Sukhdev.
ANNIE BESANT
• Annie Besant (1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a prominent British socialist, theosophist,
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women’s rights activist, writer and orator and supporter of Irish and Indian self-rule.
• In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky and became a member of the Theosophical Society and a prominent
lecturer on the subject. As part of her theosophy-related work, she travelled to India.
• In 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu College and in 1922 she helped establish the Hyderabad
(Sind) National Collegiate Board in Mumbai, India.
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• In 1907 she became president of the Theosophical Society, whose international headquarters were in
Adyar,Madras, (Chennai).
• She also became involved in politics in India, joining the Indian National Congress.
• In 1916 Besant launched the Home Rule League along with Lokmanya Tilak, once again modelling
demands for India on Irish nationalist practices.
• This was the first political party in India to have regime change as its main goal. Unlike the Congress itself,
the League worked all year round. It built a structure of local branches, enabling it to mobilise demonstrations,
public meetings and agitations.
• In June 1917 Besant was arrested and interned at a hill station, where she defiantly flew a red and green
flag. The Congress and the Muslim League together threatened to launch protests if she were not set free;
Besant’s arrest had created a focus for protest.
• The government was forced to give way and to make vague but significant concessions. It was announced
that the ultimate aim of British rule was Indian self-government, and moves in that direction were
promised.
• Besant was freed in September 1917, and in December 1917 she took over as president of the Indian
National Congress for a year.
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• She continued to campaign for Indian independence and for the causes of theosophy, until her death in
1933.
BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR
• Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularly known as Babasaheb, was an
Indian lawyer, politician and academic who inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement and worked for equal
rights for the Dalit.
• As independent India’s first law minister, he was principal architect of the Constitution of India.
• Ambedkar opined that there should be separate electoral system for the Untouchables and lower caste
people.
• He also favored the concept of providing reservations for Dalits and other religious communities.
• Ambedkar began to find ways to reach to the people and make them understand the drawbacks of the
prevailing social evils.
• He launched a newspaper called “Mooknayaka” (leader of the silent).
•

E
In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labor Party.
OR
• In the 1937 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly his party won 15 seats.
• Ambedkar oversaw the transformation of his political party into the All India Scheduled Castes Federation,
although it performed poorly in the elections held in 1946 for the Constituent Assembly of India.
• Ambedkar was appointed on the Defence Advisory Committee and the Viceroy’s Executive Council as
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Minister for Labor.

• His reputation as a scholar led to his appointment as free India’s first, Law Minister and chairman of the
committee responsible to draft a constitution.
• Ambedkar emphasized on the construction of a virtual bridge between the classes of the society. According
to him, it would be difficult to maintain the unity of the country if the difference among the classes were
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not met.
• After his return from Sri Lanka after attending a convention of Buddhist scholars and monks in 1950
converted himself to Buddhism. I
• In his speeches, Ambedkar lambasted the Hindu rituals and caste division.
• Ambedkar founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha In 1955.
• His book “The Buddha and His Dhamma” was published posthumously.
• Ambedkar was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in 1990.
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PERSONALITIES
ACHARYA VINOBA BHAVE
• Acharya Vinoba Bhave was a freedom fighter and a spiritual teacher.
• He is best known as the founder of the ‘Bhoodan Movement’ (Gift of the Land).
• The reformer had an intense concern for the deprived masses.
• Vinoba Bhave had once said, “All revolutions are spiritual at the source. All my activities have the sole
purpose of achieving a union of hearts.”

E
• In 1958, Vinoba was the first recipient of the international Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community
Leadership.
•
• Bhoodan Movement OR
He was also conferred with the Bharat Ratna (India’s highest civilian awards) posthumously in 1983.

In 1951, Vinoba Bhave started his peace-trek on foot through the violence-torn region of Telangana.
• On April 18, 1951, the Harijans of the Pochampalli village requested him to provide them with around
SC
80 acres of land to make a living.
• Vinoba asked the landlords of the village to come forward and save the Harijans. A landlord, responded
to the call and offered the required amount of land.
• This incident added a new chapter in the history of sacrifices and non-violence and was the beginning of
the Bhoodan (Gift of the Land) movement.
GS

• Following this, Vinoba Bhave traveled all across the country asking landlords to consider him as one of
their sons and so give him a portion of their land. He then distributed those portions of land to the
landless poor.
• He always followed the path of truth and Non-violence, as shown by Mahatma Gandhi.
SRI AUROBINDO
• Sri Aurobindo was a revolutionary, poet, philosopher, writer, and spiritual master, during the course of his
life.
• He became one of the primary leaders fighting for Indian independence, from British rule.
• With time, Aurobindo drifted from his political career and found a new motive in life - bringing a new
spiritual consciousness amongst people.
• Yoga and meditation became his primary concerns in life and thus, emerged the development of a new
spiritual path, which he termed as Integral Yoga. It was during this time that Sri Aurobindo Ashram, also
known as The Mother, was formed. Started as a small unit, the organization soon grew is size as well as
reach and is operational till date.
• In 1906 that Sri Aurobindo joined the Indian Nationalist Movement in Calcutta.
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• Working as an editor in the newspaper Bande Mataram, he brought forward the idea of independence from
British.
• He was also one of the founders of the Jugantar party, an underground revolutionary group.
• Sri Aurobindo’s spiritual mission commenced when he became a prominent figure in the world of politics.
It was, thence, that he came across Lele Maharaj, a teacher of meditation, who taught him the art of
controlling his thoughts and beliefs. A
• urobindo was arrested for the possession of weapons in 1908 and was held in jail for a year. It was during
this time only that he became conscious about his inner self.
• He practiced meditation in his cell, read about the ancient principles of yoga and realized the omnipresence
of God.
• Becoming aware of a divine inner guidance, Sri Aurobindo listened to his inner command, which instructed
him to leave politics and work for the renewal of sanatana dharma, ‘the eternal religion’.
• After coming out of the jail, he came in contact with Sister Nivedita, a disciple of Swami Vivekananda.

E
Thereafter, he changed his abode, from Calcutta, to Pondicherry and devoted himself completely towards
spiritual disciplines.
OR
• Sri Aurobindo also became a prolific writer, producing many articles, writings and poetry. Eventually,
Pondicherry became a mecca for spiritual seekers.
• Sri Aurobindo believed that every religion was right in its own way.
• A poet, philosopher, writer and spiritual master, he offered a new vision of yoga and a spiritual path that
SC

could be followed by his disciples.

• Out of his many works, one of the most praiseworthy is ‘The Life Divine’, a comprehensive explanation
of his integral yoga.
RABINDRANATH TAGORE
GS

• Rabindranath Tagore, the brilliant poet and eminent educationist was born on 6th may 1861 in Calcutta.
• In 1878 he went to London and studied law for two years, but returned to India without a degree.
• On the way over to England he began translating, for the first time, his latest selections of poems,
Gitanjali, into English.
• According to him the prevailing schooling system was defective and cannot favourable influence on his
life. So he founded an educational institution based on his own philosophy of life and education at
Santiniketan near Bolepur in West Bengal.
• He participated in the movement on Bengal division in 1905.
• His literary excellence, outstanding Educational philosophy and broad cultural outlook made him popular
and famous.
• In 1913 he was awarded with the prestigious Nobel Prize for his great literary work “Gitanjali”. He was
the first non-westerner to be so honored.
• In 1915 he was knighted by the British King George V. In 1919, following the Amritsar massacre of 400
Indian demonstrators by British troops, Sir Tagore renounced his Knighthood.
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• Although a good friend of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, most of the time Tagore stayed out of
politics.
• He was opposed to nationalism and militarism as a matter of principle, and instead promoted spiritual
values and the creation of a new world culture founded in multi-culturalism, diversity and tolerance.
• Although Tagore is a superb representative of his country - India - the man who wrote its national anthem
- his life and works go far beyond his country.
• He is truly a man of the whole Earth, a product of the best of both traditional Indian, and modern
Western cultures.
DADABHAI NAOROJI
• Dadabhai Naoroji (4 September 1825 – 30 June 1917), known as the Grand Old Man of India, was a
Parsi intellectual, educator, cotton trader, and an early Indian political and social leader.

E
• He was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the United Kingdom House of Commons between 1892 and
1895, and the first Asian to be a British MP.
•

•
Dinshaw Edulji Wacha.
OR
Naoroji is also credited with the founding of the Indian National Congress, along with A.O. Hume and

He was also member of Second International along with Kautsky and Plekhanov.
• He viewed that the intervention of into India by foreigners were clearly not favorable for the country.
SC
• R.C. Dutta and Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory.
• Naoroji’s book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ brought attention to the draining of India’s wealth
into Britain. R C Dutt blamed the British policies for economic ills in his book “Economic History of
India”.
• Drain of wealth refers to the portion of national product of India, which was not available for consumption
GS

of Indians.
• Drain of wealth began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey when the Company’s servants began to extort
fortunes from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and send home.
• In 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani of Bengal and began to purchase the Indian goods out of the
revenue of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Company’s investments. Duty free
inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian counterparts.
• The actual drain, as a part of the salaries and other incomes of the English officials and the trading
fortunes of English merchants, was even more.
• The drain of wealth stunted the growth of Indian enterprise and checked and retarded capital formation
in India.
MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah (25 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was a lawyer, politician, and eminent
leader during national movement.
• Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress’s twentieth annual meeting, in Bombay in December
1904.
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• Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln’s Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the
Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century.
• He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu–Muslim unity in achieving
self-government, and following such leaders as Mehta, Naoroji, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu–Muslim unity, helping to shape the
1916 Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the All-India Muslim League, a party in which Jinnah had
also become prominent.
• Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen-point constitutional
reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims should a united British India become independent.
• In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha,
or non-violent resistance, advocated by the influential leader, Mohandas Gandhi.
• In 1940, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation.
• During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned,

E
and in the elections held shortly after the war, it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims.
• Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power-sharing formula for a united
OR
India, leading all parties to agree to separate independence for a secular India, and for a Muslim-majority
state, to be called Pakistan.
• Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until and as Pakistan’s first Governor-
General from independence until his death.
SC

KHÂN ABDUL GHAFFÂR KHÂN

• Khân Abdul Ghaffâr Khân (6 February 1890 – 20 January 1988) was an independence activist of Pashtun
descent.
• He was a political and spiritual Gandhian, leader known for his non-violent opposition to the British Rule
in the sub-continent, and a lifelong pacifist and devout Muslim.
GS

• A close friend of Mahatma Gandhi, Khân Abdul Ghaffâr Khân has been nicknamed Frontier Gandhi.
• In 1910, he opened a mosque school at his hometown Utmanzai, and in 1911 joined the freedom
movement of Haji Sahib of Turangzai. However in 1915, the British authorities banned his mosque
school.
• Having witnessed the repeated failure of revolts against the British Raj, he decided that social activism
and reform would be more beneficial for the Pashtuns. This led to the formation of Anjuman-e Islâh al-
Afghân (“Afghan Reform Society”) in 1921, and the youth movement Paxtûn Jirga (“Pashtun Assembly”)
in 1927.
• After he returned from the Hajj in May 1928, he founded the Pashto language monthly political journal
Paxtûn.
• In November 1929, Khan founded the Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”) movement, whose
success triggered a harsh crackdown by the British Empire against him and his supporters and they
suffered some of the most severe repression of the Indian independence movement.
• In 1962, he was named the Amnesty International Prisoner of Conscience of the Year.
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• In 1987, he became the first non-Indian to be awarded Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award.
• Khan is a Pashtun national hero and a key figure of Pashtun nationalism.
• Khan strongly opposed the All-India Muslim League’s demand for the partition of India.
• After partition, he pledged allegiance to Pakistan and demanded an autonomous “Pashtunistan”
administrative unit within the country.
CHAKRAVARTI RAJAGOPALACHARI
• Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972) was a lawyer, independence
activist, politician, writer and statesman.
• Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India.
• He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining
the Non-Cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil Disobedience movement.

E
• In 1930, Rajagopalachari risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha in response
to the Dandi March.
•

•
OR
In 1937, Rajagopalachari was elected Premier of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he
resigned due to Britain’s declaration of war on Germany.
He later advocated co-operation over Britain’s war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement.
SC
• He favoured talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League and proposed what later
came to be known as the C. R. Formula.
• In 1946, Rajagopalachari was appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the
Interim Government of India, and then as the Governor of West Bengal from 1947 to 1948, and Governor-
General of India from 1948 to 1950.
GS

• He also served as Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state.
• Rajagopalachari founded the Swatantra Party and was one of the first recipients of India’s highest civilian
award, the Bharat Ratna.
• He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament.
PANDIT MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA
• Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861–1946) was an Indian educationist and politician notable for his role
in the Indian independence movement and his espousal of Hindu nationalism (being one of the initial
leaders of the far-right party Hindu Mahasabha).
• Later in life, he was also addressed as ‘Mahamana’.
• He was the President of the Indian National Congress on four occasion.
• He founded the largest residential university in Asia and one of the largest in the world, Banaras Hindu
University (BHU) at Varanasi in 1916, of which he also remained the Vice Chancellor from 1919 till 1938.
• Pandit Malviya was one of the founders of Scouting in India.
• He also founded a highly influential, English-newspaper ‘The Leader’ published from Allahabad in 1909.
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RAM MANOHAR LOHIA

• Ram Manohar Lohia, a socialist political leader as well as a noted freedom fighter of India was born in
the village of Akbarpur, Uttar Pradesh on 23rd March, 1910.
• Ram Manohar was highly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi ideas which instigated the feeling of Swaraj
(freedom) into him.
• ‘Salt Satyagraha’ was his subject in the PhD thesis paper.
• Though he had a good affinity with Jawaharlal Nehru but dissented with him on many political issues.
• His first contribution as a nationalist leader was organizing a ‘hartal’ on Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s death.
• In 1928, he joined protests against the Simon Commission.
• In Europe he organized ‘Association of European Indians’ .
• Joined Indian National Congress and established Congress Socialist Party,1934.

E
• He was elected the Secretary of All India Congress Committee (1936).
• He was arrested on 7th June, 1940 and sentenced to two years imprisonment for writing an article
OR
‘Satyagraha Now’ in Gandhiji’s newspaper Harijan.
• He published and circulated posters and pamphlets on ‘Do or Die’ during the ‘Quit India Movement’,
1942.
• He along with Aruna Asaf Ali edited a Congress Party monthly newspaper called ‘Inquilab’.
SC

• Post-independence Lohia took the leadership of building a dam on river Paniyari called ‘Lohia Sagar Dam’.
• He founded ‘Hind Kisan Panchayat’ to provide solution to the farmers after independence.
• He also set up World Development Council and World Government to retain peace.
ARUNA ASAF ALI
GS

• Aruna Asaf Ali played a leading role during Quit India Movement; elected as Delhi’s first Mayor; awarded
the Lenin Prize for peace in 1975 and the Jawahar Lal Nehru award for International understanding for
1991; honored with Bharat Ratna in 1998.
• Her first major political action was during the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 when she addressed public meetings
and led processions.
• In 1942 she attended the Bombay Congress Session, where the historic Quit India resolution was passed
on 8th August.
• When the Congress leaders were arrested on the day after this resolution was passed, Aruna presided over
the flag-hoisting ceremony at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay.
• Her moment of reckoning came in 1942 during Quit India Movement and she rose to the occasion. She
provided the spark that ignited the movement. She became a full-time activist in the Quit India movement.
MAHADEV GOVIND RANADE
• Mahadev Govind Ranade, (18 Jan, 1842 – 16 Jan, 1901), a Citpavan Brahmans of Maharashtra who was
a judge of the High Court of Bombay, a noted historian, and an active participant in social and economic
reform movements.
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• During his seven years as a judge in Bombay, Ranade worked for social reform in the areas of child
marriage, widow remarriage, and women’s rights.
• After his appointment as instructor of history at Elphinstone College, Bombay (1866), he became interested
in the history of the Marathas.The publication of his ‘Rise of the Maratha Power’ followed in 1900.
• Ranade has been called the father of Indian economics for urging (unsuccessfully) the British government
to initiate industrialization and state welfare programs.
• He was an early member of the Prarthana Samaj (“Prayer Society”), which sought to reform the social
customs of orthodox Hinduism.
• He regularly voiced views on social and economic reform at the annual sessions of the Indian National
Social Conference, which he founded in 1887.
• Ranade inspired many other Indian social reformers, most notably the educator and legislator Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, who carried on Ranade’s reform work after his death.

E
CHITTARANJAN DAS
•

•
Party in Bengal under British rule.
OR
Chittaranjan Das (5 November 1870 – 16 June 1925) was a politician and leader of the Swaraj (Independence)

He was a leading figure in Bengal during the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1919-1922, and initiated the
ban on British clothes, setting an example by burning his own European clothes and wearing Khadi clothes.
SC
• He brought out a newspaper called Forward and later changed its name to Liberty to fight the British Raj.
• When the Calcutta Corporation was formed, he became its first Mayor.
• He resigned his presidency of the Indian National Congress at the Gaya session after losing a motion on
“No Council Entry” to Gandhi’s faction.
• He then founded the Swaraj Party, with veteran Motilal Nehru and young Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy,
GS

to express his immoderate opinions.

• He was a believer of non-violence and constitutional methods for the realisation of national independence,
and advocated Hindu-Muslim unity, cooperation and communal harmony and championed the cause of
national education.
• His legacy was carried forward by his disciples, and notably by Subhas Chandra Bose.
• He is generally referred to by the honorific Desh Bandhu.
JAYAPRAKASH NARAYAN
• Jayaprakash Narayan (11 October 1902 – 8 October 1979), popularly referred to as JP or Lok Nayak ,
was an Indian independence activist, social reformer and political leader, remembered especially for leading
the mid-1970s opposition against Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
• Narayan joined the Indian National Congress on the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1929; Mahatma
Gandhi became his mentor in the Congress.
• He actively participated in non cooperation movement and Quit India Movement.
• After independence, Narayan kept distance from active politics. Instead, he continue with the struggle for
social reforms and joined Vinoba Bhave’s Bhoodan movement.
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• He once again actively participated in politics against Indira Gandhi’s Emergency tenure.
• In 1999, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in recognition of
his social work.
• Other awards include the Magsaysay award for Public Service in 1965.
PANDIT DEENDAYAL UPADHYAY
• Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay (25 September 1916 – 11 February 1968) was an Indian philosopher, economist,
sociologist, historian, journalist, and political scientist.
• He was one of the most important leaders of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, the forerunner of the present day
Bharatiya Janata Party.
• Upadhyaya conceived the political philosophy Integral Humanism.
• The philosophy of Integral Humanism advocates the simultaneous and integrated program of the body,
mind and intellect and soul of each human being.

E
• His philosophy of Integral Humanism, which is a synthesis of the material and the spiritual, the individual
and the collective, bears eloquent testimony to this.
OR
• He visualised for India a decentralised polity and self-reliant economy with the village as the base.
M.N. ROY
• Manabendra Nath Roy (21 March 1887 – 26 January 1954), born Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, was an
SC

Indian revolutionary, radical activist and political theorist, as well as a noted philosopher in the 20th
century.
• Roy was a founder of the Mexican Communist Party and the Communist Party of India.
• He was also a delegate to congresses of the Communist International and Russia’s aide to China.
• Following the rise of Joseph Stalin, Roy left the mainline communist movement to pursue an independent
GS

radical politics.
• In 1940 Roy was instrumental in the formation of the Radical Democratic Party, an organisation in which
he played a leading role for much of the decade of the 1940s.
• Roy later moved away from Marxism to become an exponent of the philosophy of radical humanism.
ERODE VENKATA RAMASAMY
• Erode Venkata Ramasamy (17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973), commonly known as Periyar also
referred as E. V. R. or Thanthai Periyar, was a social activist, and politician who started the Self-Respect
Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam.
• E.V. Ramasamy was born in Erode, Madras Presidency to a wealthy family of Balijas and at a young age,
he witnessed numerous incidents of caste and gender discrimination.
• E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919, but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the
party was only serving the interests of the Brahmins.
• He questioned the subjugation of Dravidian race as the Brahmins enjoyed gifts and donations from them
but opposed and discriminated them in cultural and religious matters.
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• In 1924, E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non-violent agitation (satyagraha) in Vaikam, Kerala.

• In 1939, E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party, and in 1944, he changed its name to
Dravidar Kazhagam.
• The party later split and one group led by C. N. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(DMK) in 1949.
• While continuing the Self-Respect Movement, he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu (Dravidistan).
• E.V. Ramasamy propagated the principles of rationalism, self-respect, women’s rights and eradication of
caste.
• He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non-Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and
the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India.
• His work has greatly revolutionised the Tamil society and has significantly removed caste-based
discrimination.

E
• He is also responsible for bringing new changes to the Tamil alphabet.
•
OR
The citation awarded by the UNESCO described E.V. Ramasamy as “the prophet of the new age, the
Socrates of South East Asia, father of social reform movement and arch enemy of ignorance, superstitions,
meaningless customs and base manners.”
SC
GS
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SANGAM AGE
• The Tamil heroic poems, popularly called the Sangam literature, constitute the-major evidence for the old
Tamil literary tradition.
• In South India, Tamil had become a literary language, i.e., a full-blown language with its own system of
writing, at least by third century BC.
• The Neolithic - Chaleolithic amalgam, which began around 2000 B.C., continued upto the middle of the
first millennium B.C. It was then overlapped by the Magalithic culture inhabited by the Megaliths builders.
• The Megalithic culture which dates to C. 500 B.C. and A.D. 100 brings us to the historical period in South

E
India.
• The Megalithic culture is known not from its actual settlements, which are rare, but from its graves. These

OR
graves are called Megaliths because they were encircled by big pieces of stone. They contain not only
skeletons of peolple (fractional burials) who were buried but also iron objects like swords, spears, arrowheads,
axes and pottery (black-and-red pottery).
• Agricultural tools like hoes and sickles found in the graves indicate and advanced type of agriculture.
SC
• The Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras and Satyaputras mentioned in Ashoka's inscriptions were probably in the
Megalithic phase of material culture.
• About the beginning of the Christian era, the Megalithic culture was overlapped by what has been called
Andhra Culture, on account of occurrence of Andhra coins.
• The distinctive pottery of the period was a white painted reddish brown ware known as the Russet-coated
GS

Painted Ware.
• This is also the time when South India had a large volume of trade with the Roman world, as shown by
the occurrence, at numerous sites of Roman coins, glass work and pottery, the most noteworthy in the
last item being the arrentine and the amphora.
• The cultural and economic contacts between the north and the deep south paved the way for the introduction
of material culture brought from the north to the deep south by traders, conquerors, Jainas, Buddhists and
some Brahmana missionaries.
• From the second century B.C., there was formation of state system, rise of social classes, use of writing,
beginning of written literature, etc.
• The land south of the Krishna River was divided into three kingdoms - Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras or
Keralas.
• The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes who speaks of the Pandya kingdom being ruled by a
woman and that even seven year old mothers were found in the Pandya country; this may suggest some
matriarchal influence in the Pandya society.

• According to Megasthenes Pandyan kingdom was celebrated for pearls.

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• The three kingdoms - Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras, together with Satiyaputras (Satyaputra) are referred to
as independent states by Ashoka in his inscriptions with which he maintained friendly relations.

• The name Satiyaputras is otherwise is an unknown name and has not yet been satisfactorily identified.

• The word 'Sangam' is associated with South Indian history where a college or assembly of Tamil scholars
and poets flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai.

• Hence the age is known as 'Sangam Age', which extends roughly between 300 B.C. and 300 A.D.

• According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil
Nadu popularly called Muchchangam.

• These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.

• The first Sangam, held at then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work
of this Sangam was available.

E
• The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam.
OR
• The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of
poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived.

• These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.

Sangam Literature
SC

• The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two
epics- Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
• Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar
but it provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam period.
GS

• The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works - Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru,
Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
• The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works - Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,
Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups - Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
• The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
• Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable
information on the Sangam polity and society.

Other Sources
• In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy
mention the commercial contacts between the West and South India.
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• The Asokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire.

• The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms.

• The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas commercial
activities of the Tamils.

Period of Sangam Literature

• The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars.

• The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran
Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as
the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.

• Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century A.D were found in plenty in various

E
places of Tamil Nadu.

• Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century B.C.

•
OR
to third century A.D. on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.

Political History
The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam
Age.
SC
• The political history of these dynasties can be traced from the literary references.
GS
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The Cholas

• The Cholas Kingdom was situated between the Pennar and the Velar rivers were the most powerful of all
three kingdoms.

• Their chief centre of political power was at Uraiyar, a place famous for cotton trade.

• In the middle of second century B.C., a Chola king named Elara Conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it
for nearly 50 years. He was the first important Chola king.

• A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the second century A.D. when their greatest and most famous
king Karikala, or the man with charred leg, who founded the port city of Puhar (identical with
Kaveripattinam) and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River.

• Puhar or Kaveripattanam was Chola capital. Puhar was also a great centre of trade and commerce.

• Trade in cotton cloth was one of the main sources of Cholas wealth.

E
• The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.

The Cheras
OR
• The Cheras or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas covering
some portions of Tamil Nadu also.

• The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
SC

• Nedunjeral Adan, the first known Chera king, earned the title of 'Udiyanjiral'.

• He also bore the title of 'Imayavarambam' or he who had the Himalayas for his boundary.'

• Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera, according to the Chera poets, was the great Chera king. It is said
that he had invaded the north and crossed the Ganga.
GS

• He build a temple for Kannagi, the Goddess of Chastity. The worship of Kannagi is known as the Pattini-
cult, which was stabilized by him.

• After the second century A.D., the Cehra power declined, and nothing of its history until the eighth
century A.D. is known.

• The capital of the Cheras was Vanji or Kaur.

• The Cheras owed its importance to trade with the Romans. They also build a temple of Augustus there.

The Pandyas

• The Pandyan kingdom occupied the south-most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian Peninsula,
with Madurai as it capital.

• The Pandyas were one of the most ancient dynasties to rule South India and are mentioned in Kautilya's
Arhasastra and Megasthenes' Indica.

• The Sangam age started form a Pandya king and, as per Sangam literature, there were at least twenty kings
in this dynasty.
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• Legendary and traditional accounts mention the loss of many Sangam texts on account of a 'deluge' which
compelled the Pandyan kings to shift their capital first from Ten-Madurai to Kapatapuram and then from
there to Madurai on the Vaigai.

• The most prominent among them was Nedunzalian, who made Madurai his capital.

• Another king was Madaranjeral Irumporai who sent embassies to Roman emperor Augusts and performed
Vedic sacrifices.

• Pandya rulers exercised a clan-rule under several lineages, each bearing Tamil names ending with suffixes
such as Valuti and Celiyan.

• The Pandyas acquired their resources in inter-tribal conflicts with the Cheras and Cholas, and luxury goods
from their maritime trade with countries further west.

• The Pandyas founded a Tamil Literary academy called the Sangam, at Madurai

E
• They adopted the Vedic religion of sacrifice and patronized Brahmin priests.

•
OR
The Pandyas profited from trade with the Roman Empire.

Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras.

After the Sangam Age, this dynasty lost its significance for more than century, only to rise once again at
the end of the 6th century.
SC
• Their first significant ruler was Dundungan (590-620) who defeated the Kalabars and brought the Pandyas
back to the path of glory.

• The last known Pandya king, Parakramadeva, was defeated by Usaf Khan a viceroy of Muhmmad-bin-
Tughlaq when the Tughlaq dynasty was in process of extending their kingdom up to Kanyakumari.
GS

Minor Chieftains

• The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam period and among them Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli,
Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman were popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets.

• They were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although they were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and
Pandya rulers, they were powerful and popular in their respective regions.

Sangam Polity
• Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.

• The king had also taken the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or avai.

• The Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar, the Chola
kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya kings Thennavar and Minavar.

• Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem - carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow
for the Cheras.

• The imperial court or avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials.
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• The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. They were ministers
(amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar) and spies (orrar).

• The military administration was also efficiently organized during the Sangam Age and each ruler had a
regular army and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).

• Land revenue was the chief source of state's income while custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.

• The Pattinappalai refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar.

• Booty captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.

• Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and day to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Sangam Society
• Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands - Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).

E
• The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
OR
– Kurinji - chief deity was Murugan - chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
– Mullai - chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) - chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
– Marudam - chief deity Indira - chief occupation, agriculture.
– Neydal - chief deity Varunan - chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
SC

– Palai - chief deity Korravai - chief occupation robbery.

• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and vellalar.

• The ruling class was called arasar.

• Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.

GS

• Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.

• The vellalas were agriculturists.

• Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in the
Sangam society.

• Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

Religion
• The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God.
• The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was
mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• Murugan was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.
• Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and
Korravai.
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• The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period and was erected in memory
of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.

• Many hero stones with legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu. This kind
of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity.

Position of Women
• There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women during the
Sangam age.

• Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed
to Tamil literature.

• The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems.

E
• Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women.

• Love marriage was a common practice.

•
Women were allowed to choose their life partners.

However, the life of widows was miserable.

OR
• The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.
SC
• The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.

Fine Arts
• Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age.

• Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and nobles.
GS

• The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk
songs and folk dances.

• The arts of music and dancing were highly developed.

• A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature.

• Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar.

• Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.

Economy of the Sangam Age

• Agriculture was the chief occupation and Rice was the common crop.

• Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits were the other crops.

• Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country.

• Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country.
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• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular and include weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship
building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.

• There was a great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade was at its peak during the
Sangam period.

• Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality.

• The poems mention the cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake.

• There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.

• Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly carried on in the Sangam Age. The Sangam
literature, Greek and Roman accounts and the archaeological evidences provide detailed information on
this subject.

• Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal-back from place to place.

E
• Internal trade was mostly based on the barter system.

• External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms.
OR
• After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance.

• The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with precious
goods.
SC

• Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.

• The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade.

• Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were
found in all parts of Tamil Nadu which reveals the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman traders
in the Tamil country.
GS

• The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon
and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief
imports.

End of the Sangam Age

• Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline.

• The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries.

• Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period.

• The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out
of the Tamil country and established their rule.
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THE PALLAVAS
• After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted for about 250 years.

• Thereafter, the Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its capital at Kanchipuram.
Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the
beginning of the tenth century A.D.

Origin of the Pallavas

• According to one school, they were a branch of Parthians, but there is no evidence for the migration of

E
the Parthians into the south.

• Another school opines that the Pallavas were a branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas of

•
Pallavas.
OR
the Deccan, but again there is no direct evidence of any connection between the Vakatakas and the

The third school maintains that it was an indigenous dynasty and rose to power after the dismemberment
of the lkshvaku kingdom. In other words, they were the indigenous Nagas.
SC
GS

Political History

• Sirnhavishnu (560-90)

• He is considered the first important Pallava ruler, though Pallavas existed even during the time of
Samudragupta's invasion of south India.
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• He is credited with capturing the territory of the Cholas and humiliating his other southern neighbours
including Ceylon.

• He followed Vaishnavism, as is evident from archaeological evidence.

• Mahendravarman I (590-630)
• During his reign began the long drawn out struggle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.
• He was defeated by Pulakesin II and a part of his kingdom was occupied.
• Narasimhavarman I (630-68)
• He is considered the greatest of the Pallava rulers and is credited with repelling the second invasion of
Pulakesin II, killing him and capturing the Chalukyan capital, Badami. Hence he assumed the title of
`Vatapikonda' (Conqueror of Vatapi).
• He also defeated the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas, thus becoining supreme in south India.

E
• He sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon and helped his ally, a Ceylonese prince, to capture the throne
of Ceylon.
OR
• He was a great builder having constructed Mamallapuram and the various buildings in it.
• Another significant thing about his reign was the visit of Hiuen Tsang to Kanchi.
• Mahendravarman II (668-70)
• He ruled for a very short period, since he was killed by Chalukya king, Vikramaditya I (son of Pulakesin
SC

II).
• Paramesvaravarman 1 (670-700)
• He had to face the invading forces of Vikramaditya I, but finally succeeded in defeating and driving them
back after repeated efforts.
GS

• Narasimhavarman II (100-28)
• His rule is marked by peace and prosperity, literary activity, and the construction of large and beautiful
temples like the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi.
• He is also said to have sent embassies to China; and maritime trade flourished during his reign.
• Paramesvaravarman II (728-31)
• The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation during his reign.
• The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked the Pallava capital and Paramesvaravarman had to conclude a
humiliating treaty with him.
• When the Pallava ruler tried to retaliate, he was killed by the Ganga ally of the Chalukyas.
• Nandivarman II (731-96)

• The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II again invaded and captured the Pallava capital during his reign, but
Vikramaditya showed consideration and restraint in treating the vanquished, the only instance of restraint
in the whole of the suicidal Chalukya-Pallava conflict, and withdrew from Kanchi without destroying it.
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• Nandi soon strengthened himself and defeated the Chalukya ally, the Gangas. But he had to meet defeat
at the hands of the Pandyas. And after this defeat, he concentrated on domestic matters.

• He was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning.

• During his reign, several old temples were renovated and new ones like the Vaikuntaperumal temple at
Kanchi were constructed.

• Successors of Nandivarman II were Dantivarman (796-847), Nandivarman III (847-69), Nripatunga (869-
99) and Aparajita (899-903).

• The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya Chola by defeating Aparajita Pallava towards the end of
the ninth century AD.

• However, the Pallava chiefs continued to exist till the end of the 13th century AD as feudatories.

E
Administration of the Pallavas

• The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system.

•
The Pallava state was divided into Kottams.
OR
The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.

• The king was at the centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers.
SC
• The king was the fountain of justice.

• The king maintained a well-trained army.

• The king provided land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as
Brahmadeya.
GS

• It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands. A
number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava kings.

• The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I.

• Detailed information on the tax system could also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions.

• Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue.

• The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.

• Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to the
government.

• The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their committees.

• They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed temples.

Society under the Pallavas

• The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.
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• The caste system became rigid.

• The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings and nobles.
They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.

• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism
and Jainism.

• The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
This is known as the Bakthi Movement. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns
revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi. The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved
the way for the spread of these two religions.

Education and Literature

• The Pallavas were great patrons of learning and their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.
• The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.

E
• The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.
OR
• Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the
Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi.
• Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin, another Sanskrit writer
adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II.
SC

• Mahendravaraman I composed the Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam.

• Tamil literature had also developed and the Nayanmars and Alwars composed religious hymns in Tamil.
• The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent
the religious literature of the Pallava period.
• Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in
GS

Tamil.
• Nandikkalambagam was another important work but the name of the author of this work is not known.
• Music and dance also developed during this period.
Religion
• The Pallavas were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their patronage was responsible for the great reformation
of the medieval ages.
• Most of the Pallava kings were devotees of Siva, the exceptions being Simhavishnu and Nandivarman
who were worshippers of Vishnu.
• Mahendravarman I was the first to be influenced by the famous Saivite saints of the age.
• Besides worshipping Siva, he also showed reverence to other Hindu gods.
• Pallavas were tolerant towards other religions like Buddhism and Jainism. However, some of the sects like
Buddhism were losing their former glory to Saivism.
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• The Vedic tradition in general bossed over the local tradition. Sankaracharya in fact gave this stimulus to
Vedic tradition.Tamil saints of the sixth and seventh centuries AD were the progenitors of the bhakti
movement.

• The hymns and sermons of the Nayanars (Saivite saints) and Alvars (Vaishnavite saints) continued the
tradition of bhakti.

• Saivite saints were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, and others. Most remarkable thing about this age was
the presence of women saints such as Andal (an Alvar).

Pallava Art and Architecture

• The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian style of temple
architecture began with the Pallava rule.
• It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in structural

E
temples.
• The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in four stages.
•
OR
Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style of Pallava temples are seen at places like
Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and
Tirukalukkunram.
• The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at
SC
Mamallapuram. Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments. The
five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles of temple
architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The most popular of these mandapas
are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
• In the next stage, Rajasimha introduced the structural temples. These temples were built by using the soft
sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest
GS

examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is the
greatest architectural master piece of the Pallava art.
• The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The
Vaikundaperumal temple, Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to
this stage of architecture.
• The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.
• Apart from the sculptures found in the temples, the 'Open Art Gallery' at Mamallapuram remains an
important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of this period.
• The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone.
• The minute details as well as the theme of these sculptures such as the figures of lice-picking monkey,
elephants of huge size and the figure of the 'ascetic cat' standing erect show highly evovled sculpture era.
Fine Arts
• Music, dance and painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.

• The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.

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• The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.

• The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.

• Dance and drama also developed during this period.

• The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.

• The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.

• The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the
title Chittirakkarapuli.

Spread of Indian Culture

• Pallavas were also instrumental in spreading Indian culture in South-East Asia.

• Till the eighth century AD Pallava influence was predominant in Cambodia. Saivism enjoyed official
patronage in these countries.

E
The Pallava type of sikhara is to be found in the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam.
OR
SC
GS
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THE CHALUKYAS
• Besides the Pallavas, the Western Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan constitute important
political forces.

• Both these kingdoms had their rivals in the far south, namely the Pallavas and later the Cholas.

• Their period has also been important in the history of India for their cultural contributions.

E
OR
SC
GS

• According to Bilhana, the author of Vilawnankacharita and the court poet of one of the Kayani Chalukyan
rulers, their original home of the Chalukyas was Ayodhya.

• Also, the later Chalukyan inscriptions lay claim to Ayodhya as their ancestral home, but all this seems
to have been done to claim legitimacy and respectability.

• According to another opinion the Chalukyas were related to Gurjaras, but there is no direct evidence for
this opinion also.

• The Chalukyas, according, to third opinion, were a local Kanarese people, who improvised into the ruling
varna under Brahmanical influence. The third opinion seems to be more probable, though there is no
sufficient evidence for this also.

• The Western Chalukyas ruled over an extensive area in the Deccan for about two centuries after which
the Rashtrakutas became powerful.
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• The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots like the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Chalukyas
of Kalyani.

• Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty who eestablished a small kingdom with Vatapi or
Badami as its capital.

Political History
• Kirtivarman I (566-97)
• The son and successor of Pulakesin I, he expanded the kingdom by wars against the Kadambas of
Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
• Mangalesa (597-609)
• On the death of Kirtivarman, his brother Mangalesa became the regent, since his son, Pulakesin II was
a minor.

E
• Mangalesa plundered the territories of Gujarat, Khandesh and Malwa.
• Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.)
OR
• The most important ruler of this dynasty was Pulakesin II.
• The Aihole inscription issued by him gives the details of his reign.
• He fought with the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.
SC

• Durvinita, the Ganga ruler accepted his overlordship and even gave his daughter in marriage to Pulakesin
II.
• Another notable achievement of Pulakesin II was the defeat of Harshavardhana on the banks of the river
Narmada. He put a check to the ambition of Harsha to conquer the south.
• In his first expedition against the Pallavas, Pulakesin II emerged victorious. But he suffered a humiliating
GS

defeat at the hands of Narasimhavarman I near Kanchi.

• Subsequently, the Chalukya capital Vatapi was captured and destroyed by the Pallavas.
• The most important event in the reign of Pulakesin II was the visit of Hiuen Tsang to his kingdom.
• The description given by this Chinese pilgrim of the kingdom of Pulakesin is quite useful in knowing the
social and economic conditions under the Chalukya rulers of Badami.
• Vikramaditya 1 (644-81): After an occupation of about 12 years, he not only drove out the Pallava forces,
but also consolidated the kingdom and plundered the Pallava capital, Kanchi, thus avenging his father's
defeat and death at the hands of the Pallavas.
• Vinayaditya (681-93): His reign was generally peaceful and prosperous.
• Vijayaditya (693-733): It was the longest and also the most prosperous and peaceful reign. It was marked
by great increase in temple building.

• Vikramaditya 11 (733-44): His reign is significant for the successful invasion of the Pallava kingdom three
times, and the repelling of the Arab invasion of south Gujarat.
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• Kirtivarmin 11 (744-55): This last Chalukyan ruler of Badami was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder
of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and thus came an end to the Chalukya dynasty of Badami.

Administration

• The central government under the Chalukyas of Badami exercised a paternalistic control over the village
administration, which was unlike the administrative practice of south India.

• The main difference between the Chalukyan administration and that of south Indian rulers like Pallavas
and Cholas, was that the south India rulers allowed a great amount of autonomy to the village administration,
while the Chalukyas of western Deccan did not.

• The Chalukyas of Badami are said to have been a great maritime power.

• Pulakesin II, with 100 ships, attacked and captured the capital of a hostile country.

E
• The army of the Chalukyas consisted of a small standing army, but mainly of feudal levies.

• Army officers have been used in civil administration whenever an emergency arose.

•
OR
Religion

The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus, but respected other faiths too.

• Great importance came to be attached to Vedic sacrifices and rituals.

SC
• Pulakesin I, the founder of the dynasty, performed the asvamedha sacrifice.

• Quite a few Brahmanical treatises were also composed during this period.

• Apart from the orthodox form of Brahmanism, Puranic religion also grew popular under the Chalukyas.
It was, in fact, this popularity that gave momentum to the building of temples in honour of Vishnu, Siva
and other gods.
GS

• From the account of Hiuen Tsang, it is clear that Buddhism was on the decline in western Deccan. This
decline of Buddhism in western Deccan was in keeping with its general decline throughout India from the
fifth and sixth centuries AD.

• But Jainism, on the other hand, was steadily increasing its popularity, and the decline of Buddhism, in fact,
helped it.

Art and Architecture

• The Chalukyas were great patrons of art and developed the vesara style in the building of structural
temples. However, the vesara style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas.

• The structural temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.

• Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas and their cave temples are found in Ajanta,
Ellora and Nasik.

• The best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami cave temple and in the Ajanta caves.

• The reception given to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is depicted in a painting at Ajanta.

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• The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.

• The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami.

– Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important.

1. Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
3. Huchimalligudi temple.
4. The Jain temple at Meguti.

– Among the temples at Badami, the Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya are notable for their
architectural beauty.

– A group of four rock-cut temples at Badami are marked by high workmanship. The walls and pillared halls
are adorned by beautiful images of gods and human beings.

E
• The second stage is represented by the temples at Pattadakal.
OR
• There are ten temples here, four in the northern style and the remaining six in the Dravidian style.

• The Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern style.

• The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian style.
SC

• The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. It was built by
one of the queens of Vikramaditya II. Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.

• The Chalukyan period was marked by frequent invasions and plunder of the neighbouring territories.

• The state income from land seems to have been very limited, since most of the land under the Chalukyas
was rocky and not fertile.
GS

• The earnings from the trading activities also were not considerable, since trade and commerce in India
during this period was on the general decline. Hence, the Chalukyas resorted to frequent invasions and
plunder of the neighbouring territories. The mutually destructive Chalukya-Pallava conflict can be properly
understood only in this background.
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THE CHOLAS
• After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur. They became prominent
in the ninth century and established an empire comprising the major portion of South India. Their capital
was Tanjore.
• The Cholas also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as
the Imperial Cholas.
• Thousands of inscriptions found in the temples provide detailed information regarding the administration,
society, economy and culture of the Chola period.

E
OR
SC
GS

• The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815
A.D. and built a temple for Durga.
• Vijayalaya son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexed
Tondaimandalam.
• Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers. He defeated the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon.
But he suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam.
• Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous Nataraja temple
at Chidambaram with a golden roof.
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• The two famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration under
the Cholas belong to his reign.
• After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I.

Political History
Rajaraja I (985 - 1014 A.D.)
• Under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I the Chola power reached its highest point of glory.
• His military conquests were:
– The defeat of the Chera rulerBhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of Kandalursalai and the
destruction of the Chera navy.
– The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya
country.
– The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi located in the Mysore region.
–

E
The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son Rajendra I. As the Sri Lankan king Mahinda
OR
V fled away from his country, the Cholas annexed the northern Sri Lanka. The capital was shifted
from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built
– The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Satyasraya was
defeated and Rajaraja I captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places. Hence the Chola
power extended up to the river Tungabadhra.
SC

– The restoration of Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu
Chodas. Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.
– Rajaraja's last military achievement was a naval expedition against the Maldive Islands which were
conquered.
• By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the
GS

Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories
in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
• Rajaraja assumed a number of titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda and Sivapadasekara.
• Rajaraja was a devout follower of Saivism.
• Rajaraja completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or Brihadeeswara temple at
Tanjore in 1010 A.D.
• Rajaraja also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)
• Rajendra demonstrated his military ability by participating in his father's campaigns and continued his
father's policy of aggressive conquests and expansion.
• His important wars were:
– Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the Cholas the northern part of Ceylon.
Rajendra defeated him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri Lanka was made
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part of the Chola Empire.

– He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya countries.
– He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river Tungabadhra was recognised as
the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.
– His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north India. The Chola army crossed the
Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To
commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra founded the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated
a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the city.
– Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expeditionto Kadaram or Sri Vijaya. It is difficult
to pin point the real object of the expedition. Whatever its objects were, the naval expedition was a
complete success. A number of places were occupied by Chola forces. But it was only temporary and
no permanent annexation of these places was contemplated. He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.

E
• Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire intact and at the death of Rajendra I the extent
of the Chola Empire was at its peak.
•

•
Lanka formed part of the empire. OR
The river Tungabadhra was the northern boundary. The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri

He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi Chalukya prince and further continued the matrimonial
alliance initiated by his father.
SC
• Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram
Kondan and Pandita Cholan.
• Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that god at the new capital
Gangaikondacholapuram.
• He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
GS

• He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.

• After Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power was preserved by rulers like Kulottunga I and Kulottunga
III.
• Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi.
• Kulottunga I succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire.
• During Kulottunga I reign Sri Lanka became independent. Subsequently, Vengi and the Mysore region were
captured by the western Chalukyas.
• Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations with the
kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
• Under Kulottunga III the central authority became weak.
• The rise of the feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge
to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the Chola Empire.
• Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II.
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• The Chola country was absorbed into the Pandya Empire.

Chola Administration
Central Government
• The Cholas had an excellent system of administration.
• The emperor or king was at the top of the administration.
• The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power and prestige of monarchy.
• The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants
to the temples reveal the authority of the king.
• They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration.
• There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called perundanam and sirudanam.
Revenue

E
• The land revenue department was known as puravuvarithinaikkalam.
OR
• All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue.
• The residential portion of the village was called ur nattam. These and other lands such as the lands
belonging to temples were exempted from tax.
• Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one place to another, various
kinds of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
SC

• During the hard times, there were remission of taxes and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls
and earned the title - Sungam Tavirtta Cholan.
• The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation
tanks and canals.
GS

Military Administration
• The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy.
• About seventy regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions.
• The royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai.
• Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar.
• Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams existed.
• The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
• The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas.
• They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for
sometime.
Provincial Administration
• The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus.
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• In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages.

• The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams.
• The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar.
• The town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.
Village Assemblies
• The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees developed through the ages and
reached its culmination during the Chola rule.
• Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the
formation and functions of village councils. According to them village was divided into thirty wards and
each was to nominate its members to the village council.
• The qualifications to become a ward member were:

E
a. Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land.
b.
c.
d.
Own residence.

OR
Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
Knowledge of Vedas.
• However, certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in the inscriptions. They were:
SC
a. Those who had been members of the committees for the past three years.
b. Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee members.
c. Those who had committed sins.
d. Those who had stolen the property of others.
GS

• From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each ward by kudavolai system for a year.
• The names of eligible persons were written on palm-leaves and put into a pot.
• A young boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward.
• They were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam, erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha
variyam, pon variyam and puravuvari variyam to take up six different functions of the village administration.
• The committee members were called variyapperumakkal.
• They usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions.
• The number of committees and ward members varied from village to village.

Socio-economic Life
• Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period.
• Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.
• The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention about two major divisions among the castes
- Valangai and Idangai castes.
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• However, there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life.
• The position of women did not improve. The practice of 'sati' was prevalent among the royal families.
The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during this period.
• Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola period.
• A number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens.
• The temples remained centres of economic activity during this period.
• The mathas had great influence during this period.
• Both agriculture and industry flourished.
• Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural
prosperity.
• The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi flourished.

E
• The metal works developed owing to great demand of images for temples and utensils.
OR
• Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds.
• Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at various denominations. Commercialcontacts between
the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent.
• Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.
SC

Education and Literature

• Education was also given importance.
• Besides the temples and mathas as educational centres, several educational institutions also flourished.
• The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed
GS

in these places.
• Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions.
Endowment of lands was made to run these institutions.
• The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period.
• Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century.
• The Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the
two master-pieces of this age.
• Jayankondar's Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I.
• The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola kings.
• The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
• The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, a Jain,
Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age.
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Art and Architecture

• The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas.
• The chief feature of the Chola temple is the vimana.
• The early Chola temples were found at Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at
Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district.
• The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of South Indian art and architecture. It
consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front known as the
Nandimandapa.
• Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to temple architecture is the Siva temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.
• The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam
are examples of later Chola temples.

E
• The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture. The walls of the Chola temples such
as the Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons of large size with fine

•
execution.
OR
The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are
master pieces.
• The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.
SC
GS
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RASHTRAKUTAS AND OTHER

SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS
The Rashtrakutas (755 - 975 A.D.)
• The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother tongue.
• Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa
from them. Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the Rashtrakutas
became a paramount power in the Deccan.

E
OR
SC

• Dantidurga successor Krishna I was also a great conqueror. He defeated the Gangas and the eastern
Chalukyas of Vengi.
GS

• Krishna I built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora.

• The next important king of this dynasty was Govinda III. He achieved victories over north Indian
kingdoms.
• Govinda III successor Amoghavarsha I (815- 880 A.D.) ruled for a long period of 64 years. He had lost
control over Malwa and Gangavadi. Yet, his reign was popular for the cultural development. He was a
follower of Jainism. Jinasena was his chief preceptor. He was also a patron of letters and he himself wrote
the famous Kannada work, Kavirajamarga. He had also built the Rashtrakuta capital, the city of Malkhed
or Manyakheda.
• Among the successors of Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III (936-968 A.D.) was famous for his expeditions.
He marched against the Cholas and defeated them at Takkolam. He marched further south and captured
Tanjore. He went as far as Rameswaram and occupied it for sometime. He built several temples in the
conquered territories including the Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram. Throughout his reign he possessed
the Tondaimandalam region including the capital Kanchi. After his death, the power of the Rashtrakutas
declined.
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Administration
• The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called Rashtras under the control of
Rashtrapatis.
• Rashtras were further divided into Vishayas or districts governed by Vishayapatis.
• The next subdivision was Bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of Bhogapatis. Bhogapatis
were directly appointed by the central government.
• The village administration was carried on by the village headmen. However, the village assemblies played
a significant role in the village administration.

Society and Economy

• The Hindu sects of Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during the period of Rashtrakutas. Yet, they did
not affect the progress of Jainism under the patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officers. Almost one third

E
of the population of the Deccan were Jains.
• There were some prosperous Buddhist settlements at places like Kanheri, Sholapur and Dharwar.
•
•
There was harmony among various religions.
OR
There was a college at Salatogi, situated in modern Bijapur district. It was run by the income from the
endowments made by the rich as well as by all the villagers on occasions of functions and festivals.
• The economy was also in a flourishing condition. There was an active commerce between the Deccan and
SC
the Arabs. The Rashtrakuta kings promoted the Arab trade by maintaining friendship with them.
Cultural Contributions
• The Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature and there were many scholars in the Rashtrakuta
court.
• Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu and the Kavirahasya was composed by Halayudha during the reign of
GS

Krishna III.
• The Jain literature flourished under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas.
• Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain patronized many Jain scholars. His teacher Jinasena composed
Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
• Another scholar Gunabhadra wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain saints. Sakatayana wrote
the grammer work called Amogavritti.
• The great mathematician of this period, Viracharya was the author of Ganitasaram.
• The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the period of the Rashtrakutas.
• Amogavarsha's Kavirajamarga was the first poetic work in Kannada language.
• Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets. His famous work was Vikramasenavijaya.
• Ponna was another famous Kannada poet and he wrote Santipurana.

Art and Architecture

• The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta.
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• At Ellora, the most remarkable temple is the Kailasa temple.

– It was excavated during the reign of Krishna I.
– It is carved out of a massive block of rock 200 feet long, and 100 feet in breadth and height.
– The temple consists of four parts - the main shrine, the entrance gateway, an intermediate shrine for
Nandi and mandapa surrounding the courtyard.
– The temple stands on a lofty plinth 25 feet high.
– The central face of the plinth has imposing figures of elephants and lions giving the impression that
the entire structure rests on their back.
– It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
– In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has sixteen square pillars.
– The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures.

E
– The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon.
– In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.
OR
– The scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls.
– The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are more Dravidian.
• Elephanta is an island near Bombay and was originally called Sripuri.
SC

– The Portuguese after seeing the large figure of an elephant named it Elephanta.
– The sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
– There is a close similarity between the sculptures at Ellora and those in Elephanta.
– At the entrance to the sanctum there are huge figures of dwara-palakas.
GS

– In the walls of the prakara around the sanctum there are niches containing the images of Shiva in
various forms - Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara and Somaskanda.
– The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi.
– The sculpture is six metre high which represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver and
Destroyer.

The Cheras (9th to 12th Century)

• The Chera kingdom was another of the historical Tamil chiefdoms of southern India, which controlled the
most of the Canuvery river valley.
• It first arose some time after the 3rd century BC with Karuvur-Van-chi as its inland political centre and
Muchiri on the Kerala cost as its port of trade, where merchants exchanged pepper for gold and wine from
the Roman empire.
• The Cheras exercised a clan rule under different lingages.
• Its rulers apparently fought intertribal conflicts with the Cholas and Pandyas, and subjugated minor chiefs
of the Velir clan.
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• The Chera kingdom of Makotai was established in the 9th century in the Periyar valley of Derala, with
Makotaipuram (Kodungallur) and Quilon as its first and second capital.
• The kingdom acquired an agrarian base through land grants to Brahmins and Brahmin institutions, such
as temples to Siva and Vishnu, trading ventures with Arab and Jewish lands provided commercial resources.
• Contemporary texts give an account of the ruling dynasty's legendary origins and history.
• Makotai was supposedly hostile to the Pandyas but friencly with the Mushakas of Kerala.
• Despite a series of defensive wars, constant invasisons by the Cholas of Tanjavur led to the disintegration
of the Makotai kingdom by the early 12th century.

E
OR
SC
GS

The Yadavas of Devgiri (12th to 13th Century)

• The first member of the dynasty was Dridhaprahara.
• However, Seunachandra I, the son of Dridhaprahar, was the first to secure feudatory status for his family
from the Rashtrakutas.
• The importance of Seunachandra I can be assessed from the fact that the territory ruled by the Yadavas
came to be known as Seuna desa.
• Meanwhile, the great Chalukyan power was already on the road to decline and the Yadavas naturally took
advantage of the situation and asserted their independence.
• Bhillama, thus, laid the foundationof the Yadava Empire which endured for about a century.
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• Simhana was the most powerful ruler of the family.

• As the Hoyasalas proved a great obstacle to the further expansion of the kingdom in the south, Simhana
launched a successful campaign against them.
• Elated by successes in the south, Simhana waged war against his hereditary enemies in the north the
Paramaras of Malwa and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.
• Simhana defeated and killed the Paramara king Arjunavarman. Thus, the Yadava kingdom reached the
zenith of its glory and power in the reign of Simhan.
• None among the Hoyasalas, the Kakatiyas, the Paramaras and the Chalukyas dared to challenged his
supremacy in the Deccan.

E
OR
SC

• Simhana was also a patron of music and literature.

• Singitaratnakara of Sarangadeva, an important work on music, was written in his court.
• Anantadeva and Changadeva were the two famous astronomers who also adorned his court.
GS

• Changadeva establidhed a collage of astronomy at Patana in Khandesh in memory of his illustrious

grandfather, Bhaskaracharya.
• Anantadeva wrote a commentary on Bharhmagupta's Brahmasutra Siddhanta and Varahamihira's Brihat
Jataka.
• Sankaradeva was probably the last of the Yadava rulers. After his accession, he immediately repudiated
the authority of Alauddin.
• Malik Kafur easily defeated Sankaradeva, put him to death and annexed the Yadav kingdom.
Features of South Indian Temples
1. A pyramidal tower (vemana) story up on storey, above the garbhagriha (chief deity room)
2. Temples have very lofty and site gateways called gopurams.
3. Temples are made mostly of rocks.
4. Temples are generaly bigger and more airy.
5. Temples were not only centres religious activity but also social and economical activities.
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Literature and Science

Under the Chalukyas of Kalyani
• The Chaludya period withnessed a phenomenal growth in literature, both in Sansdrit and Kannada.
• Among the Sanskrit writers of the period, the foremost in Bihana, the court poet of Vidramaditya VI.
• Vikramankadevacharita of Bilhana is a mahakavaya.
• The great jurist Vikramaditya, wrote the famous Mitaksara, a commentary on the Yanjavalkya Smriti,
• Somesvara III was the author of encyclopadic work, Manasollasa or Abhilashitarha-chintamani.
• Under the western Chalukyas, Kannada literature reached great heights.
• The three Literary gems, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, contributed to the development of Kannada literature
in the 10th century. Of the three, Ranna was the court poet of Satyasraya, while the other two belonged

E
to earlier decades.
• Nagavarma I was another poet of fame. He was the author of Chandombudhi, 'Ocean of Prosody', the

•
OR
earliest work on the subject in Kannada. He also wrote Karnataka-Kandambari which is based on Bana's
celebrated romance in Sanskrit.
The Verasaiva mystics, especially Basava, contributed to the development of Kannada language and
literature, particularly prose literature. They brought into existence the Vachana Literature to convey high
philosophical ideas to the common man in simple language.
SC
Under the Yadavas
• The Senas gave a great impetus to the development of Sanskrit Literature.
• The family of the famous astronomer and mathematician Bhaskaracharya belonged to this period.
• Bhaskaracharya's father, Mahesvari (known as Kavisvara), wrote two works on astrology, Sekhara and
GS

Laghutika.
• Of the numerous works of Bhaskaracharya, the most famous are Siddhanta Siromani (composed in 1150)
and Karanakuthuhala, the first being the best treatise on algebra to be found in Sanskrit Literature.
• Bhaskaracharya's son Lakshmidhara and his grandson Changadeva were the court astrologers of Jaitugi
and Simhana respectively.
• Bhaskaracharya's grand-nephew Anantadeva, a protege of Simhana, was a master of the three branches
of astronomy and wrote a commentary on the Brihat Jataka of Varahamihira and also on one chapter of
Brahmasphuta Siddhana of Brahmagrupta.
Under the Kakatiyas
• The kakatiya rules extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit.
• Several eminent Sanskrit writers and poets authored inscriptions which must be regarded as kavyas in
miniature.
• Of these writers, Achinterdra was commissioned by Rudradeva to compose the Prasati embodies in the
Anumakonda inscription.
• Telugu literature also flourished in the Kakatiya Kingdom.
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• Several inscriptions were composed party or wholly in Telugu verse, like the inscriptions at Gudur of (Beta
II), Karimnagar (Gangakhara), Upparapalle (Kata) and Konnidena (Opilisiddhi).
• The new religious movement like Vaishnavism and Virasaivism gave a great impetus to Telugu literature.
Contact with Southeast Asia
• Indians have been moving out from ancient time to different parts of the world for trade and other
activities.
• As far as the Indian contact with Southeast Asia is concerned, it appears to be as old as fifth century B.C.
• Jatakas, the Buddhist texts belonging to this period refer to Indians visiting Suvarnadvipa (island of gold),
which is identified with Java.
• Such early contacts with Southeast Asia are confirmed by the recent archeological finds of pearls and
ornaments of agate and carnelian, the semi-precious stones of Indian origin, from the coastral sites in
Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, etc. These finds belong to as far back as first century BC.
• According to the Chinese traditions, the first kingdom in South east Asia was founded at Funan (Cambodia)

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in the fourth century AD by a brahman known as Kaundinya who had come from India and had married
the local princess.
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• Indian and Southeast Asian contacts became closer from 5th century AD onwards when inscriptions in
Sanskrit language start appearing in many areas.
• It reached its peak during AD 800-AD 1300 when many kings and dynasties with Indian names emerge
all over Southeast Asia.
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• The Southeast contact was largely on account of trade.

• Southeast Asia is rich in cardamom, sandal wood, camphor, cloves etc. which formed important items of
trade between India and the West.
• Initially, the Indian traders appear to have settled along the coast, but gradually they shifted their network
to the interior.
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• Along with the traders came the priests particularly the Buddhist and brahmanas, to meet the ritual
requirements of the Indian settlers and thus created a situation for the spread of Indian social and cultural
ideas in South east Asia.
• But it must be noted that Indian contact did not uproot the local culture. It was rather a case of peaceful
intermixing of Indian concepts with local cultural features.
• While Sanskrit was accepted as a language of court and religion in Southeast Asia the regional languages
continued to be used side by side, and we find many inscriptions in mixed Sanskrit and local language.
• Similarly, the concept of varna was known to the south east Asians and brahmanas were respected in
society, but social divisions were not rigid as it was in India.
• The most important empire which come to be founded in South east Asia in the 8th Century AD was
the Shailendra empire. It comprised Java, Sumatra, Malay- Pennisula and other parts of the Southeast
Asian region. They were a leading naval power and on account of their geographical position controlled
the trade between China and India as well as other countries in the west.
• The Shailendra kings were followers of Buddhism and had close contact with the Indian rulers. One of
the kings of this empire, built a monastery at Nalanda in the ninth century, and at his request the Pala
king Devapala of Bengal granted five villages for its upkeep.
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• Similarly in the eleventh century another Shailendra king was permitted by the Chola king Rajaraja I to
build a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattam on the Tamil Coast.
• The Shailendras also built a beautiful temple dedicated to Buddha at Barabudur in Java. It is situated on
the top of a hillock and consists of nine gradually receding terraces.
• Besides Buddhism, the worship of Hindu gods such as Vishnu and Siva was also quite popular in Southeast
Asia and the temples dedicated to them have been found at various places which show distinct traces of
Indian influence and inspiration.
• One of the most famous temples, dedicated to Vishnu, is Angkorvat temple built in the 12th century by
Surya Varman II, the king of Kambuja (Cambodia). It is surrounded by a moat, filled with water. It has
a huge gopuram (gateway) and number of galleries, the walls of which are decorated with sculptures based
on themes drawn from Mahabharat and Ramayana.

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OR
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