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Module 4

1. Conformal Coating is a coating applied to the completed PCB after assembly to protect it
from hostile environments such as vibration, heat, damp/moisture and fungal growth. There
are many types of coatings, each being selected to meet the level of protection required by
the PCBs usage.

2. Velocity Feedback or rate feedback, can reduce hunting to one overshoot. This can be
done by connecting a Tacho-generator to the output of the servo-motor, driving the load.
The output of the tacho-generator is fed into the amplifier in opposition to the error signal.

3. Position Feedback is used to ensure the control surface moves to the demanded position
by the controls.

4. Negative Feedback helps to increase the stability of an amplifier with changes in

temperature and the effects of age. Increasing negative feed-back increases amplifier
stability, but decreases system sensitivity.

5. Rate Feedback or velocity feedback. The primary purpose of rate feedback is to prevent
excessive over-shoot.

6. Synchro Capacitors reduce stator current and make the synchro system more accurate.
Velocity Lag is the difference between the demand input and the load position. Velocity lag
is therefore a positional error.

7. Intrinsic Semi-Conductors are pure materials which have one ”hole” for every electron.
The resistance of a semiconductor decreases as the temperature increases. This ability to
conduct electric current is known as intrinsic conduction because the charge carriers are
provided by the semiconductor itself.

8. Extrinsic Semi-Conductor are impure materials where the number of holes, or free
electrons, may be greatly increased by introducing a small amount of impurity into the
semiconductor crystal. This process is known as doping and the material produced is called
an extrinsic semi-conductor. The conductivity of extrinsic materials depends on the amount
of impurity present. By adding impurities the increased conductivity is know as extrinsic
conductivity because the additional charge carriers are provided by atoms introduced from
outside.

9. Valence Orbit is the outer orbit of an atom. Insulators have more than half their valence
orbit full. Conductors have less than half their valence orbit full. Semi-conductors have 4
electrons in their outer orbit. The fewer electrons in the valence orbit the better the material
is a conductor.
10. Donors are materials such as arsenic, antimony and phosphorous have 5 valence
electrons. Only four of these are required to fit into the lattice structure of a semi-conductor.
Thus four electrons will form covalent bonds leaving one electron free. This free electron
will enter the conduction band. Each atom of the donor material donates an electron and
itself becomes a static positive ion. This ion is locked into the lattice structure and cannot
move and is therefore not a hole. The material, as a whole, is electrically neutral as there are
the same number of positive and negative charges in the material.

11. Acceptors are materials such as boron, gallium and indium have only three valence
electrons. When inserted into the lattice structure each impurity atom will have an electron
missing, i.e. a hole. In this case the number of holes greatly exceeds the number of free
electrons. This type of impurity accepts electrons from the lattice structure.

12. P-type materials are materials doped with acceptor impurity material have many more
holes than electrons, therefore any current flow consists almost entirely of holes provided
by the impurity. This is called p-type material because the majority carriers of charge are
holes. Silicone doped with boron produces a P-type material. The boron only has 3
electrons to form bonds with the 4 electrons of the silicon. This type material is known as
P-type because the majority carriers are 'free' positive holes. Holes are therefore the
majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers.

13. N-type material materials doped with donor impurity material have many more free
electrons than holes, therefore any current flow consists almost entirely of free electrons
donated by the impurity. Electrons are therefore the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers. Silicone doped with phosphorous produces a N-type material. The
phosphorous adds free electrons to the crystal lattice. This is called N-type material because
the majority carriers of charge are electrons. There will be some movement of holes caused
by the thermal breakdown of covalent bonds and these form the minority carriers in the
material. Electrons will travel from the N-type material to the p-type. Holes will travel from
p-type material to the N-type.

14. Depletion Layer is the term for when a P-N junction is formed free electrons on the n-
side cross over to the P-region and fall into a hole to become a valence electron. The result
is the formation of two ions, a positive ion on the N-side resulting in the loss of an electron
and a negative ion on the P-side for the atom that captures the electron. As the process
builds it depletes the carriers in the area of the junction and creates a barrier potential. In
order for the diode to conduct this barrier must first be overcome. For silicone this is
approximately 0.7V and for germanium approximately 0.3V.

15. Effect of Temperature in semi-conductors: Lowering the temperature makes semi-

conductors behave like an insulator. Raising the temperature makes semi-conductors
behave like a conductor. Resistance decreases as temperature increases.
16. Forward Bias: If an external battery is connected with a voltage greater than the barrier
EMF then the barrier disappears. Charges drift easily through the junction and recombine
and are replaced by the battery. A heavy current flows and the crystal becomes a low value
resistor.

17. Reverse Bias: With the battery connected the other way round the battery is now
strengthening the junction EMF and the barrier becomes even stronger so no recombination
occurs, giving no battery current flow. Remember, leakage current is not affected giving a
few micro amps of reverse current. If the battery/supply voltage is too high the barrier
insulation breaks down, a heavy current flows and the p-n junction is destroyed.

18. Break-over Voltage (VBO) is the maximum safe voltage, which if exceeded will destroy
the P-N barrier allowing a heavy reverse current to flow.

19. Bi-directional Zener Diode: These are often connected across the coils of relays and
solenoids to eliminate voltage spikes caused by the collapsing magnetic field around the
coil when switched OF'. Work similar to Zener diodes by only conducting current above a
certain level, but will conduct current in either direction, or polarity.

20. LED (Light Emitting Diode): For the LED to conduct, i.e. illuminate, it must be in the
forward-bias condition. Typical volts drop across a LED is approximately 1.6V. The colour
of an LED is determined by the active elements. The shorter of the two leads is the
CATHODE.

21. A Thyristor is a semiconductor used for switching purposes. A thyristor may replace a
solenoid or relay for controlling the load current to motors. Electrical load switching
through thyristor is better because there are no moving parts, thus problems with wear,
corrosion and arcing are eliminated. There are two common types of thyristor, SCRs and
Triac. Thyristor are high current handling devices. Commonly used for rectification.

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