MAHALAKSHMI

ENGINEERING COLLEGE
TIRUCHIRAPALLI-621213.

UNIT III
THE LINE AT RADIO FREQUENCY
PART-A (2 MARK QUESTIONS)

1. Write the expression for VSWR in terms of

a) Reflection coefficient.
b) VSWR interms of ZR and Z0. (Nov/Dec 2012)
a) S = (1 + │K│)/(1 - │K│)
b) S = ZL / Z0.

2. Mention the significance of λ/4 line. (Nov/Dec 2012)

A quarter wave line is used for impedance matching. ie., it matches the load with the
source and ensures the maximum power is being transferred to the load.

3. A lossless line has a characteristics impedance of 400 Ω. Determine the standing

wave ratio if the receiving end impedance is 800+ j 0.0 Ω. (Nov/Dec 2010)
Given :
Z0 = 400Ω, ZR = 800 + j0.0Ω
K = (ZR - Z0) / (ZR + Z0) = 1/3,
S = (1 + K) / (1 - K) = (1 + [1/3]) / (1 – [1/3]) = 2.

4. Write the expressions for the input impedance of open and short circuited
dissipationless lines. (Nov/Dec 2010)
Input impedance :
Open circuited line ZOC = -jR0 / (tan βS) = -jR0cos (2πS/λ).
Short circuited line ZSC = jR0 tan (2πS/λ).

5. For the line of zero dissipation, what will be the values of attenuation constant and
characteristics impedance?(Nov/Dec 2011)
i) For a line of zero dissipation R is very small and G is assumed to be zero.
ii) Attenuation constant α = 0.
iii) Phase constant β = ω √LC radians/m.
iv) Characteristics impedance Z0 = R0 = √(L/C)
Z0 = R0 = resistive.

6. Define standing wave ratio. (Nov/Dec 2011) (May/Jun 2013)

The ratio of the maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltages or currents on a line
having standing waves is called standing wave ratio and is denoted by S.
S = │Emax / Emin│= │Imax / Imin│

7. Write the advantages of single stub matching. (May/Jun 2012)

i) Single stub matching requires the stub to be [laced at a definite point on the
line.

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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ii) It requires two adjustment to be made, these being the location and the length
of the stub.
iii) Single stub matching is adequate for open wire lines. But for coaxial lines
this is not suitable because it is difficult to obtain the location of voltage
minimum without slotted line section. That is for coaxial lines placement of a
stub at exact point is difficult.

8. Write the relationship between SWR and reflection coefficient. (May/Jun 2012)
S = (1 + │K│)/(1 - │K│)
Or
│K│ = (S - 1)/(S + 1)

9. Give the minimum and maximum value of SWR and reflection coefficient. (Nov/Dec
2008)
SWRmin = 1, SWRmax = ∞
Reflection coefficient Kmin = 0, Kmax = 1.

10. Why is the quarter wave line called as copper insulator? (Nov/Dec 2008)
Quarter wave line input impedance is equal to ∞, if it is shorted at the other end.
Hence it is called copper insulator.

11. If the reflection coefficient of a line is 0.3∟-66˚, calculate the standing wave ratio.
(May/Jun 2009)
Reflection coefficient K = 0.3∟-66˚
Standing wave ratio S = (1 + │K│)/(1 - │K│) = (1 + 0.3) / (1 – 0.3) = 1.8571.

12. What is the value of Z0 for the dissipationless line? (May/Jun 2009)
Z0 for dissipationless line is
Z0 = R0 = √(L/C).

13. Distinguish between series stub and shunt stub. (Apr/May 2010)
Single stub Double stub
1. It has one stub to match the It requires two stub for impedance
Transmission line impedance. Matching.
2. It requires stub should be The location of stub is is arbitrary.
Placed at a definite place on a
Line.

14. List the procedural steps to find the impedance from the given admittance using
smith chart. (Apr/May 2010)
1. Find out normalized impedance ZL = ZL / ZO.
2. Admittance point is rotated clockwise to a point on a impedance circle, where it
intersects the R = 1.

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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15. Express standing wave ratio in terms of a reflection coefficient. (Apr/May 2011)
Standing wave ratio S = (1 + │K│)/(1 - │K│)
│K│= Reflection coefficient.

16. Mention the application of quarter wave line. (Apr/May 2011)

i) Used to couple of transmission line to a resistive load such as antenna.
ii) It can also be used as a matching network if load is not pure resistive.

17. Design a quarter wave transformer to match a load of 200 ohm to a source
resistance 500 ohm. The operating frequency is 200 MHz. (May/Jun 2013)
Given :
ZR = 200 ohm, ZS = 500ohm, f = 200 MHz.
ZS = R02/ZR  √ZS.ZR = √ 500 . 200 = 316.22Ω
Input impedance of λ/4 transformer  R0 = 316.22Ω
The frequency of operation is f = 200 MHz.
Wavelength λ = C/f = (3 x 108) / (200 x 106) = 1.5 m.
The length of the quarter wave line s = λ/4
s = λ/4 = 1.5/4 = 0.375 m.

18. Define Standing wave ratio. (Nov/Dec 2006)

The ratio of the maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltage or current on a line
having standing waves is called the standing wave ratio or voltage standing wave ratio
(VSWR).
S = │(Vmax / Vmin)│= │(Imax / Imin)│

19. Design a quarter wave transformer to match a load of 200Ω to a source resistance
500Ω. The operating frequency is 200 MHz. (Nov/Dec 2006)
Given :
ZL = 200Ω
ZS = 500Ω
f = 200 MHz
λ = c/f = (3 x 108)(200 x 106)
λ = 1.5 m
Length of quarter wave line = λ/4 = 1.5/4 = 0.375 m or 3705 cm
Characteristics impedance, Z0 = √(ZS.ZL) = √(200 x 500)
Z0 = 316.22 Ω

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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PART-B (16 MARK QUESTIONS)

1. Show that the incident and reflected waves combine to produce a standing wave.
(Apr/May 2010)
When the transmission line is not matched to its load ie., load impedance is not equal
to the characteristics impedance (ZR ≠ Z0), the energy delivered to the load is reflected
back to the source. The combination of incident and reflected waves gives rise to the
standing waves.

Vmin

Vmax

Distance

The above figure shows the standing waves along the length of transmission
line terminated in a load other than Z0.

The figure shows the standing waves along the line for either open or short circuit.

The plot of current variation along the line is the same as that of voltage variation
except for a λ/4 shift in the position of maximum and minimum. Nodes are points of zero
voltage or current in the standing wave systems, antinodes or loops are points of
maximum voltage or current. A line terminated in its characteristics impedance has no
standing waves and thus no nodes. It is called a smooth line.

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For open circuit voltage nodes occur at distances of λ/4, 3λ/4, 5λ/4 and so on, from
the open end. For short circuit voltage nodes occur at 0, λ/2, λ and so on, whereas current
nodes occur λ/4, 3λ/4, 5λ/4 and so on. For a resistive load greater than R0, the voltage
and current minimum occur at voltage and current nodal points for an open circuited line.
For a resistive load less than R0, the voltage and current minima occur at the voltage abd
current nodal points for a short circuited line.

The equations for voltage and current at any point on a transmission line from the
receiving end are given below.

V = VR (ZR + Z0) / 2ZR {eγx + [(ZR - Z0)( ZR + Z0)] e-γx}

I = IR (ZR + Z0) / 2Z0 {eγx - [(ZR - Z0)( ZR + Z0)] e-γx}

For zero dissipation line, the attenuation constant α is zero.

Since the reflection coefficient K = (ZR - Z0)( ZR + Z0), then

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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V = VR (ZR + Z0) / 2ZR {ejβx + K e-jβx}

I = IR (ZR + Z0) / 2Z0 {ejβx - K e-jβx}

These two equations comprise of incident wave and reflected wave with definite
maxima and minima along the line. The term involving ejβx is the incident wave whereas
the term involving e-jβx is the reflected wave. The reflected wave depends upon the
reflection coefficient.

2. It is required to match a 200 ohms load to a 300 ohms transmission line to reduce
the SWR along the line to 1. What must be the characteristics impedance of the
quarter wave transformer used for this purpose if it is directly connected to the
load? (Nov/Dec 2010)

Given :

ZR = 200Ω, Zin = 300Ω

The characteristics impedance of a quarter wave transmission line is given by,

R0 √ (ZR Zin) = √(200. 300) = 245Ω.

3. What are the drawbacks of single stub matching and open circuited stubs?

Drawbacks of single stub matching :

i) Single stub matching is applicable for single frequency. For variable frequency the
location of the stub is not fixed.

ii) For final adjustment the stub has to be moved along the line slightly. So it is possible
only in open wire lines.

Drawbacks of open circuited stubs :

i) Radiates more power.

ii) Difficult to construct.

4. A UHF lossless transmission line working at 1GHz is connected to an unmatched

line producing a voltage reflection coefficient of 0.5 (0.866 + j0.5). calculate the
length and position of the stub to match the line. (Nov/Dec 2010)

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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5. Explain the applications of smith chart. A 30 m long lossless transmission line with
Z0 = 50Ω operating at 2 MHz is terminated with a load ZL = 60 + j 40Ω. If V = 0.6 C
on the line, find the reflection coefficient, the standing wave ratio S and the input
impedance. (Apr/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2012)

Applications of smith chart :

i) Used to measure the input impedance and load impedance.

ii) Used to measure standing wave ratio.

iii) Used to measure reflection coefficient in polar form.

iv) Used to find the location of voltage maximum and minimum.

v) Used to analyse the single stub matching and double stub matching.

Reflection coefficient K = (ZR - Z0) / ( ZR + Z0)

= (60 + j 40 -50) (60 + j 40 + 50)

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= 0.3523 ∟56˚

Standing wave ratio S = (1 + │k│)(1 - │k│) = 2.088

Input impedance Zin = R0 [(ZR + j R0 tan βs) ((R-0 - j ZR tan βs)]

V = ω/β , β = ω/v

β = 2πf / V = {(2π x 2 x 106) / (0.6 x 3 x 108) } x 30 = 120˚

Zin = 50 {[(60 + j 40) + j 50 tan 120˚] / 50 – j (60 + j 40) tan 120˚}

Zin = 24.01∟3.22˚ Ω

Zin = 23.97 + j 1.35 Ω.

6. A 30m long lossless transmission line with Z0 = 50Ω operating at 2 MHz is

terminated with a load ZL = 60 + j 40 Ω. If U = 0.6 C on the line, find

i) Reflection coefficient

ii) Standing wave ratio

iii) Input impedance (Nov/Dec 2012)

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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7. What are the drawbacks of single stub matching ?Briefly discuss how it is overcome
by double stub matching. (Nov/Dec 2009)
- The input admittance of a transmission line is changing from maximum to
minimum conductance , minimum to maximum conductance and so on and cycle
repeat for λ/2.
- An appropriate length of a short circuited open circuited with the transmission
line is shunted at this point to achieve the impedance matching.
- The input impedance of the transmission line at this point is Z = Z0.
- The line from the source to this [point is then terminated with R0 and is a smooth
line.
To avoid the disadvantages of single matching, double matching is introduced.
Double stub matching is one in which two short circuited stub, whose lengths are
adjustable independently are fixed.

8. Derive the expression that permit easy measurements of power flow on a line of
negligible losses. (Nov/Dec 2011)
Currents and voltages on the dissipationless line :
The equations for voltage at any point (l = x) from the receiving end of the
transmission line is given by
V = [VR (ZR + Z0)/2ZR] {eγx + (ZR - Z0)/( ZR + Z0) e-γx}
The current of the transmission line is given by
I = IR (ZR + Z0)/2Z0] {eγx - (ZR - Z0)/( ZR + Z0) e-γx}
Rearranging,
For zero dissipation line Z0 = R0 and γ = jβ (Since α = 0)
V = [VR (ZR + R0)/2ZR] {ejβ x + (ZR - R0)/( ZR + R0) e-jβ x}
I = IR (ZR + R0)/2Z0] {e jβ x - (ZR - R0)/( ZR + R0) e- jβ x}
Rearranging
V = [VR / 2ZR] {(ZR - R0)ejβ x + ( ZR + R0) e-jβ x}
= [VR / 2ZR] {(ZR (ejβ x + e-jβ x) + R0( ejβ x - e-jβ x )}
= [VR / ZR] {[ZR (ejβ x + e-jβ x) / 2 ]+ [j R0( ejβ x - e-jβ x ) /2j]}
V = VR cos β x + j IR R0 sin β x
Similarly for I
I = [IR / 2 R0] {(ZR + R0)ejβ x - ( ZR - R0) e-jβ x}
= [IR / 2 R0] {(ZR (ejβ x - e-jβ x) + R0( ejβ x + e-jβ x )}
= [IR / R0] {[ R0 (ejβ x - e-jβ x) / 2 ]+ [j ZR ( ejβ x - e-jβ x ) /2j]}
V = IR/R0 {R0cos β x + j IR R0 sin β x}
Therefore,
I = IR cos β x + j VR / R0 sin β x
V = VR cos β x + j IR R0 sin β x
If the line is open circuited, IR = 0
V = VR cos β x
I = +j IR R0 sin β x
Where β = 2π/λ
If the line is short circuited, VR = 0
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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V = j IR R0 sin β x
I = IR cos β x.

9. Discuss the various parameters of open-wire and coaxial lines at radio frequency.
(Nov/Dec 2011)
Parameters of open wire line :
At high frequencies the current is flowing on the surface of the conductor in a skin of
very small depth. Since the internal flux and internal inductance are reduced to zero, the
inductance of open wire line becomes,
L = µ0 / 2π ln (d/a) H/m
Where
a is the radius of open wire line
d is the distance between the two open wire lines
µ0 = 4π x 10-7 H/m
The value of the capacitance of a open wire is not affected by skin effect or high
frequencies.
C = π ε0 / [ln (d/a)] F/m
Where
ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
If the current flows at high frequencies over the surface of the conductor in a thin
layer, there is an increase in resistance of the conductor. The skin depth or the effective
thickness of the surface layer of current is
δ = 1 / √(πfµσ)
For direct current resistance of the open wire line is
Rdc = K/ πa2
For alternating current resistance of the open wire line is
Rac = K / πaδ
Therefore,
Rac = K √(πfµσ) /( πa)
= K / a [√(µσ) /( π)] √f ohm/m
This equation shows that the resistance increases with increasing frequency.

Parameters of the coaxial cable :

The parameters of the coaxial line are also modified by the presence of high
frequency currents on the line. Because o skin effect, the current flows only on the
surface of the conductor and it eliminates the flux linkages.
The inductance of the capacitance if the coaxial cable is
L = µ0 / 2π ln (b/a) H/m
Where
a is the outer radius of the inner conductor
b is the inner radius of the outer conductor.

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The capacitance of the coaxial cable is not affected by high frequency current. The value
of the capacitance of coaxial cable is
C = 2 π ε / [ln (b/a)] F/m
Where ε = ε0 εr, permittivity of the medium.

Due to skin effect, the resistance o the coaxial cable is given by

Rac = K / πδ {(1/a) + (1/b)}
= K √(πfµσ) /( π) {(1/a) + (1/b)}
Rac = K [√(µσ) /( π)] √f {(1/a) + (1/b)} ohm/m
Resistance increases with an increase o frequency.

10. A low loss transmission line of 100 ohms characteristics impedance is connected to a
load of 200 ohm. Calculate the voltage reflection coefficient and the standing wave
ratio. (May/Jun 2012)

Given :
Z0 = 100ohms, ZR = 200 ohms
Voltage reflection coeeficient is given by
K = (ZR - Z0) / (ZR + Z0)
= (200 - 100) /(200 + 100)
= 0.333
Voltage standing wave ratio is given by,
VSWR = S = (1 + │K│) / (1-│K│)
= (1 + 0.333) / (1 – 0.333)
= 1.499.

11. An ideal loss less quarter wave transmission line of characteristics impedance 60
ohm is terminated in a load impedance ZL . Give the value of the input impedance of
the line when ZL = 0, ∞ and 60 ohm. (May/Jun 2012)
For the quarter wave line, the characteristics impedance is R0.
Input impedance = Zin = R02 / ZL
Case (i) ZL = 0, Zin = ∞
Case (ii) ZL = ∞, Zin = 0
Case (iii) ZL = 60Ω, Zin = (60)2 / 60 = 60Ω.

12. Write the concept of single stub and double stub matching. (May/Jun 2012)
(Nov/Dec 2006) (Nov/Dec 2012)

In general, the source or input impedance is a fixed one. By choosing the value of
load impedance to be equal to the input impedance, impedance matching is achieved. In
certain cases, the load impedance is also fixed. If the load impedance is not equal to the
complex conjugate of the input impedance, the maximum power transfer will not take
place. This is known as mismatching. So, it is necessary to introduce some form of an
EC 2305 – TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES -V SEM ECE
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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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impedance transforming section between the source and load to achieve impedance
matching. Such a section is called an impedance matching device. Another means of
accomplishing impedance matching is the use of an open or short circuited line of
suitable length, called stub at a designated distance from the load. This is called
matching. There are two types of stub matching.

They are :
i) Single stub matching
ii) Double stub matching

Single stub matching :

A transmission line having a characteristics admittance Y0 terminated with
load conductance YR. Since YR is different from YS , standing waves are set up in
between source and load.

ls

Y0 YR

lt

The input admittance of a transmission line is changing from maximum to minimum

conductance, minimum to maximum conductance and so on and the cycle repeats for
every λ/2. When the line is transverse from the point of maximum or minimum
conductance to that of minimum or maximum conductance, there will be a point at which
the real part of the admittance is equal to the characteristics admittance. An appropriate
length of a short circuited or open circuited line with the transmission line is shunted at
this point to achieve the impedance matching. The input impedance of the transmission
line at this point is ZS = R0. The line from the source to this point is then terminated with
R0 and is a smooth line. But there is a reflection between this point and load. Since the
distance is less than the wavelength, the losses will be less.

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The input impedance at any point of a transmission line is given by,

ZS = Z0. (ZR + Z0 tanhγl) / (Z0 + ZR tanhγl)

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
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This can be obtained either by an open circuited or short circuited stub. But normally
short circuited stub is preferred because of the following advantages.
i) It radiates less power.
ii) Its effective length may be varied by means of a shorting bar.
The susceptance of a short circuited stub is equal to Y0 cotβlt.

YR

lt2 lt1

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13. Write the concept of quarter wave length line and half wave length line. (May/Jun
2012) (Nov / Dec2006) (Nov/Dec 2009) (Nov/Dec 2010)

The input impedance of a dissipationless transmission line is

ZS = R0 {(ZR + j R0 tan β x) / (R0 + j ZR tan β x)}

ZS = R0 {(ZR / tan β x) + j R0 / (R0 / tan β x) + j ZR }

For a quarter wave line x = λ/4,

β x = (2π/ λ) (λ/4) = π/2

ZS = R0 {(ZR / tan π/2) + j R0 / (R0 / tan π/2) + j ZR }

= R0 [(j R0) / (j ZR)]

ZS = R02 / ZR

A quarter wave section of line may be considered as a transformer to match a

load of ZR to a source of ZS. Such a match can be obtained if the characteristics
impedance R0' of the matching quarter wave section of the line is properly chosen.

ie., R0' = │√(ZSZR)│

The R0' of the matching section should be equal to the geometric mean of the source
and load impedance.

A quarter wave transformer may also be used if the load is not a pure
resistance. It should then be connected between points corresponding to Imax or Vmin at
which the places the transformation line has resistive impedance given by R0/S or
SR0. For stepping down the impedance from the line value of R0, the matching
transformer characteristics impedance should be

R0' = √ R0 (R0/S) = R0 √(1/S)

The quarter wave transformer is also a single frequency or narrow band device. The
bandwidth may be increased by using two or more quarter wave sections in series.

λ/4

Quarter wave transformer

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A quarter wave transformer may be considered as an impedance inverter in that it can

transform a low impedance into a high impedance and vice versa. An important
application of the quarter wave matching section is to couple a transmission line to a
resistive load such as an antenna. This effect is illustrated by the action of λ/4 short
circuited line in transforming in the impedance.

Half wave line :

The input impedance of a dissipationless transmission line is

ZS = R0 {(ZR + j R0 tan β x) / (R0 + j ZR tan β x)}

For half wave line x = λ/2,

Βx = (2π/ λ) (λ/2) = π

ZS = R0 {(ZR + j R0 tan π) / (R0 + j ZR tan π)}

= R0 .( ZR / R0)

ZS = RR

A half wavelength of line may then be considered as one to one transformer.

It has application in connecting a load to a source in cases when the load and source
cannot be made adjacent.

14. A 750Ω lossless transmission line is to be matched to a resistive load impedance of

ZL = 100Ω via a quarter wave section. Find the characteristics Impedance of the
quarter wave transformer. (Nov/Dec 2008)

Given :

Z0 = 75Ω, ZL = 100Ω

Characteristics impedance of λ/4 line (R0) = √ (R0 ZL)

= √(75 x 100)

= 86.6 Ω.

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15. A 50Ω lossless transmission line is terminated on a load impedance of ZL =(25 + j

50)Ω. Use the smith chart to find

1. Voltage reflection coefficient,

2. VSWR,
3. Input impedance of the line, given that the line is 3.3λ long and
4. Input admittance of the line. (Nov/Dec 2008)

Given :

Z0 = 50Ω , ZL = 25 + j 50Ω

Normalized load impedance ZL = ZL / Z0 = (25 + j 50) / 50 = 0.5 + j

SWR = 4.3

The phase angle of reflection coefficient = (0.25 – 0.135) 4π

= 82.8°

K = (S - 1) / (S + 1) = 0.62 ∟82.8°

Input impedance Zin = Zin Z0

= (0.275 – j 0.405) 50

Zin = (13.75 – j 20.25)Ω

Input admittance Yin = yin Z0

= (1.125 + j 1.675)50

= (546 + j 83.75) mho

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16. Describe single stub matching technique. Derive the expression for length and
location of the stub. (Nov/Dec 2010)

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The location of the stub lS and the length of the stub lt can be determined, if the
reflection coefficient and frequency are known.

A short circuited stub is normally preferred because of its simple construction and
inability of the stub to remain open circuited. The short circuit can be easily established
with a large metal plate and it also has a lower radiation loss of energy.

17. Define standing wave ratio and obtain the expression of VSWR in terms of reflection
coefficient. (May/Jun 2009)

The ratio of the maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltage or current on a line

having standing waves is called the standing wave ratio or voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR).

S = │(Vmax) / (Vmin)│= │(Imax) / (Imin)│

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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
TIRUCHIRAPALLI-621213.

Voltage equation is V = {VR (ZR + Z0) / 2 ZR}. [ejβx + K e-jβx]

Maxima of voltage along a line occurs at which the incident and reflected waves are
in phase.

Vmin= {VR (ZR + Z0) / 2 ZR} [1 - │K│]

│(Vmax) / (Vmin)│= (1 + │K│) / (1 - │K│)

The standing wave ratio is defined in terms of the reflection coefficient.

S = (1 + │K│) / (1 - │K│)

Or │K│ = (S - 1) / (S + 1)

Or │K│ = {│(Vmax) / (Vmin)│- 1} / {│(Vmax) / (Vmin)│+ 1}

│K│= {│(Vmax) - (Vmin)│} / {│(Vmax) + (Vmin)│}

│K│

0 100

SWR

EC 2305 – TRANSMISSION LINES AND WAVEGUIDES -V SEM ECE