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Q1. Discuss in detail vehicle characteristics with its relevance in Traffic
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engineering.
Ans. Following are the vehicular characteristics its relevance in Traffic
engineering.
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Q2. Explain the following terms for understanding the street lighting in brief:
(i) Outreach (ii) Overhang
(iii) Mounting Height (iv) Spacing
(v) Staggered (vi) Opposite
Q3. Define the following in brief.

(a) Head on Collision

(b) Brush / Side Swipe

(c) Grievously injured person

A person who has received grievous injuries (in accidents) such as fractures, concussions,
internal lesions, crushing, severe cuts and lacerations, severe general shock requiring medical
treatment and any other serious lesions requiring detention in hospital.

(d) Road Accident

Ans. An accident (collision, overturning or slipping) which occurred or originated on a road
open to public traffic resulting in either injury or loss of life, or damage to property, in which at
least one moving vehicle was involved.

(e) Passenger
Ans. Any person, other than a driver, who is in or on a vehicle.

(f) Right turn collision

Q4. Explain the following terms with appropriate examples:
(a) Running speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle
is moving and is found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration the vehicle was
in motion. i.e. this speed doesn't consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a stop,
or has to wait till it has a clear road ahead. The running speed will always be more than or equal
to the journey speed, as delays are not considered in calculating the running speed

(b) Journey speed

Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the
distance between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the
journey including any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates
that the journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and deceleration. The
spot speed here may vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed. A
uniformity between journey and running speeds denotes comfortable travel conditions.

(c) Time mean speed

Time mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
over some specified time period.

(d) Space mean speed

Space mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles occupying a given section
of a highway over some specified time period.

(e) Spot speed

Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. Spot speed can be used
to design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves, super elevation etc. Location
and size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination, require the spot
speed data. Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion are the modern fields of traffic
engineer, which uses spot speed data as the basic input. Spot speed can be measured using an
enoscope, pressure contact tubes or direct timing procedure or radar speedometer or by time-
lapse photographic methods. It can be determined by speeds extracted from video images by
recording the distance traveling by all vehicles between a particular pair of frames.

(f) Delay
The act of postponing, hindering, or causing something to occur more slowly than normal :the
state of being delayed.
Q5. Write short notes on traffic forecasting. Furthermore, Explain any technique in detail. Ans.

Traffic forecasting is the process of estimating the number of vehicles or people that will use a
specific transportation facility in the future. For instance, a forecast may estimate the number of
vehicles on a planned road or bridge, the ridership on a railway line, the number of passengers
visiting an airport, or the number of ships calling on a seaport. Traffic forecasting begins with the
collection of data on current traffic. This traffic data is combined with other known data, such as
population, employment, trip rates, travel costs, etc., to develop a traffic demand model for the
current situation. Feeding it with predicted data for population, employment, etc. results in estimates
of future traffic, typically estimated for each segment of the transportation infrastructure in question,
e.g., for each roadway segment or railway station.

Traffic forecasts are used for several key purposes in transportation policy, planning,
and engineering: to calculate the capacity of infrastructure, e.g., how many lanes a bridge should
have; to estimate the financial and social viability of projects, e.g., using cost–benefit
analysis and social impact assessment; and to calculate environmental impacts, e.g., air pollution
and noise.

Within the rational planning framework, transportation forecasts have traditionally followed the
sequential four-step model or urban transportation planning (UTP) procedure, first implemented on
mainframe computers in the 1950s at the Detroit Metropolitan Area Traffic Study and Chicago Area
Transportation Study (CATS).

Land-use forecasting starts the process. Typically, forecasts are made for the region as a whole, e.g.,
of population growth. Such forecasts provide control totals for the local land use analysis. Typically,
the region is divided into zones and by trend or regression analysis, the population and employment
are determined for each.

The four steps of the classical urban transportation planning system model are:

• Trip generation determines the frequency of origins or destinations of trips in each zone
by trip purpose, as a function of land uses and household demographics, and other socio-
economic factors.
• Trip distribution matches origins with destinations, often using a gravity model function,
equivalent to an entropy maximizing model. Older models include the fratar model.
 • Mode choice computes the proportion of trips between each origin and destination that
use a particular transportation mode. (This modal model may be of the logit form,
developed by Nobel Prize winner Daniel McFadden.)
• Route assignment allocates trips between an origin and destination by a particular mode
to a route. Often (for highway route assignment) Wardrop's principle of user
equilibrium is applied (equivalent to a Nash equilibrium), wherein each driver (or group)
chooses the shortest (travel time) path, subject to every other driver doing the same. The
difficulty is that travel times are a function of demand, while demand is a function of
travel time, the so-called bi-level problem. Another approach is to use the Stackelberg
competition model, where users ("followers") respond to the actions of a "leader", in this
case for example a traffic manager. This leader anticipates on the response of the
followers.

After the classical model, there is an evaluation according to an agreed set of decision criteria and
parameters. A typical criterion is cost–benefit analysis. Such analysis might be applied after the
network assignment model identifies needed capacity: is such capacity worthwhile? In addition to
identifying the forecasting and decision steps as additional steps in the process, it is important to note
that forecasting and decision-making permeate each step in the UTP process. Planning deals with the
future, and it is forecasting dependent.
Q6. Determine the braking distance for the following situations:
(i) a vehicle moving on a positive 2 percent grade at an initial speed of 40 km/h, final speed 20 km/h;
(ii) a vehicle moving on a 2 percent downhill grade at an initial speed of 40 km/h, final speed 20
km/h;
(iii) a vehicle moving on a level road at an initial speed of 40 km/h, final speed 0 km/h.
Also determine the stopping sight distance for (iii). Assume the coefficient of rolling friction to be
0.47 and the perception - reaction time to be 3 second.

Ans.
(i) Initial Speed Vi = 40 km/h = 11.12 m/sec
Final Speed Vf = 20 km/h = 5.56 m/sec
g = 9.81 m/s2 and G = 2/100=0.02 rolling friction =0.47

��.��� ��.���
db = �∗�.��(�.����.��) = 9.65 m

(ii) Initial Speed Vi = 40 km/h = 11.12 m/sec

Final Speed Vf = 20 km/h = 5.56 m/sec
g = 9.81 m/s2 and G = - 2/100= - 0.02 rolling friction =0.47

��.��� ��.���
db = �∗�.��(�.����.��) = 10.5 m

(iii) Initial Speed Vi = 40 km/h = 11.12 m/sec

Final Speed Vf = 0 km/h = 0 m/sec
g = 9.81 m/s2 and G = 0/100=0.0 rolling friction =0.47

��.���
db = �∗�.��(�.��) = 13.4 m
Q.7 (a) Explain in detail the factors that causes accidents under following heads. (6)
(i) The road
a)Vertical Alignment
b) Sight Distance
c) Super elevation
d) Carriage way width
e) Width and conditions of shoulders
f) Street Lighting
(ii) The vehicle
a) Braking System
b)Vehicle lighting System
c) Vehicle Body
d)Tyres
e) Maintenance
(iii) The Driver
a) Driver Judgment
b) Age of Driver
c) Sex of Driver
d) Marital status of Driver
e) Alcohol and drugs of driver

(iv) The Road user other than motorist

a) Age
b)Sex
c) Social condition
d) Driving Experience
(v) Environmental Factors.
a) Weather
b) Temperature
c) Road Lighting
Q7(b) Explain the following terms for understanding the signal design in brief:
(i) Cycle
A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.

(ii) Cycle Length

Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full cycle of indications.
It indicates the time interval between the starting of of green for one approach till the next time
the green starts. It is denoted by C.

(iii) Interval
Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of intervals -change
interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow time indicates the
interval between the green and red signal indications for an approach. Clearance interval is also
called all red is included after each yellow interval indicating a period during which all signal
faces show red and is used for clearing off the vehicles in the intersection.

(iv) Phase
A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it. Thus, during
green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It allows a set of
movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of movements start.
Q8. Using appropriate neat sketches explain the advantages and disadvantages of one way traffic
compared to two way traffic.
Q9. The width of a carriage way approaching an intersection is given as 16 m. The entry and exit
width at the rotary is 9 m. The traffic approaching the intersection from the four sides is shown
in the figure below. Find the capacity of the rotary using the given data.

Fig: Traffic approaching the Rotary

CHAPTER 40. TRAFFIC ROTARIES NPTEL May 7, 2007

1433

400 375 600

408
650
W 1405 505 500 1260
E

510 350 250

420 370

1140

Figure 40:4: Traffic approaching the rotary

2. The ratio of average width of the carriage way at entry and exit to the weaving width is in the range of
0.4 to 1.

3. The ratio of weaving width to weaving length of the roundabout is in between 0.12 and 0.4.

4. The proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic in the rotary is in the range of 0.4 and 1.

5. The weaving length available at the intersection is in between 18 and 90 m.

Example

The width of a carriage way approaching an intersection is given as 15 m. The entry and exit width at the
rotary is 10 m. The traffic approaching the intersection from the four sides is shown in the figure 40:4 below.
Find the capacity of the rotary using the given data.

Solution

• The traffic from the four approaches negotiating through the roundabout is illustrated in figure 40:5.

• Weaving width is calculated as, w = [ e1 +e

2 ] + 3.5 = 13.5
2
m
12.5m.
• Weaving length, l is calculated as = 4×w = 54 m

• The proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic in all the four approaches is found out first.

• It is clear from equation,that the highest proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic will give
the minimum capacity. Let the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic in West-North
direction be denoted as pW N , in North-East direction as pN E , in the East-South direction as pES , and
finally in the South-West direction as pSW .

• The weaving traffic movements in the East-South direction is shown in figure 40:6. Then using equation,p ES
510+650+500+600
= 510+650+500+600+250+375 = 2260
2885 =0.783
pW N = 505+510+350+600+400+370 = 1965
505+510+350+600
2735 =0.718

Introduction to Transportation Engineering 40.5 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao

CHAPTER 40. TRAFFIC ROTARIES NPTEL May 7, 2007

600 650
+
400 + 408
350 375
505 505
+ +
510 370 510 370
W E
500+375 600 375 500+600

350 510
+ + 250
420 370 650

Figure 40:5: Traffic negotiating a rotary

d d
375

510+650
c
b

c b
500+600

a 250 a

Figure 40:6: Traffic weaving in East-South direction

650+375+505+370 1900
pN E = 650+375+505+370+510+408 = 2818 =0.674
350+370+500+375 1595
pSW = 350+370+500+375+420+600 = 2615 =0.6099

• Thus the proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic is highest in the East-South direction.

• Therefore, the capacity of the rotary will be capacity of this weaving section. From equation,
10 0.783
280 × 13.5[1 + 13.5 ][1 − 3 ]
QES = 13.5 = 2161.164veh/hr. (40.4)
1 + 54

40.6 Summary
Traffic rotaries reduce the complexity of crossing traffic by forcing them into weaving operations. The shape and
size of the rotary are determined by the traffic volume and share of turning movements. Capacity assessment
of a rotary is done by analyzing the section having the greatest proportion of weaving traffic. The analysis is
done by using the formula given by TRL.

Introduction to Transportation Engineering 40.6 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao

Q10 (a) The phase diagram with flow values of an intersection with two phases is shown in
below figure. The lost time and yellow time for the first phase is 2.5 and 3 seconds respectively.
For the second phase the lost time and yellow time are 3.5 and 4 seconds respectively. If the
cycle time is 130 seconds, find the green time allocated for the two phases. (8)

550

1020

880 610
(b). The traffic flow in an intersection is shown in figure. Given start-up lost time is 3.5 seconds,
saturation head way is 2.4 seconds, compute the cycle length for that intersection. Assume a two-
phase signal. (6)

If we assign two phases as shown below figure , then the critical volume for the first phase which
is the maximum of the flows in that phase = 1200 vph. Similarly critical volume for the second
phase = 1050 vph. Therefore, total critical volume for the two signal phases = 1200+1050 = 2250
vph.

Saturation flow rate for the intersection can be found out from the equation as Si = 3600/2.4 =
1500 vph. This means, that the intersection can handle only 1500 vph. However, the critical
volume is 2250 vph. Hence the critical lane volume should be reduced and one simple option is
to split the major traffic into two lanes. So the resulting phase plan is as shown in figure.

Here we are dividing the lanes in East-West direction into two, the critical volume in the first
phase is 600 vph and in the second phase it also devided by 2 so critical phase is is 525 vph. The
total critical volume for the signal phases is 1125 vph which is again less than the saturation flow
rate .

Now the cycle time for the signal phases can be computed from equation,

C= = 23.58 = 24 sec 
(c). In a braking test, a vehicle traveling at a speed of 30 kmph was stopped by applying brakes
fully and the skid marks were 5.8 m in length. Determine the average skid resistance of the
pavement surface. (4)
Ans.

Initial Speed : u = 30kmph = 30/3.6 = 8.33m/s

��
Braking Distance: L = 5.8m =
���

�� �.���
Average Skid = f = = =0.61
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