SOIL COMPACTION

A. General Principles
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by
removal of air, which requires mechanical energy.
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in
terms of its dry unit weight. When water is added to
the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening
agent on the soil particles. The soil particles slip over
each other and move into a densely packed position.
o The moisture content at which the maximum
dry unit weight is attained is generally
referred to as the optimum moisture content
o The laboratory test generally used to obtain
the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
and the optimum moisture content is called
the Proctor compaction test.
B. Standard Proctor Test
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 943.3 cm³. The diameter of the mold
is 101.6 mm. During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to a base plate at the bottom and to an
extension at the top (Figure 4.2a). The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted
(Figure 4.3) in three equal layers by a hammer (Figure 4.2b) that delivers 25 blows to each layer. The
hammer weighs 24.4 N (mass = 2.5 kg), and has a drop of 304.8 mm. For each test, the moist unit weight of
compaction ϒ can be calculated as:

W = weight of the compacted soil in the mold

V(m) = volume of the mold ( = 943.3 cm³)

For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the laboratory. With known
moisture content, the dry unit weight ϒd can be calculated as:

where w (%) = percentage of moisture content

The procedure for the standard Proctor test is given in ASTM Test Designation D-698 and AASHTO Test
Designation T-99.
For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when there is no air in
the void spaces—that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%. Thus, the maximum dry unit weight at
a given moisture content with zero air voids can be given by

For 100% saturation, e = wGs, so

where w = moisture content

C. Factors Affecting Compaction
1. Effect of Soil Type
The soil type—that is, grain-size
distribution, shape of the soil grains,
specific gravity of soil solids, and
amount and type of clay minerals
present—has a great influence on
the maximum dry unit weight and
optimum moisture content. Lee and
Suedkamp (1972) studied
compaction curves for 35 different
soil samples. They observed four
different types of compaction
curves.
2. Effect of Compaction Effort
The compaction energy per unit
volume, E, used for the standard
Proctor test can be given as
 From Table 4.1 and Figure 4.6, we can reach two
conclusions:

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum

dry unit weight of compaction is also increased.

3. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum

moisture content is decreased to some extent.

D. Modified Proctor Test

With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard Proctor test was
modified to better represent field conditions. This is sometimes referred to as the modified Proctor test
(ASTM Test Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T-180). For conducting the modified
Proctor test, the same mold is used, with a volume of 943.3 cm3, as in the case of the standard Proctor
test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that weighs 44.5 N (mass = 4.536 kg).
The drop of the hammer is 457.2 mm. The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the
case of the standard Proctor test. Figure 4.7 shows a hammer used for the modified Proctor test.
Examples:

1.

2. Calculate the zero-air-void unit weights (in kN/m³) for a soil with Gs = 2.68 at moisture contents of 5, 10,
15, 20, and 25%. Plot a graph of ϒzav against moisture content.

Field Compaction
Most compaction in the field is done with rollers. There are four common types of rollers:

1. Smooth-wheel roller (or smooth-drum roller)

Smooth-wheel rollers (Figure 4.11) are suitable for proof rolling subgrades and for the finishing operation of
fills with sandy and clayey soils. They provide 100% coverage under the wheels with ground contact pressures as
high as 310–380kN/m². They are not suitable for producing high unit weights of compaction when used on thicker
layers.
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired roller
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers (Figure 4.12) are better in many respects than smooth-wheel rollers. The
former are heavily loaded wagons with several rows of tires. These tires are closely spaced—four to six in a row. The
contact pressure under the tires can range from 600 to 700 kN/m2, and they produce 70% to 80% coverage.
Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by a combination of
pressure and kneading action.
3. Sheepsfoot roller
Sheepsfoot rollers (Figure 4.13) are drums with a large number of projections. The area of each of these
projections may range from 25 to 85 cm2. Sheepsfoot rollers are most effective in compacting clayey soils. The
contact pressure under the projections can range from 1380 to 6900 kN/m2. During compaction in the field, the
initial passes compact the lower portion of a lift. The top and middle portions of a lift are compacted at a later stage.
4. Vibratory roller
Vibratory rollers are very efficient in compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel,
pneumatic rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil. Figure 4.14 demonstrates the
principles of vibratory rollers. The vibration is produced by rotating off-center weights.
Specifications for Field Compaction
In most specifications for earth work, one stipulation is that the contractor must achieve a compacted field dry unit
weight of 90% to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either the standard or
modified Proctor test. This specification is, in fact, for relative compaction R, which can be expressed as

o Based on the observation of 47 soil samples, Lee and Singh (1971)

gave a correlation between Rand Dr for granular soils:

Determination of Field Unit Weight after Compaction

When the compaction work is progressing in the field, it is useful to know whether or not the unit weight specified is
achieved. Three standard procedures are used for determining the field unit weight of compaction:

1. Sand cone method (ASTM Designation D-1556)

2. Rubber balloon method (ASTM Designation D-2167)

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that for the sand cone method; a test hole is
made, and the moist weight of the soil removed from the hole and its moisture content are determined. However,
the volume of the hole is determined by introducing a rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated vessel into
the hole, from which the volume can be read directly

3. Nuclear method
Nuclear density meters are now used often to determine the compacted dry unit weight of soil. The density meters
operate either in drilled holes or from the ground surface. The instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit
volume and also the weight of water present in a unit volume of soil. The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be
determined by subtracting the weight of water from the moist unit weight of soil. Figure 4.19 shows a photograph of
a nuclear density meter.

Example:

1. Laboratory compaction test results on a clayey soil are listed in the table.

Following are the results of a field unit weight determination test on the same soil with the sand cone
method:

• Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand 1570 kg/m3

• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone 0.545 kg
• Mass of jar cone sand (before use) 7.59 kg
• Mass of jar cone sand (after use) 4.78 kg
• Mass of moist soil from hole 3.007 kg
• Moisture content of moist soil 10.2%
Determine:

a. Dry unit weight of compaction in the field

b. Relative compaction in the field