STK 1103

General Chemistry
LU 2 Atoms, Molecules and Ions

1
Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

 Elements are composed of extremely small
particles called atoms
 All atoms of a given element are identical
The atoms of one element are different from the
atoms of all other elements
 Compounds are composed of atoms of more
than one element
The relative number of atoms of each element in a
given compound is always the same

2
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 Chemical reactions involve only the
rearrangement of atoms
Atoms are not created or destroyed in chemical
reactions
§ Law of Definite Proportion (Joseph Proust)
“Different sample of pure chemical substance
always contain the same proportion of
elements by mass” -- (LU 1 Slide #24)

3
 2

4
 16 X + 8Y 8 X2 Y

 Law of Multiple Proportion

“Elements can combine in different ways to form different substances,
whose mass ratios are small, whole-number multiples of each other”
5
The Modern View of Atomic
Structure
Atom consists of positive, negative, and neutral
entities (protons, electrons, and neutrons)

Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus

of the atom
 Most of the mass of the atom is due to the nucleus
 There can be a variable number of neutrons for the
same number of protons
 Isotopes have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons

Electrons are located outside of the nucleus

 Most of the volume of the atom is due to electrons
6
 The Atomic Structure
 Structure of electrons

A = alpha
B = gamma
C = beta

Thomson’s charge-to-mass ratio:

1.76 x 108 Coulomb per gram

J.J. Thomson, measured charge/mass of e-

(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) 7
The Atomic Structure
 Mass of electrons

Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)

e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C

Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
8
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g
The Atomic Structure
Rutherford Atomic Structure Theory

9
The Atomic Structure

Rutherford Atomic Structure Theory

 Mass of protons 1.672 x 10-24 g
About 1840 times more than of an electron
 Protons are positively charged
 In neutral atoms the number of protons and
electrons is equal
 Neutrons (located at the nucleus of an atom)
are almost identical in mass to protons but has
no charge

10
Subatomic Particles

Mass Charge Charge

Particle
(g) (Coulombs) (units)

Electron (e-) 9.1 x 10-28 -1.6 x 10-19 -1

-24 -19
Proton (p) 1.67 x 10 +1.6 x 10 +1

-24
Neutron (n) 1.67 x 10 0 0

Table 2-1 Comparison of Subatomic Particles 11

The Atomic Structure

12
 Atomic Number
Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
 Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
 Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

235 238
92 U 92 U
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in the nucleus
13
Isotopes

14
Atomic Number
Isotopes
 Question
14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?

11
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?

15
Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom in atomic mass units
(amu) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the atom

 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g

1 g = 6.02214 x 10-23 amu

16
Average Atomic Mass
Most elements occur in isotopes

Average atomic mass is calculated from

the isotopes of an element weighted by
their relative abundances

e.g.
Carbon exists in isotopes composed of
98.93 % 12C and 1.07 % 13C
(12 amu x 0.9893) + (13 amu x 0.0107)= 12.01 amu

17
Question
Natural chlorine occur is composed of
75.78% 35Cl which has an atomic mass of
34.969 amu and 24.22% 37Cl which has an
atomic mass of 36.966 amu.
Calculate the average atomic mass (i.e.
the atomic weight) of chlorine

18
Calculate…
The mass of 60.4% of one of gallium’s
isotope is 68.9257 amu. Gallium has only
one other natural isotope and its mass is
70.9249 amu. Calculate the average
atomic mass of the element.

Average atomic mass = 69.717 amu

19
The Periodic Table
Periodic Table
 Used to arrange and organize the 114
elements
 Because of this organization, there are
periodic properties related to the periodic table

20
 Noble Gas
21

Halogen
Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
The Periodic Table
Reading the periodic table
 Columns in the periodic table are called groups
(numbered from 1A to 8A or 1 to 18)

 Rows in the periodic table are called periods

 Metals are located on the left hand side of the periodic

table (most of the elements are metals)

 Non-metals are located in the top right hand side of

the periodic table

 Elements with properties similar to both metals and

non-metals are called metalloids and are located at
the interface between the metals and non-metals
22
The Periodic Table
Properties of Periodic Table
 Some of the groups in the periodic table are given
special names
 These names indicate the similarities between group
members:
Group 1A: Alkali metals
Group 2A: Alkaline earth metals
Group 6A: Chalcogens
Group 7A: Halogens
Group 8A: Noble gases

23
Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
Molecules
 Molecules are assemblies of two or more
atoms bonded together
 Chemical formula indicates
What atoms found in molecule
In what proportion they are found

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

24
Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
 Diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

 Molecular compounds are formed from

molecules

25
 Molecular Formula Empirical Formula
Give the actual numbers Give the relative numbers
and types of atoms in a and types of atoms in a
molecule molecule

They give the lowest whole

number ratio of atoms in a
molecule

H2O2 HO
CO2 CO
C2H4 CH2
H2O H2O

Table 2-2 Comparison of Molecular and Empirical Formula 26

Structural formula

 Molecules occupy 3 dimensional space

 But we always represent them in 2 dimension

 Structural formula gives the connectivity

between the individual atoms in the molecule

 Struct. form. may or may not give the 3D struc.

of molecules

27
Molecules and Molecular
Compounds

28
Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
Question…?
 The structural formula for propane and butane
is presented as

 Write the chemical formula and empirical

formula for these molecules

29
Ions and Ionic Compounds
Ions
 When atom or group of atoms
donates/accepts electron ion is formed

 Cation – ion with a positive charge

If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it
becomes a cation

11 protons 11 protons
Na Na+ 10 electrons
11 electrons

30
Ions and Ionic Compounds
 Anion - ion with a negative charge
If a neutral atom accepts one or more electrons it
becomes an anion

17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons

31
Ions and Ionic Compound

 Monoatomic ions contain only one atom

Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, F-

 Polyatomic ions are formed by covalently

bonded groups of atoms
NH4+, OH-, NO3-, SO42-

32
33
Ions and Ionic Compounds
Question…?

27 3+
How many protons and electrons are in 13Al ?

How many protons and electrons are in 78

34 Se 2- ?

34
Ions and Ionic Compounds
In general metal atoms tend to lose
electrons to become cations; nonmetal
ions tend to gain electrons to form anions

Predicting Ionic Charge

 The number of electrons an atom loses is
related to its position on the periodic table

35
Predicting ionic charge

36
Ions and Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compounds consist of a cation and an anion
 The formula is always the same as the empirical
formula
 The sum of the charges on the cation and anion in
each formula unit must equal zero

The ionic compound NaCl 37

Ions and Ionic Compounds
Writing the empirical formula
 You need to know the ions of which it is composed

 The formula must reflect the electrical neutrality of the

compound

 The total positive charge must equal the total negative

charge
 Example: Consider the formation of Mg3N2:
 Mg loses two electrons to become Mg2+
 Nitrogen gains three electrons to become N3-
 For a neutral species, the number of electrons lost and gained
must be equal
38
Ions and Ionic Compounds
 However, Mg can only lose electrons in twos and N
can only accept electrons in threes

 Therefore, Mg needs to lose 6 electrons (2 x 3) and N

gain those 6 electrons (3 x 2)

 I.e.:
3Mg atoms need to form 3Mg2+ ions (total 3 x 2+
charges)

2 N atoms need to form 2N3- ions (total 2 x 3- charges)

 Therefore, the formula is Mg3N2

39
Ions and Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
40
Naming Inorganic Compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds
 Based on the names of the ions of which they are
composed
 Example NaCl is called sodium chloride
(based on Na+ and Cl- ions)
The cation is written first and the anion is written
last
Ions may be monoatomic or polyatomic
Vast majority of monoatomic cations are made from
metals
These ions take the name of the element itself
41
Naming Inorganic Compounds
Naming Cations

 If the metal can form more than one cation, the charge
is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses in the
name
 Examples: Cu+ = copper(I) and Cu2+ = copper(II)

 Most of the elements that can form more than one

cation are the transition metals (3B to 2B)

 placing ous or ic at the end of the name to indicate the

lower and higher, respectively, charged cation

 Cations formed from non-metals (end in -ium)

 Example: NH4+ ammonium ion
42
Some Common Cations

43
Table 2-3 Some Common Cations
Main Group Cations and Anions

44
Table taken from McMurry and Fay, Chemisty 3rd Edition
Naming Inorganic Compounds
Naming Anions
 Monoatomic anions are named by dropping
the ending of the name and replacing with -ide
Example: Cl- is chloride ion

 Polyatomic anions containing oxygen end in

-ate or -ite
(The one with more oxygen is called -ate)
Examples: NO3- is nitrate, NO2- is nitrite
Exceptions: hydroxide (OH-), cyanide (CN-),
peroxide (O22-)

45
Naming Polyatomic Inorganic Ions
Naming Anions
Polyatomic anions containing oxygen with more
than two members in the series are named as
follows (in order of decreasing oxygen):
 per-….-ate
 -ate
 -ite
 hypo-….-ite
 Examples
ClO4- perchlorate
ClO3- chlorate
ClO2- chlorite
ClO- hypochlorite 46
Naming Inorganic Compounds
Naming Anions
Polyatomic anions containing oxygen with
additional hydrogens are named by adding
hydrogen or bi- (one H), dihydrogen (two H), etc.,
to the name as follows:

• CO32- is the carbonate anion

• HCO3- is the hydrogen carbonate (or bicarbonate)

anion

• H2PO4- is the dihydrogen phosphate anion

47
Some Common Anions

48
Table 2-4 Some Common Anions
Naming Inorganic Compounds
BaCl2 ___________________

K2O ___________________
Mg(OH)2 ___________________

KNO3 ___________________

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 _________________

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 _________________

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) _________________

49
Naming Acids
The names of acids are related to the names of
anions
 Acids containing anions whose names end in:
-ide becomes hydro-….-ic acid
-ate becomes -ic acid
-ite becomes -ous acid

 Example
HNO3 is called nitric acid
• Has more oxygen
• Yields NO3- when dissolved in water

HNO2 is called nitrous acid

• Has fewer oxygen
• Yield NO2- when dissolved in water 50
51
Naming Acids

HNO3 ________________
H2CO3 ________________
H2SO4 ________________

52
Naming Binary Molecular
Compounds
Binary molecular compounds have two elements
 The most metallic element is usually written first (i.e.,
the one to the farthest left on the periodic table)
 Exception: NH3
 If both elements are in the same group, the lower one
is written first
 Last element ends in –ide
 Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of
atoms
 Example
HF (hydrogen fluoride)
CO (carbon monoxide)
53
Common Prefixes

54
Table 2-5 Common Prefixes
Naming Molecular Compounds

HI ___________________

NF3 ___________________

SO2 ___________________

N2Cl4 ___________________

NO2 _______________ TOXIC!

N2O ___________________ Laughing Gas

55
Naming Molecular Compounds

NaOH ______________
KOH _________________
Ba(OH)2 _________________

56
Summary
We discussed
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 The modern view of atomic structure
 The periodic table
 Molecules and molecular compounds
Molecular and empirical formula
 Ions and ionic compounds
 Naming inorganic compounds

57
Naming Organic Compounds
Study of carbon compounds is organic
chemistry

 Organic compounds – compound that contain

C and H; often combines with N, O

 Naming alkanes

58
Alkanes
 Compounds that contain only C and H
 Most basic hydrocarbon

 The first part of the names above correspond

to the number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2,
prop- = 3
59
Some Derivatives Of Alkanes
 The ending denotes the type of compound.
An alcohol ends in –ol

When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with

something else the name is derived from the name
of the alkane
• Functional group = -OH

60