INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

DEFINITION

Welding is a fabrication process is defined as an operation by

which two (or) more parts are united by means of heat or pressure in
such a way that there is continuity of the nature of the material between
these parts to be welded and forms a weld. A filler material, the melting
temperature of which is of the same as that of the parent material, may or
may not be used.
Welding is one of the important and versatile means of
fabrication available in industry. Welding is used to join all types of
materials including plastics, ferrous and non-ferrous alloys etc. Many of
the high temperature metals and super alloys and fabricated processes
used in industries are Gas Welding, Arc welding and Resistance
welding.”

“HEAT” - Primary requirement for welding, and,

medium of classification of welding processes
 CONTENTS
 1 Welding Process & types of welding
 2 Welding Equipment
 3 Weld Design
 4 Weld Defects
 5 Distortion & its control
 6 Inspection & Non-destructive testing
of welds
 7 Special Welding techniques
 8 WPS, PQR and Welder qualifications
 Classification of welding processes
1. Gas welding
2. Arc welding
3. Resistance welding
4. Solid state welding
5. Thermo-chemical welding
6. Radiant energy welding

Gas welding: Arc welding: Resistance welding:

- Oxy-acetylene welding - Carbon arc - Spot
- Air acetylene welding - Flux cored arc - Seam
- Oxy-hydrogen welding - TIG or GTAW - Projection
- Pressure gas welding - Plasma arc - Resistance butt
- Electro slag & electro gas - Flash butt
- Shielded metal arc - Percussion
- Submerged arc - HF resistance
- MIG or GMAW
- Stud arc
Solid state welding: Thermo-chemical:
- Cold welding - Thermit welding
- Explosive welding - Atomic hydrogen welding
- Friction welding
- Roll welding Radiant energy welding:
- Diffusion welding
- Electron beam welding
- Forge welding
- Laser beam welding
- Hot-pressure welding
- Ultrasonic welding
Advantages of welding
- A good weld is as strong as the base metal
- Low cost of general-welding equipment (economical)
- Portable equipment
- Permits freedom in design
- Lighter, smoother structure
- Both similar & dissimilar metals can be joined
- Simplicity in design, ease of modification/additions
- Mechanization of welding processes

Disadvantages of welding
- Harmful light radiations, fumes, splatter etc.
- Residual stresses & distortion, due to high heat
- Change in metallurgical properties of base metal
- Jigs n fixtures required to hold job
- Edge preparation required
- Skilled labour
- High standards of testing and inspection, etc.
 Oxy-Acetylene Flame
- Produced by the combustion of a mixture of oxygen and acetylene.
- Temperature and characteristics of the flame depend on the ration of
the gas mixture

Oxy- Acetylene gas is preferred because…

…is a well controlled flame with high temperature -- 3200°C
…flame can be manipulated as per requirement
…does not change the chemical properties of base metal
…does not require components to be forced together under pressure

Parts of the Flame

Parts of the flame are based on
the temperature zones.
- Inner cone
- Inner reducing cone
- Outer zone or envelope
The greatest amount of heat of
produced just ahead of the inner cone.
 Stages of combustion:
- Primary combustion
- Secondary combustion

Primary combustion:
- Takes place in the inner cone, at the tip of the
nozzle
- Max heat just in front of the inner cone

Secondary combustion:
- Takes place at the outer envelope of the flame

The chemical reaction

1 volume of Acetylene combines with 2½ volumes of Oxygen and burns
to form 2 volumes of CO2 and1 volume of water-vapour, plus heat

For complete combustion :

1 volume of Acetylene + 2 ½ volumes of Oxygen
The flame takes an additional 1.5 volume of oxygen from the atmosphere
Types of Flame:
- Neutral flame Selection of Flame
- Oxidising Flame is based on metal to
- Carburizing or Reducing flame
be welded

Neutral Flame:
- Most commonly used flame
- O2 & C2H2 in equal proportion
- Complete combustion
- No bad effect on base metal,
**base metal not oxidized
**no carbon available for reacting with metal
- Used to weld metals like Mild Steel, Cast Iron, Stainless Steel, Copper, Aluminium
Oxidising Flame:
- More of Oxygen (1.5:1)
- Oxidising effect on metals
- Burns with loud roar
- Used to weld Brass and for brazing of
ferrous metals

Reducing Flame:
- Volume of oxygen less than that of
neutral flame
- A reducing flame does not carburize
metal, it ensures absence of oxidising
condition
- A carburizing flame has a little more
oxygen than a reducing flame and has
carburizing effect on steel, i.e., causes
hard, brittle & weak weld
- Reducing flame is Used for flame
cleaning,
Advantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas welding
- It can be applied to a wide variety of manufacturing & maintenance
situations
- Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal
in the weld zone.
- Equipment is versatile, low cost, self-sufficient and portable.
- Equipment can also be used for…
…pre-heating
…braze welding
…oxygen cutting

Disadvantages of Oxy-acetylene Gas welding

- Heavy sections cannot be joined economically
- Flame temperature is less than arc temperature
- Reactive metals cannot be gas welded
- Gas flame takes longer time to heat metal
- Flux shielding is less effective than inert gas shielding used in Arc
welding processes
Other gas welding processes
Welding flame may also be produced by the combination of Oxygen
and gases such as Hydrogen, Propane, Butane, etc.

Factors that influence the selection of another gas…

…type of material to be welded
…welding temperature required
…the fuel-gas that is readily available
…cost of supply of the fuel-gas
Hydrogen:
…used to weld metals with low melting points
…Temperature at hottest point of flame is only 2500°C. If higher temp
is reached by adjusting O2 supply, flame becomes unsuitable for welding.
…requires O2 – H2 ratio of 1:2
…flame is scarcely visible, there are no zones in the flame
Propane & Butane:
…used primarily in brazing
…not used for welding of Steel because atmosphere is oxidising
 Braze welding
…intermediate between true welding and brazing
…method of welding where a weld is made using a non-ferrous
filler metal having a melting point below that of the base metal, but
above 427°C
…filer metal is deposited directly in the required region

Brazing
…Used with close-fitted surfaces
…Filler alloy is fed to one or few points and is drawn into the rest of
the joint by capillary action
 ARC WELDING
 Arc welding is a group of welding process where
in coalescence is produced by heating with an
electrical arc or arcs, mostly without the
application of pressure and with or without the
use of filler metal depending upon the base plate
thickness.
 ARC WELDING PROCESS
CARBON ARC WELDING
 Welding may be carried out in air or in inert atmosphere.
 Filler material may or may not be used.
 Dc straight polarity is preferred to restrict electrode
disintegration and amount of carbon going in to the weld
metal and for the same larger arc length (up to 30 mm) are
employed in carbon arc welding.
 This process is used for welding steel, aluminum, nickel,
copper and other alloys. This process is manually operated.
 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence is
produced by heating the work peace with an electric arc
struck between carbon electrode and the work peace.
 SHEILDED METAL ARC WELDING

 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence is

produced by heating the work peace with an
electric arc step up between a flux-coated electrode
and the wok peace.
 The flux covering decomposed due to arc heating
and performs many functions like arc stability,
Weld metal protection etc.
 The electrode itself melts and supplies and
necessary filler metals.
 A big range of metal and their alloys can be
welded.
 Welding can be carried out in any position.
 This process is manually operated.
 SMAW PROCESS
Direction of Travel

Gaseous Shield

Metal Droplets Electrode Coating

Deoxidizers ARC

Slag Formers
Electrode Wire

Weld Bead
Base Metal
&
Slag
Molten Pool
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence is
produced by heating with an electric arc or arcs
step up between a bare metal electrode/electrode
at the job.
 The arc end of the electrode and molten pool
remain completely hidden and are visible being
submerged a blanket of granular material (flux).
 The continuously fed bare metal electrode metals
and acts as filler rod.
 No pressure is applied for welding purpose the
flux serves as a shield and protects the molten
metal from atmospheric contamination.
 The process may be semi- automatic or automatic.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
TUGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING
 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence is
produced by heating the job with an electric arc
struck between a tungsten electrode and the job.
 A shielding gas (argon, helium, nitrogen, etc) is
used to avoid atmospheric contamination of the
molten weld pool.
 A filler metal may be added if required.
 In this process a non- consumable electrode
(tungsten) is used.
 TIG welding is very much suitable for high quality
welding of thin materials as thin as 0.125 mm.
COMPONENTS OF A TIG SYSTEM

HELIARC TORCH REGULATOR/FLOWMETER

(AIR or WATER COOLED)

SHIELDING GAS
WORK PIECE

WATER COOLER
CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY (OPTIONAL)
 PROCESS ADVANTAGES

 Cleanest weld metal

 Excellent mechanical properties

 Excellent puddle control

 PROCESS DISADVANTAGES

 Low deposition rates

 Higher weld cost

 Greater operator skill required

 BASIC PROCESS

Gas Cup
( )
Shielding Gas
Electrode CC
POWER
SUPPLY
Arc
Puddle ( )
Work
Types of Tungsten Electrodes

Pure
Least expensive, low current capacity

Thoriated
Better arc starting, higher current carrying
capacity, resistant to comtamination
Zirconiated
Has properties of both pure and thoriated
with greater stability for AC welding
Ceriated
Similar properties to thoriated tungsten,
gaining use as a safer alternative
Lanthanated
Similar properties to ceriated tungsten,
gaining use as a safer alternative
 TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES

Most Commonly Used

Type Pure 2% THORIATED
Color Green Red
Current AC DC
Shape Ball Point
Uses Al, Mg CS, SS, Cu, Ni, Ti

Benefits Self balling Higher currents

Better starts
 SHIELDING GASES
 ARGON
 Best arc stability
 Best shielding
 Best cleaning action
 HELIUM
 Increases penetration and heat
 Increases welding speed
 ARGON/HELIUM MIXTURES
 Combines benefits of both gases
 Applications
6Al 4V Forgings

Joints

Bearing Support
Fitting Assembly
 Applications
Courtesy of Martin Marietta Aero & Naval Systems

Nose cone Section of Cruise Missile

Material: Inconel 718

Fuel Tank Section of Cruise Missile

Material: 6Al 4V Titanium
 METAL INERT GAS WELDING
 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence is produced by
heating the job with an electric arc established between a
continuously fed metal electrode and the job.
 No flux is used but the arc and molten metal are shielded by an
inert gas, which may be argon, helium, carbon dioxide or a gas
mixture.
 Because of continuously fed electrode MIG welding process is
much faster as compared to TIG welding and can produce deep
penetration joints.
 All commercial metals and alloys can be welded.
 MIG WELDING SYSTEM

Regulator/ flowmeter: R-50-FM-580

High Pressure Gas Cylinder, Shield Gas

Filler Metal, (Electrode): Spoolarc 86

Wire Feeder: Digipulse

Constant Voltage Power Source:

Digipulse 450

Welding Torch/Mig Gun: MT400

MAJOR PROCESS COMPONENTS

(+)

CV
POWER
SUPPLY

(-)
Advantages & Limitations of GMAW

Overcomes the restriction of limited electrode length (SMAW)

Welding can be done in all positions

Welding speeds are higher than SMAW; higher depositions rates

Deeper penetration than SMAW which allows for smaller fillets for
an equivalent strength SMA weld of same size

Can be used on all the major commercial alloys

Equipment is more complex, more costly, and less portable

Welding arc must be protected against air drafts that may

disperse the shielding gas causing porosity
 Process Fundamentals

(+) (-)
3/4”

3/8”
Increase Decrease
Electrode Extension Electrode Extension
 SHIELDING GAS
Purpose: Protect the molten weld metal and HAZ
from
contamination from surrounding atmosphere. Will
also
affect metal transfer characteristics, penetration etc.
Types
 Inert, i.e. Argon, Helium
 Reactive, i.e. Carbon Dioxide
 Mixtures of inert and reactive, i.e.
Argon/Oxygen, Argon/CO2,
 Tri-mixes, i.e. Argon/Helium/Carbon Dioxide
 SHIELDING GAS PROPERTIES
 Argon
 Inert; Excellent arc stability, heavier than air
 Helium
 Inert; Increased heat input; Faster travel
speeds, lighter than air
 Carbon Dioxide - CO2
 Increased heat input; Good shielding,
oxidizing
 Oxygen
 Improves bead wetting; Arc stabilizer,
oxidizing
 Hydrogen
 Improves bead wetting; Increases heat input
 MODES OF METAL TRANSFER

 Four basic modes of metal transfer

High

Spray Arc

Pulsed Spray Arc

Globular Arc

Short Arc
Low

Deposition Rates
 SHORT ARC TRANSFER

 Generally uses small diameter solid

wires
 Uses low currents and voltages

 Low heat input

 Good for welding thin gauge and out-of-
position
 SHORT ARC PIPE WELD - ID

Smooth uniform
penetration

Uniform fusion
at toes of weld

WELD UNDERBEAD
SHORT ARC - (VERT)

Macro Section
 GLOBULAR TRANSFER

 The type of transfer achieved when using CO2

shielding gas.

 Good penetration and higher speeds

 Excessive weld spatter

 Increased clean-up cost

CO2 WELD vs Argon-CO2 Mix

Argon/CO2

CO2
 SPRAY TRANSFER
 Spray transfer occurs when:

 Welding current is above the transition point

 Shielding gas is greater than 80% argon

 Arc voltage is high enough that it does not short

circuit - about 26-30 volts
 SPRAY TRANSFER

 High currents and high voltages give high

heat inputs
 Used in the flat and horizontal positions on
heavy plate
 High currents give good penetration and
high deposition rates
 Almost no spatter
 Very smooth weld beads
SPRAY ARC PIPE WELD

Fixed ST21M

Rotating Pipe Assembly

 SPRAY ARC - (HORZ)

.045” WIRE @ 300 IPM - 280 AMPS @ 27.5 VOLTS

 PULSED SPRAY TRANSFER

 Requires a special power supply that

pulses the welding current above the
transition level at a given frequency to
achieve spray transfer at lower average
currents.
 Requires the use of a spray arc gas.
 Less heat input than spray arc
 Welds out-of-position
 Almost no spatter
PULSED SPRAY ARC PIPE WELD
PULSED ARC WELD - PIPE

MECHANIZED W / OSCILLATION - 7.5” SCH. 80

PULSED ARC WELD - (HORZ)

.045” WIRE @ 300 IPM - 200 AMPS @ 25 VOLTS

PULSED ARC WELD - (VERT)

Macro Section
 ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence

is produced by molten slag which melts the filler
metal and surface of the work to welded.
 Welding flux is added and melts it to form the slag
arc heats.
 Much thicker steel can be welded in single pass.
 Thickness up to 450mm in plain and alloy steel
can be welded.
 ELECTRO GAS WELDING
 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence is
produced by the gas or heat require for welding is
obtained by maintaining a continuous electric arc
between the electrodes and the moten weld poll
during welding operation.
 An inert ( ex:CO2) shields the molten weld pool
from oxidation, only DC can be used for electro
gas welding.
 Plates 12.5mm to 275mm thick are most commonly
welded. Welding is done in one pass.
 PLASMA GAS WELDING
 Plasma arc welding is an arc welding process where in
coalescence is produced by heat obtained from a
constructed arc step up between tungsten/ alloy
tungsten.
 Electrode and the water-cooled nozzle as between
tungsten/alloy tungsten electrode and the job.
 The process employs two inert gases, one forms the
arc plasma and the second shields the arc plasma.
 Filler metal may or may not be added.
 All metal and alloys can be welded.
 ARC SPOT WELDING
 It is an arc welding process at zero arc travel speed
where in coalescence between two coating surfaces is
obtained with the help of a spot formed by heating
with air electric arc step up between a tungsten
electrode and one of the two closely fit surface.
 Filler metals may or may not be used depending upon
the materials to be welded.
 The process involves less maintenance cost.
 The process is normally free from smoke and spatter.
 All commercial metals and alloys can be easily welded.
 STUD WELDING
 It is an arc welding process where in coalescence is
produced by heating with an electric arc drawn between a
metal stud, bolt, rivet or a similar part and the base metal.
 Arc is maintained till a molten pool is created in the base
metal and the arcing end of the stud is heated to melting
point.
 At this stage, arc extinguished and the stud is forced in to
the molten metal pod of the metal to form the weld.
 The molten metal is shielded by a ferrule and a flux or inert
shield gas.
 A simple, efficient economic and very fast method of
joining pins, bolts, studs, rivets, rods etc. to a plate or a
structure.
 Most of the ferrous and nonferrous materials and their
alloys can be stud welded easily.
 RESISTANCE WELDING
PROCESSES
 Resistance welding is a group of welding processes
wherein coalescence is produced by the heat
obtained from the resistance offered by the work
piece to the flow of electric current in a circuit of
which the work is a part, and, by the application of
pressure. No filler metal is needed.
 The different types of resistance welding are as
follows:
 SPOT WELDING
 It is a welding process in which over lapping sheets
are joined by local fusion at one or more spots by the
heat generated by resistance to the flow of electric
current through work piece that are held together
under force by two electrodes one above the other
below the two overlapping sheets.
 High speed of welding, the skilled workers, and
operation may be made automatic or semi-automatic
are the advantages.
 Spot welding of two 12.5mm thick steel plates has been
done satisfactorily.
 SEAM WELDING

 Seam welding is a resistance welding process

where in coalescence at the saying surfaces is
produced by heat obtained from resistance to
electric current (flow) through the work parts held
together under pressure by electrodes.
 The resulting weld is a series of overlapping
resistance spot welds made progressively along a
joint by rotating the circular electrodes.
 All commercial metals and their alloys are
successfully welded by seam welding.
 PROJECTION WELDING
 Projection welding is a resistance welding process
where in coalescence in produced by heat obtained
from resistance to electric current (flow) through
the work parts held together under pressure by
electrodes.
 The resulting welds are localized predetermined
points by projections, embossment or
intersections.
 Projection welds can be made in metals that are
too thick to be joined by spot welding.
 A number of welds can be made simultaneously.
 RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING
 Upset butt welding is a resistance or the entire area of
butting surfaces by the heat obtained from the resistance of
electric current through the area of contact of these
surfaces.
 Pressure is supplied before heating is started and is
maintained throughout the heating period.
 This pressure or force lateral on increased to give a forging
squeeze when the welding temperature (1600deg to
1700deg) has been reached when sufficient upset has been
produced the welding current is cutoff and the force is
removed.
 For welding of small ferrous and non-ferrous strips and
rods for welding longitudinal and transverse butt joint.
 Flash welding is a resistance welding process
where in coalescence is produced.
 Simultaneously over the entire area of abutting
surface by the heat obtained from the resistance to
electric current between the two surfaces and by
the application of pressure after heating is
substantially completed.
 Flashing and upsetting are accomplished by
explosion of metal from the joint.
 Many different metals with different melting
temperatures can be flash welded.
RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS

EXIT SLIDE SHOW

 OXY ACETYLENE WELDING
EQUIPMENT
 Cylinders containing Oxygen
gas are black in colour. They
are usually capable of storing
around 7 m3 of oxygen with
pressure ranging between 120
& 150 kg/cm2. Oxygen cylinder
pressure regulators are right
hand threaded.
 Acetylene gas cylinders are
usually maroon in colour. They
are stored in a dissolved state
with pressure ranging between
15 & 16 kg/cm2. The pressure
regulator on the Acetylene
cylinder is left-hand threaded. Oxy-acetylene welding equipment
 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT
 When high current passes
through an air gap from one
conductor to another, it
produces very intense and
concentrated heat in the form of
a spark. The temperature of this
spark (arc) is approximately
3600oC, which can melt or fuse
the metal very quickly to
produce a homogeneous weld.
 Metallic-Arc Welding is the most
commonly used process. Heat is Simple Welding circuit
obtained from an arc formed
between a metallic (consumable)
electrode and the welding job.
The metal electrode itself acts as
a filler metal
 CARBON-ARC WELDING
EQUIPMENT
 Welding current is
provided by either an
AC or DC machine.
 The Welding speed
and the feed of the
electrode is
controlled manually
by the welder. Carbon Arc welding equipment
 TIG WELDING EQUIPMENT

 The TIG welding system

consists of the following:

 A power source:
 A shielding gas supply
 A torch
 Controls and interlocks TIG Welding equipment
 MIG WELDING EQUIPMENT
 The arc is formed between a
continuous, automatically fed,
metallic consumable
electrode and the welding job
in an atmosphere of an inert
gas.
 The best results are obtained
using DC power source,
electrode positive.
 This also permits the arc
cleaning action to take place.
MIG Welding equipment
 The wire is continuously fed
into the arc at a constant rate
by a wire feeding system
 SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING
EQUIPMENT
 The components of a
submerged Arc welding
setup are:
 Welding head
 Wire feed system
 Power source
 Flux feed and recovery
units Submerged-arc welding equipmen
 Welding Head: It consists of
a wire spool, wire feed
system, flux hopper,
conveyor and electrical
contact nozzle
 Wire Feed System: The
wire feed control may be of
the following types:
 (i) Voltage sensitive system
 (ii) Constant speed system
 Power Sources: Submerged
arc welding can be carried
out with both DC and AC Submerged-arc welding
current power sources equipment
 Flux feed and recovery unit:
This consists of a system of
conveyor belts arranged to
supply the hopper
RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS

EXIT SLIDE SHOW

 WELD DESIGN
 Before an arc is struck on metal, the product must be
designed to serve its purpose, the material chosen and
the method of welding has to be defined in detail.

 Environmental considerations leading to brittle

fracture, creep, corrosion of welds etc have also
to be considered
 PRINCIPLES OF GOOD WELD DESIGN

 Material selection.

 Weld Process selection.

 Joint design.

 Welding Positions
 MATERIAL SELECTION
 The primary requirement for selection of any
structural material is its “Weldability”.

 Weldability is the capacity of a material to be

welded, under the fabrication conditions
imposed, into a specific suitably designed
structure and to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service
Weldability encompasses the following:
 (a) Metallurgical compatibility of a metal or alloy
with any specific welding process.

 (b) Ability of the metal or alloy to be welded with

mechanical soundness.

 (c) Serviceability of the resulting welding joint.

 Carbon content has the greatest effect on
weldability of Steels. The tendency to crack
increases with the increase in Carbon content,
particularly above 0.2%
 The relative effect of other alloying elements is
expressed by a “Carbon Equivalent” (CE)
 CE = % C + (Mn%)/6 + (Cr% + Mo % + V
%)/5 + (Cr % + Ni )/15
 Steel with CE upto 0.4% can be welded, without
any special precautions against cracking, upto 1
inch thickness.
WELD PROCESS SELECTION
 The process of welding similar or dissimilar
metals is selected according to the type of base
metals (ferrous or non ferrous) to be welded.
 For ferrous metals of less thickness gas
welding can be selected.
 For ferrous metals of larger thickness arc
welding processes are chosen.
 For nonferrous based metals brazing is
chosen.
 (d) Soldering is chosen for joining metals or
wires, which are not exposed to external forces
or pressure.
 Submerged arc welding should be used, where
the molten metal arc pool can be submerged in a
pool of flux (Typically down hand welding).
 (e) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) and Tungsten Metal
Inert Gas (TIG) welding process are selected to
weld Aluminium-based metals.
 Welding processes are also selected according to
the position of welding. Sometimes there are
requirements to carry out over head welding and
some times even underwater.
 Following factors should be considered for
process selection :-
 Base metal material.
 Environment.
 Capacity of facility.
 Positions/locations of welding.
 Availability of facilities.
 Optimum utilization of technologies etc.
 WELD JOINT DESIGN:
 Selection and preparation of weld joints is and
important step in the fabrication of a weldment and is
very essential if the welded members are to perform
within the load service, corrosive atmosphere and safety
requirements.

 The final product should have sufficient strength to

perform well under loaded conditions and should also
be pleasing in appearance.
 The selection of Weld-Joint for a particular type of
weldment depends upon the following factors:-
 Base-plate thickness.
 Geometry of structure.
 Magnitude and type of loading.
 Cost of edge preparation.
 Number of passes.
 Electrode consumption and cost of welding.
 Chances and magnitude of distortion.
 Operational ease.
 Welding Joints

Figure 1 Types of Weld Joints

This type of joint is used to connect
plates in the same plane.
The joint is superior to all the other
types, particularly under bending,
cyclic and dynamic loadings, and is
adopted wherever practicable for
connecting structural members
Butt welds are usually built up of
several runs so that a slight 'over-
fill' or 'reinforcement' exists on both
surfaces of the finished weld.
•The welds that form a “T” joint
are called “Fillet Welds”.
•These welds are the cheapest
type of welds to manufacture,
because no edge preparation is
required
•Single fillet “T” joints are
preferred for smaller plate
thickness when subject to low or
almost no-load conditions,
whereas, double “T” joints are
recommended for most severe
loading conditions
•These are used only for joints of
minor importance. e.g. collars for
making decks watertight where
pierced by frames.

• The fillet welds should be

continuous and of equal size on
both sides of the joint.
•Closed and half open joints
are recommended for plates
of smaller thickness not
subjected to severe loading.

• Full, open corner joints can

be used on plates of
practically all thickness under
severe load conditions.

• The load-bearing capacity

increases when the joint is
welded from both sides.
 Two pieces of metal are
lapped, with their edges in
line and the pieces are
joined together as shown
in the figure.

Edge Joint
PLATE AND PIPE WELDING POSITION
PLATE POSITIONS
PIPE POSITIONS ROTATED OR ROLLED
PIPE POSITION : FIXED
WELDING DIRECTIONS OR POSITIONS
RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS

EXIT SLIDE SHOW

 WELD DEFECTS

 Need to study weld defects?

 A defective weldment fails under service
conditions and causes damage to property
and loss of human lives.
 This makes it necessary to study defects in
weld joints and analyse their causes.
COMMON WELD DEFECTS
 The main causes for crack
formation in a weldment are as
follows:
1. Rigidity of the joint
2. Poor ductility of base metal

Solidification Crack
3. Hardenability (high Sulphur &
Carbon content)
4. Concave weld bead
5. High arc travel speed
6. Electrode with high Hydrogen
content

Types of cracks
Some remedies to reduce appearance of cracks are as
follows :-

 (a) Apply preheat to the base metal.

 (b) Relieve residual stresses mechanically.
 (c) Minimize shrinkage stresses using back step or block
welding sequence.
 (d) Change weld current and travel speed (to effect slower
cooling rate).
 (e) Bake electrodes to remove moisture.
 (f) Reduce root opening; build-up edge with weld metal.
 (g) Increase electrode size for small weld bead, raise welding
current, and reduce travel speed.
 (h) For high sulphur base metal, use filler metal low in sulphur.
 (j) Use of jigs and fixtures.
 (k) Reduce welding time.
 (l) Weld outward from the centre point.
 (m)Removal of shrinkage forces during or after welding.
 (n) Breaking down of forge weld mends into sub assemblies.
 LAMELLAR TEARING

Fracture face of Lamellar Tearing

•“Lamellar Tearing” is the result of very severe restraint on
the joint, poor ductility and due to the presence of non-
metallic inclusions running parallel to the plate surface.
•It can be seen in the material of the parent plate and the
HAZ, the cracks usually running parallel to the plate surface.
•‘T’ and corner joints are more susceptible to lamellar
tearing than other joints.
Suggested configuration to avoid Lamellar Tearing

Buttering to avoid Lamellar Tearing

 INCOMPLETE PENETRATION
 is defined as failure of weld metal to
penetrate into the root of the joint.
 Causes :-
1. Small root gap.
2. Small bevel angle.
3. Less arc current.
4. Fast arc-travel speed.
5. Small angle of inclination of electrode (‘’
angle).
6. Large electrode diameter.
7. Longer arc length.
8. Incorrect polarity when Large root face.
9. Welding with DC.
10.Wrongly held electrode.
Result : Weakens the joint and becomes a
potential fatigue initiation site.
 SLAG INCLUSIONS
 Inclusions may be in the form Slag or any other foreign
material.
 They are impurities which do not get a chance to float on
the surface get trapped in the solidifying weld metal.
 Inclusions lower the strength of the joint

Slag inclusions in a butt weld

The factors that promote
inclusions are as follows:
 Too high or too low arc
current.
 Long arcs.
 Too large electrode diameter.
 Insufficient surface
preparation.
 Insufficient cleaning of
previous passes in multi-pass Slag inclusion due to a poor bead - Convex
welding.
 Under cutting.
 Wrongly placed tack welds.
 Small joint angle.

Radiograph of Slag Inclusions

 POROSITY AND BLOW HOLES
‘Porosity’ is a group of small voids,
whereas, a ‘Blow hole’ or ‘Gas Pocket’
is a comparatively bigger isolated hole
or cavity. They occur mainly due to
entrapped gasses.
Surface porosity in a ‘T’ joint on a primed plate

Porosities in the weld bead

Elongated pores or worm holes
 Formation of pores
 The parent metal under the arc tends to
absorb Hydrogen, Carbon monoxide,
nitrogen and oxygen.
 These gasses may be produced due to
electrode coatings or by moisture, rust,
oil, grease, etc. existing on the base plate.
 The gasses spread through the molten
metal by diffusion and convection, and
their solubility decreases as the weld
metal cools.
 The bubbles generally form at the solid-
liquid interface, remain there, grow to
critical size, move through the molten
pool and get liberated to the atmosphere.
 Voids are formed due to the trapped gas
bubbles.
 The terms ‘Porosity’, ‘Blow holes’ or ‘Gas
Pockets’ apply depending on the size and
the concentration of the bubbles/voids.
Factors leading to these defects are as follows:

 Improper electrode (or coating) or damaged/damp

coating.
 Longer arcs.
 Faster arc travel speeds.
 Too high/low currents.
 Incorrect welding techniques.
 Impurities present on the job surface.
 Improper base-metal configuration (high ‘S’ or ‘C’
content).
 LACK OF FUSION

 Lack of bonding between the parent metal

and weld metal or between weld metal
passes.

Incomplete Fusion of Side Wall Incomplete inter-run fusion

 CAUSES :-

 Lower arc current.

 Faster arc travel speed.
 Improper weaving technique.
 Presence of oxide, rust, scale
and other impurities (on the
surfaces to be welded), which
do not permit the deposited
metal to fuse properly with the
base metal.
 Incorrect joint preparation
(i.e. small included angle).
 Incorrect electrode
manipulation
Measures to avoid/reduce poor fusion are:
 (a) Follow correct welding procedures.

 (b) Maintain proper electrode position.

 (c) Reposition work, lower current or

increase arc travel speed.
 (d) Clean weld surface prior to welding.
 SPATTER
 Small metal particles thrown out of the arc
during welding cause ‘Spatter’. The particles
get deposited on the base metal, around the
weld area along the length of the weld. The
causes are:
 Excessive welding current.
 Wrong polarity (DC).
 Long arc.
 Arc blow.
 Uneven flux coating on electrode.
 UNDERCUT
 Undercut is a ‘groove’ or channel formed in the
parent metal as the toe of a weld.
 The groove reduces the thickness of the plate and
thus reduces the area along the bead, which, in turn,
weakens the weld.
The causes for undercutting are as
follows:
•Current too high.
•Welding speed it too fast.
•Overheating due to continuous
welding.
•Faulty electrode manipulation.
•Acute welding angle.
Undercut in fillet and but welds
•Bad surface preparation.
 OVERLAP
 An ‘Overlap’ occurs when the molten metal
from the electrode flows over the parent
metal surface without fusing into it. The
causes for overlap are as follows:
 Low current.
 Slow arc travel speed.
 Long Arc.
 Too large diameter electrode.
 Improper joint geometry (ex: large root gap)
RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS

EXIT SLIDE SHOW

 DISTORTION
 Distortion is the result of uneven expansion
and contraction of heated metals
 As metals are heated they expand and when
they are cooled they contract. During
welding, heating and cooling of metals
occur unevenly. This results in high stresses
and the metal distorts.
 TYPES OF DISTORTION:
 Longitudinal distortion.

 Transverse distortion.

 Angular distortion
 FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTORTION
 Weld design.
 Parent metal.
 Edge preparation.
 Assembly procedure.
 Welding process.
 Deposition techniques.
 Welding Sequence.
 Unbalanced heating about the neutral axis.
 The restraint imposed
 DISTORTION CONTROL
 Precautions can be taken to avoid or reduce
weld distortions before, during or after
welding.
 The control of distortion before welding can
be facilitated by:-
 Tack Welding.
 Using Jigs, clamps and fixtures.
 Ensuring uniform Pre-heating.
 Pre-setting.
 A Tack Weld is a short
weld, made prior to
welding, to hold the plates
in perfect alignment with
uniform root gap.
 Tack welds are made at
regular intervals along the
joint with high current (to
obtain proper
penetration). They are
necessary where plates
cannot be held by a
fixture.
 The thumb rule for tack
welds is as follows
P = 100 mm + 16T
L = 3T
where ‘T’ - plate
thickness in mm ; ‘L’ -
length of each tack in mm
 JIGS AND FIXTURES
 They are used to
hold the work in
a rigid position
during welding.
 By using them,
the shrinkage
forces of the
weld are
balanced with a
sufficient
counterforce.
 PRE - HEATING
 Some metals would
normally fracture if
welded in a cold
state.
 They may be welded
successfully by pre-
heating and
subsequent
controlled cooling.
 Pre-heating is also
used to avoid cracks Preheating to avoid HIC
 PRE-SETTING
 Distortion may be
avoided by pre-setting
the plates in the
opposite way so that
the weld pulls them to
the desired shape.
 When the weld
shrinks, it will pull the
vertical plate to its
correct position.
 The fig shows pre-
setting to avoid
angular distortion
 DURING WELDING
 Back-step welding.
 Intermittent “Chain” & “Staggered” welding.
 Planned wandering method.
 A correct welding procedure to reduce the size of
the weld beads.
 Excessive Welding should be avoided.
 BACK STEP WELDING
 The general
direction of welding
progression is from
left to right, but, the
bead is deposited
from right to left.
 The result being
that the plates
expand to a lesser
degree with each Back-step welding method
bead because of the
locking effect of
each weld.
 INTERMITTENT WELDING
 The amount of weld
metal deposited can
be minimized with
the use of
intermittent welds
instead of Chain Intermittent Welding
continuous welds.
 This method can
be used for fillet
welds only. “Chain”
welding and
“Staggered”
welding are the two
types of intermittent Staggered Intermittent Welding
fillet welding.
PLANNED WANDERING METHOD

 In this method,
welding starts at
the centre, and
thereafter portions
are completed on Planned wandering method
each side of the
centre in turn
 AFTER WELDING
The control of distortion after welding can be
facilitated by the following:-
 Slow cooling.

 Flame straightening or contra heating.

 Annealing.

 Stress relieving.

 Normalising.

 Mechanical straightening
 TIPS TO AVOID DISTORTION
 It is possible to reduce the effect of shrinkage-force
by correct edge preparation. This will ensure
proper fusion at the root of the weld with a
minimum of weld metal.
 The correct welding procedure used a greater
number of welded runs positioned to refine the
grain size of the weld metal in the previous layer.
 A small number if heavy runs will cause more
distortion due to the greater heat input, and the
contraction stresses set up by the cooling of the
larger deposit of weld metal.
RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS

EXIT SLIDE SHOW

 INSPECTION & NON-DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING OF WELDS
 Welded joints in a structure are expected to
possess certain service-related capabilities.
 They are required to carry loadings of
various types in which the weld is subjected
to stress of either a simple or complex
character.
 Moreover, a finished weld is not always as
good as or bad as it may appear to be on its
surface. Hence, it is necessary to inspect a
weld-job on completion.
 The purpose of inspection is to locate and
determine the type of fault, quality of joint
and quality of workmanship
METHODS OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING

Non-Destructive
methods

Common Testing Special Testing

Methods methods
 COMMON TESTING
METHODS

Visual inspection Leak or Pressure test Stethoscopic test

 VISUAL INSPECTION
 It is the simplest, fastest, the most economical
and most commonly used method for detecting
defects on the surface of the weld.
 Visual Inspection may be carried out in three
stages:
 (i) Before welding
 (ii) During welding
 (iii) After welding
 BEFORE WELDING
 A qualified operator should be given the job.
 The material to be welded should be of
weldable quality.
 Proper edge preparation – as per the plate
thickness and other factors.
 Setting of root gap.
 Proper distortion control procedures (jigs,
fixtures, etc.).
 Electrode storing and drying procedures.
 Polarity of electrodes (in the case of DC Electrode drying
current).
 Current setting as per the size of the
electrode and the weld-position.
 DURING WELDING
 Visual inspection during welding will help reduce the
chances of rejecting the weldment at the final stage
 The aspects that are to be observed during welding are
as follows:
 Studying the sequence of the weld deposit.
 Examine surface cleaning before every run (multi-run
welding).
 Check shape of bead, angle of electrode, amperage,
speed of travel, arc length, correct manipulation of
electrode and control of splatter.
 AFTER WELDING
 Surface defects in and around the welds, such as
cracks, undercut, overlap, excessive contour, the
smoothness of the weld surface, penetration and
distortion control are to be inspected.
 The shape of the profile can be checked by
measuring the dimensions of the weld – the
surface of butt welds should be slightly convex;
fillet welds may be either concave of convex.
 The degree of undercut, surface cavities and
trapped slag.
 Deposition of runs, single or multiple.
 Penetration bead in butt welds.
 Quality of the weld metal.
  Some of the ‘templates’ used to check weld
profiles and determine size and shape of welds
are shown below :-

Template for testing the bead contour of welds

Template for checking the max. & min. convexity of butt welds
Template to measure the size of Template used to determine the size
a fillet weld of a concave fillet
 LEAK OR PRESSURE TESTS
 This test is used to test welded pressure vessels,
tanks and pipelines for leaks.
 The welded vessel is sealed and subjected to
internal pressure using air, water or kerosene. The
internal pressure built-up depends on the working
pressure of the joint, generally, twice the working
pressure of the vessel.
 Any drop in pressure would indicate a leak or
leaks.
 Soap solution may be applied to check for leaks in
an Air-pressure test.
 STETHOSCOPIC TEST:
 The principle of this test is that a defect-free
weld metal gives a good ringing sound when
struck with a hammer, whereas that with
defects gives a flat sound.
 An ordinary physician’s stethoscope and a
hammer may be used to magnify and
identify the sound
 Special
Non-
Destructive
tests

Magnetic Liquid
Radiography Gamma Ultrasonic
Particle Penetrant
(X-ray) test ray test test
test test
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST
 This test is used to detect
both surface and sub-
surface (upto 6 mm)
defects in ferrous
materials.
 When the test piece is
magnetized, iron particles
gather at the edges of the
defect and can be seen as
dark hair-line marks with Magnetic particle testing of welds
the naked eye.
 LIQUID PENETRANT TEST
 This test is based on the
principle that coloured liquid
dyes and fluorescent liquids
penetrate the cracks.
 A solution of the coloured dye is
sprayed on the clean welded
surface and allowed to soak.
 The dye on the surface is then
washed off using a cleaner and
the surface dried with a soft
cloth.
 A liquid ‘developer’ (white in
colour) is then sprayed on the Different stages of “Liquid
weld and the coloured dye comes penetrant test”
out in the shape of the defect
 RADIOGRAPHY (X-RAY/GAMMA RAY)
TEST
 X-Rays or Gamma rays can be used
to take internal photographs of the
weld joint.
 Radium & its compounds, Cobalt-
60 etc. are used in Gamma
radiography.
 Hidden defects will be visible on the
developed film. Defects appear in
the same manner as bone fractures.
 Gamma rays penetrate greater
thickness than X-rays and the main
advantage of this process is
‘portability’. Gamma ray tests can be
done even where electricity is not
available.
 Radiography tests are conducted on X-ray Radiography
high-quality jobs such as boilers,
pressure vessels, pipes, etc
 ULTRASONIC TEST
 Sound waves are used to
identify defects.
 The waves can penetrate 6 to
10 metres of steel.
 A transmitter is placed on the
job surface.
 The echo of the sound waves is
displayed on a calibrated
screen attached to the
machine.
 The test can also be used to
find out the thickness of metal,
this is especially useful in ship
Ultrasonic testing
hull inspection during refits
RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS

EXIT SLIDE SHOW

 SPECIAL WELDING TECHNIQUES
 Welding of “Titanium” is
possible in protected inert-
gas chambers using an
electron-beam process.
 The main difficulty in
welding is the high
reactivity of Titanium At
elevated temperatures it
reacts with most elements,
ex: Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen, etc.
 Even if small quantities of
impurities are picked-up
during welding, the
material is noticeably Titanium welding enclosure (deflated)
embrittled, thus stringent used at ND(V)
protection from the
atmosphere is called for.
 The purity of the inert gas used must be at least
99.95%. Argon shielding must be provided till the
HAZ has cooled to below 300°C. The
recommended gas-flow rate is 3 to 5 litres per min
and the arc length should be held as short as
possible.
 If it is not possible to provide a protective
chamber, effective protection can be obtained by
providing argon, not only with the welding torch
but also on the trailing side through a separate
feed-tube & nozzle arrangement attached to the
torch.
 Gas should also be supplied on the underside
through a longitudinal groove in a copper
backing.
 Welding torch with attachment to
protect trailing end during welding

Equipment used for inert-gas protection of

pipes and plates
(Purging units)
 UNDERWATER WELDING
Underwater welding can be classified as follows:-
 Wet Welding

 Dry Welding

 In wet welding the welding is performed

underwater, directly exposed to the wet
environment.
 In dry welding, a dry chamber is created near
the area to be welded and the welder does the
job by staying inside the chamber
 WET WELDING

 A special electrode is used and

welding is carried out
manually just as one does in
open air welding.
 The increased freedom of
movement makes wet welding Underwater ‘wet’ welding
the most effective, efficient
and economical method.
 Welding power supply is
located on the surface with
connection to the
diver/welder via cables and
hoses.
Wet welding process schematics
 The power source should be a direct current machine rated
at 300 or 400 Amperes
 The welding machine frame must be grounded to the ship
 The welding circuit must include a positive type of switch,
usually a knife switch operated on the surface and
commanded by the welder-diver.
 The knife switch in the electrode circuit must be capable of
breaking the full welding current and is used for safety
reasons
 Special welding electrode holders with extra insulation
against the water are used. The underwater welding
electrode holder utilizes a twist type head for gripping the
electrode.
 The electrode types used conform to AWS E6013
classification
 The electrodes must be waterproofed. All connections must
be thoroughly insulated so that the water cannot come in
contact with the metal parts.
 Advantages of Wet Welding
 The versatility and low cost of wet welding makes
this method highly desirable.
 Other benefits include the speed. With which the
operation is carried out.
 It is less costly compared to dry welding.
 The welder can reach portions of offshore structures
that could not be welded using other methods.
 No enclosures are needed and no time is lost in
designing these enclosures (as in dry welding).
Readily available standard welding machine and
equipment are used. The equipment needed for
mobilization of a wet welded job is minimal.
 DISADVANTAGES OF WET WELDING
 There is rapid quenching of the weld metal by the
surrounding water. Although quenching increases the
tensile strength of the weld, it decreases the ductility and
impact strength of the weldment and increases porosity and
hardness.
 Hydrogen Embrittlement – Large amount of hydrogen is
present in the weld region, resulting from the dissociation
of the water vapour in the arc region. The H2 dissolves in
the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and the weld metal, which
causes embrittlement, cracks and microscopic fissures.
Cracks can grow and may result in catastrophic failure of
the structure.
 Another disadvantage is poor visibility. The welder some
times is not able to weld properly
 HYPERBARIC WELDING (DRY
WELDING)
 Hyperbaric welding is carried out in chamber sealed
around the structure to be welded.
 The chamber is filled with a gas (generally helium
containing 0.5 bar of oxygen) at the prevailing pressure.
 The habitat is sealed onto the pipeline and filled with a
breathable mixture of helium and oxygen, at or slightly
above the ambient pressure at which the welding is to take
place.
 This method produces high-quality weld joints that meet
X-ray and code requirements.
 The TIG welding process is employed for this process.
 The area under the floor of the Habitat is open to water.
 Thus the welding is done in the dry but at the hydrostatic
pressure of the sea water surrounding the Habitat.
 ADVANTAGES OF DRY WELDING
 Welder/Diver Safety – Welding is performed in a
chamber, immune to ocean currents and marine
animals. The warm, dry habitat is well illuminated and
has its own environmental control system (ECS).
 Good Quality Welds – This method has ability to
produce welds of quality comparable to open air welds
because water is no longer present to quench the weld
and H2 level is much lower than wet welds
 Surface Monitoring – Joint preparation, pipe
alignment, NDT inspection, etc. are monitored
visually.
 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) – NDT is also
facilitated by the dry habitat environment.
 DISADVANTAGES OF DRY WELDING
 The habitat welding requires large quantities of
complex equipment and much support equipment
on the surface. The chamber is extremely complex.
 Cost of habitat welding is extremely high and
increases with depth. Work depth has an effect on
habitat welding. At greater depths, the arc
constricts and corresponding higher voltages are
required. The process is costly and the same
chamber cannot be used for another job, if it is a
different one.
RETURN TO MAIN CONTENTS

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 SCOPE OF PRESENTATION

 Welding Quality assurance is divided into

the following: -

 WPS – Welding Procedure Specification

 PQR -Performance Qualification Record

 WPQ –Welder Performance Qualification

 QUALITIES OF A GOOD WELD

The good qualities that are looked for in a weld

comprise of the following:

(a)Physical soundness (freedom from

discontinuities)
(b)Metallurgical compatibility

These are the qualities ,based on which the

welder is judged
 Physical soundness is related to the mode
of deposition, in other words, the process
techniques as influenced by the skill of
the welder or welding machine operator.

 Metallurgical compatibility depends on the

chemical composition of the base-
metal/filler-metal/flux or gas, the heat
cycles that the weldment is going to
undergo while welding and post-weld heat
treatment.
 The ultimate aim of all Quality assurance
schemes, i.e. Welder qualification,
Welding procedure specifications and
Procedure qualification records, is to
ensure the soundness of welding.
 No matter what equipment is used to
achieve these standards, the skill of the
operator is of primary importance, hence
the requirement of “Welder Performance
Qualification” tests.
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION
From a designer’s point-of-view, the properties of
the weld joint are designated as follows:

(a) Weld metal chemistry

(b) Ultimate tensile strength
(c) Yield point
(d) Percentage elongation
(e) Hardness
(f) Impact strength, etc.
•Welding procedure specifications are written to
exactly translate the above property
requirements onto relevant welding variables.

• Thus, “a Welding Procedure Specification

(WPS) is a written qualified welding procedure,
prepared to provide direction for making
production welds to code requirements”
•Each of these welding procedure specifications
shall be qualified by the welding of the test
coupons and the mechanical testing of
specimens cut from these coupons (the data for
the tests and the results are recorded in a PQR).

•It is pre-supposed that the welder or, the

welding machine operator is qualified to handle
the job. Therefore, welding procedure
qualification is strictly to establish the
metallurgical compatibility of the weldment
through mechanical tests and not the skill of the
welder of the welding operator.
WRITING A WELDER PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION
(WPS)

A typical working procedure specification is written

with all factors of production in mind. Both
experience and technological awareness help to
write an acceptable or successful WPS.
The WPS is a list of the following welding
variables:
(a) Welding process – which process is to be used
(b) Base metal
(c) Joint design
(d) Filler metal
(e) Welding position
(f) Pre-heat/interpass/post-heat
(g) Electrical characteristics
(h) Post-weld heat treatment
(j) Gases – for shielding
(k)Techniques (stringer, weave bead, transfer mode,
orifice diameter, etc.)

The variables
Depending on their influence on obtaining a desired
weldment, welding variables are then classified
and listed.
Some are classified as ‘Essential variables’, some
as ‘Supplementary essential variables’ and others
as ‘Non-essential variables’.
(a) Essential variables: These, when changed
beyond the allowable limits while welding, alter
the prescribed weld properties. Hence,
production welds with such variables should not
be continued without re-qualification and
certification.

(b) Supplementary essential variables: More

number of variables from the above list are
declared as essential, incase where a procedure
qualification is applied for, ex: a weldment going
for notch-toughness applications. These are
called supplementary essential variables, i.e.
there arises a supplementary requirement that
makes these variables essential.
(c) Non-essential variables: Those welding variables
which when changed during welding (within
permissible limits) do not cause to alter the desired
weld properties are classified under non-essential
category.

•They are just altered in the WPS; hence, production

welds with such altered parameters could be
continued without any re-qualification or
certification
 A WPS may require the support of more than
one PQR, while alternatively, one PQR may
support a number of WPS.
 WPS will be applicable equally for a plate,
pipe and tube joints.

 A single WPS may cover several essential

variable changes as long as a supporting
PQR exists for each essential and
supplementary-essential variable.
 PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION
RECORD (PQR)
 A Procedure qualification record (PQR) is
essentially a record of welding data used to
weld a test coupon.

 It also contains the test results of the tested

specimen. Recorded variables normally fall
within a small range of the actual variables
that will be used in production welding.
 Changes to PQR are generally not permitted,
except in cases of editorial correction to the
entries or in the case of an agenda being
added. All changes in a PQR would call for
re-qualification

 When more than one welding process or

filler metal is used to weld a test coupon, the
deposit weld-metal thickness of each
process and the filler metal would be
recorded.
 WELDER PERFORMANCE
QUALIFICATIONS (WPQ)
 The basic attempt is to establish the ability of
the welder to deposit sound quality of metal.

 In the case of welding operator qualification,

his ability to operate the welding machine is
tested and acknowledged.
 During qualification tests, only essential
variables, as applicable to the welder’s skill,
are considered.
 Production welds with altered variables
should not be continued without additionally
qualifying the welder.
 A welding machine operator usually gets
qualified along with a procedure test.
 The welder’s performance test has to be
limited only to verify his ability to deposit
sound metal and the requirements of
metallurgical compatibility are to be
attributed to the welding process
characteristics
 CODES FOR PERFORMANCE
QUALIFICATIONS AND
ACCEPTANCE OF DEFECTS
 A large number of industrial codes are
available which recognize pre-qualified
welding procedures, as the manufacturing
firms are to produce the documentary
evidence for such procedures as in vogue in
their organizations.
 The selection, training and qualification of
welders is the next step
 Some popular codes used are as follows:

 (a) Indian boiler regulations (IBR – chapter

viii)
 (b) ASME Boiler and Pressure vessel code
 (c) DIN 8560 (German standards - testing of
welders section)
 (d) BS – 4872 (British standards)
 Welders are to weld a test coupon, which
may be a pipe or a plate.
 The test coupons are then subjected to
Radiography testing.
 The metallurgical compatibility of the weld is
revealed only by running mechanical tests;
hence face-bend tests and root bend tests
are also carried out in addition to
Radiographic testing
 “Welders are out-rightly failed for the
following defects” (All other defects ate
acceptable within limits)

 Severe root porosities/Blow holes.

 Cluster of porosities.
 Cracks.
 Lack of fusion/Incomplete penetration.
Hydrogen crack examples

Incomplete inter-run fusion

Incomplete penetration

Surface porosity in a ‘T’ joint on a primed plate

 WELDER QUALIFICATION AS PER
ASME

 The welder may be qualified based on the

results of mechanical tests or by
radiographic examination of a minimum
length of 150 mm.
 The welding positions in which the test may
be conducted are classified as 1G, 2G, 3G,
4G to 6G, in ascending order of expertise.
 A qualification in a plate or pipe butt joint
shall also qualify the welder for fillet welding
of all plate thicknesses and pipe diameters.
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