Published by:

Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute

Bratislava, Vajnorská 8/a
Slovak Republic
The first edition in 2015
www.sahi.sk
archeologia@sahi.sk

Editors:
D. Hulínek – D. Bonatz – M. Kováč

Authors of the publication in alphabetical order:

DOMINIK BONATZ, ALICE DESPRAT, MILOŠ GREGOR, JANA HLAVATÁ,
ANNIKA HOTZAN-TCHABASHVILI, DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK, EVA HULÍNKOVÁ-
ŤUCHOVÁ, PAVOL JELÍNEK, VLADIMÍR KARLOVSKÝ, DANIEL KENDRALA,
MILAN KOVÁČ, BRANISLAV KOVÁR, TIBOR LIESKOVSKÝ, CARLOS PALLÁN
GAYOL, JÚLIUS VAVÁK

Peer reviewed by:

PhDr. Dagmar Dreslerová Ph.D., Oddělení archeologie krajiny a archeobiologie, Archeolo-
gický ústav AV ČR, Praha, Česká republika.
Ing. Jana Faixová Chalachanová, PhD., Department of Theoretical Geodesy, Faculty of Ci-
vil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
Prof. Elizabeth Graham, PhD., F.S.A., Institute of Archaeology, University College London,
United Kingdom.
Doc. PhDr. Peter Pavúk PhD., Ústav pro klasickou archeologii, Univerzita Karlova v Praze,
Česká republika.
Prof. David Pendergast PhD., Institute of Archaeology, University College London, United
Kingdom.

English translation and corrections:

PORTER, s.r.o., Pluhová 42, 831 03 Bratislava, Slovenská republika, www.porter.sk
Mgr. Eva Jobbová
Mgr. Peter Valent
Tobias Brooks

Graphics, layout and cover design:

Marcel Križan, SAHI

Printing:
FINIDR, s.r.o., Český Těšín

Cover illustration:
Front cover: Preclassic stucco mask of Maya deity from Uaxactun in Gutemala (Photo SAHI).
View of the highest part of the site of Tell Fekheriye in Syria (Photo SAHI).
Bronze Age pottery found at the site in Budmerice, Slovakia (Photo SAHI).
Surface find from Budmerice, Slovakia - a heart-shaped pendant (Photo SAHI).

Back cover: Preclassic stucco mask of deity from Uaxactun in Gutemala (Photo SAHI).
Map showing the activities of SAHI on three continents.

ISBN: 978 – 80 – 89704 – 01 – 9

2
 Archaeology on Three Continents 2006 – 2011

8. NEW STUCCO MASKS FROM UAXACTUN:

INTERPRETATION, CONSERVATION AND DOCUMENTATION OF
EXTRAORDINARY PRECLASSIC MAYA ART1
MILAN KOVÁČ, COMENIUS UNIVERSITY IN BRATISLAVA AND SLOVAK ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL INSTITUTE
ALICE DESPRAT, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS 1
CARLOS PALLÁN GAYOL, UNIVERSITY OF BONN
ABSTRACT facilitate broader understanding of the occupation, con-
In 2009, two gigantic masks facing west were disco- struction and usage of this settlement will be possible
vered by Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute (Kováč and Arredondo 2009).
on the western façade of unexcavated group H North
in Uaxactún, Guatemala. It took four seasons, until the ARCHITECTURAL CONTEXT
masks were completely uncovered and conserved. In Group H consists of two architectural complexes:
this paper the main protagonists of this discovery aim Groups H-North and H-South. Although both exhi-
to outline three main propositions for the further destiny bit clear differences, they also share evident spatial
of this unique find. How to understand it in terms of and constructive associations. An average distance
Mayan cosmology and religious symbolism, how best of 90 m separates both groups, which are located at
to conserve it for the future, to avoid its devastation an altitude of 180 m.a.s.l. The architectural groups
after excavations, and also how to document it in the lying closest to them both are Group E, located
highest possible quality. The restauration, conserva- approximately 280 m to the NW of Group H-North
tion and preparing of exact copy in situ is also pro- and 370 m from H-South, as well as Group F-North,
posed. Here the authors present the solutions at the located approximately 300 m to the west (see maps
highest level of the current state of art. of the Capture 9, Fig. 1 and 2) .The four Late-Preclas-

RESEARCH HISTORY
U axatun’s Group H was first documented and repor-
ted since 1935 by the Carnegie Institution of Wa-
shington (CIW), when the first map of this architectural
group was ever produced (Smith 1950, 66 fig. 104). Ho-
wever, it was due to the members of the Tikal Project
in 1985 that research at this group began. They main-
ly focused on the complex known as Group H-South
(Valdés 1986, 1-34). The findings reported by these in-
vestigations proved very important, as they signified a
180° turn around with respect to current knowledge and
paradigms of the time concerning the constructive and
decorative systems of the Late-Preclassic period within
the central lowland Maya region.

With the primary aim of gaining a better understan-

ding about this ancient settlement’s society, particulary
about its Preclassic occupational history, the SAHI-Ua-
xactun Archaeological Project started a new series of
investigations focused on this hitherto unexplored and
highly significant area, as of the Field season of 2009
until today. These extensive operations include scienti-
fic explorations, excavations, conservations (Fig. 1) and
the production of a new map for the whole complex,
with overall aim to gather relevant data which would Fig. 1 Restoration team at work. Photo: Alice Desprat.

125
 Milan Kováč, Alice Desprat, Carlos Pallán Gayol
sic groups (H-North, H-South, F-North and E) share a
common spatial and architectural pattern, having the
three large pyramidal structures built atop huge plat-
forms. These pyramids are arranged on a spatial pa-
ttern known as triadic group, as termed by M. Becker
(2003, 264-265) for the „Plaza 6 Plan“ in Tikal. This
arrangement has been interpreted as representing the
three primordial stones of the cosmic hearth, a pattern
also associated with lineage and dynastic ancestry, cos-
mic creation, the deeds of the founding families and
the creation of mankind (Freidel et al. 1993, 139, 437).
The triadic arrangement also served for restricting
access to only small groups of individuals, who used
them as ritual complexes rooted in Maya ideology and
mythology, possibly related to the triad of creator gods
known as GI, GII and GIII (Rivera 2001; Valdés et al.
2008). Furthermore, other buildings of smaller dimen-
sions and constructive mass concentrate around triadic
groups.
During the first season of excavations at Group H-
-North (Kováč and Arredondo 2009) the first gigantic mask
was discovered. Together with its counterpart, they were
to seize the project’s attention over the following sea-
sons, thus giving continuity to the investigations about
their function within the complex at Group H-North.
THE FORM OF GROUP H-NORTH
Within Group H-North, three different spaces sepa-
rated by correspondingly different levels are clearly de-
fined. These levels were created by means of huge plat-
forms and terraces, which have been identified as the
Upper platform, Lower platform and Plaza of Rocks.
According to excavations and ceramic analysis, all the
buildings atop Upper and Lower platforms were built
during the same time period, as part of a greater archi-
tectural complex, dating of which, according to results
of radiocarbon analyses, falls approximately to around
year 50–100 BC. The ceramic materials associated with
the construction have been attributed to the Chicanel ho-
rizon (Alvarado Najarro et al. 2009, 860).
PLAZA OF ROCKS
At the center of the Plaza of Rocks lies an indepen-
dent platform upon which five buildings were built,
together with structure H-XX, which stands above the
plaza level on its southern side. Ceramic material from
this complex indicate a different dating, older than the
rest of Group H-North, including an evidence from pha-
se Chicanel 1, although traces of Mamon-phase material
were also detected. Radiocarbon analyses of the organic
samples collected there indicate the date around the year
450 BC. On these grounds, the Plaza of Rocks cannot
126
be considered as contemporary with the stucco masks
examined here.
At the southern most end of the Plaza, a number of
eroded monuments dating from phase Chicanel 2 were
found. They might conceivably be linked to structure
H-XX, chronological placement of which remains yet
to be ascertained. In any event, it is possible that these
monuments were moved from elsewhere and reutilized
during the Tzakol phase, as also might be the case of
the large boulders used to build the altar of structure H-
-XVI, located approximately 30 meters away.
LOWER PLATFORM
The best investigated pyramid, designated H-XV, is
standing on the imperfect west-east axis with the cent-
ral pyramid H-I from the Upper platform. The deflecti-
on from the optimal direction is about 6° south, which
is barely perceptible, albeit surprising considering the
otherwise almost perfect symmetry found throughout
the rest of the structures (Kováč 2009, 370).
Pyramid H-XV takes the form of a radial pyramid;
reaching up to 8 m in height and featuring a central
stairway on all four sides, originally flanked by paired
lateral stairways, thus amounting to a total number of
twelve stairways in the building. These stairways could
have originally been adjoined by stucco masks. The edi-
fice’s floor plan is strongly reminiscent of pyramid 5C-
54-3 from Tikal’s Mundo Perdido complex. This could
indicate some degree of cultural - and probably political
- dependence of Uaxactun upon Tikal, at least during
sometime around 100 BC (as radiocarbon dating from
construction fills at H-XV indicates year 108 BC ± 68
years).
South-east of the pyramid H-XV is located the second
structure designated H-XVI. Its ground plan corresponds
more closely to that shown by structures H-III and H-V
from the Upper platform. Atop this building, Stela H 1
was located, although unfortunately too eroded to provide
any epigraphic or iconographic information. Nonetheless,
this finding suggests that H-XVI could have had remar-
kable significance. Moreover, this stela was found inside
a space formed by a sizeable niche, embedded into the
pyramid, and bordered by boulders - or perhaps remnants
of yet other stelae - that might have been removed from
their original position and incorporated into the pyramid
during the revitalization of the abandoned structure in
Tzakol period. Associated ceramics concentrated inside
the niche/altar area indicate that this is an additional con-
structive element. Inside the niche space, a cache consis-
ting of two ceramic plates placed lip to lip were found,
together with other common evidences from the Tzakol
 New Stucco Masks from Uaxactun:
Interpretation, Conservation and Documentation of Extraordinary Preclassic Maya Art.
period. The most remarkable discovery, however, con-
cerns dozens (around 50) of discs made of limestone and
ceramics, placed inside the niche mentioned above. It can
only be speculated that they served a ritual purpose.
UPPER PLATFORM
The core zone of the whole H-North complex is formed
by a huge platform designated Upper Platform, atop which
seven structures were built. Outstanding among them are
three main pyramid-type structures of impressive archi-
tectural quality. A central pyramid H-I is 17m tall it takes
the form of an inverted ‘T’ and shows certain similarities
with the Structure 34, from the El Tigre complex at El Mi-
rador. Measuring up to 50 m long, its façade stands out not
only amongst the largest of Group H but from Uaxactun as
a whole. It is flanked by two smaller pyramids placed at its
northern and southern sides, albeit slightly shifted towards
the west, which have been termed respectively structures
H-III and H-V, both of which reach about 8 m high. Toge-
ther with the central pyramid H-I, they create a symmetri-
cal arrangement in the shape of an almost perfect triangle
(Nagy et. al. 2009, 381), known as triadic groups. The da-
ting the construction of this triadic group coincides with
that of the Lower platform, suggesting that its construction
was finished a few years or decades later (radiocarbon da-
ting from Structure H-V’s constructive phases indicates 42
BC ± 70 years). Surrounding these structures are four other
much smaller buildings, dubbed as structures H-II, H-VI,
H-IX and H-XVII. The role these buildings played cannot
be compared to that of the triadic group; for they are only
a fraction of their height and size. Therefore, the visibility
of the monumental triad should not have been affected by
them. However, according to an alternative interpretation,
these smaller structures subtly complemented the triad, so
that the whole compound would create a so-called quin-
cunx, another important element of the Maya symbolic
universe.
THE MASKS FROM THE WEST FAçADE
OF THE UPPER PLATFORM
The most impressive part of Group H North is the
west façade of the Upper platform, where outstanding
discoveries have been made. Prominent among them
Fig. 2 Ideal reconstruction of the mask scene, which appears both on the northern and southern mask.
Drawing: Milan Kováč and Marcel Križan.
is the sculptural decoration preserved at both sides of
a monumental central stairway. The efforts of the SA-
HI-Uaxactun Project have focused on achieving an en-
hanced understanding of this important sculptural and
architectural element. The field seasons of 2009-2012
brought a significant progress. The overall dimensions
and outline of the masks were defined, which only high-
lighted the perfection of the sculptural program under
which they were conceived and the purpose they served
in decorating the group‘s most important façade.
It can now be ascertained that the western façade
consists of a 13.63 m long and 7.50m wide (east-west)
central stairway, through which steps a 4.25m tall
platform can be surmounted. The two stucco masks
representing gigantic examples of architectural sculp-
ture have been exposed on both sides of this central
stairway. (Fig. 2). They were first formed by large li-
mestone blocks, shaped to required volumes and forms
demanded by sculptors. These were later covered by a
stucco coating painted with multiple colours, red appa-
rently being the predominant one, selected to cover the
„body“ of the mask. Some relatively minor parts were
also painted with black, orange, yellow and pink hues,
unfortunately these were not preserved in their original
locations. Both masks average 19.5 m in length and a
maximum preserved height is 3.5 m. Their main fe-
atures are main motives in the form of a face at the
center of each, creating a division into upper and lower
horizontal realms.
The southern mask was excavated first, and displays
a better preserved upper realm, while the lower one has
largely deteriorated. On the contrary, the northern mask
shows a better preserved lower realm (Fig.3, Fig. 4).
Both masks are part of the same iconographic program,
and although they display minimal differences, these
seem to result from both masks being simultaneously
produced by different teams of sculptors, under the su-
pervision of one or more master artist(s) trying to retain
the overall similarity and symmetry of compositional
elements.
127
 Milan Kováč, Alice Desprat, Carlos Pallán Gayol
Fig. 3 – 4 Conservation
works on northern mask.
Photo: Alice Desprat.
The basic design depicts probably a feline-like be-
ing looking westward (Fig. 5), with a diadem around
and over his head, as well as large earflares at their two
sides possibly representing jade. Attached to the lower
part of the earflares are well preserved knots while some
identifiable remnants of them can still be discerned atta-
ched to the upper sides. Taken together, these elements
constitute a symbolic set which beyond doubt deals with
representations of power, with the feline or jaguar crea-
ture—if correctly identified— bearing obvious associa-
tions with the underworld. In the opinion of Christophe
Helmke (pers. comm. 2010), in a certain sense the set
could be dealing with the “Jester God Mountain”. Ear-
flares and knotted headbands are symbols of kingship
and royal power and also attest to an incipient writing
system linked to a deification of the personages who
bear them (Vargas 2001). Placed aside each of the earfla-
128
re are monster faces resembling serpents in profile view,
executed in a style similar to that reported in some con-
temporary sites, such as Structure 5C-2da from Cerros,
Belize (Freidel and Schele 1988, 551-53). They could
correspond to the so-called double-headed serpent in
profile view, thus expressing the homophony that links
the words for ‘sky’ and ‘serpent’ (kan-kaan) represen-
ting the road trough which the sun transverses (idem).
If the body of a snake was intended to represent the sky,
below it we would expect to find symbolic elements re-
lated to the notion of the watery underworld, as seen on
the cosmological subdivision featured in the masks from
the neighboring Group H-South (Freidel 1993, 140). In
the case of the H-North masks, this motive could be per-
haps represented by a complex waterlily iconoghraphy
(as the discernible elements in the lower realms could be
possibly interpreted).
 New Stucco Masks from Uaxactun:
Interpretation, Conservation and Documentation of Extraordinary Preclassic Maya Art.
Fig. 5 Northern mask
before conservation.
Photo: Alice Desprat.
COSMOLOGICAL MEANING
In contrast to their slightly more ancient counterparts
from the neighboring Uaxactun H-South Group and the
almost contemporary ones at San Bartolo, the presence
of olmecoid-type iconographic elements cannot yet be
confirmed at the H-North masks. Unfortunately, the he-
address of the central figure was not preserved, although
visible remnants allow to confirm that they belong to a
distinct phase within Preclassic art characterized by the
fulfillment of a “mayanization” process that ostensibly
contrasted with previous patterns which still made use
of olmecoid prototypes.
Despite the absence of overt olmecoid motives, the
partition of the frieze into upper and lower realms still
conforms to the three-level division of ancient cosmolo-
gy. The upper level can be linked to the sky and the Upp-
er Platform, whose triadic temples represent the Orion‘s
constellation stars of Rigel, Saif and Alnitak (Tedlock
1985, 261). Directly in front of them, upon the level of
the Lower platform, remnants of a dark colored floor
were found, which could be related to the western cardi-
nal direction or the Ek’ Nab, the “Dark Sea”, if an ana-
logy with the west patio of the Copan acropolis is here
allowed (Schele 1998, 490). By this token, the western
orientation of the masks is related to the Lower plat-
form, in turn linked with the black-coloured floor and
the radial pyramid H-XV; which following a Cohodas‘
sugestion (1980, 218) could be also connected to the
underworld. The orientation pattern in general seems to
support an interpretation under which the masks’ cent-
ral motives would attempt to represent an underworld
lord, corresponding to the underworld or watery ja-
guar and identified in both cases as the nocturnal sun,
an image which would accompany the sun during its
last moments of diurnal life, before it embarks on its
voyage across the underworld. This interpretation also
emphasizes some analogies from contemporary sites
such as Cerros (Friedel and Schele 1988, 550) and other
examples, which could play a fundamental role in our
understanding of the symbolic and religious messages
of the complex as a whole.
A more complete explanation should also consider
astronomy and the orientations of the main buildings to-
wards celestial bodies such as the Sun and Orion, previ-
ously verified by archaeoastronomist Vladimír Karlov-
ský (Kováč and Karlovský 2011). The heliacal rise of
Orion, seen from the radial structure H-XV, takes place
above the main building H-I and defines the Upper plat-
form in its entirety as a complex representing the stones
of the primordial hearth which have been linked to Ori-
on (Freidel et al. 1993, 65-66). The date of the heliacal
rise of these stars between June 18th-22nd matches the
summer solstice (June 21st), also viewable during the
Late Preclassic from pyramid H-XVI and during which
the Sun was rising above the main building H-I (Kováč
and Karlovský 2011, 41). Within ancient thought, the
summer solstice did not represent the Sun’s victory over
darkness, generally speaking, but a loss (cosmologica-
lly, victory is represented by the winter solstice). It is
thus probable that the date around June 21st marked the
beginning of the underworld sun’s reign, which corre-
sponds neatly to the two astronomical orientations de-
129
 Milan Kováč, Alice Desprat, Carlos Pallán Gayol
Fig. 6 Re-integration
of broken and damaged
parts. Photo: Alice De-
sprat.
tected at Group H-North, as well as to the masks’ main
central motives.
The significance of these majestic elements of Maya
architectural sculpture has prompted the SAHI-Ua-
xactun project to carefully plan a preservation and valo-
rization strategy to be applied at the H-North Group and
their huge stucco masks. Planning of these activities has
begun by focusing on the western façade of this Group‘s
upper platform and has yielded thus far the results pre-
sented in the following sections.
CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION
INTERVENTIONS
During the recent research works by SAHI at the
archaeological site of Uaxactun, the development of a
pilot project able to obtain data about the stuccoes’ be-
havior, once it has been liberated and restored has been
attempted. Some preliminary results of this project are
herein presented, together with its ongoing and future
expectations.
Preservation and restoration activities on the orna-
mental stuccoes from the platform of H-North’s Upper
platform begun ever since their discovery in year 2009.
During the first two field seasons, different restoration
specialists have been in charge of urgent stabilization
tasks, being performed simultaneously with the excava-
tion operations (Barrios 2009). The south mask was par-
tially reintegrated and restored by Anabella Coronado
and Rudy Larios (Coronado 2010; Larios 2010). Taking
the complexity of the problem into consideration, as of
130
2011 an integral program was established under the di-
rection of Alice Desprat, main goals of which consis-
ted in providing curative conservation and restoration
(Desprat 2011).
Curative conservation, a term defined in 2008 by the
International Council of Museums (ICOM-CC 2008),
entails direct actions performed upon cultural assets in
order to stop deterioration. In practice, it consists of the
process of stabilizing stucco elements by means of con-
solidation, the joining of detached fragments and the pa-
tching and riveting of weakened sections.
On the other hand, restoration faced the aesthetical
problem of presentation by reintegrating the volumet-
ry of areas with missing elements or by providing con-
tinuity to forms, in order to improve the general reading
of iconographic elements. It is worth mentioning that
the reintegration of iconographic elements was only per-
formed when evidence of their original form was avai-
lable (Fig. 6), be it due to its incompleteness or by it
consisting of repetitive elements.
During these stages, particular emphasis was placed
on using the adequate treatments and materials, namely
products akin to them and therefore unable to genera-
te substances which could be harmful to the stucco or
cause other long term problems. The restoration proce-
sses practiced over the last few years are based upon
lime use, given that —as well known—lime was widely
preferred by Mesoamerican cultures as a material for
building constructive and decorative elements. Moreo-
 New Stucco Masks from Uaxactun:
Interpretation, Conservation and Documentation of Extraordinary Preclassic Maya Art.

ver, the affinity of this material is inherent to the stu-
cco’s composition and therefore no secondary damage
results from using it. Nonetheless, the correct formulati-
on of lime mortars for restoration must be evaluated for
each specific purpose. Factors such as the obtention of
lime, the type of the load, granulometry, the proportion
between these different components and the conditions
of its application play all a crucial role in the overall sta-
bility of such treatments (Fig. 7). Thereby the role of the
analysis performed on the original materials proves fun-
damental for the purpose of understanding the particular
characteristics of the stucco types involved, in order to
supply the best suited treatment for each. On the other
hand, it is important to consider, as Hansen and Cas-
tellanos recall (2005, 581), that employing lime entails
also the risk of interfering with scientific analyses, for it
may be difficult to distinguish between the original cal-
cium carbonate and the modern one. Hence it is critical
to take samples before performing any intervention, in
order to ensure the veracity of the analyzed data.
In this fashion, while technical advancements in
terms of direct intervention upon stucco decoration has
improved over the last few years, it must be stressed that
these processes do not constitute by themselves the end
result of conservation work, as they allow at best only
to delay imminent degradation of the cultural assets but
cannot guarantee its long-term preservation, without
overlooking the fact that restoration materials applied
are also subject to deterioration. On the above grounds,
the goals of archaeological conservation in situ have
evolved from curative treatments to preventive inter-
ventions.
PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION
IN SITU METHODS
Preventive conservation consists in indirectly acting
upon alteration factors in order to minimize or prevent
deterioration of the cultural assets to be preserved. If ar-
chaeological items undergo different periods through
their existence (creation moment, usage stage, abandon-
ment) and each of these periods entails different deteri-
oration types, then the moment of their archaeological
discovery also constitutes a determining stage which ir-
reversibly impacts on the degradation of the item’s con-
stituent materials. In the case of stucco, buried materials
establish over time specific exchanges with the surroun-
ding environment thus creating a dynamic and complex

Fig. 7 Affinity of used materials with the original. Photo: Alice Desprat.

131
 Milan Kováč, Alice Desprat, Carlos Pallán Gayol
Fig. 8 Upon completion of conservation works, the masks were covered by geo-textile and re-buried using the original earth-
fill. The proposal does not plan with their permanent exposure. Photo: Project SAHI – Uaxactun.
—therefore fragile—equilibrium. By exposing them to
the elements, such equilibrium is abruptly disrupted and
objects shift from being subject to a regime of slow de-
struction (while still underground) into being subject to
a rapidly deteriorating regime (when unearthed).
The general problem that conservation needs therefo-
re to address is to reconstruct the conditions most favo-
rable to the object’s preservation, so that constituent ma-
terials can again find a stable equilibrium with regards to
the surrounding environment. In this sense, experiments
with different methods for protecting stucco reliefs have
been undertaken and their main results are commented
below.
The first method consists in isolating the reliefs from
the eroding effects of atmospheric agents such as rain,
wind and the sun, that progressively lead to a phenome-
non known as weathering or metheorization. This con-
sists of a gradual breakup of the constituent materials
which ultimately leads to a partial or complete loss of
the assets. A simple solution put in practice at several
Maya sites is to protect stuccos by placing roofs or pro-
tective covers upon them. However, this option fosters
adverse phenomena related to fluctuations in the materi-
als’ degree of moisture and the presence of salts. Within
materials, salt is produced by different dissolution and
migration mechanisms, such as the introduction of un-
derground waters though capillarity or rainwater filtra-
132
tions. Being hygroscopic or deliquescent, salts remain
in an aqueous solution which enables their mobility and
evaporation though the stucco’ porous system. When ei-
ther temperature or ventilation conditions rise, this solu-
tion reaches then its saturation point, thereby provoking
the formation of further saline crystals.
The above factors allows to identify two phenome-
na as the most directly involved into the materials’ de-
gradation: internal crystallization and the alternation
of dissolution and crystallization cycles. Internal crys-
tallizations are mainly due to the superficial drying of
the stuccoes. In this case, evaporation is faster than ca-
pillary rise, salts cannot ascend to the surface and the-
refore they crystallize the stucco’s porous system from
the inside, thus provoking lifting and detachment in tho-
se areas. Another consequence from environmental cli-
matic changes is the rapid alternation of dissolution and
crystallization cycles which propitiate on the long term
a kind of mechanical stress that weakens materials.
For what this topic concerns, it can be thus conclu-
ded that, while the degree of moisture within materials
remains stable, the presence of salts is not necessarily
synonymous with deterioration. On the basis of this ob-
servation, the method involving the opening of tunnels
in order to bury cultural works could prove an interes-
ting alternative for maintaining a stable micro-climate.
Particular cases of reliefs located at sites of Calakmul,
Tikal and Copan show that materials are indeed able to
 New Stucco Masks from Uaxactun:
Interpretation, Conservation and Documentation of Extraordinary Preclassic Maya Art.
remain in good conditions when appropriate microcli-
matic circumstances are in place. Furthermore, when
comparing this technique with the use of protective ro-
ofs, maintenance costs for the former are not necessa-
rily higher than for the latter. This is so because palm
thatched roofs are perishable and it has been observed at
a number of sites that archaeological projects often lack
the resources to refurnish and maintain them with the re-
quired frequency. Notwithstanding these facts, no such
thing as a miraculous solution exists and factors such as
the rise of moisture levels within these tunnels favour
the proliferation of biological agents such as microorga-
nisms, insects and bats.
RESEARCH PROGRAM FOR REBURIAL
OF THE MASKS
When dealing with the masks from Uaxactun H-Nor-
th Group, since their dating corresponds to the last con-
structive stage of the complex, options such as drilling
a tunnel or placing a protective structure atop them had
to be discarded because of the evident affectations they
would produce on the overall visual appreciation and
understanding of the architectural complex. As an al-
ternative, the conservation project has been oriented to-
wards the reburial method, which at present offers the
best long term options for preserving these valuable cul-
tural assets.
By virtue of being one of the simplest and most
affordable options available, reburial of archaeologi-
cal objects has been extensively resorted to by projects
working on a number of Maya sites. The commonly
employed method consists in building a retaining or
contention wall close to the relief’s surface, so that the
space could be filled out with either sascab or the ori-
ginal earthfill. An abundant bibliography and a variety
of case studies about this topic are readily available.
Among them, the sites of Xunantunich, Palenque and
El Mirador could be cited (Hansen y Castellanos 2005,
579), just as is the case in Uaxactun.
Nonetheless, while the reburial alternative seems to
respond effectively to the above described challenges
(Fig. 8), a lack of documentation still exists about the
required evaluation and follow-up behavioral analyses
which could inform what happens exactly to the objects
after being reburied. This deficit is largely due to the
complexity and diversity of relevant parameters brou-
ght into play, which generally imply long-term research
strategies, often difficult to be put in practice by archae-
ological projects concerned with the elevated costs that
doing this represents.
By the above grounds, the SAHI-Uaxactun Project
has regarded the evaluation of reburial methods as fun-
damental and has addressed it by establishing a global
research program which promotes a phenomenological
and multidisciplinary approach.
Ideally, such a program would consist of the fol-
lowing stages:
• A thorough documentation of the state of preser-
vation: photographic, graphic and photogrammetric 3D
before and after conservation and restoration interven-
tions.
• materials characterization through laboratory ana-
lyses in order to determine physical, chemical and mi-
neralogical properties of constituent materials.
• analyses aimed to confirm the possible use of or-
ganic additives within pictorial techniques and within
original mortars.
• diagnostic of deterioration and salt analyses (qua-
litative, quantitative and mapping of saline activity),
• evaluation of thermal and hydric behavior of con-
stituent and coating materials for reburial purposes.
• installation of a measuring system able to perceive
temperature and moisture fluctuations within and out-
side the stucco over an 18-month cycle.
Upon completion of these activities, it is expected that
the data accumulated will allow a significantly enhanced
understanding of how the masks’ constituent materials
behave under the registered environmental conditions.
Having this scheme would then enable to carefully se-
lect the most suitable conditions for their preservation,
be it by naturally present per se conditions (i.e. by the
environment naturally fulfilling adequate conditions) or
by means of adapting the reburial system to their spe-
cificities. At present, although some preliminary results
have already been obtained, they are not regarded yet as
being pertinent enough to be published, as they still lack
the level of representativity that would allow reaching
more definitive conclusions.
3D DOCUMENTATION THROUGH CLOSE-RANGE
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
From a cultural heritage perspective, the stucco mas-
ks from Uaxactun’s Group H-North are best viewed as
archaeological assets subject to an inexorable process
of decay —which can at best only be slowed down,
but not entirely stopped,. by the many preservation and
conservation measures undertaken—. Thus, their tridi-
mensional documentation contributes in great measure
to preserving the information they contain, while also
enabling their full study and analysis. This 3D infor-
mation can also be used for generating tridimensional
replicas, as means to enhance public awareness of Ua-
133
 Milan Kováč, Alice Desprat, Carlos Pallán Gayol

Fig. 9a, b Tridimensional photogrammetric models of the stucco masks from Uaxactun’s Group H-North: a) top: model gen-
erated from photo-sequence B-2 (north mask, pre-restoration). b) model generated from photo-sequence A-4 (south mask,
post-restoration). All 3D models and renderings by Carlos Pallán, Uaxactun-SAHI archaeological project 2012.

xactun’s cultural splendor during the Late-Preclassic
period (cf.. De Marco 2009; Loriot et al. 2008; Pintus
et al. 2010). This section discusses the 3D-documenta-
tion strategies followed for preserving the volumetric
and surface information of the southern and northern
stucco masks —both prior and after the preservation
and restoration interventions performed upon them
(Fig. 9a, 9b).
In order to achieve the above goals, careful coordina-
tion and timing between documentation, preservation and
documentation activities was required, to ensure having a
reliable testimony of the original state in which the masks
were found by scientific excavation, as well as the chan-
ges resulting from their intervention by the SAHI-Ua-
xactun Project preservation and restoration team. Detailed
tridimensional documentation of the paired stucco masks
using close-range photogrammetry was undertaken for
the first time during the field season of Summer 2012,
as reported in greater detail in the Informe delivered to
the IDAEH authorities in Guatemala City (Pallán Gayol
2012; Kováč/Arredondo/Barrios and Desprat 2012).
As widely known, 3D Photogrammetry has rea-
ched today a degree of quality and precision which
rivals that of both optical and laser tridimensional
scanners (Skarlatos and Kiparissi 2012; Abdelhafiz
2009; Koch and Kaehler 2009; Kersten 2006). An
added advantage is that photogrammetric equipments
represent only a fraction of the cost of laser- and op-
tical scanning ones, while offering grater portability
and being far better suited for delivering reliable per-

134
 New Stucco Masks from Uaxactun:
Interpretation, Conservation and Documentation of Extraordinary Preclassic Maya Art.
formance under the high-moisture and heat conditi-
ons of the central Peten rainforests of Guatemala.
The sheer size of both symmetrical masks —re-
ferred henceforth to as the south and north masks—
posited a number of technical challenges, given that
both exceed 21.5 meters in length and could only be
re-excavated and exposed during a limited amount
of time, after which they had to be reburied. In ge-
neral terms, the overall strategy followed consisted
in performing several individual photogrammetric
captures of each of the masks, both prior and after
restoration. From each of these individual captures,
3D point-clouds and individual 3D models were then
generated. To produce more definitive models —a
goal currently underway— all the individual captures
need yet to be combined. This will yield an extremely
dense point-cloud from which the final polygon mesh
can be generated. Finally, a high-resolution texture
mapping relying on HDR images of the masks’ sur-
face will be superimposed over the geometry, thus
providing the model with a hyper-realistic “coating”
or surface appearance.
The methodology underlying the complex set of acti-
vities or “pipeline” necessary for attaining the above
mentioned goals can be subdivided into two main stages.
Part 1 involves Capture, which deals with all activities
performed under field conditions. Part 2 concerns post-
-processing, encompassing activities which involve
mostly highly intensive computer processing-time and
required technical adjustments, currently performed at
the University of Bonn, in Germany.
Fig. 10 Image illus-
trating the capture
sequences necessary
to prevent optical oc-
clusion or “hidden
features” due to sig-
nificant relief depth.
Capture performed
by Carlos Pallán.
Photo: Milan Kováč.
The capture stage begins with the preliminary ste-
ps of camera-lens calibration and the collocation of
coded-target control points, as preconditions for the
actual capture work (Fig. 10). As a first step, careful
camera calibration was needed to maximize the spa-
tial precision of each of the x,y,z points to be obtained,
as well as minimizing the optical distortion produced
by the camera lens, which at such large scales plays a
significant role (cf. Hädem and Åmdal, 1993; Linder
2009). Therefore, camera lenses were carefully calib-
rated in a specific way, by applying a transformation
to each image based on a mathematical model which
amounts to the inverse of the distortion rate specific
to the camera-lens combination used (Canon EOS- 5D
Mark II with 21,6 Megapixels resolution with a lens
fixed at 24 mm focal length).
Secondly, although it was esteemed beforehand that
a series of parallel horizontal shots with significant
overlap (up to 1/3 of each photo) needed to be made
in order to cover the whole length of each mask, plus
the masks’ extremely high full-figure relief caused sig-
nificant optical occlusion or “hidden features” when
captured from certain angles (Abdelhafiz 2009, 27-
29), this translated in the need to take not only a single
horizontal sequence of pictures, but several different
ones shot at different angles, in order to capture the
masks’ full volumetric features. As these different se-
ries needed to be matched with exactitude on the post-
-processing stage, it was anticipated that rows of so-
-called RAD2 coded control targets should be placed in
135
 Milan Kováč, Alice Desprat, Carlos Pallán Gayol

advance, in order to allow quick and precise location of
specific single points through the several overlapping
images comprising each of the multiple series. In order
to avoid covering the surface of the masks with trou-
blesome hoards of points which would hinder full cap-
ture of surface details, a creative solution was devised,
by which long rows of coded targets were first printed
and then carefully placed upon 23 meter long PVC pi-
pes (with the aid of several of the SAHI-Uaxactun Pro-
ject members), tied just above and below the desired
capture surface.
As for what concerns the main capture stage, one of
the major difficulties was to achieve a uniform “soft”
lighting for each of the capture sequences throughout,
since this depended largely on atmospheric factors
beyond our control. Thus, it was found that very ear-
ly-morning and near sunset lighting offered softer and
more evenly-spread illumination, without contrasting li-
ghts and shades, thus maximizing the quantity of surface
3D points attainable. To capture the complex geometry
of the stucco masks both prior and after being interve-
ned, several separate sequences for each stage and each
one of the masks were produced, as summarized by the
following Tab. 1.
Upon returning from the fieldwork, capture data from
the masks’ documentation was then ready to undergo
post-processing steps at the University of Bonn, which
encompassed camera alignment; the generation of po-
int-clouds and hi-density polygonal-meshes and texture-
-mapping. Following is a brief description of how these
steps were developed in practice, with the aid of diffe-
rent software applications for each of the stages of this
post-production “pipeline”.3
To begin with, all captured field sequences were or-
ganized into a specific folder structure, removing redun-
dant or inaccurately exposed images during this process.
Then, the camera alignment begun by marking a number
of points on each of the pictures which correspond to
overlapping features on at least two other pictures adja-
cent to the former—the higher this number of points, the
greater the accuracy attained—. At this stage, the advan-
tage of counting with the rows of RAD control coded
points proved its worth, as they could be automatically
detected by advanced photogrammetric software. This
step allows correct 3D camera positions and camera ori-
entation to be esteemed and the resulting point-clouds
could be then enhanced to a very high density. Figure 11
illustrates the process of camera alignment.
Following is the surface generation, consisting
of an initial “polygonal mesh” which is then refi-
ned, smoothed and “decimated”. In general terms,
this process begins with a basic mesh comprised of
a lower number of polygons, and after proofing that
error values are as low as possible and that geometry
maintains fidelity to the capture subject, the number
of polygons can be substantially increased, to match
more closely the fine volumetric features of the plas-
tered stucco surface of the masks, as well as better
recording the damage and decay to which they had
been exposed over the centuries. Some fine points du-
ring this step involve the smoothing of the geometry,
the filling out of unwanted holes or “gaps” within the
mesh resulting from occlusions and other features,
as well as the correction of inverted surface normals
and the elimination of noise and “outliers” (De Mar-
co, 2009; Abdelhafiz 2009). Depending on the purpo-
se, from this point on the model can maintain a very
high-ratio of polygons (i.e. for the reconstruction or
rendering of extremely realistic visualizations) or be
“decimated” in order to be more manageable for pu-
blication or online visualization and dissemination
purposes. Once established, the higher-density 3D
geometry of the masks’ surface can be correlated with
the two-dimensional pixels of the source photogra-
phs. The RGB color values for each 2D pixel are then
transferred to its corresponding 3D counterpart throu-
gh a process known as “texture mapping” (Abdelhafiz
2009, 26-30). As mentioned at the beginning of this
section, a technological innovation which is current-
ly being incorporated into the final composite models
consists of substantially increasing the quality of sur-
face textures (Fig. 12) by using High-Dynamic Range
Images (HDRi) in the last post-processing step (cf.
Qiu, Mei, Lam and Qiu 2010; Cohen et al. 2001)
Given the extraordinary resolution attained on the
source images (over 21 MP), the resulting point-clouds,

Sequences: Description: Numer of images for each sequence: Dates:

A-1 to A-8 Southern Mask, pre-restoration 25, 39, 22, 27, 27, 26, 23, 26 March 25th-26th
B-1 to B-5 Northern Mask, pre-restoration 13, 24, 18, 18, 15 March 28th-31st
C-1 to C-8 Southern Mask, post-restauration 18, 18, 11, 12, 11, 15, 13, 17 April 25th-26th
D-1 to D-8 Northern Mask, post- restauration 17, 9, 17, 26, 20, 18, 17, 13 May 3rd-4th
Tab. 1

136
 New Stucco Masks from Uaxactun:
Interpretation, Conservation and Documentation of Extraordinary Preclassic Maya Art.

Fig. 11 Graphic illustrating the camera alignment process, in which the series of parallel overlapping images is used to esti-
mate correct camera positions, distance, focal length and orientation, among other parameters (photographs and 3D model
by Carlos Pallán, Uaxactún-SAHI archaeological project 2012)

meshes and texture maps offer the benefit of extremely nonetheless considered well suited for the overall goals
high-quality, accuracy and photorealism, but with the of obtaining a faithful record of the masks at both their
added cost that significantly higher processing times im- pre- and post-restoration stages. The models created will
ply. The balance achieved between both elements was enable scholars to perform detailed studies of their sur-

Fig. 12 Application of texture-mapping incorporating High Dynamic Range images (HDRi) will be incorporated to provide the
final models with enhanced photorealism (working model by Carlos Pallán, Uaxactun-SAHI archaeological project 2012)

137
 Milan Kováč, Alice Desprat, Carlos Pallán Gayol
face and iconographic features, together with the fore-
seen requirement of serving to create physical replicas
in the future, for the benefit of the public visiting the
Uaxactun archaeological site.
REFLECTIONS AND PROPOSAL
FOR THE MUSEOGRAPHIC CONCEPT
By virtue of the masks’ condition as unique cultu-
ral assets belonging to Guatemala’s cultural heritage, a
further goal of the SAHI-Uaxactun Project involves the
conception and design of replicas of the masks, destined
to present this monumental work in its full integrity to
both visitors and specialists. Ideally, this goal will also
play a role in revaluating certain areas of the site of Ua-
xactún, with the purpose of providing increased touristic
interest, thereby justifying the maintenance expenditure
on those areas. This museographic concept introduces a
novel challenge, given that replicas of such colossal pro-
portions have hardly been achieved elsewhere. On this
ground, it has been mandatory to define certain require-
ments and evaluate current technical possibilities.
A first issue to discuss concerns the restrictions and
limitations inherent to available materials and methods
used in the production of replicas from archaeological
items. For example, since the decade of 1990s, the Na-
tional Archaeology Council of Mexico has forbidden the
usage of molds for attaining replicas or reproductions of
ancient artifacts (Rogelio Rivero, pers. comm., 2011).
This decision was justified by the problems caused by
residues left by the synthetic materials (i.e. silicone) that
were employed for producing molds upon the surface of
the original objects. Just as synthetic consolidants do, si-
licone can provoke alterations with regards to the phy-
sical-chemical properties of the original materials. Mo-
reover, the sheer size of Uaxactun H-North Group mas-
ks (each being close to 20 m long for 3.5 m high) ren-
der the application of a silicon mold as either utterly im-
practicable or, at best, as an extremely complex chal-
lenge.
For the moment, this project shall be restricted to
choosing a non-contact method, thus avoiding any di-
rect intervention upon these cultural assets. A possibility
in this regard would be to produce a replica based on the
3D photogrammetric data already obtained, from which
it can be expected that already-existing new technolo-
gies relying on so-called 3D printers should allow to
seamlessly integrate multiple sets of smaller parts into
a very large composite mold, which can then be used to
produce a fiber-glass replica on a safe location well out-
side the original area of the masks.
138
A further aspect to be considered is the fact that the
placement of the replicas should not change or modify
in any way the reburial conditions of the original stuc-
coes. If using fiber-glass is considered, it should be avo-
ided to place it upon the original mask, as it could con-
siderably disturb the conditions more favorable for the
masks’ preservation. Under the same logic, any con-
struction of contention walls in front of the masks and
at their sides in order to provide support for the repli-
cas must avoid using harmful materials such as cement.
At present, the research project prepares an application
for this proposal, always putting first the preservation
of these remarkably unique examples of Uaxactun’s ar-
chitectural sculpture within its priorities.
CONCLUSIONS
The architectural composition of Group H-North
from Uaxactun shows a shared cultural unity which inclu-
des sites as El Mirador, Nakbe, Tikal, San Bartolo, Na-
kum, Yaxha, Cival, Río Azul, Cerros and El Tigre, among
several other cities that already at this early stage featu-
red monumental architecture and made use of a complex
and sophisticated symbolic system which was reflected in
their architectural and sculptural repertoires. In regards to
the iconographic elements present at both of the H-North
Group’s masks, it must be said that the majority of them
have also been reported at other stucco masks existing at
different sites, thus indicating that on a symbolic level,
the Late-Preclassic Maya shared similar expressive and
representational conventions for expressing their world
and cultural landscape, their social organization, as well
as the hierarchy of their institutions.
At the local level, Group H-North seems to surpass
its counterpart, Group H-South, in both magnitude and
monumentality, among other reasons because of the fact
that the latter became devoid of façade decorations du-
ring the so-called constructive stage 7, after their stucco
masks were covered (Valdés 1993, 116). Beyond doubt,
the monumental masks of the western façade of the H-
-North Group’s upper platform served the purpose of
displaying both religious authority and the grandeur of
the local power. It seems certain that they formed part of
a greater symbolic complex of Maya cosmology which
manifested that the reestablishment of the universe was
to be guaranteed primarily by the figure of the enthroned
ruler. The sheer dimensions of these sculptural works
certainly place them among the largest throughout the
whole Maya world. In addition, their imposing icono-
graphy and historical significance highlight the SAHI-
-Uaxactun Project’s responsibility towards ensuring the
future protection and preservation of the masks.
 New Stucco Masks from Uaxactun:
Interpretation, Conservation and Documentation of Extraordinary Preclassic Maya Art.
On the conservation and restoration realms, the re-
sults obtained during the last two field seasons have
been very satisfactory, given that stabilization and com-
plete restoration of the totality of stucco elements of the
façade has been achieved (Fig. 13). Furthermore, the
usage of state-of-the-art photogrammetric technology
allowed to generate 3D models of the masks both before
and after being intervened, thus providing an extremely
thorough and detailed documentation which would be
decisive to enable future iconographic reinterpretations.
In this regard, it is imperative to consider the perishable
character of these cultural assets subject to decay and
therefore to insist upon the fact that any lack of accurate
data about the state of preservation at the moment of dis-
covery and after direct intervention upon the items re-
sults in the irreversible loss of information.
As for the solutions herein presented as part of the
overall preventive conservation strategy, it is necessa-
ry to consider that both evaluation and reburial as con-
servation techniques must be seen as multidisciplinary
efforts. For this reason and ever since its beginnings, the
SAHI-Uaxactun Project has collaborated with diverse
specialists in order to solve specific technical challen-
ges related to the design of a monitoring system able to
evaluate the materials’ behavior at a physical-chemical
level. It is expected in the near future that this research
Fig. 13 Southern mask after restoration. The supportive column remains underneath the nose part of the mask to support its weight.
Photo: Milan Kováč.
program will help to provide methods which could pro-
ve relevant in the preservation of additional remarkable
cultural works attesting to Maya cultural splendor.
NOTES
1 This work was supported by the Slovak Research and
Development Agency under the contract No. APVV-0864-12.
2 RAD stands for Ringed Automatically Detected coded
targets, as used by applications such as EOS Photomodeler
Scanner 2012.2 64-bit.
3 These include EOS Photomodeler Scanner 2012.2
64-bit, Agisoft Photoscan Professional Edition 2012; Ra-
pidform’s XOR3; Agisoft’s TGI 3D SU Photoscan 2012;
Autodesk’s ImageModeler and Autodesk’s 3DS Max 2012
(64-bit); Sourceforge’s MeshLab and Blender Foundation’s
Blender 2.65a.
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 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION 5
DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK

SECTION A. PROJECT TELL FEKHERIYE 9

1. TELL FEKHERIYE – AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CURRENT

STATE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH 13
DOMINIK BONATZ

2. THE NEOLITHIC AT TELL FEKHERIYE 31

ANNIKA HOTZAN-TCHABASHVILI

3. RESEARCH ON THE C-IV TRENCH IN A BROADER CONTEXT

OF THE EXCAVATIONS CONDUCTED AT TELL FEKHERIYE,
WITH AN EMPHASIS ON THE MIDDLE ASSYRIAN PERIOD 39
DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK

4. GEODETIC SURVEYS AND TOPOGRAPHY

AT THE TELL FEKHERIYE LOCATION 59
TIBOR LIESKOVSKÝ, DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK, DANIEL KENDRALA

SECTION B. PROJECT BUDMERICE 73

5. THE 2010 TRIAL EXCAVATIONS OF A FORTIFIED SETTLEMENT

AT BUDMERICE. PRELIMINARY REPORT 77
JÚLIUS VAVÁK

6. A NOTE ON SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE MAĎAROVCE CULTURE 89

PAVOL JELÍNEK

7. ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY USE – ARCHAEOBOTANY 111

JANA HLAVATÁ

195
 SECTION C. ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN CENTRAL
NORTH-EASTERN PETÉN, GUATEMALA 121

8. NEW STUCCO MASKS FROM UAXACTUN:

INTERPRETATION, CONSERVATION AND DOCUMENTATION
OF EXTRAORDINARY PRECLASSIC MAYA ART 125
MILAN KOVÁCˇ , ALICE DESPRAT, CARLOS PALLÁN GAYOL

9. NEW MAYA OBSERVATORY IDENTIFIED IN UAXACTÚN, GUATEMALA 143

MILAN KOVÁCˇ , VLADIMÍR KARLOVSKÝ

10. VOLCANIC ASH IN ANCIENT MAYA CERAMICS. MINERALOGICAL

AND PETROGRAPHICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF MAYA CERAMICS
FROM UAXACTÚN, GUATEMALA. 157
MILOŠ GREGOR, MILAN KOVÁCˇ , BRANISLAV KOVÁR

11. EXCAVATIONS AT THE SQUARE PLAZA DE TAYRA,

TZ´IBATNAH –NORTHEASTERN PETÉN, GUATEMALA 171
DRAHOSLAV HULÍNEK, EVA HULÍNKOVÁ-Tˇ UCHOVÁ

LIST OF FIGURES 187

CONTENT 195

ABBREVIATIONS 199

INDEX 201

196