Ignou Antient5

_____________________________________________________________Notes on History (Optional, Antient), UPSC
NOTES ON
HISTORY OPTIONAL
Antient & Medieval
UPSC MAINS
By
BHUSHAN DESHMUKH
Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

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NOTE ON PLACES AND AREAS IN ANCIENT INDIA (Example of Compulsory map question)
Question 1: Identify the following places marked on the map into question cum answer booklet supplied to you and
right about short notes of 30 words on each of them in the space provided in the booklet.2.5m x 20= 50
marks (2013)
i. A paleolithic and Mesolithic site ii. A Mesolithic site

iii. an important halting place iv. A pre-Harappan site
v. An important Harappan site vi. Site of important fossils
vii. A sea port viii. A paleolithic site
ix. A Neolithic, Megalithic and Chalcolithic site x. A harappan site
xi. A palaeolithic site xii. A Neolithic site
xiii. A Chalcolithic site xiv. A Chalcolithic site
xv. A site of Buddhist Monastery xvi. Painted Greyware site
xvii. Site related to a famous Indian philosopher xviii. historical rock cut caves
xix. famous fort xx. capital of famous kingdom
Indus Sites
1) Sutkagendor
Situated 500 km to the west of Karachi, it was discovered by Dr. Aurel Stein in 1931. It was probably a port city of
the IVC and had the regular plan of a twofold division of the city into the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. It was a
fortified port city but was later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift.
2) Balakot
A port city of the IVC, it is situated 98 km north-west of Karachi. Excavated by George F. Dales, most of its
structures belong to the earliest phase of the civilization. It was an important centre for shell-working and bangle-
making.
3) Allahdino
A port city of the IVC, it is situated 40 km east of Karachi and was excavated by Fairservis. It is a mature Harappan
site with a grid system of town planning and houses, either square or rectangular in shape.
4) Amri
Situated one mile west of the Indus in the Dadu district of Sind, 300 miles north of Karachi, it was excaved by Jean
Casal. It has revealed four phases in its evolution and development, namely, the pre, early, mature and late
Harappan cultural phases. Its inhabitation throughout the millennia of the IVC, therefore, provides an interesting
evidence of the cultural evolution in the valley.
5) Chanhudaro
A famous township of the IVC, it is situated in Sind on the left bank of the Indus. It was discovered by
N.G.Mazumdar in 1931. Evidence shows that it was a major production centre as it had a bead-makers colony and
various tools and implements for making seals as well.
6) Mohenjodaro
Situated in the Larkana district of Sind, it was first excavated by John Marshall. It was one of the largest cities of
the civilization containing important buildings like the Granary, the Assembly Hall, the Collage and the Great Bath.
It was also the place where the famous bronze statue of the Dancing Girl and a piece of cotton cloth were
discovered.
7) Kot Diji
Situated on the left bank of the Indus in Sind, it is a pre-Harappan as well as a Harappan site, which was excavated
by a Pakistani archaeologist, F.A.Khan. It has the typical features of an Indus valley city with well aligned houses,
sophisticated wheel-made pottery and even communal fire places. It was probably one of the earliest cities
developed by the Harappans.
8) & 9) Rohri & Sukkur
Rohri is situated on the left bank of the Indus and Sukkur on the right bank. Both were the sites of sub-culture of
Indus civilization and had flint quarries which were seized by the Harappans. Both were merged with the Harappan
culture.
Abohar (Firozpur, Punjab)

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Built by a Bhatti rajput king. The governor of Multan revolted against MBT and was defeated here. Ibn Batuta speaks
of it in his book.
Abu / Arbud (Sirohi, Rajasthan. 1995)
Place of Dilawara temples and the rajput yajna according to Prithviraj Raso.
Achalgarh (Abu, Rajasthan)
Capital of Parmars of Malwa. Temple of Achaleshwar Mahadev. Rana Kumbha built the Kembhaswami temple here
which has a huge nandi bull and also the Achalgarh fort. A stone inscription describes the history of Parmars and
Solankis of Gujarat.
Adam (Nagpur)
It was a part of the Assaka mahajanpad.
It was a Satvahna mint city. A stupa, Roman gold coins have been found as well.
Adamgarh Hills (Hoshangabad, MP)
Lower and middle Paleolithic sequence has been found.
It is a Mesolithic site as well and pottery remains have been found.
Neolithic - Chalcolithic traditions have been found too.
Adichannalur (TN)
It is a pre-megalithic / iron age burial site dating from 1500 BC. Cairn circles (stones arranged in circular form over the
grave) are absent.
Megalithic iron artifacts and red and black ware have been found. Artifacts associated with Murugan i.e. trident, cock
etc. have been found.
Aguada (Goa)
The Portuguese built a fort here in 1612. Marathas fought a war over it but failed and the fort went back to Portuguese.
Ahar (2008)
Ahar Culture --> PGW.
It is a chalcolithic site of Ahar culture. Its pottery was black-and-red ware on which linear designs were made in white.
Large quantities of copper implements have been found. Earliest iron implements in the sub-continent have been found
here too. Houses were made of mud and wood and grass with stone foundations.
Ahmednagar (Maharastra. 2001)
It was the capital of nizamshahi muslim sultans (founded in 1490 by Malik Ahmed) following the breakup of Bahmani
kingdom. Chand Bibi hosted her resistance to Mughals from here and after her Malik Amber. In 1633 it was annexed by
Shahjahan. Ahmednagar paintings are famous and are influenced by styles of Bijapur and Golconda. A high circular
horizon is a speciality of these paintings. Ahmednagar sultans were fond of planting gardens.
Ahraura (Mirzapur)
Asokan mRE 1. The rock edicts are highly worn out and defaced. Except the last line they resemble mREs of Sahsaram
and Bairat.
Aï-Khanoum (Afghanistan)
It shows a great city built by Indo-Greeks around 280 BC but was destroyed by nomadic invaders in 145 BC. A coin
hoard has been found along with some unstuck bronze bases indicating this was a mint town. In this age, the silk route
used to pass through here and it was a prosperous town.
Indo-Greek king Agathocles' coins have been found here showing Krishna and Balram indicating the spread of Krishna
cult.
Airan / Eran (Sagar, MP, 2010. 2006)
1. Malwa culture --> BRW phase. Iron objects were found in BRW phase ~1300 BC.
2. Gupta phase --> Samudragupta's prashasti inscription. There is another inscription on a vishnu boar image
in the reign of Toramana, the Huna king. From 510 AD we find a memorial inscription telling us about a sati
incident.
Aizawl (2000)
It was a trade center connecting Silchar and Dacca, it was en route Suvarnabhoomi. The Mizos moved here from China
then Burma then here from 5th cent AD.
Ajmer / Ajaymeru (2001)
Built by Chauhans in 12th century AD, it had strategic importance and lots of temples. It also has Adhai din ka jhopda
built by Qutub-ud-din Aibak, shrine of Khwaja Nizamuddin Chisti where Urs fair is held annually.
Ajodhan
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It was a major trade center in medieval India. It had the khankah of Sheikh Farid.
Alagankulam / Shaliyur / Kottaimedu (Ramnathapuram, TN)
It was an Indo - Roman trading post from Sangam age. It shows imported African ware, NBPW, roman coins, and other
roman artifacts.
Alamgirpur (Meerut, UP)
Late harappan site - eastern most. Lower layer has later Harappan traits while upper has BRW phase.
Amaravati / Dhanyakatak / Dhanyaghat / Dharanikot (Guntoor, AP, 2010. 2004. 2003. 1998)
It is famous for its Buddhist stupa. The construction began from 200 BC but lasted for nearly 400 years. The sculptures
depicted various scenes from Buddha's life. It was a trade center as merchants shipped came here via Krishna.
Amaravati school of sculpture was older than Mathura.
Amarkantak (Annupur, MP. 2011)
1. It is a great pilgrimage place and is associated with Siva's burning of Tripuri (one set of ashes fell here). It
finds mention in Mahabharata, Ramayana and Puranas.
2. The Kalchuri rulers constructed many great temples here. It has the place where Kabir performed
austerities and attained spiritual powers. World's biggest ashtadhatu Jain idol of Adinath is here. It has the famous
Keshav Narayan and the Matsyendranath temples.
Amarkot (1997)
Humayun, Rana Veersal gave shelter. Akbar was born here.
Ambari (2008)
1. The first cultural period runs from 6 - 12 cent AD and the second one rns from 13 - 17 cent AD.
Excavations have shown it was a prosperous town from 6 cent AD and later came under the Palas. It was mentioned
as a prosperous town of the east by Huen Tsang.
2. 2008 excavations showed that it had Sunga period settlement as well. Prior to this no Sunga period
settlement was found in NE. A flight of stairs leading into a tank, ceramic industry including roman pottery from 1-
2 cent AD have been found.
Ambek (1999)
It is a place near Chedi mahajanpada's capital Shaktimati in MP. PGW, NBPW, iron implements and terracotta figures
have been discovered here.
Amber (2006)
Built by Kachhwaha kings, it remained strategic city. The fort presents unique blend of Mughal and Rajput architecture.
Amri (Sind)
It is a pre Harappan and Harappan site showing a clear transition from pre Harappan to early to mature Harappan
traditions. The early Harappan stage had mud brick structures, wheel turned pottery, copper, bronze and stone objects.
Anagwadi (Karnataka)
Paleolithic site.
Anantpur (AP)
It was a major diamond mining center in the early medieval age.
Anegondi (Karnataka. 2006)
Anegondi was the original capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire when Mohammad Tughluq defeated the King of
Anegondi and appointed Malik Nayab as his representative to rule over the city. During this time the
brothers Harihar and Bukka organized a group that successfully recaptured Anegondi without bloodshed by sneaking
into the Anegondi fort and taking Malik Nayab prisoner while he was drunk.
Anhilwara / Patan (Gujarat. 1995)
1. It has the famous Karnameru temple built by the Solanki rulers of Gujarat. Well known Jaina scholar
Hemraj lived here and wrote on grammar, language, history and philosophy.
2. In Sultanate era, it was a famous urban centre. Alauddin captured it in 1299 and it remained under the
sultanate till 1401. After that Ahmed Shah shifted his capital to Ahemdabad and it declined. It was a famous center
of trade, pilgrimage and jaina literature.
Anjira (Baluchistan)
Neolithic site in NW.
Antichak (Bhagalpur. 2008)
It has a fortification wall from early historical period. Also some stone pillars and stone images of Buddha, Siva,
Surya and Vishnu have been found.
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Anuradhapur (SL. 2007. 2005)
1. It was the capital of Ceylon (until it was shifted to Polonnaruva to protect from Chola Rajaraja's attack) and
was founded by Anurodh, ambassador of an Indian prince. Asoka's son Mahendra planted a sapling of Bodhi tree
here and built a stupa. In 4th cent AD, a teeth of Buddha was brought here and placed in the stupa.
2. Potsherds have been discovered at Anuradhapur from 5th cent BC which have brahmi inscriptions (these
could be the earliest inscriptions in brahmi but is debated).
Apsadh (Gaya)
It has an important inscription of the later Gupta kings mentioning their rivalry with Maukharis. It also has a large
temple from 6-7 cent AD.
Arnala (Maharastra)
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat built a fort here in 1530 but gave it to Portuguese in a treaty in 1535. It was later captured by
Marathas and subsequently given to £. It was an important trade center.
Asirgarh / Ashvathamagiri (Burhanpur, MP. 1999. 1997)
Strong fort in Khandesh. Initially under the ruler of Malwa, it was captured by Delhi sultans, then after MBT's death it
passed under the rulers of Khandesh until Akbar captured it in 1601.
Atiranjikhera (Etah, UP)
1. OCP Phase --> BRW Phase --> PGW Phase --> NBPW Phase.
2. OCP doesn't show Harappan links. People lived in mud houses supported by wood.
3. BRW Phase--> The discovery of BRW was the first independent BRW find in the country.
4. PGW Phase--> 1st remains of rice in PGW phase were found here from 8 cent BC. Few kuchcha wells have
been found. Wide range of iron implements have been found.
5. NBPW --> Mud brick walls, terracotta, coinage, script come up.
6. Post-Mauryan phase--> A temple has been found. The temple is on a raised platform around which there is
a circumambulatory path. The discovery of of a Gaja-Lakshmi plaque suggests it was a Lakshmi temple.
Attala (Idukki, Kerela)
Megalithic phase --> Hunting scenes have been depicted in paintings found in rock shelters.
Attirampakkam (TN)
1. It is the richest paleolithic site in TN. Covers lower, middle as well as upper paleolithic period. 1st
paleolithic tool in India was discovered here in 1863 - a cleaver.
2. Tools were made of quartzite which was not available locally and very little waste material is here
suggesting tools were made elsewhere and brought here.
Attock / Ohind (Pakistan)
Alexander crossed Indus here. Mahmud of Gazni defeated the Hindushahi rulers here. Akbar built a strong fort.
Aurangabad / Khidaki (1997)
1. Satvahnas were followed by Vakatakas, then Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. It grew in importance under
Malik Amber.
2. It has Buddhist caves from 6th cent AD and has sculptures of Buddha and Tara.
Badoli (Chittorgarh)
It has many panchyatan style temples from early medieval age. A siva temple Ghatehwar Sivalaya is most famous and
resembles Odisha style. This style has a sanctum, dome, gallery and pinnacle.
Bagasra / Gola Dhoro (2009)
1. Harappan site. It has given a hitherto unknown kind of seal. Bangles, pottery, copper artifacts etc. have
been found.
2. Also a chalcolithic site.
Bagha Caves (Gwalior, MP)
These caves are 4th generation Buddhist caves in Gupta period. The paintings are fine example of Gupta age paintings.
They have a materialistic theme.
Baghai Kor (Mirzapur, UP)
Mesolithic site. Both ceramic and pre-ceramic mesolithic phases can be found here.
Bagor (Bhilwara)
1. It is a Mesolithic site. People used chalcedony for making tools which is only found ~ 100 km SE in
Deccan trap. Evidences of Copper too have been found. They migrated SE in the dry season. House floors were
made of stone slabs.
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2. Evidences of a chalcolithic and then an iron age too have been found.
Baghor (MP)
1. It was from upper paleolithic. In the middle of a circular platform made of sandstone rubble, a rock with
concentric triangles painted in light yellowish red to dark reddish brown have been found. This indicates pagan
worship. The pieces of the rock when joined together form a triangle itself.
2. It was a Mesolithic site as well. The proportion of finished tools is very less. This suggests that the tools
were made here and then taken elsewhere. Some large shelters have been found too from post holes.
Bahal
It was a part of the Jorwe chalcolithic culture of Deccan. It was a large village (500 - 1000 people).
Bahapur (Delhi)
Asokan mRE 1.
Bahawalpur (Pakistan)
Pre Harappan site. Also a Harappan site which was on the banks of Saraswati.
Bahiri (W Bengal)
Chalcolithic site of east India. Gives evidence of iron ore and slag from 1100 - 800 BC.
Baijnath (Rewa)
It has the famous Vaidyanath temple of nagara central india style. The shikhara of the temple is somewhat low.
Bairat / Bhabru / Viratnagar (Jaipur, 2010)
1. It was also called Viratnagar, capital of Matsya mahajanpad.
2. Asokan mRE. Also remains of ancient Buddhist monastery found.
3. Indo-Greek coins including those of Menander have been found here.
Bajaur (NWFP)
Menander built a stupa here over Buddha's relics.
Balakot (Manshera)
Its a pre and early Harappan site. Wheel turned painted pottery like Harappa, humped bull figurines, terracotta, shell
and bone objects etc. have been found. Houses used unburnt bricks. A bath cim toilet has been found.
Balasore (Odisha. 1995)
British opened their factory in Odisha in 1633.
Balathal (Udaipur, Rajasthan. 2009)
It was a chalcolithic site of Ahar culture. A massive mud fortification wall was found with bastions in it. Terracotta
figurines, copper, stone and bone tools were found as well. They had close contact with Harappa, built large brick and
mud houses.
Balbhrameshwar (Shringeri, Karnataka. 1999)
Saint Kaundinya established his ashram here and penetrated the Aryan culture in S India.
Bamiyan / Vasmati
Buddha. Major buddhist site with many viharas and buddhist paintings.
Banawali (Hissar. 2008)
Pre, mature and post Harappan site. It is larger than a village but smaller than a town. The brick ratios were 3:2:1 in the
earliest phase which changed to 4:2:1 in the mature phase. It has a citadel.
Banskheda (Shahjahanpur, UP)
Copper plate land grant inscription of Harsha found here. It tells us about tax structure, administrative structure, lineage
of Harsha along with their religious beliefs.
Barabar (Gaya)
Caves were cut in rocks and donated to the Ajivika sect by Asoka. The entry to these caves were decorated. The caves
are simple.
Baran (Bulandshehar, UP)
1. Mahabharata legend tells us it was founded by grandson of Abhimanyu.
2. Rajput kings fought Mahmud of Gazni here in 1018. It came under Delhi sultans in 1193. Ziauddin Barani
was born here.
Barbaricum (Indus delta)
Major port in post Mauryan age but silting of estuary led to a shift and eventual decline.
Bargaon (Saharanpur)
Later Harappan site.
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Baror (Shriganganagar, Rajasthan)
It has a pre, early and mature Harappan settlement. In the pre harappan level distinct pottery has been found. No brick
structures have been found indicating people lived in mud houses. Mature harappan period shows a well planned city,
industrial economy, special red ware / red slipped ware. A fortification wall, terracotta, beads etc. also have been found.
Basarh / Basad (Vaishali. 2003. 2000)
1. It was the capital of Licchavis of Vajji Mahajanapada. A coronation tank of Licchavis from 2 cent BC has
been found.
2. In Gupta period, it had a major fort. A large number of seals and sealings have been discovered from a
room in the fort indicating it was used to store important documents. These sealings show Vaishnava symbols.
3. Some sealings found tell us about the importance of guilds in the Gupta period.
Basholi (Jasrota, Jammu. 2011)
During Akbar, pahari style of painting developed here. Later under the local rulers it flourished. Basholi school of
painting is closer to Mewar school because of the variety of colors used, simplicity and appeal to passions. Colors have
been chosen for their symbolic value. Pearls and other precious stones were added to the paintings. It is a fusion of local
hill arts and Mughal style.
Basin / Besin / Bassein / Daman / Vasai
Bahadur shah sold it to Portuguese in 1534. Portuguese held it until Marathas captured it in 1739. Treaty of Bassein was
signed here in 1802.
Bayana / Banpur (2008. 1995)
1. Huge hoard of Gupta gold coins belonging to Chadnragupta II and Kumargupta have been found.
2. Bayana fort was built by Vijaypal of Karawali dynasty who also fought Mahmud of Gazni. It was captured
by Ghori in 1196 AD. Khanua is near Bayana. Later it came under Jats of Bharatpur. It was known for cultivation of
indigo.
Bedsa (Karle, Maharastra)
Buddhist caves representing 3rd phase of cave architecture evolution have been found where there is a long hall with a
stupa at the end and pillars parallel to the walls creating a circumambulatory path. The entry of the cave has a apsidal
structure which has cells on three sides meant for monks to live.
Begram (Kabul)
Kushana era treasure was found here. Numerous Kushana equestrian terracotta figurines (indicating the Kushana love
for horses), Roman trade evidences (amphorae, pottery etc.), elaborate ivory sculptures (representing Indian subjects)
have been found.
Behmanabad / Patal (1999)
1. It was here Alexander decided to dispatch a part of his army back home via sea. Vincent Smith believed it
was called so after Behman Shah of Iran (425 AD) but the discovery of a far more ancient civilization has pushed it
back. It is mentioned in Greek records as well as Kavya Mimansa.
2. When Muhammed bin Qasim conquered Sind he chose to make this his capital.
Belan Valley / Chopani Mando (Mirzapur, UP)
1. Sequence of lower paleolithic to neolithic to proto historic settlements has been found.
2. Sheep and goat bones have been found here but they were not indigenous here so they were brought from
NW from Mesolithic layers.
3. Round huts have been found too made of wattle and doab from Mesolithic layers.
4. Pottery of Mesolithic age has been found as well.
Belur (Karnataka. 1997)
Hosyala period temples are found. The Chennakeshav temple is most famous which applies to stone the technique of an
ivory worker or a goldsmith. It is a complex of temples. Elaborate sculpture.
Besnagar / Vidisha (MP. 2005. 2000. 1998)
1. Mauryan level shows mud fortification. A temple of Vishnu from same phase has been found from 3 cent
BC. The temple had a shrine with elliptical structure and another smaller outer ellipse which had a rectangular
projection. The temple was built on an elevated platform, had a brick plinth and the superstructure was made of
wood, mud etc.
2. The pillar erected here by Heliodorus - the Greek ambassador to Sunga king - is the only example of pillar
making in the post-mauryan age. The pillar inscription talks about a Vishnu temple in the area. It was the western

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capital of Sungas and lied on the trade routes connecting N India with deccan and W sea ports. A yaksha image
holding a money bag (Kuber) has been found indicating yakshas were associated with money also.
Bhadarabad (Haridwar)
OCP site.
Bhadrawati / Bhandak (Chandrapur. 1999)
Capital site of Vakatakas. Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang visited Bhadrawati in 639 AD and called it a place of
numerous monasteries where 1400 monks lived. 3 elaborate Buddhist caves with large Buddha statues and viharas have
been found. Besides it has Jaina, Naga and Vishnu temples.
Bhadreshwar (2008)
The Solanki rulers changed its name from Bhadrawati to Bhadreshwar and built famous Jain temples. The main temple
is Bhadreshwar built by Solankis. There is a Shiv temple as well and another Pandava temple. The jain temples are one
of the oldest Jain temples in India.
Bhagwanpura (Kurukshetra, Haryana. 1998)
1. PGW site + late Harappan pottery overlapped between 1600 BC to 1000 BC. Zone of interaction of Aryans
and late Harappans.
2. No iron objects have been found => old PGW phase was not iron age and horse bones have been found
here.
Bhaja (2000)
100 BC Buddhist cave represents the 3rd phase of cave architecture evolution. The two rooms were merged into one,
pillars were erected parallel to the walls to create a circumambulatory path. The central hall has higher vaulted ceilings,
side paths have lower half-vaulted ceiling, horse-shoe shaped arch at entrance.
Bhakkar (Indus)
It was a major urban center in medieval India under the sultanate. It had a khankah (sufi center) in the middle of the
town where travelers used to eat.
Bharatpur
Built in early 18th century by Badan Singh jat, it was the capital of Jat kingdom.
Bharhut (Bundelkhand, MP)
Sunga age stupa has been found here the gates of which are guarded by yakshas and yakshis and other minor gods. A
sculpture here shows a huge sea monster engulfing a ship and its crew indicating sea trade.
Bharukaccha / Bharuch / Broach / Bhrigukachcha (2000. 1998)
1. International port since pre-Mauryan days. In Mauryan times too, it was an important port. Bead making,
ring wells were important. There was a mud fortification along with a moat.
2. It was the most important port to carry out trade with West during the post-Mauryan age. It served Sakas,
Kushanas as well as the Satvahnas. Two silk routes from north vis the uttarapath (Taxilla --> Punjab --> western
part of Yamuna--> course of Yamuna --> Mathura --> Ujjain --> Broach) and Taxilla --> lower Indus basin --
> Broach served it.
Bhatkal
It was a part of Hosyals then came under Vijaynagar. Cholas invaded Bhatkal in 10th century and built the Solesvara
temple and left their inscriptions here. Later on Portuguese exerted their influence here.
Bhatinda (Punjab)
Large fort built by Bhatti rajputs. It went under the control of Delhi sultans and was a part of the line of defence against
Mongols.
Bhatner / Hanumangarh (1996)
It was an important fort built by Bhatti rajputs in medieval India.
Bhattiprolu (Guntur, AP)
2 cent BC stupa has been found. The stupa has mostly solid core with a wheel plan in central portion. It represents an
intermediate style between the early solid core stupas and the later spoked wheel plan stupas.
Bhir (Taxila)
It belongs to pre mauryan age level and is the only site to have been horizontally excavated but it is too far from the
Gangetic valley to be generalized.
Bheraghat (Jabalpur, MP)
1. 2nd cent AD --> Famous 64 yogini temple (associated with Shakti worship) came up. Only one of the 5
such temples in India.
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2. Chalukyan inscription has been discovered here which tells us of their victory over Bengal rulers.
Bhimbetka (2007. 2004)
Bhimtal (Bundi)
A 5 cent AD mukhalinga has been found. It is on white sandstone, the temple compound was made of bricks.
Bhinmal (Jalore, Rajasthan)
It finds mention in ancient Jaina and Sanskrit texts. It was an important town in early historic period. Roman trade
evidences, Gupta period remains and medieval remains have been found as well.
Bhirrana (Fatehabad, Haryana)
It gives an understanding of process behind Harappa civilization formation. It has Hakra ware, early Harappa, transition
to mature harappa and mature harappa levels. The early harappa levels show mud bricks in standard ratio (3:2:1), a six-
room house, terracotta figurines, beads and bangles.
Bhita (Allahbad. 2001)
1. Mauryan bricks have been found.
2. In Gupta period, it shows many structures of reused or broken bricks. Numerous seals and sealings have
been found too. Some seals show Lakshmi. A buddha image has been found too.
Bhitargaon (Kanpur. 1999)
1. The Gupta-era temple is made of terracotta and brick. It provides earliest example of true arch. The walls
have terracotta panels depicting mythological scenes.
Bhitari (Ghazipur, UP)
A stone pillar inscription of Skandagupta has been found which talks of is Huna wars and a land grant to a Vishnu
temple. The terms of the grant have not been mentioned.
Bhokardan (Aurangabad)
1. In Satvahna age, it was located on the trade route from Ujjain to Paithan. Punch-marked, Satvahna and
Kshatrap coins have been found here. Roman trade connections too. Anthropomorphic pot and lid with three female
figures has been found as well.
2. Several Vishnu temples in underground caves have been found from 8 - 9 cent AD.
Bhoomra (Satna, MP)
It has got a famous Siva temple of Nagara style from Gupta age. On the left and right side of the entry gate are Ganga
and Yamuna and there is a shivlinga in middle.
Bhubneswar (2001)
Long time capital. Parshurameshwar temples is one of the first. Lingaraja temple is the most famous and was built in 11
cent AD.
Bidar (Hyderabad. 1995)
It was plundered by Alauddin and became a part of Delhi sultanate under Ghiasuddin Tughluq. In 1347 it became a part
of Bahmani kingdom and in 1422 became independent. In 1619 it was captured by Bijapur. It was an important center
for architecture. It has 12 mausoleums the most famous being of Sultan Ahmedshah. Mahmud Gawan built a large
madarssa here.
Bijapur (Shalapur, Karnataka. 2005. 1999)
1. It became independent under the Adilshahi sultans and was a part of the confederacy which defeated
Vijaynagar @ battle of Talikota. It lost Goa to Portuguese in 1510. By 17th century it became very weak in face of
Marathas and Mughals and was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.
2. It was a prominent center of learning. It has the best architecture in S India, buildings are well known for
their design and grandeur and are highly ornamented. Domes and beams are particularly ornamented. Gol Gumbaj
is here and has the largest dome in the world.
Bikaner
It was founded by Rana Bika of Rathore rajputs in 15th century. They made an alliance with Akbar and built a fort
which is a fusion of Rajput and Mughal architecture.
Bilhari (Katni, MP)
It was a center of Kalchuri rulers. An inscription is found from 10th cent AD which details their military campaigns,
construction of the Laxmansagar lake by Kalachuris.
Birbhanpur (Burdwan, W Bengal. R. Damodar, 2010)
Chalcedony tools and a factory site have been found from Mesolithic age.
Bisauli / Badaun (2011)
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 9
It led to the discovery of OCP phase. Pottery is ill fired, wheel turned, medium to fine fabric, thick red slip and painted
in black designs. It leaves ochre color on fingers when rubbed.
Bodh Gaya / Uruvela (Gaya. 2002)
Buddha attained enlightenment here.
Brahmagiri / Siddhpur / Maski / Kupgal (Chitradurg, 2008)
1. Period 1 was megalithic. People lived on granite hill tops in wattle and daub houses. Copper/bronze objects
and hand-made grey ware have been found. People were mainly pastoral as indicated by cattle bones with cut
marks, cattle figurines of humped cattle and predominance of cattle in the rock paintings at Maski and Kupgal.
2. It has the Siddhpur village where Asokan mRE 1 & 2 are found and which marked the southern boundary
of his empire.
Budaun / Badaun (UP)
Important medieval town. Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya born here. Shrine of Iltutmish, built on the remains of
Neelkanth Mahadev temple is an important monument.
Budihal (Gulbarga)
Neolithic and ash mound site of S India. A tool making industry has been found. Ash deposits were located at the center
and it showed the presence of a long duration habitation site directly associated with the ash mounds.
Bundi (2008)
10k years old mesolithic paintings were found. These rock paintings are in ochre, dark red
colors and depict humans, animals, hunting scenes, geometric designs, dancing postures, bullock carts and chariots.
Burzahom (Srinagar. 2008. 2005.)
Neolithic site. Bone tools, pit dwellings, dog burials.
Calicut (2007. 2003)
Vasco da gama arrived here and the king Zamorin welcomed him. Pepper was the chief export from Calicut and it was a
center of cotton manufacturing and shipbuilding.
Chabroli (AP)
Mauryan age site. Used to lie on the trade routes.
Champaner (Baroda. 1996)
It had a strong fort in medieval times which was captured by ruler of Gujarat Mahmud Begara in 1484. Subsequently
Humayun defeated Bahadur Shah and captured Champaner fort in 1535. Akbar reconquered it later.
Chandarmager / Chandannagar (1997)
It was built and developed by French in 1673 and was won over by English in 1757.
Chandawar (Kanauj)
Battle between Ghori and Jaichand was fought here in 1194.
Chanderi (Gwalior. 2006. 1997)
It was an important medieval town in trade and politics. Routes from Malwa passed from here. It was captured by
Babur as the local ruler sided with Rana Sanga in the battle of Khanua. Later it came under the control of Scindias.
Chandoli
1. Chalcolithic culture of deccan.
2. Under Marathas it was an important fort.
Chandor (Goa)
It was an important city from Mauryan times. It became a port of international repute as trade with Arabs grew. A
broken bull image from Chalukyan times has been found.
Chandragiri (Mysore)
According to Jaina tradition, CGM performed santhara here after migrating along with Bhadrabahu. There is a small
temple here called Chandragupta Basti.
Chandraketugarh (24 Parganas, Bengal, 2008)
In Kushana period, it was an important urban centre of terracotta figurine manufacturing. Most figurines were of highly
ornamented women including the Panchachuda goddess who has 5 weapons coming out of her hair.
Chandravati (Abu)
It was the capital of Parmaras. It had hundreds of Jaina , major and minor Hindu god temples. Hundreds of idols as well
as temple sculpture has been found here. It was devastated by Bahadur Shah.
Chanhudaro (2010)

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 10
Mature harappan town. It doesn't have a fort like other major cities. Burnt bricks, pottery, seals, weights etc. have been
found. Bead making factory was found. This town was devastated twice by floods.
Chaul
Important port on the west coast in medieval India. It was a post Mauryan age port but was revived under Bahmani
kingdom. Arabs and Europeans used to trade here and it was finally captured by Portuguese.
Chausa (Karmanasha, Bihar)
Battle between Humayun and SSS was fought here in 1539 and Humayun had to run for his life.
Chech Kutubpur (Patna)
Chalcolithic site of middle gangetic valley from 3 - 2 millennium BC. Lot of bone tools have been found like Chirand.
Chinsura (1995)
English defeated the Dutch here and ended their power in India.
Chirand (Chapra. 2011)
1. Bone tools from neolithic age have been found. Major neolithic site as the number of artifacts discovered
are second highest after Burzahom.
2. The neolithic continued into chalcolithic into iron age. Pottery was BRW. Beads of terracotta, steatite and
semi-precious stones and microliths continued.
3. One of the earliest cities to emerge in NBPW age. The town continued to prosper in Kushana phase and
many brickworks have been found.
Chittoor
Major Buddhist site.
Chitradurga / Chandravali
Major town under Satvahna, Kadambas, Rashtrakutas, Hosyals, Vijaynagar and Hyder Ali.
Chitrakuta (Banda. 2001)
Ramayna says lord Rama spent 13 years of his exile here. Birthplace of Tulsidas who wrote Ramcharitmanas.
Chittagong / Chatgaon (2007. 2005)
Major medieval port. Initially under the ruler of Bengal but Arkanese occupied it from time to time. Finally under
Aurangzeb, Saista Khan drove out Arkanese pirates and made it a prosperous port.
Chittor (1995)
Alauddin, Karnavati, Akbar.
Chopani Mando (Belan Valley)
Discovery of wild rice in mesolithic levels.
Chunar / Charnadri (Mirzapur. 2002)
1. Asokan pillars were made here and then transported. The pillars made here used greystone.
2. In the medieval time it was a strong fort en route to any attack on Bihar. Humayun fought SSS here and
then later Akbar fought Afghans here.
Dabhol (Ratnagiri)
Important medieval town. Malik Kafur defeated ruler of Devgiri and captured Dabhol. Later it came under Bijapur but
Portuguese snatched it from them and ended their marine trade.
Dadheri
PGW site.
Dadupur (Pratapgarh)
One of the early iron finds of India. The excavations reveal iron implements from 2nd millennium BC. Red ware
dominates the pottery, while the black-and-red ware is nominally represented
Daimabad (Ahmadnagar, Maharastra. 1998)
1. Its a Savalda culture chalcolithic site. A phallus shaped object has been found.
2. It had 5 periods. Savalda Culture (2300-2200 BC) --> Late Harappan Culture (2200-1800 BC) -->
Daimabad Culture (1800-1600 BC) --> Malwa Culture (1600-1400) --> Jorwe Culture (1400-1000).
3. The late Harappan phase shows relations with Harappa. Harappan script has been found here, pottery was
red ware with designs painted in black. Copper, bead, terracotta were important crafts.
4. Daimabad Culture layer had black-on-buff ware pottery.
5. In Malwa layer, houses were mud with wooden posts, big. Fire altars were present. Pottery was fine fabric,
uniformly fired, thick buff / orange slip, designs in black / brown and had deep bowls and spouted pots with flaring
mouths. Terracotta, copper, stone and bone were important crafts.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 11
6. Jorwe Culture --> It is one of the large sites. There was a mud fortification wall with bastions.
Specialization of labor was indicated by presence of specialists' houses. There was an elliptical structure with
approach paths plastered with cow dung and a horde of pots probably containing offerings. A terracotta seal shows
a horse drawn chariot.
Damb Sadat (Baluchistan)
Neolithic site. We don't find pottery in the first level but subsequent levels show pottery as well as evidences of copper.
Damdama (Pratapgarh, UP)
1. 41 burials including 4 multiple burials have been found from mesolithic age.
2. Domesticated rice has been found too from 7 millennium BC i.e. the mesolithic level.
Damoh (MP)
1. Lower Paleolithic tradition has been found.
2. During Akbar's time, it formed a part of the Malwa province, it had many temples, images and a fort. It
came under Marathas later.
Dangwada (Ujjain)
From pre-Gupta age, a Siva and a Vishnu temple has been found. It had the elliptical architectural form and had stone
plinth and mud plinth.
Daojali Hading (Assam. 2009)
A neolithic site. Quartzite, sandstone tools have been found along with hand made pottery. Indirect evidence of shifting
agriculture found too.
Dashpur / Dasaur (Mandsaur, MP)
Gautamiputra Satkarni won it over from Saka king Nahapana. It has a famous inscription of Kumargupta which tells us
about the immigration of silk merchants en mass from Bharuch to this place. The inscription also talks of sun worship.
It tells us about the temple which had multiple shikharas. Ganga and Yamuna acted as the gate keepers and the temple
entry was adorned.
Daulatabad / Deogiri (Aurangabad. 1996)
It was under Chalukyas then Yadavas. Alauddin plundered it. Then MBT made it his capital. Later it came under
Bahmani kingdom. Deogiri fort was very important. It was a cotton textile manufacturing center as well and was
located on the trade route from north to deccan.
Daurai (Ajmer)
3rd and last battle between Aurangzeb and Dara was fought here.
Davak / Dacca
Mentioned in SG's Prayag inscription. Fine muslin making center.
Debal (2005)
Ancient port on mouth of river Indus. Cotton goods and indigo were exported to Iran and Arabia from here. It was a
famous sword making center and an international port in the early medieval age. It also lied on an important trade route
with western Asia.
Deedarganj (Patna)
A beautiful yakshini statue found here from mauryan period. She holds a broom of whiskers and her physical beauty is
marvelously carved out on stone.
Deeg
Important palaces built by Jat rulers. There is a double awning on all sides of the palace - the upper awning provides an
extension of the roof and was used as a resting place after sunset. Lower awning with its extended shadow protected
against the sun.
Deepadeeh (Sarguja, Chattisgarh)
Bright star of India architecture. A temple complex found here which is spread over 5 sq. km. area. It has all Siva
temples built in different styles. Sculpture is exquisite.
Deepalpur (Punjab, Pakistan. 1995)
1. Saka coins found here. After Multan, this is the oldest continuously occupied site.
2. Important fort and formed a line of defence against Mongols under Balban. Alauddin had posted
Ghiasuddin Tughluq here. It was a major urban center of medieval India.
Deogarh (Jhansi)
It has the Dasavatar Vishnu temple which is the earliest example of the fusion of the Nagar and the Dravidian styles. It
has got a shikhara. While other temples had only 1 mandap, this one had 4 mandaps situated in each direction. The
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 12
tempe sculpture shows many scenes associated with krishna, narsinha, dwarf avatars of Vishnu. The motifs used are
animals, birds, swastikas, dwarves, mithuns.
Deorkothar (Rewa, MP)
Asokan stupas (multiple, brick and stone both) have been found. Rock shelters with paintings too have been found.
Desalpur (Khirasara, Gujarat)
Mature and late harappan site. Mesopotamian trade artifacts have been found as well apart from usual things.
Devnimori (Sabarkantha, Gujarat, 2008)
In Gupta era, it was a major Buddhist centre. Saka kshatrap coins tell us of a stupa and a monastery here.
Dhalbhum (Jharkhand)
It had gold mines from where also Kushanas got their gold for the coins.
Dhamekh (Sarnath. 2004. 2003)
The Dhamekh stupa of Sarnath is the only example of stupa in Gupta age.
Dhara (Gwalior. 2001)
The Pratihara ruler Bhoja shifted his capital here from Ujjain and made it a center of culture and education which it
remained in medieval india as well. Alauddin annexed it later. It became a major center of wheat and beetle leaves
production.
Dharmat (Ujjain. 1995)
Aurangzeb fought Murad here.
Dharnikota (Amrawati)
It gave birth to the Amrawati town. It was a major trade center from 400 BC to 1 cent AD. Roman and Satvahna trade
signs have been found.
Dharwad (Karnataka)
Iron was found here in Megalithic culture in 1000 BC. It also has vesara style jain temples from early medieval age.
Dhauli (Puri. 2007. 2003)
Asokan MRE. #11-13 replaced by separate #1-2. There is also a rock sculpture of front part of an elephant. It shows
forward movement and looks like the elephant is coming out of the hill.
Dholpur
Important fort. Also has famous cave called Raja Muchkund.
Dhulikatta (Karimnagar)
From 3 cent BC, there was a Buddhist stupa here. Also a fortified town in early Sangam age.
Didwana (Nagaur, Rajasthan)
Lower Paleolithic remains of 400k years ago have been found. The sequence extends from early to middle paleolithic.
Dihar (Bankura, W Bengal)
Chalcolithic culture of east india. BRW, copper objects, microliths, beads found here. Later iron age developed. High
tin bronze has been found as well.
Dudhai (Lalitpur)
Early Medieval Age --> Site of the famous Yogini cult temple. Only one of the 5 such temples in India.
Dvarsamudra / Halebid / Divaravalipura (hassan, Karnataka. 2006)
It was the Hosyala capital and has large number of temples. The largest is Hosayalesvara temple and is the best example
of Chalukyan style. Malik Kafur raided this city.
Edakal (Kerala, 2010)
1. Tamil Brahmi inscriptions saying "Sri Vazhumi" have been found with an anthropomorphic figure. The
figure indicates fertility cult and Vazhumi indicates Sanskrit "Brahma".
2. Earliest Malayalam inscription from 4 cent AD have also been found - "i pazhama" which means this is
ancient pointing to an anthromorphic figure drawn on the cave wall.
Elephanta / Dharapuri (2001)
They are from Gupta age. Temples cut into caves have been found. Mahesh, dancing Siva, marriage of Siva and Parvati
are famous images. One cave is a Buddhist cave.
Ellichpur (Berar, MP. 1996)
Alauddin vanquished Ramchandradev who ruled it and when he stopped paying tribute, Alauddin invaded again.
Ellora / Verul (Aurangabad. 2001. 1996)
It has 34 cave temples, 1 - 12 buddhist, 13 - 29 hindu and 30 - 34 jain. They are from 6 - 10 cent AD. Chalukyas built
buddhist and hindu caves while Rashtrakuta built all 3 caves. Buddhist caves host the statues of Buddha, Bodhistava
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 13
and Tara belonging to Vajrayan school and represents tantric traditions. Siva is shown in Mahakal, Mahayogi and Natraj
forms. Jain caves represent Digambar school. Images of yakshas and yakshis are also present. The most famous cave is
16th which has the Kailash temple.
Erragudi (Kurnool, AP)
Asokan MRE. Asokan MRE 1 & 2.
Faizabad
Built by Sadat Ali Khan in 1730 - first Nawab of Oudh, it was his capital. It has beautiful palaces, gardens and
mausoleums.
Farukhabad
It was built by a mughal governor under Farukh Siyar. It has an Asokan pillar and many buddhist stupas.
Ganeshwar (Nim-Ka-Thana)
1. It is a chalcolithic site from Ganeshwar-Jodpura culture. It used to supply copper to early and mature
Harappa as is evident from the discovery of Harappan pottery from Ganeshwar and Ganeshwar items from
Harappan sites.
2. From 2000 BC in the megalithic phase, there was a decline in microliths indicating decline in importance
of hunting. It was a major centre for copper artifacts.
Gangai Konda Cholapuram (Trichinapalli. 2008. 1995)
Rajendra Chola built it after he crossed Kalinga and defeated the rulers of Bengal and Magadha. It has a huge temple.
Ganweriwala (Bhawalpur)
Harappan site.
Garhwa (Karchana, Allahbad)
1 inscription of Chandragupta II, 2 of Kumargupta and 1 of Skandagupta have been found. They indicate presence of a
Vaishnava institution there.
Gaur / Lakhnauti (Maldah, Bengal. 2008. 1995)
Banabhatta talks of Shashank as the king of Gaur. Then it passed under Palas and later Senas (12th cent). It is famous
for Bengalis style of Indo-Islamic architecture. Famous are Chota Sona and Bada Sona mosques.
Gazni (1996)
Gavimath (Raichur, Karnataka)
Asokan mRE 1.
Ghaligai (SWAT Valley)
Neolithic settlement from 3000-2000 BC. Stone tools were absent. Similar to Burzahom.
Ghantshal (Krishna delta, AP)
Ancient port and used to carry out port with SE Asia. It has a stupa from 1-2 cent AD.
Ghargaon (Jhalawar. 1995)
It was earlier ruled by Parmars and had a fort which had 92 temples. Alauddin's attack here was repelled. It has a dargah
of Hamidudin Chisti. The fort was considered invincible and very strong and even SSS and Akbar were impressed by it.
Aurangzeb built Buland Darwaza here.
Ghor (1996)
Gihlot / Udaipur (1999)
It was the home of Guhil rajput. When Akbar invaded Chittor in 1567, Rana Udai Singh took shelter here and built a
beautiful palace.
Giddlur (AP)
Paleolithic site.
Gilund (Udaipur)
It was a site of chalcolithic Ahar culture. Main pottery was BRW. Burnt brick structures and terracotta humped bull
figurines have been found here. Banas culture also found.
Girdharpur (Mathura)
Has a Kushana era inscription which tells us that guilds used to act as banks and accepted deposits for religious and
charitable purposes.
Girnar / Girinagar (Junagarh, 2008. 2002)
1. Asokan MRE.
2. Rudradaman, western kshatrap of Kardamaka dynasty, had his inscription here. It talked about the
Sudarshan lake and his victories over Gautamiputra Satkarni and other areas. This is the first sanskrit inscription.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 14
Ginjee / Jinjee (Viluppuram, TN. 2008)
The Vijaynagar rulers built a formidable fortress here. It fell to Bijapur after the battle of Talikota and later Sivaji
captured it and offered resistance to Mughals from here.
Gokul (Mathura. 1999)
It became a popular center of Bhakti movement and was popularized by Vallabhacharya as a religious site.
Golabai Sasan (Khurda, Odisha)
Chalcolithic culture of eastern India. Pottery was dull red and grey in color. It has produced a rich bone tool industry
and evidence of circular and rectangle kuccha houses. Stone celts and extended human burials found too.
Golconda (Hyderabad. 2007. 2003)
1. It has a fort built by the Kakatiya Kings of Warrangal during the 13th century. It became important under
the Qutub Shahi dynasty (1518 to 1687) until it was annexed by Aurangzeb. This is where the priceless Kohinoor
diamond was found and it was a diamond mining center as well.
2. It also has the Mecca Masjid whose bricks were brought from Mecca. It is the second largest mosque in the
country. The architecture consists of single slab granite columns and five arches each on three sides. Construction
started under the Qutub Shahi kings but was completed by Aurangazeeb in 1694.
3. A bilingual inscription from Qutub Shahi sultans in Telugu and Persian has been recovered from the
Golconda fort.
Gopalgir (Mewat)
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq constructed a strong fort here to end the tyranny of the local dacoits.
Gudimallam (Chitoor, AP)
2 cent BC, Siva temple has been found. In the early phase the mukhalinga was placed inside a stone railing. The temple
was roofless and evidences of animal sacrifices are here. With time a superstructure was built but the same mukhalinga
remained the object of worship.
Gufkral (Kashmir)
Neolithic site. Evidences of wheat, barley, masoor and arhar found along with sheep and goat bones.
Gujjara (Datia, MP. 2003)
Asokan mRE 1. Only inscription apart from Maski which contains name of the king.
Gulberg (Karnataka)
It was founded by bahmani sultans and remained the capital until it was shifted to Bidar. They built massive buildings
here. It represents a fusion style. Jama Masjid and mausoleums are famous.
Gumla (Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan)
1. It is a neolithic site. Cooking hearths, pottery, terracotta female figurines have been found. There are
similarities between female figures of Gumla and Turkmenistan.
2. It was an early and mature harappan site as well. The designs of 'horned deity' have been found on the early
harappan phase pots.
Gyaraspur (Vidisha. 2009)
It has remains of 2 temples from 9th and 10th cent AD - Athkhamba and Hindola Torana, Chaukhamba, Mala Devi
temple (Jain and hindu images). It also has a stupa from 6th cent AD.
Halebid (2011. 2006)
It was the Hosyala capital and has large number of temples. The largest is Hosayalesvara temple and is the best example
of Chalukyan style.
Hallur (Karnataka. 2009)
1. Period 1 is neolithic with hand-made grey ware.
2. Period 2 is megalithic with painted BRW, stone and copper tools. Oldest iron finding in S India from 2nd
millennium BC. Pastoral activity was important due to cattle bones with cut marks, humped cattle figurines and
cattle paintings in rock caves of Maski and Kupgal.
Hampi (2007. 2005)
Capital of Vijaynagar. Lotus palace. Hajararam temple of Krishnadev Rai has all episodes of Ramayana engraved on the
walls.
Hanamkonda (Warrangal)
Kakatiya rulers built a temple on a star shaped plinth. The temple had no idols in the shrines which were dedicated to
Vishnu, Shiva and Surya. But the temple walls had the images carved out in them.
Hanamsagar (Gulberg)
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 15
Megalithic site. Over 1000 memorial burials found.
Hansi (Haryana. 1997)
It was a great sufi center. It was built by maternal grandfather of Prithviraj Chauhan. The Qutub ud din captured it. Ibn
Batuta says the town was a prosperous town and Firuz built 5 canals here. It was a major urban center in medieval
India.
Halasi (Belgaum)
A Kadamba inscription here talks about grant of land for a Jinendra temple (lord of Jinas). It also has a famous
Kadamba temple from 5th cent AD which is similar in architecture to the Madhukeshwar temple built by them in
Banavasi.
Hastinapur (2002)
Evidences of horse found from this PGW site.
Hathigumpha (Bhubneshwar)
Kharvela's inscription in pali that Kharvela defeated the Magadhan king and brought back the idol of 1st jina tirthankar
which had been taken away by a Nanda ruler.
Hinglajgarh (Mandsor)
It was the chief center of Parmar sculpture and over 500 statues have been discovered here. These statues have
charming gestures, light figures and are predominantly Shakti / Gauri images.
Hire Benakal (Karnataka)
Megalithic phase --> Hunting scenes, animals, people dancing in groups are shown in paintings. Numerous big
megalithic tombs are found from 1000 BC.
Hirehadagalli (Bellary)
Earliest Pallava royal land grant copper plate inscription found here.
Hissar
It was built by Firuz. It has an Asokan pillar.
Honawar (Karnataka)
It was a major port in Chola period.
Hoskote (Bangalore)
A mid-6 cent AD Pallava inscription talks of construction of a temple of Jina arhats.
Hulas (Saharanpur)
Late harappan site.
Hunsgi (Gulbarga, Karnataka)
It made specialized lower paleolithic tools for hunting. They used a variety of stones which were not even found
locally. They had setup granite blocks for support of their temporary shelter. Settlements tended to be close to scrub
jungles and watering places.
Hutti
Gold mine in medieval age.
Inamgaon (Pune. 2005. 1998)
It had 3 periods. Malwa Culture (1600-1400 BC) --> Early Jorwe Culture (1400-1000 BC) --> Late Jorwe Culture
(1000-700 BC).
1. Malwa Phase --> Houses were rectangular, conical roofs, mud with wooden posthole. Pottery had fine
fabric, uniformly fired, thick buff slip with black / brown designs and deep bowls and spouted pots with flaring
mouths.
2. Jorwe Phase --> It was a large Jorwe Culture site. Element of planning as houses were laid out in a row.
Specialization of labor is indicated by specialists' houses. Inequality in society is indicated by houses of artisans on
one corner and rich on other and the grave goods. A large 5 room house close to a granary in the middle indicates
presence of chief. In the later Jorwe phase, the chief moved to the eastern corner. Stone embankment wall and
irrigation channels suggest presence of political authority. Prosperity declined from early to late Jorwe phase.
Pottery was black-on-d or black-on-orange, wheel turned, well baked and fine fabric.
Indalwai (Nizamabad)
Famous for its iron works (swords, knives etc.) in medieval age.
Indore
Holkar of Indore. First Malhar Rao Holkar and then Ahilya Bai were famous ruler.
Isipattan / Sarnath (2010)
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 16
This place later became Sarnath. Buddha took his first sermon here.
Iswal (Udaipur)
Pre-historic to medieval site. Shows iron smelting from 5 cent BC.
Ittagai (Hyderabad)
It has famous Mahadev temple in vesara style from early medieval age.
Jaggeyapet (AP)
Earliest specimens of Amaravati school of sculpture have been found here from 150 BC.
Jahazpur (Bhilwara. 1999)
Under the Khalji rulers it became an important center of Indo - Islamic art and music.
Jajnagar (Jajpur, Odisha)
Huge statues of Buddha, Chamundi, Indrani etc. have been found from 6th cent AD. It was earlier the capital of Odisha.
Jakhera (Etah)
1. It was proto-urban PGW site. Baked bricks have been found here. Irrigation works, dam, fire altar,
terracotta snakes and iron objects have been found. in the later PGW phase, iron implements used in agriculture
were found.
2. One of the earliest iron finds in India which helped push back iron usage in India to 2nd millennium BC.
Jalalabad (Kabul. 1999)
It had a 200 ft high stupa built by Asoka as per Huen Tsang. In medieval period it was of strategic importance. Akbar
crossed Jalalabad when he attacked Kabul.
Jalalpur (Jhelum Basin)
Lower Paleolithic remains of 500-700k years ago have been found.
Jalore
This was the last rajputana state conquered by Alauddin in his conquest. It was an important and strong fort.
Jalilpur
Neolithic site in NW. Level 1 shows handmade pottery, stone flakes, gold ornaments and baked bricks. Level 2 shows
painted wheel turned pottery, copper and lapis lazuli which could have come only from Afghanistan.
Janjira (Raigarh, Maharastra. 1997)
It is an island and in 1490 Nizam Shah of Gujarat made it a naval base. Due to the opposition from the Janjira ruler it
became necessary for Sivaji to maintain a navy.
Jatinga (Chitradurga)
Asokan mRE 1 & 2.
Jaugada / Jaugar (Ganjam, Odisha. 2003. 2000)
Asokan MRE. #11-13 replaced by separate #1-2. Evidences of bead making, wooden post holes and rammed house
floors found.
Jejuri (Pune)
It has the Khandoba temple built by Marathas but which shows clear influence of Islamic style like minarets, domes etc.
Jhansi (2000)
It was ruled by the Chandela rajputs of Khajurao. Later it came under Bundelas.
Jhinjhana
It was an OCP site where OCP was followed by a break before PGW.
Jodhpura (Sikar)
Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture --> OCP --> BRW --> PGW.
1. It was a chalcolithic site of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture. Typical pottery was ill fired, wheel turned, orange
to red and incised designs. Typical pot was a dish on stand.
2. OCP phase --> Houses were made of mud-bricks joint by mud mortar.
3. PGW phase --> Iron smelting furnace has been found.
Jogalthambi (Nasik)
Satvahna age coin hoard has been found. It includes coins which were issued by Saka king Nahapana but were restruck
by Gautamiputra Satkarni.
Jogimara (Sarguja)
Mauryan period caves have been found with colored wall paintings. They give a glimpse of the recreational activities of
the contemporary society.
Junnar (Pune. 2010)
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1. Famous Buddhist chaitya are present here from post-Mauryan age. Western Kshatrap Nahapana of
Kshahrata dynasty had his inscription here.
2. Satvahna coin of Gautamiputra Satkarni and his queen Naganika has been found.
Kabul (1996)
In Rig Veda it was known as river Kubha which joined Indus.
Kahaum (Gorakhpur)
A pillar inscription from Skandagupta's reign shows setting up of 5 Jina tirthankara images.
Kaimur / Sohagighat (Mirzapur, UP)
Mesolithic layer has given the remains of pottery. At Sohagighat, India's first rock paintings were discovered from
Mesolithic age.
Kajangal / Kayangal / Rajmahal (Rajmahal, Bengal)
1. Milindpanho says the buddhist monk Nagasen was born here. Huen Tsang tells us Harsha held an assembly
here after subduing the eastern princes.
2. Later raja Mansingh bulit his capital here.
Kalahandi
Site of the 64 yogini temple from early medieval India. One of only 5 such temples in India.
Kalibangan (Rajasthan, 2007. 2006. 2004.)
It had an early harappa phase where script, seals, beads, stone tools, pink / red pottery and terracotta figurines have been
found. Bricks were mud bricks but had standard ratios 3:2:1. Horned Deity has also been found from this level.
Kalinganagar / Mukhalinga (Ganjam. 1998)
Asoka, Kharvela all mention it. Prominent town of Kalinga.
Kalinjar (Banda. 2010. 2006)
Important fort. Even Mahmud Gazni couldn't capture it despite a long siege and had to sign a treaty.
Kalpi (Jalaun, UP)
1. Earliest human occupation site in Gangetic Valley. Middle paleolithic and bone tools have been found here.
2. Chandels ruled here. Birbal was born here.
Kalsi (Dehradun. 2000)
Asokan MRE.
Kalyan (Thane. 2001)
Famous ancient sea port (mentioned in Periplus of the Erithrean Sea). Junnar inscription mentions it as a large sea port.
It traded in bronze, timber and textile.
Kalyani (Bidar)
After Chalukyas, Yadavs ruled here. then under Delhi sultans.
Kampil (UP)
Important PGW site. Iron evidence found as well.
Kanchi / Kanchivaram (2002. 2000)
It was the capital of Pallavas. SG's Prayag inscription talks about the Pallava king of Kanchi who he subdued. Famous
temples are Kailashnath (built by Narsinghvarman) and Baikunth Perumal. It was also a famous center of learning in
India. Ramanuja studied here, Sudrak wrote here.
Kandahar / Qandhar (2009. 1999)
Asokan MRE (only 12 & 13). Asokan pillar edict.
Kandhar (Nanded, Maharashtra)
It has an old fort from Rashtrakuta times. The fort has inscriptions of MbT, AUrangzeb and Ibrahim Adilshah. It has old
jain and buddhist temples as well.
Kanganhalli (Gulbarg, Karnataka)
Asokan stupa is there. A sculpture showing Asoka and his queen and attendants has been cut into the stupa walls.
Kangra / Kangara (HP)
It was an important center since Gupta age. It formed the eastern boundary of Hindushahi rulers. Mahmud Gazni
plundered it.
Kanheri (Mumbai. 2000. 1998)
Famous Buddhist cave from post-Mauryan age is present here, 4th generation. Main hall is separated from the entrance
by 2 apsidal rooms. Central roof is high and vaulted, side roof is plain. The entry is guarded by twin mithun figures.
Kanishkpur (Srinagar)
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Built by Kanishka.
Kankali (Mathura. 2004. 2003)
A Jaina stupa called Devanirmit stupa has been found here from post-Mauryan times.
Kannaur (Kerala)
Major port under Cholas.
Kaote
Chalcolithic culture of deccan. Belonged to the Savalda culture.
Kapilvastu (Basti, UP 2004)
This was the capital of Koshala Mahajanapada. Large number of sealings and a pot lid bearing the name of Kapilvastu
monastery have been found here. The Sakyas (Buddha's clan) built a stupa here. Burnt brick structures have been found
dating between 600 BC - 200 BC.
Kapisha (Afghanistan)
It was a major buddhist center with hundreds of viharas and thousands of monks since the pre - Mauryan days. There is
a 18 ft high image of Buddha.
Kara (Allahbad. 1997)
Alauddin killed his uncle Jalaluddin here. Later Shah Alam II gave its zamindari to Nawab Shuja under the pressure of
British.
Karad
Major industrial center in post Mauryan age.
Kargil (2011. 1999)
Mahmud Gazni invaded Kashmir via Kargil.
Karimnagar / Peddabankur (AP)
Early Satvahna coins have been found here supporting the hypothesis that Satvahnas began from AP. It was the iron hub
and the mint of Satvahnas. Architecture reveals burnt bricks, tiles, brick wells. Villages have been found where peasants
lived on one side and artisans on the other. An iron figurine of naga has been found indicating naga worship.
Karimpudi (AP)
Paleolithic site.
Karle (Pune, 2010. 2004. 1998)
1. A Satvahna inscription of Gautamiputra Satkarni indicates land grant indicating his control extended here.
2. 4th generation Buddhist cave from post-Mauryan times present. Pillars have capitals and elaborate work.
Central roof is high and vaulted, side roof is plain. The entry is guarded by twin mithun figures.
Karnal (Haryana)
Nadir Shah defeated Muhammed Shah's army here. It got its name from Karna of mahabharat fame.
Karnasuvarna / Rangamati (Murshidabad. 2005)
Huen Tsang talks of seeing an Asokan stupa here. Later it came under Sashanka (Harsha's nemesis).
Karuvur / Karur / Vanji (Tiruchirapalli)
This was the Chera capital. It was an important jewel making site and evidences of Roman trade have been found here.
Karwar (Maharashtra)
Major international port in post Mauryan times.
Kasia (Deoria, UP)
In Gupta era, it was a major Buddhist centre.
Kasimbazar (Murshidabad)
All european traders had factories here. After BoP £ snatched it from Siraj. Major silk producing center.
Katni (Jabalpur, MP. 1996)
It was an important industrial town in medieval age. Rulers of Kalinjar had strong influence here.
Kausam / Kosam (Paithan, Maharashtra)
It was a Satvahna town and several ring wells, terracotta figurines etc. have been found from that era. It is also known
for its human form Siva images during the Gupta age.
Kaushambi (Allahbad. 2006. 2002. 2001. 1998)
1. This was one of the earliest "proto-town" in India to emerge during the close of later vedic period.
2. It was the capital of Vatsa Mahajanapada and is located on the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
3. Asokan pillar edict. Asokan minor pillar edict also schism type. It had no capital.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 19
4. In post-mauryan period, the size and population of settlement grew but due to security reasons, most of the
population now resided within the city walls. Fire altars have been discovered along with human bones indicating
human sacrifice. It was a major terracotta sculpture centre.
Kayal (TN)
Important port in Pandya era. Continued in medieval times and Marco Polo visited it.
Kayatha / Kapitthak (Ujjain. 2000. 1998)
1. It was a site of chalcolithic Kayatha culture. Its typical pottery was wheel turned with thick brown slip and
designs painted in violet or deep red in the top of the pot only. It has similarities to Harappa in the form of early
pottery and steatite micro-beads.
2. Kayatha culture --> Ahar culture --> Malwa culture --> Early historic age --> Sunga-Kushana-Gupta age.
3. Varhamira was born here.
Keshavraipatan (Kota)
It has a 2500 years old Jina statue. It is also a pilgrimage center of hIndus as a 4 armed stone statue of Vishnu is here in
a temple. It has the finest sculpture in the region.
Khajua (Allahbad)
Az fought his brother Shuja here.
Khajurao (1999)
Also has the famous 64 yogini temple. Only one of the 5 such temples in India.
Khalkapatna (Puri. 2007. 2003)
Early-Medieval phase --> It yields evidences of Chinese and Arab products indicating it was an important port centre.
Khambat
Important port since early medieval age.
Khandgiri (Puri. 2007. 2003. 2000)
It is a Jina cave. These caves are also called Hathi-Gufa and Ganesh-Gufa. Kharvela's Hathigumpha inscription has
been found here where he talks about Nanda king's attack, his attack on Magadha and retrieval of the Jina image.
Khanderi (Mumbai)
Strong fort built by Sivaji here to counter Siddis of Janjira.
Khandgiri (Bhubneshwar)
Hathigumpha inscription. Jina caves from 1 cent AD also found here.
Khoh / Nagda (MP)
1. Gupta age Cu plate inscriptions regarding land grant to brahmins and temples.
2. Also the site for one of the early finds of iron.
Khuldabad (Daulatabad)
It has mausoleums of many rulers like Az, Abul Hasan (last sultan of Golconda), Malik Ambar, Nizamshahi sultans,
Asaf Jaha (1st Nizam) etc.
Khyber Pass (1996)
Connects Kabul with Peshawar. All invaders came through this pass.
Kibbanhali (Tumkur, Karnataka. 2011)
Lower paleolithic site. Ragi cultivation found here.
Kile Gul Muhammed (Quetta , Pakistan. 1998)
It is a neolithic site. We don't find pottery in the first level but subsequent levels show pottery as well as evidences of
copper. They lived in mud houses, had black-on-red pottery and microliths. Copper remains have been found here.
Kishangarh (Ajmer. 1995)
Major rajput school of painting. It is independent from the Marwar school of painting despite the founder being a son of
Raja Udai Singh of Jodhpur. Subjects were Krishna and Vaishnavism, elongated faces and features.
Kochin
1st portuguese factory in 1502.
Kodumanal (Erode, TN)
1. It is the oldest town ~400 BC in S India. In Sangam literature, it is a major industrial centre with gems,
jewelry, iron and steel, textiles, beads, shell industry etc. An inscription is found referring to guilds here which can
be the earliest inscription on guilds. In Sangam age only it was a famous center for semi precious stones.
2. Megalithic site and recently 2 cist burials and a big pot with Tamil - Brahmi inscriptions have been found.
Kolar
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Capital of Gangas for 700 years until 11th cent AD.
Koldihva (Allahbad, 2009. 2001)
It shows continuity from neolithic to iron age. Remains of rice (both wild and domesticated) were found in neolithic
levels on the pottery (from 5 - 6 millennium BC). It constituted an early independent culture of rice cultivation.
Kolhapur (2007. 2003)
Konark (Puri. 2006. 1997)
Narsingh Deo built the Sun temple in 13th cent AD. It is shaped like a chariot driven by 7 horses. The sculpture is
influenced by tantricism.
Kondivte / Kondana (Mumbai)
100 BC, it represents 2nd stage if cave architecture evolution. Cave became perpendicular to the rock, and a stupa
appeared in the second smaller circular room. A circumambulatory path was left in the room.
Kondapur (Medak, AP)
From the Satvahna layer, large number of terracotta and their moulds have been found indicating it was a major
terracotta sculpture centre. Roman gold coins found too and it was a major industrial and trade center.
Korkai (Tiruneliveli, 2010)
This was the important Pandya port in Sangam Age. It was famous for its pearls fisheries.
Kot Diji (Sind, 2007. 2003. 1998)
It has early and mature Harappan levels. The early level has a limestone and mud brick wall fortification, a citadel and a
lower residential area. Terracotta figurines, bangles, beads etc. have been found. The pottery is short necked ovoid pot
and had animal, fish scales and pipal leaves designs on them. It was called Kot Dijian pottery and shows similarities
with Harappan pottery.
Koteshwar (Kuchch)
It was an ancient port as well as pilgrimage center due to Koteshwar Siva temple.
Kotia (Allahbad)
Part of BRW megalithic phase. Animal burials outnumber the human burials. Many megaliths are devoid of human
remains indicating they were built in memorial. Iron implements have been found from here unlike other sites in
Gangetic Valley of this phase.
Kottaimedu (Ramnathapuram, TN)
It was an Indo - Roman trading post from Sangam age. It shows imported African ware, NBPW, roman coins, and other
roman artifacts.
Kottayam (Cochin)
St. Thomas migrated here in 53 AD.
Kuchai (Mayurbhanj. 2009)
Neolithic site. They cultivated rice. Red colored pottery has been found.
Kulli (Baluchistan)
Neolithic and early harappan site. The neolithic level also shows evidences of trade contacts with central persian gulf,
painted pottery and use of metal.
Kumbharia (Kuchch. 2011)
It was founded by Kuchch Gurjars or Mistris in 7th cent. It has famous Subramaniam temple.
Kumrahar (Patna, 2000)
1. Remains of the Mauryan 80 pillared palace have been found as referred to by Megasthenes.
2. From Gupta period, remains of a Buddhist monastery have been found.
Kunal (Hissar)
1. It belonged to Hakraware culture. Potter designs included pipal leaves and a bull with very curved horns.
2. It had early to mature harappa traditions as well. Pit dwellings gave way to mud brick houses with bricks of
standard ratios (3:2:1. Seals and beads have been found.
Kundagrama (Muzaffarpur, Bihar. 2003. 2000)
Mahavira was born in the Jnatrika kshatriya clan.
Kundalvan (Srinagar. 1999)
4th Buddhist council held here under Kanishka in 120 AD.
Kunjhun (Sidhi, MP)
Neolithic site. Evidence of rice cultivation found. It constituted independent culture of rice cultivation.
Kupugal (Bellary)
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 21
Phase 1 was megalithic. It had extensive rock paintings on granite rocks made by rubbing dry color on the lock.
Humped cattle is the most dominant theme followed by anthropomorphic figures including those riding cattle.
Kuran (Dholavira)
Harappan site. Shows parts of skeletons buried under heap of rocks.
Kushinagar / Kushinara (Deoria, UP. 1998)
One of the earliest towns to emerge in NBPW phase and also the capital of Malla mahajanpad. Buddha died here in 483
BC.
Kuttini / Kudaitini (Bellary)
It had a major iron smelting factory in megalithic phase and has well preserved sarcophagus burials.
Kuvanshi / Kuntasi (Morvi, Gujarat)
Harappan site and port. Imports were gold and sapphire from Afghanistan and exported to Oman.
Lahuradewa (Sant Kabir Nagar, UP)
Early neolithic site of ganga plains ~ 7 - 8 millennium BC. Center of rice cultivation. One of the early iron finds in
India.
Lalitgiri (Cuttack. 2011)
Important buddhist site with numerous viharas and stupas discovered. It forms a part of the diamond triangle vis
Lalitgiri - Ratnagiri and Udayagiri. Colossal buddhist images of Mahayana sect have been found too.
Lalkot (Delhi. 2009)
The fort was built by Tomar rulers and renamed Qila Rai Pithora after Prithviraj Chauhan after he conquered it. It also
has the Kuwwat - ul - Islam mosque which was the first Turkish mosque in India.
Lampak (Kabul)
Asokan minor rock edict.
Langnaj (Gandhinagar)
It is a mesolithic site from where pottery has been discovered. Most famous mesolithic site of India.
Langudi / Pushpgiri (Cuttack)
2 statues of Asoka have been found here. Numerous stupas, viharas and buddhist caves found as well.
Lauriya / Nandangarh (Champaran)
1. Asokan pillar edicts.
2. Post-Mauryan age stupa has been found.
Lekhahia (Mirzapur, UP)
The mesolithic rock shelters have been found. Tools become progressively smaller in upper layers. Burials and pottery
have been found from the mesolithic layer.
Lohanipur (Patna)
A naked and headless torso identified to be that of a jina tirthankara has been found from Maurya level. This could be
the earliest Jina image find in the country.
Machilipatnam (Krishna, AP. 2009)
Important port since Satvahna age. Mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythrean sea.
Madapollum (Narsapur, AP)
Important ship building center on the coromandel cost in medieval India.
Mahabalipuram / Mammalapuram (2004)
Important pallava architecture.
Mahadaha (Pratapgarh, UP)
1. One of the oldest mesolithic site in India. Also one of the first sites where post holes were found. Microliths
were made of quartz, chert etc. which are not found locally and must have been brought from Vindhyas across the
river.
2. 28 burials of 30 individuals including 2 instances of man and woman buried together have been found. The
burials were elliptical and their bases sloping. People were tall but the average life expectancy was around 30 years.
Mahagara (Allahbad)
Neolithic site. Evidences of rice cultivation found.
Mahasthamgarh / Mahasthan (Bogra, Bangladeshl. 2008)
1. Copper plate inscription detailing CGM's famine relief measures.
2. In the Kushana period, it was linked with important routes from W Bengal into Assam.
3. In Gupta period, burnt brick fortifications have been found.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 22
Maheshwar / Mahishmati (Indore)
1. Chalcolithic culture of central India.
2. It was also the southern capital of Avanti mahajanpad.
Mahisadal (Birbhum, W Bengal. 2009)
Chalcolithic site. Many tools, weapons, mud brick houses, copper bangles found.
Mahishur / Mysore
1. Asokan mREs.
2. Inscriptions from 11th and 12th cent AD also tell us of trade guilds.
Mahoba (Hamirpur, UP)
Capital of Chandel rulers. They were defeated by Prithviraj and finally by Turks. They built some great temples here.
Mahurjhari (Nagpur)
Megalithic site. A steel chisel found here. A grave has a horse skeleton which bears cut marks indicating it was
sacrificed. One grave of an adult male had his mouth gaping and an arrowhead near his collarbone. Another grave had
the male stabbed in his chest with a dagger of iron blade and copper hilt.
Malhar
Chalcolithic site of ganga plains. Habitation dating back to 2200 BC and iron smelting dating back to 1800 BC have
been found. One of the earliest iron finds.
Mallapadi (Tiruppatur, TN)
Megalithic site of rock paintings. Fighting scenes, cattle raids, hunting scenes are shown. They are painted in white
color.
Mandapam (Kancheepuram, TN)
Pre-megalithic / iron age urn burials from 1500-1000 BC have been found. They don't have cairn circles (stones
arranged in circular format over the graves)
Mandagapattu
Mahendravarman inscription on the 1st cave temple of TN. The cave temple has 5 cells. The inscription claims that the
temple was built without brick, wood or mortar.
Mandargiri (Bhagalpur)
Gupta era cave paintings have been found.
Mandaur (Jodhpur)
Setup by Gurjar rulers as their capital in 7th cent AD and had an important fort. There is an important vishnu and a jain
temple inside the fort.
Mandu / Mandavgarh (Dhar, Malwa. 2011, 2006)
1. It was the capital of Parmars earlier. Bahadur Shah of Gujarat attacked it in 1531 and conquered it. Baz
Bahadur of Roopmati fame was its ruler during Akbar's reign. Mughal armies defeated him and Roopmati
consumed poison. There are numerous important mosques and palaces here.
Maner (Patna)
Important center of sufism as a Pir Hazrat Maneri lived here. His mausoleum is called Badi Dargah.
Mangalkot
1. Chalcolithic culture of eastern India. It yields high tin bronze and also iron in late chalcolithic period.
2. From Kushana Gupta periods, large number of terracotta figures have been found.
Mangulam / Madurai (2002. 2000)
A Sangam age inscription on guilds indicates that guilds enjoyed a high status in Pandya kingdom. One of its members
has the title kaviti which was only given by the king to select few.
Manikapatna (Chilka)
It was an important port centre in early medieval age since chinese products have been found here.
Manimangalam (Chingalpattu, TN)
Pallava ruler Narsinghvarman defeated Pulakesin II here. It also has Chola king Rajaraja's inscriptions.
Manshera (Hazara, NWFP)
Asokan MRE.
Mansura (Sind. 2009)
It was the earlier capital of Sind during early medieval age. Mahmud Gazni destroyed a shiite mosque here.
Martand (Anantnag)

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 23
It has famous sun temple built in 8th cent AD. It was built on the top of a plateau from where one could see whole
valley. It is a fine example of Kashmir style.
Masaulipatnam
Important medieval age port. Also famous for carpet and textiles.
Maski (Raichur, Karnataka. 1998)
1. Period 1 is megalithic. People lived on granite hill tops in wattle and daub houses. Black-on-red ware was
found and copper/bronze artifacts and terracotta figurines as well. People were pastoral indicated by cattle bones
with cut marks, humped cattle figurines and cattle rock cut paintings at Maski and Kupugal.
2. Asokan mRE1. Name of the king found.
Mat (Mathura. 2004. 2003)
Kanishka's headless statue found here near a temple sanctum indicating the possibility that Kanishka's images were
worshipped.
Matkal
It was a major international port on the west coast in the early medieval age.
Maylapur / Sen Thome
It was a major international port on the Coromandel coast in the Chola period but declined in 14th century. Then
Portuguese setup a military establishment here.
Mayidavolu (Guntur)
Earliest Pallava royal land grant copper plate inscriptions found here. They help us trace the origins of Pallavas.
Mehi (Baluchistan)
Early harappan site.
Mehrgarh (2005. 2004. 1998)
It is a neolithic site. Level 1 is the aceramic level. We find pottery and evidences of copper from level 2.
Mehtakheri (Nirmar, MP)
Ostrich shell from upper paleolithic age has been found.
Minnagara (Karachi)
Capital city of Western Kshatrap king Nahapana of Kshahrata dynasty.
Modhera (Gujarat. 2008)
Sun temple from 11th cent built by Solankis - suryavanshi line. It was a PPP venture. It was destroyed by Alauddin.
Mottupalli (AP)
It was a major port in early medieval age which declined in the 13th century.
Mudalaikulam (TN)
From 2 cent BC, it seems to refer to a tank construction by a village assembly and if it is true, it will be the earliest
reference to village assemblies.
Mudbadri (Kanara, Karnataka)
Associated with CGM and Bhadrabahu. The feudatories of Vijayanagar rulers built several jain temples here. In 15th
cent AD the tribhuvan chudamanimahachaitya temple was built in Gupta style indicating the continuation of Gupta
style until then though it had disappeared in north under foreign impact.
Mukhalingam (2011)
It has one of the more popular siva temples - Srimukhalingeswara. It was built by the eastern gangas in 8th cent.
Multan (2010. 1997)
It was a major trade center in the medieval India.
Mundigak (Qandhar)
1. It is a neolithic site. A terracotta figurine of a humped bull was found. Apart from that, cooking hearth,
pottery and copper objects were found.
2. It is an early harappan site as well.
Munger
1. Important town since Anga mahajanapada days.
2. In the tripartite struggle, Pratihara king Nagabhatta II defeated Pala king Dharmpala here.
Muziris / Marichipatam / Muchiri / Tiruvenchikulam (Kringanor, Kerela, 2008)
It was an important Chera port in Sangam Age. The Romans built 2 outposts and a temple of Augustus here to
protect their interests. It was a major center exporting black pepper. It is mentioned in greek literature. Documents

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 24
involving a contract between an Alexandrian importer of pepper and a local financier have been recovered here
indicating large volume of trade.
Nachna (Bhumra, MP)
It was the capital city of early Vakatakas. It has got a famous temple of Parvati in Dravidian style. The beginning of the
nagar style shikharas came up here in the Mahadeo temple.
Nagapattan / Nagapattinam (TN)
It was an ancient port and capital of Pandyas. It has yielded hundreds of buddha bronze images from 13th cent AD
proving Buddhism was not extinct by then. In 11th cent AD the Shailendra kings built a vihara here and from 15th cent
AD a pali inscription has been found referring to the vihara. The pallavas also built a dockyard here and maintained
navy.
Nagari (Chittorgarh)
1. PGW site as well.
2. 1 cent BC inscription talks about building stone enclosure to a Vishnu temple. The temple itself belonged to
3 cent BC and followed elliptical architecture. The plinth was made of bricks and superstructure of mud and wood.
Nagarjunkonda / Vijyapuri (Nalgonda, AP. 2006. 2003)

1. It is a multi-cultural site with Buddhist stupas as well as hindu temples present from Satvahna and
Ikshavaku times. It was the capital of Ikshavakus. Mukhalinga from Satvahna age has been found. The temples
followed the oblong, apsidal and square architecture. Some of them had mandaps (pillared hall). They were made
of bricks and pillars of stone. Most stupas had spoked wheel plans and 5 ayaka pillars at the 4 cardinal points.
2. Images belonging to the Amaravati school from post-Mauryan times have been found here.
Nagaur
Famous sufi center in Rajasthan after Ajmer. Earlier ruled by Chauhans.
Nageshwar (Gujarat)
Mature harappan shell working site.
Nagpur (1997)
Bhonsle of Nagpur.
Nagula (Nalgonda, AP)
It has many old temples built by kakatiya rulers and has many inscriptions from them.
Naikund (Nagpur)
Megalithic site from 700 BC.
Nal (Baluchistan)
1. It is a neolithic site. The neolithic level also shows evidences of trade contacts with central persian gulf,
painted pottery and use of metal. Fractional burials have been found here. Extensive designs on pottery are found.
They had 2 kind of irrigation systems : one is terracing on hill slopes and other was collection of water on low lying
basins.
2. It was an early Harappan site as well.
Naliyasar (Jaipur)
It reveals many coin hordes from punch marked, Indo Greek, Saka and Kushana period and throws light on the history
before Chauhans. It also throws up many images.
Nandivardhan / Nandardhan / Nagardhan (Nagpur)
This was the capital of the Nandivardha branch of Vakatakas who split after the reign of Pravarsena I. It was the capital
of Prabhavati - daughter of CG II.
Naneghat (Pune)
Early Satvahna inscription found indicating Satvahnas began in Maharastra. A cave with 8 life size sculptures of
Satvahna kings and queens has been found. In the same cave, an inscription of Queen Naganika has been found who
ruled in the name of her son. This inscription is the first inscription recording a land grant.
Narhan (Gorakhpur)
Chalcolithic site between 1300 - 700 BC. Bone tools, beads etc. were used. 2 iron pieces found in the upper layer
around 700 BC.
Narsapur Peta
Important ship making center on the coromandel coast in medieval India.
Narsinghpur (Narmada)
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 25
1. Throws up lower paleolithic remains as well as sequences of mesolithic and neolithic ages. It shows
choppers and cleavers from the paleolithic age which resemble those found in Sohan.
Naur
Major international port in post Mauryan times.
Narsipur (Mysore)
1. Neolithic-chalcolithic site in S India. We can see the gradual evolution of communities into food growers
here.
2. Also known in mythology as dakshina kashi by saint Augstya. From Vijaynagar period we have the famous
Gunja Narsimha Swamy temple.
Nasik (Maharastra. 2000. 1997)
1. Early Satvahna inscriptions from here suggest Satvahnas first established power in this area and then
spread. More than 8K silver coins of Saka king Nahapana have been found here which were restruck by
Gautamiputra Satkarni. Gautamiputra Satkarni's mother Gautami Balashri has got an inscription there recounting
glory of her son. Satkarni himself has got an inscription here recounting grant of land to Buddhist monks that was
earlier under Nahapana.
2. Three Buddhist viharas from Satvahna times are also found here carrying the inscriptions of Nahapana and
Gautamiputra. These viharas represent the 4th stage of cave architecture evolution when cave making got royal
patronage. The pillars have capitals, the central roof is vaulted while the side roof is plain.
Nausharo (Baluchistan)
Early harappan site. Dwellings similar to Mehrgarh. A terracotta elephant head has been found.
Navadwip / Nadia (Bengal)
It was the capital of bengal before Bakhtiyar Khalji - the commander of Ghori invaded Bengal. The Sena ruler fled.
Nadia was also the birth place of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. It remained an important center of learning.
Navdatoli (Nimar, MP)
It was the largest settlement of Malwa chalcolithic / megalithic culture. Pottery was coarse with thick buff or orange
slip with plant, animal, human and geometric designs painted in black or brown. There was little planning, houses were
haphazard, wattle and daub with wooden post holes. Copper was scarce and more stone tools have been found
compared to copper tools. Tools were evenly distributed indicating each household made its own tools. Beads of
terracotta, steatite and semi-precious stones and terracotta making were important activities. Largest variety of food
grain evidences have been found here. A fire altar pit has been found from a house indicating rituals. A huge jar has
been found decorated with a woman, a lizard / alligator and a shrine in between. The opposite side of the jar had a
tortoise.
Neemach (Mandsaur)
Raja of Udaipur gave it to the Scindias of Gwalior as a repayment of a loan he had taken. It became a center of 1857
revolt.
Nelsida (Kerala)
Major international port in post Mauryan time.
Nevasa (Ahmednagar)
1. Lower and middle paleolithic sequences have been found.
2. The central and peninsular stone tool industry is called Nevasan industry. Jasper, chalcedony stone was
used and many scrapers have been found.
3. In Satvahna period, it was a major terracotta sculpture manufacturing centre.
Niglai Sagar / Nigliv (Lumbini)
Asokan minor pillar edict. Commemorative type. It talks about Asokan visit and enlargement of a stupa.
Nittur (Bellary)
1. Paleolithic site.
2. Asokan mRE 1 and 2. Name of the king found and also he claims his empire is vast.
Noh (Bharatpur)
1. OCP--> BRW --> PGW.
2. Period 2 is BRW from where some iron pieces have been found.
3. Period 3 is PGW and reveals iron weapons (spearhead and arrowhead) and an iron axe.
4. Period 4 is Maurya which reveals the town planning in the age.
5. Period 5 is Sunga-Kushana which coins and statues (of yakshas and yakshis).
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 26
Odantpuri / Udantpuri (Bihar)
Gopala built a big vihara here. It was a major center of Buddhist learning until destroyed by Turks. The first student
from here became the principal of Vikramshila university.
Ojiyana (Bhilwara)
Ahar culture site.
Orchha (Bundelkhand. 1995)
It was the capital of Chandels. After them it lost it glory until it became the capital again of Bundelas. It came under
Mughals during Akbar's reign. Jahangir handed over the whole territory to Virsingh Bundela. Its later ruler Jujhar Singh
then revolted against Shah Jahan but was killed by the Gonds.
Osia / Osian (Jodhpur)
Has famous sun temple of central india nagara style of early medieval age built by chandela rulers. It also has famous
Jain temples.
Padari (Bhavnagar, Gujarat)
Pre Harappan and Harappan site. A 9 room complex has been found indicating some sort of collective organization.
Padmadurg (Murud, Maharashtra)
Sivaji built this fort in the hope of containing Siddis of Janjira. But it served no purpose and Sambhaji lost it to Siddis
soon. Finding it to be of no use, the Siddis built an outpost here.
Padmavati / Padmapavya (Gwalior)
1. A Gupta era yaksha temple has been found. It is also described in Bahvbhuti's play Malati Madhav.
2. Before the Guptas it was the capital of Naga rulers who were devotees of Siva.
Paithan / Pratisthan (Aurangabad. 2010. 2005. 2004.)
This was the Satvahna capital established by Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (130-154 AD). He feared a Saka invasion so
built his second capital here. It was a major terracotta sculpture manufacturing centre.
Palampet (Warrangal)
It is well known for its medieval age temple. THe most famous was built by Kakatiya kings in 13 cent AD.
Piyampalli (TN / Karnataka)
Neolithic site as well. In megalithic phase, an iron smelter has been found. Rock pantings carrying fighting scenes,
cattle raids and hunting scenes have been found.
Palitana (Gujarat. 2000)
The Jain temples here are considered to be one of the most sacred pilgrimage places of Jains. There are > 1300 temples
here carved out in marble. The main temple is dedicated to the 1st tirthankar Rishabdeva. Most famous is the
chaumukha temple.
Palkigundu (Raichur, Karnataka)
Asokan mRE 1.
Pallavanesvaram / Puhar / Kakandi / Kaveripatnam (2007. 2005. 2001)
1. A 4 cent Buddhist vihara and a 6 cent large, multi-storeyed temple have been found. Two bronze Buddha
images have been found as well.
2. It was founded by the Chola king Karikala and made his capital. It was a great centre for trade and
commerce and had a dockyard. But under his successors, the Chola power declined and Puhar was overrun and
destroyed.
Pallavaram (Chennai)
One of the 1st paleolithic tools was discovered here in 1863 - a hand axe.
Panaiyapuram (Villupuram, TN)
Chola age temple (from Rajendra Chola's time) is there. The temple is dedicated to Naynar saint Sambandar and is
threatened by a highway project.
Panchmadi
Large number of cave paintings have been found form 5 - 8 cent AD. The oldest could be 10,000 years old. Hunting,
dancing, musical, archer, charioteer, ritual scenes etc.
Panchwati (Nasik. 1999)
1. Ramayna legend - Lakshman cut Surpnakha's nose here. Lakshman rekha drawn here only.
2. There are ancient sacred trees here, one cave called Sita Gufa.
Pandharpur (Deccan)

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 27
When the caste status of the excluded groups improved in S India, their deities also found their way in the Puranic
tradition. An example is the Panduranga or Vitthala of Pandharpur which evolved from the local hero stones to become
a manifestation of Vishnu. This made the place a famous center of bhakti in deccan and attracted many later bhakti
saints like Namdeva.
Pandu Rajar Dhibi (Burdwan, 2010)
1. Chalcolithic culture of eastern India. It is associated with King Pandu of mahabharat fame.
2. Later period here was the iron period.
Pandua (Lakhnauti)
It was the old capital of Bengal. It has famous Jama Masjid from 14th cent built by the governors of Bengal. It also has
one of the finest mausoleum in Bengal. Then it became a sufi center.
Panguraria (Sehore, MP, 2011)
Asokan mRE1. It tells us that as the heir apparent he had come here to meet the monks living in the caves.
Panna
After Aurangzeb's death, Bundel king Chatrasal made it his capital.
Parkham / Patal (Mathura. 2004. 2003)
Mauryan era 2.6 m high image of Yaksha has been found. It is made of grey sandstone. It has a Brahmi inscription
telling us about its sculptor.
Parenda (Osmanabad, Maharashtra)
It has a fort built by Mahmud Gawan. When Mughals captured Ahmadnagar, the sultans shifted their capital here. Then
it was captured by Bijapur's sultan Adil Shah and subsequently passed under Mughals during SJ.
Patne (Tapi Valley, 2009)
1. Middle, upper paleolithic and mesolithic tools have been found.
2. Ostrich shells with colored lines have been found.
Pattadakal (Bagalkot, Karnataka. 2006)
Chalukyas of Badani --> vesara style temples i.e. fusion of dravidian and nagar style. The Virupaksha temple is the
finest. Another is the Papanath temple which has a dravidian structure but a northern style shikhara. They have
elaborate sculpture and inscriptions.
Pauni (Bhandara, Maharashtra)
Ancient Buddhist city. Also known as temple city as it has 150 temples and in almost all these temples, Garuda dhwaj
has been established. Has a fort wall surrounding it.
Paunar
It was a flourishing town in Deccan under the vakatakas.
Pavapuri (Rajgir, Bihar)
Mahavira died here.
Pehava (Kurukshetra)
1. It has a temple of goddess saraswati built by Marathas as it is said to be on the banks of saraswati. It also
had old temples which were looted by Mahmud Gazni.
2. It was also a famous horse trade center in the early medieval age and good quality Arabian horses came
here. The horse dealers were mainly brahmans. It may have developed as a horse trade center from traditional fairs.
Penukonda / Penugonda (AP. 2011)
It was a great trade center under Vijaynagar kingdom and the trade organizations here resembled corporations. After the
defeat @ Talikota a brother of Raja Ram Rai of Vijaynagar rebuilt the kingdom here.
Piklihal (Raichur)
1. Period 1 was neolithic and an ash-mound site. Handmade grey pottery and terracotta figurines were found.
2. Period 2 was megalithic. Copper/bronze artifacts were found. Wheel turned black-on-red ware appeared.
People were pastoral indicated by cattle bones with cut marks, humped cattle figurines and cattle rock cut paintings
at Maski and Kupugal.
Pipravah / Piprahara (Lumbini, Nepal)
Buddha was born here in a Shakya kshatriya clan.
Pirak (Pakistan)
Neolithic site.
Pitalkhora (Ajanta)

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 28
Post-Mauryan Buddhist cave representing 3rd phase of cave architecture evolution has been found here. There is a long
hall with stupa at the end and pillars running parallel to the wall creating a circumambulatory path. Central roof is high
and vaulted while side roof is low and semi-vaulted.
Pithund / Pihund / Poddayum (Chennai)
Kharvela's inscription tells us his armies ravaged this town on his S India campaign. It was an important trade center of
Pandya kingdom and also mentioned in Roman records. Jaina literature tells us that in the days of Mahavira merchants
from Champa used to set sail for Pihund.
Polonnaruva (SL)
After losing to Rajaraja the capital was shifted here.
Pomrang (Laholpsiti, HP)
Megalithic site. Among the graves found here the central grave has a large menhir kept on top of it.
Porkalam (Thrissur. 2010)
Megalithic site. It is known for umbrella stones. 3 dolmens found here. Iron objects found as well.
Potna
Capital of Ashmaka mahajanapada.
Pragjyotishpur (Guwahati)
It was the old capital of Assam. Kalkipuran tells us that it is here Brahma stayed and created all the planets. Kalidasa
gives a description of this place in his play Raghuvansham. The prayag inscription says that SG subordinated the ruler
of Pragjyotishpur. The Apsadh inscription also says that the later gupta rulers too defeated Pragjyotishpur. It became a
center of tantricism.
Prakash (Dhulia, MP)
Malwa culture --> short break --> BRW phase --> NBPW. Iron was found in BRW phase. The clay pottery discovered
here resembles that in nagda and maheshwar.
Prayag (1998)
Asokan edict, SG inscription, Harsha's buddhist conclave.
Pulankurichi (Sivganga, TN)
A 5 cent AD inscription of Pallavas records creation of a brahmadeya and mentions superior rights of the brahman
beneficiary over the cultivators.
Pulicat
Dutch company Indian headquarter. Important port on easter coast in medieval India and a major shipbuilding center as
well.
Pushkalavati (Charsada, Peshawar. 1998)
1. NBPW Phase --> It had a ditch and mud fortification by 4 cent BC. It lay on the important trade routes to C
Asia. Legend has it was founded by son of Lord Rama's brother, Bharat.
2. It was an important city under Indo-Greeks but declined under Kushanas. It was a planned city and also had
a stupa.
Pushkar
Lower and middle paleolithic remains have been found in reddish brown soil indicating more vegetation in early
periods. Upper paleolithic tradition also exists.
Quilon (Kollam)
Ancient and medieval port city, traded with Romans, Greece, Iran, China and Arabs. Arab sources tell us Chinese
traders going to Arab countries changed their ships here. Malik Kafur also invaded it.
Rabatak (Baghlan, Afghanistan)
It has a Kanishka inscription. The inscription talks about divinity of the king, throws lit on lineage of Kanishka and the
extent of his empire.
Raichur (1995)
It has a fort built by ruler of Warrangal in 13th cent. It remained a bone of contention between Bahmani and Vijaynagar
kingdoms.
Raigarh (Colaba)
Sivaji was coronated here. He built a fort and made it his residence.
Rajahmundri (AP. 1997)
It was under the kakatiya rulers and then the Vijaynagar kingdom.
Raja Nal Ka Tila
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 29
One of the earliest iron finds in India from 2nd millennium BC.
Rajdi (Gujarat)
Late harappan site.
Rajim (Chattisgarh. 2010)
It has a famous ancient vishnu temple and is a fine example of Mahakoshal architecture.
Rakhigarhi (Haryana, 2010)
There was a an early harappa tradition. Elements of planning were visible. Beads, designed pottery, terracotta figurines
have been found. A stacked set of hopscotches (pithu game) have been found.
Rameswaram
It has a 16th cent AD temple built in Dravidian style.
Rampurva (Champaran)
Asokan pillar edicts. Bull capital.
Rana Ghundai (Pakistan)
It is a neolithic site. They practiced irrigation. Terracotta female figurines called 'Zhob Mother Goddess' have been
found. It is famous for the painted humped bull on their pottery.
Ranakpur (Falna, Rajasthan)
It is famous for swetambar jain temples. The main temple is called Chaumukha temple from 15th cent AD and has
statues of 1st Jain tirthankar Adinath here made in white marble looking in each direction. There is one Vaishnava
temple as well dedicated to sun god.
Rangmahal (Bhilwara)
Excavations here throw light on life of villagers during Kushana period. Pottery, coins, clay seals etc. have been found.
Rangpur (Saurashtra)
Mature harappan and late harappan site. Later layer shows glazed pottery making had developed into an industry and
geometrical designs were preferred to natural designs.
Ranthambore
After the defeat of Prithviraj his son fled and setup his capital here. Chauhans ruled for 100 more years until captured
by Ala-ud-din.
Redh (Jaipur)
Sunga and post Sunga period clay figurines have been found. Urn like pots have been found which could have been
used to keep the remains of the buddhist monks.
Rehman Dheri (Gomal Valley)
Its an early harappan site with mud fortification, terracotta figurines, bangles and beads.
Rohankheda (Wardha, Maharashtra)
Rashtrakuta age temple town. The Kailash temple of Ellora resembles the siva temple here.
Rohtasgarh (Sahasram)
Strategic town known as second gateway to Bengal (after Chunar) in medieval India and had many strong forts. An
inscription of Sashanka has also been found here.
Ropar (2002)
Harappa and post Harappa site.
Rummindei (Lumbini, Nepal)
Asokan minor pillar edict. Commemorative type. It talks about Asokan visit there and exempting villagers from paying
bali and bhaga.
Rupnath (Jabalpur, MP)
Asokan mRE 1.
Sahsaram (2008. 2005.)
Asokan mRE 1. SSS.
Saipai (Itawah)
Copper hoard phase has been found in the OCP context.
Sakala / Sagala (Sialkot)
This was the capital of Greek king Menander. It was an important city on the trade routes.
Saket (Ayodhya)
In Kosala mahajanapada, Jeevak (court physician of Bimbisara) came here to treat the ailing wife of a merchant and got
10K coins and 2 slaves in return.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 30
Salsette
It became a bone of contention between the Marathas and the Portuguese. Under Baji Rao Marathas recovered it, the £
got frightened and signed a treaty with marathas and were allowed to carry on their trade.
Samaana
It was a major urban center in medieval India. It has the tomb of a descendent of Prophet Muhammad making it an
important Shia pilgrimage site. It was captured later by Ghori and also had an ancient panchmukhi temple.
Samanamalai / Madurai (2002. 2000)
Tamil-Brahmi script inscriptions have been found engraved on the hills datable to 2 cent BC. These have Jina
connections. Earlier, Jina connections were thought to be no more than 9-10 cent AD old.
Sambhal (Moradabad)
It was a major urban and strategic center in the sultanate period. Babur gave Sambhal to Humayun but he fell ill and
went to Agra. After Babur it was given to Askari (brother) by Humayun. It was also a pilgrimage center in ancient India.
Sambhalpur (Odisha)
Has the famous 64 yogini temple from early medieval age. One of the only 5 such temples in India.
Sambhar
Chauhan rajputs and also important center between 1000 BC to 300 BC.
Samtata
Asokan stupa here was seen by Huen Tsang.
Samugarh (2011)
Dara Shikoh lost a battle against Aurangzeb here and ran towards Punjab where he got help from the Sikhs.
Sanauli (Baghpat, UP)
It is a late Harappan site. A cemetery has been found with 125 burials all in N-S direction and most are primary burials
though some are secondary and multiple as well. Grave goods contain vessels, swords, figurines etc.
Sanchi (Raisen, MP. 2002)
Asokan stupa. Asokan minor pillar edict - schism type. The stupa was later encased in stone, railings built and nearby
monasteries also built.
Sanganakallu (Bellary)
1. Phase 1 was neolithic and void of pottery and copper. It was an ash-mound site.
2. Phase 2 was chalcolithic and had wheel turned pottery as well as copper. Pottery was black-on-red ware.
Terracotta, beads were important crafts. Settlements were on hill tops and people lived in wattle and daub houses.
People were pastoral indicated by cattle bones with cut marks, cattle scenes in rock paintings of Maski and
Kupugal, humped cattle figurines.
Sanghao (Potwar, Pakistan)
Upper paleolithic site.
Sanghol (Ludhiana, 2011)
From post-Mauryan age, a stupa (with railings buried in the ground so as to save them from communal attacks) and
117 sculptures from Mathura school of art have been found. Saka and Kushana coins found here as well.
It was also a later Harappan site and then a PGW site. But there was a gap between the later harappan and PGW
levels.
Sanjan (Gujrat)
In the 7th century, Arab armies invaded Persia and some Parsee settlers came to west coast to form settlements. Arab
officials were appointed by the Rashtrakutas in this area.
Sankarjang (Angul, Odisha)
Neolithic site. Many of the stones give a resonance when struck and judging from the use-wear traces and shape, the
stone bars appear to have belonged to finished and unfinished lithopones.
Sankisa (Farukhabad)
It belonged to panchala mahajanapada. It was here that Buddha agreed on request of his disciple Ananda to open the
sangha for women. Asokan pillar with elephant capital has been found.
Sannati (Gulbarga. 2010. 2005)
1. Asokan MRE. Portions of #12, 14 and separate edicts #1-2 found on a temple stone.
2. In post-Mauryan times, it was a major terracotta sculpture centre.
Sarai Khola (N. Punjab, Pakistan)

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 31
1. It is a neolithic and early Harappan site. In early harappan phase there was a transition from pit dwellings to
mud brick structures. Beads, terracotta figurines and stone tools have been found. Lapis lazuli is found here which
could have come from Afghanistan only.
2. In the late megalithic phase, iron objects have been found.
Sarai Nahar Rai (Pratapgarh, UP, R. Ganga)
One of the oldest mesolithic site in India. Also one of the first sites where post holes were found. Evidence of a large
conflict found too. 11 human burials have been found here along with one skeleton with a arrowhead buried in the rib.
Multiple burials have been found too along with animal bones.
Sardargarh
Important PGW site. Iron found as well.
Sarjuga (Chattisgarh)
Major political, religious and cultural center in ancient India. Paleolithic, mesolithic sites have been found. Later
major temples built by Kalchuri rulers.
Sarkhej (Ahemdabad)
One of the largest indigo producer under the Mughals. The indigo produced here was inferior to bayana indigo. Akbar's
governor of Gujarat gave a crushing defeat to the rebels @ Sarkhej in 1584.
Sarnath / Varanasi (2004. 2003. 2002)
1. Asokan minor pillar edict. Schism type.
2. Dhamekh stupa in Gupta times.
Sarutaru (Guwahati)
Neolithic site. Main implements were shouldered axes with round handles. Pottery is similar to Dajoli Hading. It is
believed that the stone age continued till 1 cent AD here.
Satara (1997)
Tara Bai setup her son's capital here when Shahuji came back. It was later annexed by Dalhousie.
Satgaon / Saptagram (Hooghly)
One of the most important port on eastern coast in medieval india to trade with malacca. It declined after the Portuguese
established Hooghly as a trade center.
Sattanikonda
Major industrial center in post Mauryan age.
Savalda (Shirpur, Maharastra)
It was a site of Savalda chalcolithic culture. Typical pottery was wheel made chocolate colored pottery, medium to
coarse fabric with thick slip. The designs on the pottery include tools, weapons and geometric motifs.
Semthan (2009)
Neolithic site in Kashmir.
Sen Thome / Mayapur (Chennai)
Famous port of chola period. Exported textiles and muslin to Malacca. Was later revived by Portuguese and other
europeans.
Senuwar (Rohtas, Bihar)
Chalcolithic culture of eastern India from 3 -2 millennium BC. Lot of microliths and bone tools have been found. Rice
was the main crop.
Shahbazgarhi / Peshawar / Purushpur (2002)
1. Asokan MRE.
2. Important city under Kanishka. His twin capital.
Shankargarh (Nagod, MP)
It has an important gupta era siva temple built before the deogarh temple. Site of ancient jina ruins. It also has an
important mukhalinga idol.
Shatrunjai (Palitana, Gujarat. 1999)
It is a sacred hill which has a famous Jain temple. It is also mentioned in ancient Jain texts. It also had temples of
mahavira and parsavnath on the top.
Shivheri / Shivneri (Junnar)
50 Buddhist caves from Satvahna age. Elaborate work but different architecture from others in the sense there is no
twin row of pillars creating a circumambulatory path. Near the entrance of the main room, there are pillars running
parallel to the entrance.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 32
Shravasti (2002)
1. It was the capital of Kosala mahajanpad. Buddha gave many sermons here.
2. In the Mauryan period, many monasteries, shrines and stupas have been found. One of the stupas contains
bones.
3. A Kushana period tank complex has been found.
Sia Dambh
Neolithic site in NW
Siddapura / Siddhpur / Jating rameshwar (Chitradurga. 2007. 2004)
Asokan mRE 1 & 2. It tells us about the early personal life of Asoka.
Sigiria (SL. 2011)
Stone age site form 7000 BC. Buddhist monastery from 3rd cent BC.
Sihava (Raipur)
Has 6 temples built in 12th century by the Kalchuris. Folklore has it that in the ancient days 7 rishis performed
austerities here.
Sikandara (Agra)
Has the mausoleum of Akbar.
Sindhudurg (Malavan, Maharashtra)
Most impregnable sea fort built by Sivaji. It also has a beardless statue of Sivaji which is perhaps the only statue of its
kind.
Singhbhum / Baganmati
Coins of Roman emperor Constantine have been recovered as a trade route from tamralipti passed through here. It also
has ancient temples and coin mints.
Sinsini
This was the heartland of Jat revolt and Bishensingh Kachhwaha was able to defeat the Jats and add it to his jagir.
Sirhind / Tabarhind
2 sons of Guru Gobind Singh were buried alive here by Aurangzeb's governor.
Sirkap (Taxila, 2006. 2004. 2000)
It was an important city under the Sakas and Kushanas. It had many stupas and houses with rooms arranged around a
rectangular courtyard. A large Buddhist apsidal temple, Dharmrajika stupa (the stupa has wheel shaped plan) and a
shrine of two eagles has been found here. The temple carvings reveal three types of doorways - a toran type, a chaitya
arch type and a Geeek arch.
Sirpur (Adilabad, AP. 2011. 1999)
From the early medieval age, the beginning of nagara style shikharas came up here in the Lakshman temple. The
temple has striking similarities with bhitargaon temple in terms of its shikhara and sculpture. Numerous bronze images
of Buddha have been found as well.
Sisupalgarh / Tosali / Kalinganagara (Odisha. 2007. 2005)
It was the capital of Kharvela. It had a big fortification. Remains of a big pillared hall and Roman trade have been
found. Asokan MRE.
Sitabengara (Sarguja)
It has Mauryan period caves which are believed to be the oldest theatre in India. An artist called Devdin fell in love
with a devadasi Sutnuka and attracted the wrath of the authorities. So he came here and engraved his story on the walls.
Sittanavasal (Pudukottai, TN. 2009)
Jaina cave paintings from pandya age. Also has Jaina Bramhi inscriptions from 9 - 10 cent AD.
Sivana (Jodhpur)
It was ruled by Chauhans until Ala-ud-din attacked it in 1306. It was a strong fort and he could capture it only by
treachery. Even Amir Khusrau praises the rana here. Later it passed under rathores and then Akbar.
Sivaner (Junnar, Maharashtra)
Fort of Shivaji. His grandfather had received it from the Bahmani ruler as a fief. The fort is surrounded by ~50 buddhist
caves.
Sohgaura (Gorakhpur)
1. Bronze plate inscription detailing CGM's famine relief measures has been found. Post Mauryan coins and
inscriptions have been found as well.
2. Chalcolithic site of ganga plains between 3000 BC to 2000 BC.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 33
Sohagpur (Rewa)
It has famous Virateshwar temple of central india nagar style of early medieval age. Its shikhara has 7 sections.
Somnath / Veraval (2006. 2004. 2003)
The temple was a Siva temple built by Chalukyas.
Somnathpur (Mysore)
Hosyal period Keshav temple found. It is a triple shrine with star shaped projections on three sides. Several stories form
Ramayna, Mahabharat and Purans are sculpted.
Sonargaon (Bangladesh)
Muslin was first made here in Sultanate era which was exported to malacca and Sri Lanka. It was also famous for its
silk production. Laxman Sena fled from Bakthiyar Khalji to this place when he attacked his capital.
Sonari (Bhopal)
Asokan stupa have been found which holds the remains of a great buddhist monk. It also has a brahmi inscription.
Sonegaon
Chalcolithic culture of deccan.
Sonkh (Mathura. 2004. 2003)
1. 7 layers of Kushanas and only 1 Gupta layer have been found here indicating the declining trend in
urbanization and trade.
2. Pre-Gupta --> An elaborate stone and brick apsidal temple of naga has been found. It had carvings, vaulted
roof, numerous sculptures etc. indicating it was a major temple. Another temple of Matrikas (7 mothers) has been
found from the same phase. This temple was initially a small structure and enlarged over time.
Sopara / Suraparaka (Thane)
1. Asokan MRE (# 8, 9).
2. It was an important port on west coast to carry out sea trade with Romans during the post-Maurya age and
with Arabs in the early medieval age.
3. Buddhist texts tell us that the first king of SL - Vijay - sailed from here to SL.
4. Agnipurana mentions of a sword making industry here in early medieval age.
Sravanbelgola (Hasan. 2002)
CGM spent his last days here. Has the big (56 ft) Gomteswar Jain statue of bahubali from the Ganga rulers.
Sringeri (Kadur, Karnataka)
It contains the first matha established by Shankaracharya (other 3 established by him were @ Nasik, Puri and
Dwarka). It also contains a temple from Vijayanagar times.
Sringverapura (Allahbad. 2001)
1. This is the oldest NBPW site to be discovered (700 BC). Ramayna mentions it as the place where Rama
crossed Ganga.
2. Kushana era brick works have been found. These bricks were reused in Gupta era. By 200 BC, the
settlement reached its maximum size. A tank complex and a channel to bring the river water to it have been
discovered along with a Kushana structure.
Srirangapatnam / Sriranga (Trichi. 2007)
1. Hindu pilgrimage place in early medieval times. Vaishnavite saint Ramanuja lived here and it has a famous
Vishnu temple built by the Pallavas. It was a very large town during the Pallavas and Cholas. The temple saw
further expansion under Vijaynagar rulers.
2. Also associated with Tipu and Hyder Ali and he planted the tree of liberty here and died while defending it.
Srughna / Sughana (Saharanpur. 1998)
1. It had strategic importance as it lay on the route from doab to Punjab. Mahmud Gazni and Timur returned
via this route. Babur to followed the same route as he marched on Delhi.
2. Gupta era bricks and coins have been found. It was also a major buddhist center in gupta and post gupta
age.
3. Also a late harappan / PGW site with gap in between.
Suivihara (Bhawalpur, Pakistan)
Remains of Kushana era buddhist vihara found. Kanishka's inscription found here too indicating his kingdom had
expanded to this place.
Sultanganj (Bhagalpur)

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A 2 m high bronze image of Buddha from Gupta period has been found. Major buddhist center and several buddhist
viharas and a stupa have been found.
Sunet (Ludhiana)
Urban site discovered from 300 BC and also a large heap of coins. Under Kushanas it was a mint and mould making
city as many coins and moulds have been found.
Surkotada (Kuchch)
Mature harappan site. A fort made of unbaked bricks and surrounded by a wall of crude stones has been found. Horse
remains found as well but these claims are doubted and the remains could be those of an ass or an onager.
Talakad (Mysore)
Capital of Gangas.
Talgunda (Shimoga, Karnataka)
A detailed pillar inscription of kadambas is given which outlines their genealogy.
Talwandi (Kasur, Pakistan)
Guru Nanak was born here and is pilgrimage of sikhs.
Tamluk / Tamralipti (W Bengal. 2008. 2004. 2003)
1. Post-Mauryan remains indicate Roman trade (amphorae and pottery). It was also a major terracotta figuring
manufacturing centre.
2. According to Buddhist tradition, Asoka visited this place to see off his son while on way to SL. Huen Tsang
mentions seeing an Asokan stupa here.
Tanjore / Tanjavur (TN, 2006. 2002)
1. It was capital of Imperial Cholas. Famous Brihadeshwara temple of Rajaraja was here and it has the images
of the Chola king and the queen. Shiva is depicted in the Tripurantaka form - destroyer of three demonic cities. City
of Gangaikoondacholapuram is also a village in same district.
2. Under Vijaynagar empire, it was a great centre of Carnatic music.
Taradih (Gaya)
Chalcolithic culture of middle gangetic valley between 3 - 2 millennium BC. Bone tools and microliths have been
found like Chirand.
Tekkalkota (Bellary. 1998)
1. Period 1 was neolithic. Handmade grey ware was found. Gold earrings found here show that the likely
source of Harappan gold was here.
2. Period 2 was megalithic. People lived on granite hill tops on wattle and daub houses. Copper, gold, beads,
terracotta artifacts have been found. People were pastoral indicated by cattle bones with cut marks, humped cattle
figurines and cattle rock paintings at Maski and Kupugal.
Tenmalai (Quilon, Kerela)
It was a late Mesolithic site from 5000 BC.
Ter / Tagar (Osmanabad, Maharashtra. 2009)
It was an important trade (largest in Deccan) and religious center (buddhism and hinduism) in post Mauryan age.
Satvahna coins (Pulumayi) as well as chaityas and the chariots of Mammalapur have been found here.
Tera (Kutch)
It has a fort which has several frescos depicting the scenes from Ramayan. It has many ramayan stories but the fort was
damaged by the earthquake.
Teri (Tinnevelly, TN)
It is a group of coastal mesolithic sites. Had a good flake industry made of quartzite.
Thatta (1996)
Major silk textiles producing center in medieval India. MbT died here. Merchants from Arabia and Persia used to stay
here. It was well linked to other cities via trade routes.
Thiyaganur (Perambalur, TN)
2 bronze Buddhas have been found from 11 cent AD.
Thotalkonda
Major buddhist center in the post mauryan age.
Tighwa (Jabalpur)

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It was once a village of temples but now all are in ruins. It has a famous Vishnu temple of Nagara style from Gupta age.
Ganga and Yamuna stand as door keepers. The pillars are adorned with images of lion and kalash. One temple has a flat
roof while the other (possibly later) has a shikhara.
Tilwara (Rajasthan)
Mesolithic site. In phase 2 it has presence of iron together with microliths.
Tirhut (Muzaffarpur. 1995)
It means land surrounded by 3 rivers - Gandak, Kosi and Ganga. It fell initially under the vajji mahajanapada but was
later taken over by Magadha.
Tirukkampulipur (TN)
Remains from 3 cent BC to 3 cent AD have been found. Urn burials found as well. It was a major center in Sangam age.
Tiruneliveli (TN)
Well known for krishnapur temple which has the life size statue of Rati in a romantic pose.
Tirupati
The temple is associated with Ramanuja.
Tondi / Tondis (Kerala)
It was an important Chera port in Sangam Age.
Topra / Topana (Ambala. 1998)
Asokan pillar edict. This pillar has 7 edicts. It was found by Firuz.
Trankibar (TN)
Only fort held by Denmark in India. It was leased to them by the king of Tanjore in 17th century.
Trichinapalli
It has an ancient fort from Pallavas time.
Tripuri (Jabalpur. 2010. 2004)
It was the capital of Kalchuri rulers. Its temples and sculpture is as elegant as Khajurao.
Tulja
Buddhist cave from post-Mauryan times. There is only one circular room with a stupa in the middle and pillars running
at in an inner concentric circle creating a circumambulatory path. Also has viharas.
Uchh (Punjab, Pakistan. 2009)
It was a major trade center in medieval India. It was also a center of Persian literature.
Udayagiri (Vidisha, MP. 2007. 2005. 2000)
Gupta era caves show Vaishnava, Jaina and Buddhist elements. An inscription in Kumargupta's reign refers to setting up
of an image of Jina tirthankara here. This is the best example of brahman cave architecture. A varah image is found here
which has got the body of a human being but head of a boar and he is lifting the earth with his tusks.
Udaigram (Pakistan)
Important trade and urban center in Mauryan age.
Udbhandpur (Ohind, Pakistan)
Ambhi's envoy met Alexander here. Panini was born here and this place also finds mention in Rajtarangini.
Uddandpura / Odantpuri (Bihar)
Early Medieval age --> It was an important Buddhist centre of learning. According to the Tibetan records there were
about 12,000 students
Udegolam (Bellary)
Asokan mRE 1 & 2. Name of the king found here.
Ujjain (Malwa. 2003. 2000)
1. It was first the capital of Avanti mahajanapada.
2. Its significance lay in that it was the convergence point of many trade routes going to Broach port in
Mauryan, post-Mauryan and Gupta times.
3. Ring wells, coins have been found from Mauryan level.
4. In post-Mauryan, bead making, terracotta and Roman trade evidences have been found.
5. Kalidasa mentions the presence of a large number of devdasis in the Mahakal temple there.
Uraiyur / Tiruchillapalli (2007. 2003. 1998)
1. It was the Chola capital initially. It was famous for fine textiles and dyeing industries and carried out
Roman trade.
Utnur (Mahbubnagar, AP. 2009)
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 36
Ash mound neolithic site of S India. The size of the enclosure was large and it could have accommodated 500 - 800
cattle. It was rebuilt many times and burnt. Cattle hoof prints were found on the ash. Other traits similar to Piklihal and
Kodekal.
Uttaramerur (TN. 2009. 1996)
2 inscriptions from Imperial Chola age have been found which describe the functioning of sabhas in the brahmadeyas.
Uttarbani (Jammu)
Lower Paleolithic remains of 2.8 mya have been found.
Vadamdurai (TN)
Paleolithic site.
Vaijayanti / Banavasi (Kanara, Karnataka)
It was the capital of Kadambas. It has an inscription talking about grant to a Jinendra temple (lord of Jinas).
Vaikatpur (Patna)
Has an ancient siva temple which was renovated by Man Singh under Akbar.
Valabhi (Gujarat. 2000. 1998)
Jaina religious texts were compiled here in 6 cent AD as the 3rd Jain conference was held here. It was also an important
trade center.
It also hosted a famous Buddhist monastery which has 10 viharas and 6000 monks studied. Sthirmati and Gunamati
were the scholars of fame here. Like Nalanda, subjects apart from buddhist philosophy were also taught. The graduates
form here were appointed to high government posts.
Vangchhia / Kawtchhuhah Ropui (Champai, Mizoram)
Menhirs here are the 1st ever ASI protected site of the state. They depict hunting scenes.
Varanasi (2002)
It was the capital of Kasi mahajanpad.
Vatsagulma / Washim (Akola)
It was the capital of Vatsagulma line of Vakatakas after Pravarsena I.
Vellur / Belur
It has the Hosayala period Keshav temple. It was the capital of Hosyals before shifting to Halebid.
Vengi (Ellore, AP. 1997)
Capital of eastern chalukyas and remained a bone of contention between the chalukyas and the pallavas.
Venni (Tanjore)
The first Chola ruler Karikala was removed form his office. But he staged a comeback by winning a decisive battle
here.
Vijaynagar
Vijaydurga / Gheria
The fort was built by Bijapuri rulers but was restored by Sivaji. It was one of the strongest forts. The £ defeated
Maratha navy here in 1756.
Vijayawada
It has an ancient temple which was visited by Shankaracharya as well. Also has relics of Prophet Muhammad.
Vikramshila (Bhagalpur. 2011)
The university was destroyed by Bhaktiyar Khalji in 1202 AD.
Vilaspur (HP. 1999)
It was setup in 17th century and Guru Teg Bahadur went to Vilaspur where he purchased a land from the ruler and
raised a new habitation there. Later on it became famous as Anandpur Sahib.
Vilinam (Thiruvananthpuram. 2011)
In the Chalukya - Pallava - Pandya struggle, the Pandya king Varaguna I was attacked by the Pallavas. He defeated the
Pallava ruler and took control of the port town of Vilinam as well.
Warrangal (2005. 1999)
Capital of kakatiya rulers in 12th century. Invaded by Malik Kafur and then annexed by Tughluqs. Later it came under
the Golconda rulers.
Watgal (Raichur.)
1. Period 1 is Mesolithic.
2. Period 2 is Neolithic and an ash mound site. Transition can be seen from hand made to wheel turned
pottery. Terracotta figurines including one of a female torso can be found.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 37
3. Period 3 is megalithic (2000 BC). Pottery was BRW, beads, terracotta figurines, copper/bronze artifacts
have been found.
4. Period 4 is late megalithic (1500 BC). Iron remains have been found. Burials were chamber type. One of
the earliest iron finds in India.
Yedurwadi (Karnataka)
Lower Paleolithic remains of 350k ya have been found.
Yelleshwaram (Nalgonda)
Largest number of terracottas and their moulds from the post-Mauryan age have been found here.
Yerragudi / Erragudi (Kurnool)
Has the long and short inscriptions of Asoka i.e. MRE.
Zawar (Udaipur)
It was a major zinc smelting site since ancient India and continued up to 19th cent AD. The technique used here since
ages was later patented in England in modern times.
Somapura (Paharapura, Bangladesh)
Somapura was situated in East Pakistan. King Devapala (AC 810-850) is said to have erected the Dharmapala-
Vihara at Somapura. The ruins of these buildings cover an area of about 1 square mile. There was a large gate and
the buildings were surrounded by a high-wall. There were about 177 cells for monks in additions to the shrines and
image houses. A common refectory and a kitchen are among the ruins, Remains of three -strayed buildings are to be
seen. This university flourished for about 750 years before it was abandoned after the Muslim invasion.
Mainamati
Important Buddhist center in early medieval eastern India.
Jagaddala
King Ramapala (1077-1129) is said to be the founder of this University. Jagaddala University was the largest
construction works undertaken by the Pala Kings. This was a centre for the study and dissemination of Tantric
Buddhism. It followed the methods, practices, and traditions of Nalanda. According to Tibetan works many books
were translated to the Tibetan language at Jagaddala. The Buddhist teacher Sakya Sri Bhadra, seeing that Nalanda,
Vickramsila, and Odantapuri were in ruins after the Muslim invasion, entered Jagaddala for his studies. It is said
that his pupil Danaseela translated ten books to Tibetan Sakya Sri Bhadra was responsible for the propagation of
Tatntric Buddhism in Tibet. He lived for seven years at Jagaddala. In 1027 the Muslim invaders sack and destroyed
Jagaddala.
1. AIHOLE near Badami with rock cut and structural temples of Western Chalukya period, is favous for the
temples of Vishnu, Ladkhan and Durga. It furnish examples of a well developed Deccan style of architecture. The
other three styles of ancient India being Nagar Dravidian and Vesara. It is also famous for its inscription or Prasasti
composed by Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulkesin II. This prasasti mentions the defeat of Harsha by the Chalukya
king, Pulkesin II, a r rare event of a Northern emperor or ruler being defeated by a ruler south of Narmada.
Aihole (Karnataka. 1998)
Pulakesin II's inscription of 634 AD created by Jain poet Ravikirti has been found and talks about defeat of Harsha. 70
temples are found here including Ladkhan temple (a square temple from Chalukyan period) and Durga temple (a
Buddhist shrine used as a Hindu temple).
2. ACHICHHATRA identified with modern Ramnagar in Bareily district of U.P. was the capital of North Panchala
in the first half of first millennium B.C. Exacavation grove that it had moats and ramparts around it, it has revealed
terracottas of the Kushan period, and also remarkable series of coins of second century A.D. Its importance lies in
the fact that it was on the important ancient Indian northern trade route linking Taxila and Indraprastha with
Kanyakubaj and Sravasti, Rajgriha and Pataliputra indicating that trae could be one of the reasons for its
prominence.
Ahichchatra / Ahikshetra / Ramnagar (Barelli, UP. 2007. 2004)
The OCP phase was followed by a break before the PGW phase. The OCP pottery didn't show any links with
Harappan.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 38
1. PGW phase --> This as the 1st PGW site to be discovered. People practiced domestication and grew 2
crops per year. Houses were wattle and daub. Most of the implements found are related to wars than for common
use. King Divodasa of the 10 tribe battle fame was from here.
2. NBPW phase --> It was the capital of Panchala mahajanpad.
3. In Kushana period, it was a major urban centre for terra cotta sculpture.
4. A Gupta period terraced temple has been found here.
3. AJANTA near Aurangabad (Maharashtra), is famous for wonderful Buddhist caves, and also paintings probably
executed only b the Buddhist monks. Paintings of exceptional skill belong to the period between 2nd century B.C.
and 7th Century A.D. One of the cave well depicts the reception of a Persian mission in the Chalukya court of
Pulkasin II indicating cultural and commercial contacts with the Persian empire.
Ajanta (2002)
Buddhist caves from 1 cent AD to 7 cent AD have been found with most belonging to Gupta era. Triple storied cave
viharas have also been found. The early caves represent a large pillared chaitya with a stupa in the centre. Later caves
have more ornamentation. The caves are of 2 types - meditation (chaitya) and residence (vihara) type. The paintings are
fresco style, Buddhist religious, plaster of clay, sand, dung and hay was applied first, smoothened and then outlines
were drawn and colored.
4. ANUPA in Narmada valley mentioned in the Nasik inscription (dated 115 A.D.) of Gautami Balasri, mother of
the Satvahana ruler Sri Satakarni (Circa 72-95 A.D.) was conqured by the latter from the sakas, and was a bone of
contention for long between the Sakas and the Satvahanas. The sakas were responsible for driving the Satavahanas.
Into the south -eastern and western direction. In other words, Anupa signifies the earlier homeland of the
Satvahanas.
5. APARNTAKA (Aparanta), identified withk Konkan, i.e. North western region of the Deccan, was a bone of
contention between the sakas and the Satavahanas and is mentioned in Nasik Inscription (dated circle 155 A.D.) of
Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputa stakarni conquered it from the Sakas. According to the Mahavamsa, the third
Buddhist council deputed Great elder Dharamarakshita to do missionary work in Aparantaka region. Literacy
evidence locates the Abhiras in this region, who probably were responsible for identifying Lord Krishna as the deity
of cowherd and milk-maids.
In matters relating to trade and commerce it was famous for the production of cotton textiles in ancient times and
ated, as the hinterland for the ancient ports of Bharukachechha and Sopara.
6. ARIKAMEDU near Pondicherry, known to the periplus as podoka, was port of call in Sangam Times (200 B.C.)
on the route of Malaya and china. Recent excavation during which a very rich treasure of Roman beads, glass and
coins, and of Roman and south Indian Pottery were found have proved that it was once a prosperous settlement of
Western trading people, including the Romans.
The favourable balance of Payments position ejoyed by India in its trade with Rome is amply revealed by the rich
haul of Roman gold coins.
Arikamedu (Pondicherry. 2006. 2000)
Brick built dyeing vats from Sangam age have been discovered indicating dyeing was a thriving business here.
It was an important port for the Indo-Roman trade and Roman settlements have been found here.
7. AYODHYA also known as A-yu-te or Abhur of Saketa on the river Sarya (Modern Ghaghra) in Faizabad district
of U.P. was the earliest capital of the Kosala Janapade and was the seat of the epic hero, Rama. It is also known for
its short Sanskrit inscription of king Dhandeva of Kosal (belonging probably to the first century B.C.) which refers
to the conducting of two Asvamedha sacrifices by king Pushyamitra. From the economic view-point it was located
on the important trade of Tamralipti-Rajagriha-Sravasti which passed via Ayodhya.
8. AMRAVATI near modern Vijayawada (Andhra Pradesh), is famous for its stupa and as an art center flourishing
under the Satavahanas and the pallavas. Second century works of art khow mastery of stone sculpture. Amravati
bas-reliefs have the representation of ancient Indian vehicles - the boat or the ship or the cart, and of a foreign
mission (like the Ajanta cave paintings) of merchants being received by a king. In ancient times is was an important
center of trade, and ships from here sailed to Burma and Indonesia.
It is maintained by some scholars that a human figure, for the first time, that a marble stone relief was executed.
9. ASIKA (Probably on the left bankof the river Krishna), is mentioned in the Nasik inscription (dated circe 115
A.D.) of Gautami Balasri, it was conquered by the Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satakarini.The latter fact reveals
that Gautamiputra Satakarni gained a stronger hold of southern India which proved beneficial because of the
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 39
continuing Saka pressure even after his victory against the Sakas. King Kharavela of Kalinga also made a claim of
its conquest.
10. AVANTI (western Malva) one of the 16 Janapadas of 6th century B.C. with its capital at Ujjain; struggled hard
against Magadhan imperialism but in vain. According to Buddhist traditions, Asoka, the Mauryan ruler, served as
the Viceroy of Avanti, while he was a prince.
Since Malwa region is important politically, and economically it became a bone of contention between the Sakas.
And the Satavahanas, Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas in ancient India. It is through this region that the important trade
routes from eastern and western Indian passed Via Ujjain to the important Western ports Bharukachchha (Broach)
and Soparaka (Sopara).
11. ANGA one of the 16th Janapadas of 16th century B.C. Lay to the east of Magadha with Champa, near
Bhagalpur, as its capital. Some of the Anga monarchas, like Brahmadatta, appear to have defeated their Magadha
contemporaries. Subsequently, however, Magadha emerged supreme leading to the establishment of the first empire
of ancient India. In other words, the conquest of Anga by Magadha was one of the stepping stones for the
Magadhan Empire.
12. BARHUT in central Indian is famous for Buddhist Stupa and stone railings which replaced the wooden ones in
the Sunga period. Barhut sculptures depict the visit of king Ajatasatru to the Buddha. Barhut along with Sanchi and
Bodh-Gaya represent the first organized art activity of the Indian people as a whole. Furthermore, all these clearly
indicate the transition of sculpture from wood to stone.
13. BARYGAZA OR BHARUKACHCHA (Broach) was the oldest and largest northern most entrepot on the
mouth of the Narmada river in modern Maharashtra. It handled the bulk of the trade with western Asia (Jataka
stories and the Periplus mention it). It was also one of the district head quarters of the Saka rulers. According to Jain
traditions, it was the capital of the Saka empire. It was international trade that mode Barygaza important in ancient
India.
14. BARBARICUM was an important port in the Indus delta, receiving Chinese furs and silks through Bacteria for
export to the West. It added to the growing prosperity of India in the first century A.D.
15. BADAMI (MODERN NAME FOR VATAPI) in Bijapur district was founded by pulkesin I as an early capital
of the Western Chalukyas. It as a hill-fort and an exquisite cave temple of lord Vishnu excavated during the rule of
Manglesh, the Chalukya ruler. Huen-tsang visited it.
Badami / Vatapi (2010. 2003. 2001. 2000)
It was the capital of Chalukyas of Badami. From late 6 cent AD, sculptures of Hari-Hara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) have
been found in the Badami caves. There are 3 brahmana caves and 1 jaina cave.
16. BODH-GAYA situated six miles south of Gaya in Bihar on the western bank of the Nilajan river, was the place
where the Buddha attained enlightenement. It was part of the Magadha janapada.
17. BANAVASI (north kanara in Karnataka) also known as Vaijayanti, was the capital of the Kadambas who were
defeated by the Chalukya king Kirtivarman during the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. According to the
Ceylonese chronicles Ashoka sent a mission to Deccan with the Monk Rkshita who went as far as Banavasi.
Banavasi / Vaijayanti (Kanara, Karnataka)
It was the capital of Kadambas. It has an inscription talking about grant to a Jinendra temple (lord of Jinas).
18. BRAHMAGIRI in Chitaldurg district of Karnataka, is remarkable for its continuity of cultural heritage
extending from Neolithic (stone-age culture) to megalithic (early historic culture-3rd century B.C. to Ist century
B.C. with possible links with Mediterianean and Caucasian Megaliths) revealing ancestory worship and animism
pointing to the practice of cist and pit burials. It is the site of one of the two minor rock edicts of Askoka. These
edicts suggest the provability of Ashoka entering the Sangha as a full monk after two and a half years of his
conversion to Buddhism.
19. BURZAHOM in Kashmir Valley near Srinagar, is associated with megalithic settlements (dating 2400 B.C.)
where the people lived on a plateau in pits using tools and weapons of stone (axe) and bones. (The only other site
which has yielded considerable bone implements is Chirand, 40 km. West of Patna on the northern bank of the
Ganges and using coarse grey pottery. The information that we gather from the two places, recently discovered,
throws light on the proto-history of India).

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 40
20. BAMIYAN an important Buddhist and Gandhara Art center in Afghanistan in the early Christian centuries, has
tall rock-cut Buddha statues. The ancient trade route linking north western India with China passed through it. It
was the capital of the Hunas in the 5th and the 6th centuries A.D.
21. BELUR with a group of Hoysala monuments including the famous Chennakesava temple (built around 1117
A.D.) represents an art which applies to stone the technique of the ivory worker or the goldsmith.
22. CHIDAMBARAM a town in south Arcot district in Tamilnadu is famous for its great Hindu Siva Temple
dedicated to Nataraja, i.e. Siva in his aspects of cosmic dance. The Nataraja sculptures are esteemed as the greatest
specimens of sculpture in the world. Also, Chidambaram bears evidence to the birth as well as the development of
Shaivism to begin with in southern Indian and its consequential spread to the whole of India.
Chidamberum (1999)
It has the famous natraj temple from the Chola age and also several bronze natraj statues. The temple has very high
shikhara and gopurams and thousand pillar mandap.
23. CHEDI OR CHETI one of the 16 Janapadas of 6th century B.C. roughly corresponds to modern Bundelkhand
and adjacent tracts. It lay near the Kanuna, its metropolis was suktimati to Sottihivatinagar.
24. CHAMPA the capital city of the Anga Janapada on the border of Bengal was of great commercial importance
in ancient times; for it was a river port from which ships would sail down the Ganges and the coast the south India,
returning with jewels and spices which were much in demand in the North. By Mauryan times, with the eastward
expansion of Aryan culture, Tamralipti replaced in in importance. An interesting feature of this is the fact that a
Hindu Kingdom with the same name came into existence in the mainland of South east Asia. Indeed it is difficult to
say how exactly this name came to be transplanted in South-east Asia.
Champa / Champapuri (Bhagalpur. 2004)
1. It was a river port and capital of Anga Mahajanapada. A mud fort from 5 cent BC is also found. Spices and
precious stones from south were brought here. It was an important Buddhist town. It was annexed by Bimbisara.
2. In the Kushana phase, brick fortifications and houses come up.
25. DASAPURA modern Mandasor in western Malwa, was disputed between the Sakas and the Satavahanas. Its
famous Siva temple of the guild of Silk weavers, was built during the reign of kumar Gupta I (414 A.D.-455 A.D.)
the institution that is responsible for building the Siva temple indicates the climax of Indian trading and commercial
activities in ancient Indian. It also reveals that manufacture of silk was no longer the secret monopoly of China and
it had taken roots in India by the 5th century A.D.
26. DEVAKA modern Dokak in Nowgong district in Assam, a frontier country which paid tribute to Samudragupta
claiming the payment of tribute by Kamarupa goes along with Devaka. However, it is to be borne in mind that
Harisena's Prasasti is of doubtful historical validity. The one significant thing that is known is the fact that no ruler
of the northern India could ever conquer the Assam region but instead Burma conquered it and it was wrenched
from Burma by the British in 1829 by the Treaty of Yandavoo.
27. DEOGARH in Jhansi district of U.P. is famous for its Dasvatara Vishnu temple belonging to the Gupta period.
The temple may be considered as most representative and well known example of the early sikhara style of temple
architecture in example of the early sikhara style of temple architecture on the panels of its walls. Deogarh is one
the temples with which began the temple architecture of India. In particular, the Shikhara is the unique feature of
the northern temples compared to those of southern Indian.
28. DWARAKA Legends associate this place to Yadavas after the battle of Kurukshetra. According to mythology
Dwaraka was destroyed by the huge tidal wave as per the forewarning of Lord Krishna. In very recent times Dr.
S.R.Rao with the cooperation of the Department of Ocenography, did carry out under-sea explorations. Some
artifacts including stone anchors have been found dating back to the Harappan period. The exploration is still
continuing.
29. ELLORA With three distinct groups of rock-cut architecture associated with Buddhism, Jainism and
Brahmanical Hinduism, is famous for its temple of Kailash (Siva) "an entire temple complex completely hewn-out
of the live rock in imitation of a distinctive structural form". The temple was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna
I (758-773 A.D.) and is one of the most magnificent examples of Dravida architecture with its four principal
characteristic components, viz. Vimana, Mandapa, nandi mandapa and gopuram. The Ellora sculptures are famous
for their liveliness.

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30. ERAN Besnagar district (Madhya Pradesh) is famous on account of Eran Inscriptions dated 510 A.D. This
inscription mentions the practice of Sati, first of its kind. It is also famous for its colossal board, the zoomorphic
incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
31. ELEPHANTA beautiful little island off Bombay, with latest cave temples in Ellora style was famous for their
sculpture, especially the great Trimutti figure of Siva, emblem of the Maharashtar Govt. representing the highest
plastic expression of the Hindu concept of divinity.
32. GANDHARA with Taxila and peshawar as two capitals, in earlier and later ancient periods was one of the 16
Janapadas (6th century B.C.) on the north-western frontier of India. Under the Kushans it become a popular center
of Mahayana Buddhism and Gandhara art- Indian images both secular and religious (the Buddha and Lord Krishna)
but in long floating garments, as is the tradition of early Greek sculpture. It was a meeting ground for several
civilizations and mercantile communities belonging to different countries.
33. GORATHAGIRA A hill fortress on the modern Barabar hills in the Gaya district of Bihar, was attacked by
King Kharavela of Kalinga in the 8th year of his reign. This fact is known from the Hathigumpha Inscription of
king Kharavela.
34. GANGAIKOND-CHOLA-PURAM was capital city of the greatest Chola ruler Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044
A.D.) who built it after the successful Chola military campaign upto the bank of the river Ganges in 1021-22.
Currently the city lies in ruins and its enormous tankshas dried up.
35. GIRNAR hill near Janagarh in Gujarat, where a Mauryan governor is said to have built an artificial lake,
known as Sudarsana lake which Rudradaman, the Saka ruler renovated. Rudradaman's Sanskrit Inscription was
located here and it is the first Sanskrit inscription It had been a sacred place to the Jainas since remote times
because Jain shrines are also located here.
36. HASTINAPURA aim district Meerut in U.P. (known as Asandivant) was the capital of the ancient tribe of the
Kurus. Later the floods destroyed it. Recent excavations prove that the people of this region used iron by about 700
B.C. that is the Aryans had learnt the art of making iron which revolutionized the whole socio-economic pattern of
Aryan communities. It was this fact that lay at the base of the Economic Revolution that India passed through
between 1000 B.C. to 600 A.D. with far too many consequences like the emergence of an empire, various kinds of
guilds, brisk trade both with in and with out the country and links with buth South-east Asia and the Roman empire.
37. HATHIGUPHA on Udaigir hill, three miles from Bhuvaneshwar in the puri district of Orissa, is famous for an
inscription in post-ashokan character, engraved inside the elephant cave. It depicts the meteoric and dazzling career
of Jaina king Kharavela, the 3rd ruler of the Cate dynasty. It also refers to the building of an equeduct in Kalinga by
one of the Nanda rulers of Pataliputra. The importance of this inscription lies in the fact that it is the first important
sign-post in fixing the chronology of ancient India.
38. HAILBID is famous for Hoysalesvara temple (Hoysala period) designed and built by Kedoroja, the master-
building of Narasimha I. The infinite wealth of sculpture over the exterior of this temple makes it one of the most
remarkable monuments of the world. Known as Dwaramudra it was the capital of the Hoysalas.
39. INDRAPRASTHA identified by Jain scholars with the site around the enclosure of the Purana Oila (Delhi) one
of the sites of painted Grey Ware (10th century B.C.) finda, was the legendry capital of the Pandava brothers of the
epic Mahabharata, which they lost to the Kauravas having been defeated in the gambling match. After the second
battle of Tarain (1192) Moh. Gauri appointed Qutubuddin Aibak as his deputy at Indraprastha which became a base
for Aibak's successful operations against north Indian states.
40. KURA one of the 16 Janapadas of 6th century B.C., was in the neighbourhood of Delhi. Among its towns may
be mentioned Indraprastha and Hastinapur. This place clearly brings home the truth to us that Mahabharata was not
purely fictional story but some amount of historical evidence is embedded in the story. As a matter of fact,
Vasudeve Krishna is now known as a historical personality as borne out by the writings of patanjali and other
sources of evidence.
41. KAJANGALA in Raj mahal district in Eastern Bihar, where king Harsha (606-647 A.D.) held his court while
campaigning in eastern India. The Chiense pilgrim Huen-Tsang first saw Harsha here.
42. KAPISA It is the region near Kabul, probably Kipin as referred to by Chineses writers. The presiding deity of
the city according to Chiense writers was zeus. The Greek god. The gold and silver coins issued by the Greek kings
have been discovered from this region in big numbers. The Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India. These
coins testify to the growing trade links between India and Central Asia and China and also with the Roman world.
Far more important is the fact that these coins testify to the growing worship of Vasudeva-krishna or the Bhagavata
cult which later repened as Vaishnavism.
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43. KIPIN is identified with Kapisa or Kafirstan in Kashmir. It indicated the wide region know in earlier times as
the Mahajanapada of Kamboja. It was ruled by the Sakas, the Kushans and the Hunas in succession. The name
Kamboja reappears as the name of kamboja, an important of the mainland of South-East Asia.
44. KAMPILYA was the capital of southern Panchalas, one of the tribal communities of the Aryans. This fact
proves that the Aryans, to begin with in India, lived as various tribes. The tribes were in constant war with
eachother culminating in the emergence of the Magadha Empire.
45. KUSAMDHVALA (Patliputara) Gargi-Samhita alludes that in the 2nd century B.C. the Yavanas (Indo-
Bacterians) having reduced Saketa, Panchala, and Mathura reached kusumdhvana. Demetrios, was, most probably,
the Yavana leader. He was defeated or he retired without fighting.
46. KASI one of the 16 Janapadas of the 6th century B.C. with its capital of the same name. It was also called
Varanasi. It greatly prospered under the rule of Brahmadatta.
47. KOSAL one of the 16 janapadas of the 6th century B.C. had three different capitals (Saketa, Ayodhya and
Sravasti) in three different periods. It region roughly corresponded to modern oudh.
48. KUSINAGAR (Kusinara) moder Kasia, in Gorakhpur district in UP was a small town where the Buddha
attained Mahaparinirvana. It was one of the two capitals of the Mall Janapada in pre-Buddhists times. It was visited
by Ashoka and the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien.
49. KANYAKUBJA (Kanauj) on the bank of river Gangas in UP rose to prominence during the time of Mukhar is,
Harsha and Gujara-Pratiharas. Under the pratiharas, Kanauj successfully resisted the Arabs. In the 9th century A.D.
It was disputed among the Palas of Bengal, Prathiharas, and the Rashtrakutas. It was situated on a very important
trade-route linking north-Western regions of India with Prayaga, Kasi, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Rajagriha, Tamralipti.
50. KAUSAMBI identified with the villagesof Kosam near Allahabad was one of the earliest cities, so prominent
that Anand, the Buddhist monk, though it important enough for a Buddha to die in. Recent excavation it here
unearthed historically and culturally important terracotta figures. It was built in the shape of a trapezium and was
the capital of the vastse Janapada. One of the Ashokan Pillars was located here. It was also an inscription of the
Kushan monarch.
51.KARNA-SUVARNA : refers to the region of Bengal and some parts of Bihar and Orrisa, fuled by sasanka in the
early 7th century A.D. Harsha conquered the region from him after 619 A.D.
52. KANHERI In Thana district near Bombay, has rock cut Chaitya shrines with elaborately decorated railings
belonging to the third century A.D. One inscription of the last great ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. Yajnasri
Satakarni is found here. Kanheri Buddhist Tank inscription makes mention of Matiemonial relationship between the
Sakas and the Satavahanas. It was the chief center of Buddhism in Rashtrakuta times. Faint traces of the art of
paintings may be traced in the caves of Kanheri.
53. KANCHI modern canjeevaram, south-west to Madras is reckoned among the seven sacred cities of the Hindus.
It was an important center of Jaina culture in the first half of the first millennium A.D. It was one of the south
Indian kingdoms conquered by Samudragupta. It was visited by Huen-Tsang. It rose to prominence in 7th century
A.D. Under the Pallava king. It possesses the famous Kailashnath temple (built by Pallava King Narsimhavarman -
II) and Vaikuntha perumalla (constructed sometime after the kailashnath). The Kailashnath temple is a landmark in
the development of dravida temple style with its characteristic components-vimana, mandapa gopuram and an array
of vimanas along the walls of the court, i.e. peristyle cells.
54. KAVERIPATTANAM known as Puhar, was the Chola capital and chief port in Sangam period (200 B.C.- 300
A.D.) with a large colongy of foreigners. It was an important trade center. Ships sailing from here to South-East
Asia. A long poem on this Chola capital is the part of the famous Sangam work pattupattu (Ten Idylls).
55. KURUKSHETRA near Thaneswar, to the north of Delhi in Haryana, was the site of the great battle of
Mahbharata. This battle fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, formed the basis of the story of the
greatness of India epics the Mahabharata. It is in this great war that Krishna prached his gospel of the Gita, to the
Pandava hero Arjuna who saw his own elders and kishmen arranged himself for the fith and then early decided to
renounce and retire. Krishna gave him the message of disinterested perfomance of duty i.e. renunciation in action
but no renunciation of action. That a great war ws fought between the cousin brothers - Kauravas and Pandavas is
quite possible.
56. MANYAKHET (modern Malkhed in Hyderabad region) was the capital of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I in the
9th century A.D.
57. MAHABALIPURAM is today a tiny coastal village 65 kms. south of Madras. This port-city was founded by
Pallava king Narasimhavarman in the 7th century A.D. Pallava kings created an architecture of their own which
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was to be the basis of all the styles of the south. In fact Mahabilipuram, the Pallava art with its monolithic temples
(rathas) and rocks sculptured in the shapes of animals with a wonderfully broad and powerful naturalism, with
whole cliffs worked in stone frescoes, immenspictures unparalleled at the time in all Indian in their order movement
and lyrical value. The Descent of the Ganges, the unique masterpiece of Pallava art was surely one of the most
remarkable compositions of all time (in which is portrayed the Ganges coming down to earth, with gods, animals
men and all creation in adoration). The shore temple built by Rajasimha represents one of the earliest examples of
structural temples. the Pallvava monuments at Mahabalipuram symbolize not only the transition from rock-
architecture to structural stone temples but also significantly the completion of the "Aryanisation" of South India
during the Pallava period.
58. MADHYAMIKA is identified with Nagari near Chitor in Rajasthan. Patanjali alludes toYavana (Indo-
Bacterian) invasion of Madhyamika.
59. MUSHIKAS on the lower Indus with its capital at Alord. Was the greatest principality at the time of
Alexander's invasion. Its king mousikanas submitted to Alexander after brave resistance.
60. MATIPUR modern Mandawar in district Bijnor of UP was a center of Hinayana Buddhist studies in the 6th and
7th centuries A.D. Huen-Tsang stayed here for some time.
61. MADURAI popularly known as the city of festivals, was the seat of the 3rd Sangam and was till the 14th
century the capital of the Pandyan kingdom which had sea-borne brade with Rome and Greece. It is famous for the
Minakshi temple.
62. MACCHA or Matsaya, was one of the 16 janapads. The Matsyas ruled to the west of the Jamuna and south of
the Kurus. Their capital was at Viratnagar (modern Bairrat near Jaipur).
63. MALLA was one of the 16 Janapadas of the16th century B.C. The territory of the Mallas was on the mountain
slopes probably to the north of the vijjain confederation. They had to branches with their capitals at Kusinagar and
Pawa. But in pre-Buddhist time the Mallas were a monarchy.
64. MUZIRIS modern canganors in Kerala at the mouth of the river Periyar, an important port in Sangam period
(20 B.C. - 300 A.D.) abounded in ships with cargoes from Arabia and Roman world. Later literature speaks of
Roman settlements and a temple was built here ni honour of Augustus.
65. NAGARJUNAKONDA is Krishna Velley, harboured a Neolithic community with stone-axe-culture and
primitive mode of agriculture. With a few classical accidental looking sculptures in proves trade and culture
contacts with the Roman world. Survival of a Buddhist stupa proves it to be a Buddhist center in early Christian
centuries. The beginning of Hindu temple architecture in south India are best traced in the remains of the early
brick temples of the Ikshavakus excavated here anticipating the Nagara, Dravida and Vasars styles.
66. NASIK (also known as Naiskya and Govardhan) is famous for exquisite rock-cut Buddhist temple (of the
period 2nd BC - 1st A.D.) with an engraved iscription of Gautami Balsari recording the achievement of the
Satavahanas ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni). A large board of silver coins bearing the name, the titles of Nahapana
were discovered at Jogalthambi very close to the Nasik suggesting the defeat of the Saka ruler bythe Satavahana
knig. It is also famous for the Chaitya and Vihar as pan-du-lonea.
67. PITHUNDA on the Godavari, was the capital of the Avapeople or the Avamukta which was conquered as
Samudragupta.
68. PADMAVATI was Nag capital is Gwalior region. Its king Ganapati Naga was defeated by Samudragupta.
69. PRATISHTHANA (Paithan) at the mouth of the river godavri in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, was
the capital of Satavahana kings. It was an important commercial mart linked with Sravasti.
70. PURUSHPURA (modern Peshawar) was the capital of Kanishka's vast empire and the center of Gandhara art.
It became the chief center of Buiddhist activity and studies with building of number of huge Chaityas and viharas
and with one stupa. The Chiense pilgrims refer to a many storied relic-tower in which some relics of Buddha were
enshrined. It is here that the icons of Buddha and other Hindu gods were first finely carved. In provided the meeting
place of the marchants of India, China, central Asia, Persia, and the Roman world.
71. PATTADAKAL near Aihole Badami is famous for magnificentrock-cult and sculptures temples in Chalukya
and Pallava style. The number of such temples is ten - four in the northern style and six in southern. Most famous
of these temples is lokesvara temple (now called Virupaksha).
72. PANCHALA was one of the 16 janapadas of the 6th century B.C. Its area correspondent to modern
Bundelkhand and the portion of the Central Doab. It had two divisions northern and southern, the Ganges forming
the boundary line. Their capitals were Ahicchatra and Kampilya respectively. One of the early Panchalas kings,
Durmukha, is credited with conquests in all directions.
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73. PUSHKALAVATI i.e. the "city of lotuses' in Afganisthan to the north of the river Kabul (modern Charasadda)
in the district of Peshawar was conquered by Alexandar. It was the old capital of western Gandhara. A gold coin
(belonging to the 2nd century B.C.) with the city goddess (Lakshmi) holding a lotus in her right hand and an
appropriate Kharoshthi legend "Pakhalavati devata" had been discovered here pointing to the popularity of Indian
goddess. It remained under the rule of the Indo-Greeks, the sakas and the Kushana. It was an important link in
India's trade relations with central Asia and China.
74. RAJAGRIHA moder Rajgir, near Patna in Bihar was and ancient capital of Magadha under Bimbisara and
Ajatsatru. It was here that first Buddhist council was held after the death of Buddha. The cyclopean walls of the this
old commercial town are among themost remarkable finds in India.
75. SAKALA modern Sialkot, capital of Menander, was the refuge of Buddhist monks. It was here, according to
Buddhist tradition, that Pushyamitra Sungha declared to give an award of 199 dinars for the head of a Buddhist
monk.
76. SANCHI :near Bhopal famous for a Buddhist stupa and for one of Ashoka's Minor Pillar Edicts. Sanchi
sculptures along with Bharhut Godh-Gaya represent the first organized art activity of the Indian People. There are
reliefs of the Jatkas on the stone walls around the stupa. Sanchi revealed historically important inscription of the
Satavahanas and the Gupta kings. Kakanodbota probably was the ancient name for Sanchi, which was inhabited by
the tribal people Kakar, and was conquered by the Samudragupta.
77. SRAVASTI moder Saket-Mahet on the borders of the Gonda and the Bahraich districts of U.P. On the river
Rapti - It was a famous center of trade in ancient times, from where three important trade routes emanated linking it
with Rajagriha, Pratishthana, and Taxila. It was one of the early capitals of the Janapad of Kosal. Later, it served as
the provincial headquarters of the Gupta kings. Fa-hien visited it.
78. SAKETA region around Ayodhya, was invaded by Yavanas (Indo-Bacterin) is attested to by Patanjali.
79. SARNATH near Varanasi, is the place where the Buddha delivered his frist sermon in the Deer park, this event
being known as the "Turning of the Wheel of Law". It is the site of the famous Ashokan Pillar of Polished sand-
stone whose lion capital was adopted by the people of Free India as the state emblem. It was also the famous seat of
Gupta sculpture. Gupta plastic art reached its perfection e.g. the seated Buddha in preaching posture.
80. SRAVANA-BELGOLA in Hasan district of Karnataka, is famous for the monolithic statue of Gometeswara-
85fit. High, erected in 980 A.D. by Chemundya Rai, the chief minister of the Ganga king Rachmal.
81. SOPARA port town known to the Periplus and ptolmey, carried most of the ancient Indian trade with foreign
countries; gradually it began to lose its importance to Berygaza and Barharium- Ist century A.D. onwards. It ahs
survived as a village 40 miles north of Bombay.
82. TOSALI (Dhauli) near Bhuaneshwar in Puri district of Orissa, was the seat of one of the Mauryan viceroyalties
as well as one of the fourteen major rock edicts of Ashoka. The Tosali rock edict refers only to the conquered
province.
83. TRIPURI now village near Jabalpur, was the capital of the Kalachuri dynasty. The Kalachuri kings became
independent in 10th century A.D. In 1939, Tripuri had the distinction of being the venue of the 54th session of
Indian National congress.
84. TAMRALIPTI Tamluk in the Midnapur district of Western Bengal was one of the most important port-towns
of ancient India. Outlet to south-east Asia when there was trade boom.
85. TANJORE is famous for Rajarajeswava or Brihadeswara temple of lord Shiva which is the largest and tallest of
all India temples with its vimana towering to a height of nearly 200 feet over the Garbhagriha with Pyramidal body
in thirteen tiers. It was the seat of Chola government in the 9th century A.D. and later of an independent kingdom
after the fall of ther Vijayanagar Empire. Weight of the cap 80 tonnes. Conceived on a gigantic scale. Stone relief as
minute as that of jewelers.
86. THANESWAR near Kurukshetra, to the north of Delhi in the province of Haryana, was the capital of the
Pushyabhuti dynsty. The kingdom of thanesar emerged into a powerful state under Harsha's (606-647 A.D.) father,
Prabhakarvardhan who was in constant warfare against the Huns on the frontier and with the rulers of Malwa.
Harsha shifted his capital from Thaneswar to Kannauj. According to Heun-Tsang the people of this city were
specially inclined to trade. Thus thanesar was a principal center of trade. It was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in
1014 A.D. it is here that ahmad Shah Abdali first defeated the Maratha army in 1759 boding to the Maratha collapse
at Panipat in 1761
87. UJJAIN in Madhya pradesh was the capital of Avanti (6th century B.C.) and Chandragupta II, and was one of
the provincial capitals of the Mauryas. It was the modal point of two ancient trade routes, one from Kausambui and
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the other from Mathura, its chief exports being agate, jasper and carnelian. It has an observatory built by Maharaja
Savai Jai Sing II (1686-1743).
88. URAIYUR also known as Aragaru,on the river Kavari, was for some time the Sangam chola capital, was
famous for its pearls and muslin, the latter being as think as the slough of the snake.
89. UTTARMERUR is a village of Tamil Nadu where nearly two hundred inscriptions belonging to Pallava and
Chola periods indicating the nature and working of the village administration have been found. According to
Uttarmerur inscriptions Pallava and Chola villages enjoyed maximum of autonomy inadministrative matters with
popular village assemblies like the Ur, Sabha, Mahasabha or Nagaram looking after the village affains without any
interference from royal officers. The village of Uttarmerur was divided in thirty wards.
90. VATSGULMA modern Basim in the Ahoka district in the South of Ajanta, was the capital of a Junior branch of
the Vakatakas who are mentioned in the Ajanta cave inscriptiona No. XVI.
91. VIDISA modern Besnagar, near Bhilsa, in East Malwa, was a part of Sunga empire with Agnimitra, the sone of
Pushyamitra Sunga as viceroy. The Vidisa guild of ivory worker was famous for these workers carved the stone
sculpture on the gateways and railings surrounding the Sanchi Stupa. It indicates commercial prosperity. It was also
famous for the Garuda Pillar Inscription which testified its erection by a Greak ambassabor named Heliodorus in
honour of Vasudeva Krishna, the god of the Bhagavatas.
92. VAISHALI indentified with modern Basali in Muzaffarpur district of Bihar, was apulent and prosperous town
in the Buddhist period. The second Buddhist Councial was held here. It served as the capital of lichchavis. Later,
Ajatsatru annexed it to this kingdom. Ambapali, the famous charming courtesan, lived here and hosted to the
Buddha at one time and later she became a convert to Buddhism.
93. VENGI (in Andhra Pradesh) one of the south Indian kingdoms probably joined the Sangha conquered by
Samudragupta. It was the capital of the eastern Chalukyas, and was disputed between the Chalukyas and the
Pallavas.
Following map sites is courtacy to Vivek Patil

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PAPER - I
1. Sources:
Archaeological sources:
Exploration, excavation, epigraphy, numismatics, monuments
Literary sources:
Indigenous: Primary and secondary; poetry, scientific literature, literature, literature in regional languages,
religious literature.
Foreign accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.
2. Pre-history and Proto-history:
Geographical factors; hunting and gathering (paleolithic and mesolithic); Beginning of agriculture
(neolithic and chalcolithic).
3. Indus Valley Civilization:
Origin, date, extent, characteristics, decline, survival and significance, art and architecture.
4. Megalithic Cultures:
Distribution of pastoral and farming cultures outside the Indus, Development of community life,
Settlements, Development of agriculture, Crafts, Pottery, and Iron industry.
5. Aryans and Vedic Period:
Expansions of Aryans in India.
Vedic Period: Religious and philosophic literature; Transformation from Rig Vedic period to the later Vedic
period; Political, social and economical life; Significance of the Vedic Age; Evolution of Monarchy and
Varna system.
6. Period of Mahajanapadas:
Formation of States (Mahajanapada) : Republics and monarchies; Rise of urban centres; Trade routes;
Economic growth; Introduction of coinage; Spread of Jainism and Buddhism; Rise of Magadha and
Nandas.
Iranian and Macedonian invasions and their impact.
7. Mauryan Empire:
Foundation of the Mauryan Empire, Chandragupta, Kautilya and Arthashastra; Ashoka; Concept of
Dharma; Edicts; Polity, Administration; Economy; Art, architecture and sculpture; External contacts;
Religion; Spread of religion; Literature.
Disintegration of the empire; Sungas and Kanvas.
8 Post - Mauryan Period (Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western Kshatrapas):
Contact with outside world; growth of urban centres, economy, coinage, development of religions,
Mahayana, social conditions, art, architecture, culture, literature and science.
9. Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India:
Kharavela, The Satavahanas, Tamil States of the Sangam Age; Administration, economy, land grants,
coinage, trade guilds and urban centres; Buddhist centres; Sangam literature and culture; Art and
architecture.
10. Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas:
Polity and administration, Economic conditions, Coinage of the Guptas, Land grants, Decline of urban
centres, Indian feudalism, Caste system, Position of women, Education and educational institutions;
Nalanda, Vikramshila and Vallabhi, Literature, scientific literature, art and architecture.
11. Regional States during Gupta Era:
The Kadambas, Pallavas, Chalukyas of Badami; Polity and Administration, Trade guilds, Literature; growth
of Vaishnava and Saiva religions. Tamil Bhakti movement, Shankaracharya; Vedanta; Institutions of temple
and temple architecture; Palas, Senas, Rashtrakutas, Paramaras, Polity and administration; Cultural aspects.
Arab conquest of Sind; Alberuni, The Chalukyas of Kalyana, Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas; Polity and
Administration; local Government; Growth of art and architecture, religious sects, Institution of temple and
Mathas, Agraharas, education and literature, economy and society.
12. Themes in Early Indian Cultural History:
Languages and texts, major stages in the evolution of art and architecture, major philosophical thinkers and
schools, ideas in Science and Mathematics.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 61
Sources
epigraphy,
Art and culture are reflected to a far greater extent than political history in the epigraphic sources. Comment. (15)
(2017)
The greatest handicap in the treatment of history of ancient India, both political and cultural, is the absence of a
definite chronology. The literary genius of India, so fertile and active in almost all branches of study, was somehow
not applied to chronicling the records of kings and the rise and fall of the states. Ancient India did not produce
historians like Herodotus and Thucydides of Greece or Levy of Rome and Turkish historian Al-beruni. We have a
sort of history in the Puranas. Though encyclopedic in contents, the Puranas provide dynastic history up to the
beginning of the Gupta rule. They mention the places where the events took place and sometimes discuss their
causes and effects. Statements about events arc made in future tense, although they were recorded much after the
happening of the events. Thus inscriptions and coins become very important to reconstruct early Indian history.
Inscriptions were carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls and bricks or images. In the
country as a whole the earliest inscriptions were recorded on stone. But in the early centuries of Christian era
copper plates began to be used for the purpose. The earliest inscriptions were written in Prakrit language in the 3 rd
century BC. Sanskrit was adopted in the second century AD. Inscriptions began to be composed in regional
languages in the 9th and 10th centuries. Most inscriptions bearing on the history of Maurya, Post-Maurya and Gupta
times have been published in a series of collection called "Corpus Inscriptionum Indicaum". The earliest
inscriptions are found on the seals of Harappa belonging to about 2500 B.C. and written in pictographic script but
they have not been deciphered. The oldest inscription deciphered so far was issued by Ashoka in third century BC.
The Ashokan inscriptions were first deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
We have various types of inscriptions. Some convey royal orders and decisions regarding social, religious and
administrative matters to officials and people in general. Ashokan inscription belong to this category, others arc
routine records of the followers of different religious. Still other types eulogize the attributes and achievements of
the kings and their persons. The inscriptions engraved by emperors or kings are either prosthesis composed by court
writers or grants of land assigned to individuals. Among the prismatic of emperors, the most prominent are the
prasharti of Samudra Gupta engraved on Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. This was prepared by his court poet,
Harisena, the Hathigumpa-Prashast' inscription of king Kharavela of Kalinga. Some of the notable inscriptions are -
the Nasik inscription of King Gautami Balasree, the Gwalior inscription of King Bhoja, the Girnar inscription of
King Rudradaman, the Aihole inscription of the Chalukaya King Pulkesinll, the Bhitri and Nasik inscriptions of the
Gupta ruler Skanda Gupta and the Deopara inscription of the Scan ruler Vijaya Sen. The inscriptions which were
used for the grants of lands were mostly engraved on copper plates. These inscriptions besides many more, of
private individuals or local officers have furnished us with the names of various kings, boundaries of their
kingdoms and sometimes useful dates and clues to many important events of history.
Thus inscriptions have been found very much useful in finding different facts of the history of ancient India. The
history of Satavahana rulers is fully based on their inscriptions. In the same way, the inscriptions of the rulers of
South India such as that of Pallava, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas, and the Pandayas have been of
great help in finding historical facts of the rule of their respective dynasties. Certain inscriptions found outside India
have also helped in finding facts concerning the history of ancient India. One among such inscriptions is that of
Bhagajakoi in Asia Minor, which was inscribed in 1400BC.
Importance of Epigraphy
The importance of the inscriptions lies in the fact that they generally offer information about personages and events
of Indian history, about which nothing is known from any other source. Apart from being vital political documents,
inscriptions are endowed with great cultural significance. Perhaps there is no aspect of life which is not touched
upon in inscriptions. But for the Allahabad prasasti of Samudragupta, we would not have known the political
conditions prevalent at that time.
This inscription gives an exhaustive account of political career of Samudragupta and the kingdoms conquered by
him. Inscriptions also give glimpses regarding the social conditions of the ages to which they belong. In a
Vijayanagara inscription we are told that the emperor settled the disputes between a Vaishnava Jeer and a Jaina
teacher by making them agree to be friends and raise no points of dispute. In another Vijayanagara inscription there
is a graphical account of how the learned scholars in all branches of sacred studies assembled and signed a
document which forbade Kanyasukla and Varadakshina in any marriage arrangement and threatened punishment by
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 62
the king and social exclusion from the community for parties receiving either. Special privileges like the bride and
bridegroom riding a horse in procession being allowed by royal command is also gathered from inscriptions.
Inscriptions also throw light on other social customs. For instance, the Brahmadesam inscription refers to the sati
committed by a queen of Rajendra Chola I.
Inscriptions are also useful in understanding the economic life of the past. Agriculture was the primary occupation
as revealed by many records. Our forefathers bestowed great care and attention to the system of irrigation. The
Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman states that the lake Sudarsana was constructed during the reign of
Chandragupta Maurya and its conduits were set up during the time of Asoka. Later on it was repaired, first during
the reign of Rudradaman (2nd century A.D.) and subsequently in the Gupta period, during the reign of
Chandragupta II (4th century A.D.) as known from their inscriptions. Inscriptions of post-Mauryan period contain
terms like sreshthi, sarthavaha and vanija, all denoting traders. In the south Aiyyavole-ainurvar andDisai-
ayirattu ainnurruvar were the famous mercantile guilds which carried on trade with other countries, as gleaned from
inscriptions. Inscriptions also throw light on the weights and measures used in the ancient and medieval periods.
Different stones such as videlvidugu, pandarakkal etc., were in use. Chola inscriptions refer to several taxes such as
irai, kadamai, echchoru, vetti, etc., collected from the cultivators.
There are many inscriptions which have stood as a test only for the religious conditions prevailed through the ages.
For instance, the Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription of Heliodora (113 B.C.) attests to the strong Vaishnavite
movement i.e., Bhagavata cult in north India and its adoption by a foreigner. The Indor copper-plate inscription of
Skandagupta, dated in 464-465 A.D is an inscription referring to Sun worship. It adores Sun God under the name
Bhaskara, who is described as being worshipped ritualistically by the enlightened Brahmanas, and as the protector
of mankind from mental and physical ailments. The Mandasor inscription records the repairs carried out in the year
473-74 A.D. by the guild of silk-weavers to the temple of the Sun God (Dipta-rasmi).
Another very important aspect met with in inscriptions is administration. A unique inscription of Parantaka I from
Uttiramerur dated in his 12th regnal year (919 A.D.) contains a detailed account of the rules and regulations for the
election to the village assemblies at Uttarameru-chaturvedimangalam. Two very early records, one from Mahasthan,
Bogra district, Bangladesh and the other from Sohagaura, Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh, both assigned to 3rd
century B.C. speak of the measures taken to deal with occasions of distress among the people. The Mahasthan
inscription refers to situations such as the outbreak of floods, fire and drought and states that on such occasions,
cash as well as surplus grains stored in the granary were distributed to the people.
Inscriptions are replete with references to education and learning. For instance, Tirumukkudal inscription of
Virarajendra refers to a Vedic college, the subjects studied therein, teachers and their remuneration. So also,
Ennayiram inscription of Rajendra I give a detailed list of the subjects taught, teachers' qualifications and
allowances received by them.
There are some inscriptions which inform about the prevalence of the tradition of dance and music. Perhaps the
earliest reference to a dancer is found from an inscription from Jogimara cave (3rd century B.C.). It mentions one
Sutunuka, the temple-dancer (devadasi) and her lover Devadatta, a sculptor from Varanasi. Kudimiyanmalai
inscription in Tamil Nadu is one of the earliest inscriptions on music. The inscription is in characters of about the
7th century A.D. i.e., about six centuries before Sarangadeva, the author of the Samgitaratnakara. It records the
musical notes as understood and practised during the time of the Pallavas. The high state of development which the
art of music had reached in 11th century A.D. can be gathered from an inscription of Chalukya king Vikramaditya
from Galaganath, Haveri Taluk and District, Karnataka, which mentions a certain Mokhari Barmmayya, a musician
of high order, entitled Battisaraga-bahu-kala-Brahma (skilled in thirty-two ragas).
Inscriptions are also endowed with high literary value. As early as the 1st century A.D. elements of Sanskrit poetry
start appearing in the north Indian inscriptions. Thus we come across some ornate metres in the Mora well-
inscription of the time of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula's son Sodasa. In the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman, dated
150 A.D., we have a clear evidence of the development of the ornate style of Sanskrit prose. The Allahabad prasasti

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 63
clearly proves that the Sanskrit kavya style was fully developed by the middle of the 4th century A.D. Talagunda
inscription of Kadamba Santivarman is another inscription endowed with poetic merit.
numismatics
“Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of inscriptions and coins.” Discuss (60)
(2007)
The study of coins, called numismatics, is considered as the second most important source for reconstructing the
history of India. Coins are mostly found in hoards. Many of these hoards containing not only Indian coins but also
those minted abroad, such as Roman coins have been discovered in different parts of the country. Coins of major
dynasties have been catalogued and published. The punched mark coins are the earliest coins of India and they bear
only symbols on them. These have been found throughout the country. But the later coins mentioned the name of
kings, gods and dates. The area where they are found indicate the region of their circulation. This has enabled us to
reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties, especially of the Indo-Greeks. Coins also throw significant light
on economic history. Some coins were issued by the guilds and merchants and goldsmiths with the permission of
the rulers. This shows that craft and commerce had become important. Coins helped transactions on a large scale
and contributed to trade. We get the largest number of coins in post-Maurya times. These were made of lead, pour,
copper, bronze, silver and gold. The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins. This indicates that trade and
commerce flourished during post Maurya and a good part of Gupta times. But the fact that only a few coins
belonging to post-Gupta times indicate the decline in trade and commerce in that period.
In conclusion, careful collection of materials derived from texts, coins, inscriptions, archaeology etc is essential for
historical construction. These raise the problem of relative importance of the sources. Thus, coins and inscriptions
are considered more important than mythologies found in the Epics and the Puranas.
Literary sources: religious literature.

How far can the ancient Indian Shruti literature be used as historical sources. (15) (2015)
”Sruti” literally means ‘that which has been heard’. In the hindu tradition,the Vedas have the status of sruti.
Problems in using the Vedas as historical sources:
(1) Vedic texts comprise a religious literature ,and references to possible historical events are a few. The Vedic
corpus was not a popular literature and therefore ,does not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices. The
Vedic literature forms an important part of the Brahmanical tradition. It reflects their religious beliefs, practices and
points of view.
(2) A major problem in using the Vedas as a source of history is the problem of dating the Rig veda. The dates that
have been suggested for the composition of this text ranfe from 6000 BCE to 1000BCE.
(3) There are several problems in correlating the evidence from the Vedas with archaeology.
Upto what extent can it be used as historical sources:
(1) The Vedic texts can be used as sources of history for the areas in which they were composed. For example:
The family books of the Rig Veda samhita were composed in the land of sapta-sindhu or the seven rivers that is the
Indus, its five tributaries, and the saraswati(Ghaggar-Hakra). The later Vedic texts were composed in the Indo-
Gangetic plain and the upper Ganga Valley.
(2) The ‘battle of ten kings ‘ may be based on an actual historical incident. The great battle took place on the bank
of the river Parushni(Ravi).There are also references which show that the political alliances between the tribes were
fluid and shifting.
(3) There are references of the assemblies like the sabha (smaller,elite gathering) and samiti(a larger assembly)
presided over by the the Rajan, the chieftain.
(4) There are also references of cattle rearing, agricultural activity, various craft works, slavery etc which shades
important light on the socio-economic life of the contemporary society.
So for constructing the history of the sub-continent it is important to carefully juxtapose the archaeological
evidences and the text based evidences and caution should be made while using the ancient sruti literature as the
source of history.
Evaluate the contribution of Puranas in disseminating secular knowledge among the masses in ancient India (15)
(2013)
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 64
There are 18 Mahapuranas (great puranas) and many more Upapuranas (secondary puranas).
The origins of the puranas may be overlapped to some extent with the vedas, but their composition stretched
forward into the 4th-5th centuries CE and in some case even later.
The Puranas are supposed to have five characteristics (panch-lakshanas) i.e. they are supposed to discuss five
topics:
(a) the creation of the world (sarga);
(b) re-creation (pratisarga);
(c) the periods of the various manus (manvantaras);
(d) the genealogies of gods and rishis (vamsha); and
(d) an account of royal dynasties (vamshanucharita) including the suryavamshi and chandravamshi kings.
The secular knowledge contained in the puranas:
(1) The conception of time–
The conception of time in the puranas is mind-boggling. There are four ages or yugas – krita, treta, dvapara and
kali. One yuga follows the other and the periodic destruction of the world is followed by its re-creation.
(2) Political History–
The puranas especially the Vayu, Brahmanda, Brahma, Harivamsha, Matsya and Vishnu provide useful information
on ancient political history. They refer to historical dynasties such as the Haryankas, Shaishunagas, Nandas,
Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas and Andhras (Satavahanas). The dynastic lists end with the Guptas.
(3) Historical geography–
The puranas have accounts of mountains, rivers, and places, which are useful for the study of historical geography.
(4) Intermingling of culture–
The puranas also reflect the interactions between the people belonging to different cultural traditions. For ex- the
interaction between Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical cultural traditions.
(5) The secular knowledge in some specific puranas:
(a) Agni Purana –
It has an encyclopaedic character – it deals with subjects like astronomy, geography, grammar, law, medicine,
politics etc.
(b) Garuda Purana–
It has also assumed an encyclopaedic form. There are sections on cosmography, astronomy and astrology, omens
and portents, medicine, metrics, grammar, knowledge of precious stones (ratnapariksha) and politics (niti).
(c) Vishnudharmottara Purana
It is a supplement to the vishnu purana is also enclyclopaedic in nature. It also talks about the art of painting. It also
gives an account of the various branches, methods and ideals of Indian painting.
How did the early Indian historical tradition, as reflected in Itihasa Purana, emerge? What are the distinctive
features of this genre? (20) (2018)
Many Indian scholars in particular have argued that the puranas performed, and continue to perfrom, an integrative
or synthesizing role in Indian culture, synthesizing there with brahmanical ritualism, devotionalism and proto-
Vedantic philosophy in the early centuries of the Christian era. Working from a supposition that Indian culture
really consists of many regional cultures loosely united by a pan-Indian veneer of Brahmin teaching, they have
sought to find instruments within the culture capable of allowing diversity and unity to co-exist without unbearable
tension. The puranas have constituted one such instrument and their synthetic role has been demonstrated and their
synthetic role has been demonstrated by the fact that different manuscripts of the same purana contain content that
is often substantially different and that significant alterations can be discerned as having occurred over time. In
certain cases these differences are concentrated in manuscript traditions corning from different parts of India. To
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 65
this can be added a view, developed in particular by R. C. Hazra , that the extant puranas are considerably different
from the same puranas when they were first composed in the early centuries of the Christian era.
This means puranic composition must be regarded as a process rather than as an process is ongoing. To conceive of
the puranas from this perspective is to highlight their historical role in cultural formation.
Development of different genres has long been recognized as partial reflection of changing socioeconomic
conditions and the emergence of a new genre is as much the emergence of a new cultural object as it is of a conduit
for a particular set of contents reflecting items of cultural significance.
A potentially very fruitful way to investigate this historical function of the puranas as embodying a process of
culture synthesis is to take the important suggestion V. Narayana Rao. He defines a kind of puranic culture where
distinct set of texts were produced that sum up culture in both a synchronic (i.e as a set of rules defining
traditionally sanctioned conduct at any given time in the puranic universe created within the five-character
frame)and a diachronic sense insofar as any given purana demonstrates its heritage as Vedic, or traditional through
reference back to an epic lineage, whilst attempting to maintain a continuity with its recitation present. This
produces ‘a text flexible in content but fixed in its ideological apparatus. Purana and ithihas…. Are such texts….’ .
It works out in terms of a continuity created between myth and history. ‘what is common to all the three cases
(Puranic texts)… is that all of them begin with what we call “myth “and move into what we call “history”, with no
dividing line between them. This is one continuous line of events…. This continuity is what the Puranic worldview
promotes, and that it results from the ideological frame of Puranas’. Whilst these sentences condemn us to the
resolution of virtually insuperable problems especially the attempt within the Indian context to locate the
interrelationship between myth and history and their different epistemological bases they firmly set the direction of
the integrative role of the puranas considered historically.
In conclusion, the puranas present a collection of texts filled with symbols of the past mixed easily with startlingly
new literary and cultural material incorporated at different times along the historical trajectory of their ongoing
recitation tradition.
Whether there was any tension felt by recites and audience alike about what is in truth a juxtaposition of traditional
and new seems unlikely, yet the presence of such a juxtaposition completes interpretation of the as a textual process
successful in transforming whatever was new, and potentially radical, into a form acceptable to the present. This
corresponds to very ancient indigenous perception of the pureness where they are defines as preserving the old
while constantly coming to terms with the new . One of the many conclusions drawn from this understanding of the
purenes is that they can be read as a mirror of the changes occurring in Hinduism during the first two millennia of
the Christian era. That is, given the production of new pureness virtually up until the present. But this is a mirror
which makes sense only within the frame of a “ fictional history” contextualizing human activity and sharing many
resemblances to the empirical world. It implies a process that seeks to establish cultural cohesion and stability by
cushioning the shock of the new with enframent within symbols and narratives from the past, so that the new is
only ever seen as forming one new component consistent with a world whose credentials are impeccable because of
the stamp of authority conferred upon them by virtue of an imagined antiquity.
Foreign accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.

In what ways are the accounts of the Greeco Romans and the Chinese helpful in reconstructing the social
history of India ? How far is their information corroborated by other Contemporary sources. (60) (2009)
“While using the accounts of foreign writers, historians must distinguish between statements
based on hearsay and those grounded in perceptive observations.” Elaborate with examples. (15)
(2014)
The foreign accounts supplement the indigenous literature. There is no mention of Alexander's invasion in Indian
sources; we come to know about his exploits from Greek sources. The Greek writers mention Sandrokottas
(identified with Chandragupta Maurya), a contemporary of Alexander. This has served as the sheet-anchor in
ancient Indian chronology, as we place the accession of Chandragupta around 322 Be.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 66
A precise account of interior India is first obtained from an account by Megasthenes, Seleucus' envoy to the court of
Chandragupta Maurya, which has been preserved only in fragments quoted by subsequent classical writers like
Arrian, Starbo and Justin. These fragments, when read together, furnish valuabl~ information not only about the
adminIstration but als01bout social classes and economic activities in the MauryaIi period.
Greek and Roman accounts of the first and second centuries AD mention many Indian ports and enumerate items of
trade .between India and the Roman empire. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (by an unknown author, AD 80 115)
and Ptolemy's Geography (AD 150)-both written in Greek-provide valuable data for the study of ancient geography
and commerce. Pliny's Naturalis Historia (first century AD) in Latin describes trade between India and Italy.
Chinese accounts have proved a valuable source for information on the Gupta period and the years immediately
following the end of Gupta rule. The Chinese travellers, Fahsien (Record of the Buddhist Countries) and Hsuan
Tsang (Buddhist Records of the Western World) who came to India to visit Buddhist shrines and study Buddhism,
describe the social, economic and religious conditions of the country in the fourth-fifth and seventh centuries
respectively. Hwuili's Life of Hsuan Tsang, and Itsing's A Record of the Buddhistic Religion as Practised in India
and Malay Archipelago, which refers to Sri Gupta, are valuable for studying North India in the 7th century AD.
The accounts of Arabs such as the merchant Sulaiman who visited India during the time of Bhoja I (AD 851), Abu
Zaid, Abul Qasim (died AD 1070) who authored Tubaqat ul-Umam, a book on ancient Indian culture and science,
Shahriyar, Ibn Batuta and Ibn Nazim are valuable sources for the study of ancient Indian history.
In constructing the history of medieval and British periods, we are amply helped by the various extant architectural
remains, historical books, letters, diaries, etc.
Pre-history
INTRODUCTION
It may seem unbelievable to us, living in the 20th century, but it is nevertheless true that human societies during
more than 99% of their existence on the earth have lived as hunters/gatherers. This means that before human beings
started producing food about 10.000 years ago, they lived off the resources of nature. This they did by gathering
various edible items like roots, fruits, honey and so on which nature had to offer and by killing animals, birds and
fish available in the surroundings in which they lived. The total dependence of human being on nature or their
environment during the major part of human existence has many implications. It means that the way they acquired
their food influenced the character of their relationship with Nature and also how they viewed Nature. Second, the
hunters/gatherers existed in groups was also related to the mode of thus acquiring food. What may be noted is that
the formation of groups among hunters/gatherers was much more flexible than in other societies.
The hunters/gatherers have survived in the form of stone tools, archaeologists use different terms like paleoliths,
mesoliths to classify tools of different types and period. The stones which may not be used for mixing them and the
techniques employed in giving them shape are also studied in detail by archaeologists. The faunal study or the study
of animal remains provides a framework which can serve as a reference point for measuring variations in the
pattern of pre-historic faunal exploitation. The rock carvings and paintings also give us an idea about the economy
and society of the pre-historic people.
Geographical factors; hunting and gathering (Paleolithic)

PALAEOLITHIC STAGE
Paleolithic Culture developed in the Pleistocene period. The Pleistocene period (about 2 million years ago) is the
geological period refering to the last or the Great Ice Age. It was the period when ice covered the earth's surface. In
India, there has been considerable discussion among archaeologists regarding the terms denoting stone tools of the
palaeolithic phase. One group of scholars wanted to introduce the term 'Upper Palaeolithic' for denoting the phase
characterised by tools like blade and burin;

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 67
The other group of scholars considered the term 'Upper Palaeolithic' specific to European Palaeolithic culture. Now
the term Upper Palaeolithic has been widely accepted in the Indian context.
Palaeolithic Tools
Palaeolithic Culture has been divided into three phases on the basis of the nature of stone tools made by human
beings as well as due to the changes in the climate and environment.
The tools of the lower Palaeolithic phase include mainly handaxes, cleavers, choppers and chopping tools.
The middle Palaeolithic industries are based upon flakes, and the Upper Palaeolithic is characterised by burins and
scrapers
Handaxe: Its butt end is broader and the working end is narrower. It might have been used for cutting and digging
purposes.
Cleaver: This has a biface edge and is more or less transversal. It was used for clearing and splitting objects such
as trunks of trees.
Chopper: A massive core tool in which the working edge is prepared by unifacial flanking and used for chopping
purposes.
Chopping Tool: It is again a massive core tool like Chopper but the working edge is bifacially prepared by
alternate flanking. Used for similar purpose as the chopper, it was more effective due to its edge being sharper.
Flake: A desired crude shape tool produced by applying force on the stone. The flake carries positive bulb of
percussion on its surface and the core has a corresponding negative bulb of percussion. The point at which the
hammerstone strikes is called the point of percussion and on the flake struck off there is round, slightly convex
shape around this point called the positive bulb of percussion. On the core there is corresponding concave bulb
called the negative bulb of percussion. There are many Flaking Techniques like Free Flaking Technique, Step
Flaking Technique, Block on Block Technique, Bipolar Technique etc.
Side Scraper: Side Scraper is made of a flake or blade with continuous retouch along a border. It might have been
used for scraping barks of trees and animal skins.
Burin: It is like flake or blade and the working border is produced by the meeting of two planes. The burins
working border does not exceed 2-3 cm. in length. It was used for engraving on soft stones, bones or walls of rock
shelters and cores.
Palaeolithic Sites
Let us now see in which regions of India archaeologists have found these tools fashioned by the hunters/gatherers.
The distribution of their tools will tell us not only about the areas in which the hunter/gatherers lived and moved but
also about their environment.
Let us start from the extreme north:
The Kashmir Valley is surrounded by Pir Panjal Hills on the South- West and the Himalayas on the north-east. A
handaxe was discovered near Pahalgam in Kashmir on the River Lidder. However, Palaeolithic tools are not found
in large number in Kashmir because Kashmir was intensely cold during the glacial times. The Potwar region
(present day West Punjab & Pakistan) lies between Pir Panjal and the Salt Range. This area was experiencing
tectonic movement and rivers Indus and Sohan originated in this process.
The Sohan Valley yielded handaxes and choppers and the important sites which have yielded such tools are Adial,
Balwal and Chauntra. The banks of rivers Beas, Rangange and Sirsa have also yielded Palaeolithic tools.
The Luni river (Rajasthan) complex has many palaeolithic sites. The river Luni has its source in the Aravalis.
Chittorgarh (Gambhirs basin), Kota (Chambal basin), and Negarai (Berach basin) have yielded Palaeolithic tools.
The Wagaon and Kadamali rivers in Mewar are rich in Middle Palaeolithic sites. A variety of scrapers, borers and
points have been discovered in this area.
The rivers Sabarmati, Mahi and their tributaries (Gujarat) have wielded many Palaeolithic artifacts. Sabarmati rises
in the Aravalis and flows into the Gulf of Cambay.
Middle Palaeolithic artifacts have been reported from Bhandarpur near Orsang Valley.
The river Bhader in Saurashtra is rich in Palaeolithic assemblage and handaxes, cleavers, chopping tools, points,
borers and scrapers have been reported from its banks. The Kutch area has produced many Palaeolithic tools like
cleavers, handaxes and choppers.
The Narbada river rises in the Maikal range and flows into the Gulf of Cambay. The Narbada terraces are rich in
Palaeolithic sites. Many handaxes and cleavers have been reported. Bhimbetka (near Bhopal) located in the
Vindhyan range is a site in which tools representing the Acheulian tradition were replaced at a later stage by the
Middle Palaeolithic Culture.
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The rivers-Tapti, Godavari, Bhima and Krishna have yielded a large number of Palaeolithic sites. The distribution
of Palaeolithic sites is linked up with ecological variation like erosional feature, nature of soils, etc. The Tapti
trough has deep regur (black soil), and the rest of the area is covered mostly by medium regur. There is scarcity
of Palaeolithic sites in the upper reaches of Bhima and Krishna. From Chirki near Nevasa in Maharashtra
Palaeolithic tools like handaxes, chopper, cleavers, scrapers and borers have been reported. The other important
Palaeolithic sites are Koregaon, Chandoli and Shikarpur in Maharashtra.
In eastern India, the river Raro (Singhbhum, Bihar) is rich in Palaeolithic tools like handaxes, bifacial chopping
tools and flakes. From Singhbum many Palaeolithic sites have been reported and the main artefacts are handaxes
and choppers. Palaeolithic tools have also been reported from the valleys of the Damodar and the Suvarnarekha.
Distribution pattern of the palaeolithic culture here is again conditioned by topographical features.
The Baitarani, Brahmani and Mahanadi rivers form the deltaic region of Orissa and some palaeolithic tools have
been found in this area.
The Buharbalang Valley in Mayurbhang in Orissa has many Early and Middle Palaeolithic tools like handaxes,
scrapers, points, flakes, etc.
From Malprabha, Ghatprabha and Krishna a number of Palaeolithic sites have been reported. In Ghatprabha basin
in Karnataka Acheulian handaxes have been found in large numbers. Anagawadi and Bagalkot are two most
important sites on the Ghatprabha where both Early and Middle Palaeolithic tools have been found.
The rivers Palar, Penniyar and Kaveri in Tamil Nadu are rich in Palaeolithic tools.
Attirampakkam and Gudiyam (in Tamil Nadu) have yielded both Early and Middle Palaeolithic artefacts like
handaxes: flakes, blades, scrapers, etc.
Rock paintings and carvings also give us an insight into the subsistence pattern and social life of the Palaeolithic
people. The earliest paintings belong to Upper Paleolithic age. Bhimbetka located on the Vindhyan range, is well
known for continuous succession of paintings of different periods. Period-I below to Upper Palaeolithic stage and
paintings are done in green and dark red colours. The paintings are predominantly of bisons, elephants, tigers,
rhinos and boars. They are usually large, some measuring two-three metres in length. There is need to work out the
frequency of the different types of animals to have more precise idea about the hunting life of Palaeolithic people.
But hunting is reflected as the main subsistence pursuit in the carvings and paintings. It is sometimes possible to
distinguish between men and women on the basis of anatomical features. These painting- also reflected that
palaeolithic people lived in small band (small groups) societies whose subsistence economy was based on
exploitation of resources in the form of both animal and plant products.
Mesolithic
MESOLITHIC STAGE
The Mesolithic Age began around 8000 BC. It was the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic Age and the
Neolithic Age. There was rise in temperature and the climate became warm and dry. The climatic changes affected
human life and brought about changes in fauna and flora. The technology of producing tools also underwent change
and the small stone tools were used Man was predominantly in hunting/gathering stage but there was shift in the
pattern of hunting from big game to small game hunting and to fishing and fowling. These material and ecological
changes are also reflected in rock paintings. Let us examine some of the tools used during this period.
Mesolithic Tools
The Mesolithic tools are microliths or small stone tools. Microliths are very small in size and their length ranges
from 1 to 8 cm. Some microliths have even geometric forms. Blade, core, point, triangle, lunate and trapeze are the
main types of Mesolithic tools. Besides these, Palaeolithic tools like scraper, burin and even choppers also continue
during the Mesolithic Age.
i) Blade: Blade is a specialized flake with parallel to subparallel to lateral edge; its length is equal to at least twice
its width. It might have been used for cutting purposes.
The technique of Mesolithic blade production is called fluting. Here the pressure is delivered on the core from the
edge of the striking platform. We also find some retouched blades which are broad, thick and long. The retouching
process sharpens the blade and we find blades with retouching along one or two borders or even at two ends.
These blades are more sharp and effective than ordinary blades.
ii) Core: Core is usually cylindrical in shape with fluting marks along its length and a flat striking platform at the
distal horizontal end.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 69
iii) Point: Point is a broken blade in a triangular form. It is retouched along one or both the slopping borders and
the border can be rectilinear or curvilinear. The points were used as arrowheads and spearheads.
iv) Triangle: It has usually one border and the base, and the border is retouched. These were used for cutting
purposes or as arrowheads.
v) Lunate: Lunate is like a blade and one of the borders is prepared by semi-circular retouching. It looks like a
segment of a circle. It could be used to obtain concave cutting edge or two of these could be halved back to back to
form an arrowhead.
vi) Trapeze: Trapeze looks like blade and usually more than one border is retouched. Some trapezes have retouches
on three borders. Trapezes would have been used as arrowheads.
Subsistence Pattern
The early Mesolithic sites have yielded the faunal remains of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, dog & bau, bison,
elephant, hippo, jackal, wolf, cheetah, sambar, barsingha, black-buck, chinkara, hog deer, hare, porcupine,
mongoose, lizard, tortoise and fish. Many of these species continued during the range of Mesolithic tradition.
However, wild sheep, wild goat, ass, elephant, bison, fox, hippo, sambar, chinkara, hare, porcupine, lizard, rat, fowl
and tortoise are absent at the sites falling in the category of Mesolithic tradition. But wild buffalo, camel, wolf,
rhinoceros and nilgai are present in the sites of Mesolithic tradition but these species are absent in the early
Mesolithic period. The appearance and disappearance of the animals has to be understood in the context of
changing climatic and environmental conditions.
The diet of the people during Mesolithic Age included both meat and vegetal food. The remains of fish, tortoise,
hare, mongoose, porcupine, deer and nilgai have been found from different Mesolithic sites like Langhanaj and
Tilwara and it seems these were consumed as food. Besides hunting and fishing, the Mesolithic people also
collected wild roots, tubers, hits, honey etc. and these constituted important elements in the overall dietary pattern.
The plant food seems to have been more easily available than the hunted animal food. Some areas seem to have
been rich in grass, edible roots, seeds, nuts and fruits, and people would have used them for food. It is argued in the
context of surviving hunter-gatherers that the major portion of the food comes from plant sources supplemented by
hunting. It is difficult to establish -relation between the animal meat and vegetal food in the context of Mesolithic
age because the plant remains are perishable in nature. It can be suggested that hunting provided significant portion
of the food resource.
The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters which the Mesolithic people used give us considerable idea
about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh and
Minapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings.
Hunting, fishing and other human activities are reflected in the paintings and engravings. Bhimbetka is extremely
rich in paintings. Many animals like, boar, buffalo, monkey and nilgai are frequently depicted. The paintings and
engravings depict activities like sexual union, child birth, rearing of child, and burial ceremony. All these indicate
that during the Mesolithic period, social organization had become more stable than in palaleolithic times. It seems
that the religious beliefs of the Mesolithic people are conditioned by ecologica1 and material conditions.
Beginning of agriculture (Neolithic)

To what extent archaeological materials are useful in understanding the progress of Neolithic man in India? (30)
(2010)
NEOLITHIC STAGE OF CULTURE
Domestication of plants and animals has been considered as one of the main characteristic features of the Neolithic
stage of culture. The tern Neolithic was coined by Sir John Lubbock in his book Prehistoric Times (first published
in 1865). He used this term to denote an Age in which the stone implements were more skillfully made, more varied
in form and often polished. Later on V. Gordon Childe defined the Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture as a self-sufficient
food producing economy; and Miles Burkitt stressed that the following characteristic traits should be considered to
represent the Neolithic Culture:
Practice of agriculture
Domestication of animals
Grinding and polishing of stone tools, and also
The manufacture of pottery.
The concept of what is Neolithic has been undergoing some change in recent years. A recent study mentions that
the term Neolithic should represent a culture of the pre-metal stage where the inhabitants had assured supply of
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 70
food by cultivation of cereals and domestication of animals and led a sedentary life. However, the Ground stone
tools remain the most essential characteristics of a Neolithic culture.
Domestication of plants and animals led to:
the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
the beginnings of agriculture technology, and
greater control over nature by exploitation of natural resources.
The beginning of the process of domestication of animals and plants by human beings in areas outside India and in
the Indian subcontinent.
Probably the Harappans inherited the knowledge of wheat, barley, and cotton cultivation from their early ancestors
at Mehrgarh.
The idea that farming and domestication of animals spread from West Asia to the direction of the Indian sub-
continent may thus have to be given up in the light of the evidence which Mehrgarh provides.
Village settlements appeared in the Kashmir valley by about 2500 B.C. Excavations at Burzahom and Gufkral
throw significant light on the Neolithic culture of this region. The Neolithic stage of this region has been classified
into two phases at Burzahom and three at Gufkral. At the latter site the earliest phases is aceramic (pre-pottery,)
discovered for the first time in India. The Neolithic culture of Kashmir valley is characterised by pit-dwellings with
well made floors smeared with red-ochre as well as dwellings in the open. The presence of a large number of
unique bone tools suggests that the economy was predominantly a hunting economy.
The Neolithic culture of the Belan Valley shows a developed and advanced sedentary life with defined family units.
Standardisation of pottery forms
portable size of food-processing units like querns and mullers
specialised tools like chisels, celts and adzes;
cultivation of domesticated rice,
domestication of cattle, sheep and goat and horse,
It has been suggested that Neolithic farmers of the Belan Valley emerged as the barli & rice farming community in
India (6th millennium B.C.), although the suggestion is not accepted by all. The transition from gathering to
farming economy is also clearly documented in this region. However, pottery makes its appearance in the late
mesolithic/proto-neolithic phase at Chopni Mando (circa ninth-eighth millennium B.C.). This is indicative of
primacy of manufacture of pottery over domestication of plants (rice) and animals (cattle, sheep/goat and horse).
Chopni-Mando provides the earliest evidence of the use of pottery in the world.
Delineate and account for the regional characteristics of the Neolithic period in India. (15)(2016)
The Neolithic is generally defined as a way of life involving crop cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life.
The coming of this stage does not mean that other earlier ways of life disappeared.
They continued to exist alongside the new ways of life. And this co-existence resulted in contacts with each other.
In the world context, the Neolithic began around 9000 BC but in the Indian context it began in 7000 BC.
Mehrgarh situated in Baluchistan is the only site belonging to that period. With the coming of crop cultivation and
animal husbandry other associated practices in the realms of religion and society also developed. Thus we find the
new concepts like belief in life after death, resurrection after death, transmigration of soul and the cycle of rebirth.
With permanent settlement, a series of new crafts such as the manufacture of pottery also developed. However,
there are regional, cultural and chronological variations in the assemblages.
In Baluchistan we have Kili-Ghul-Muhammad, Rana Ghundai, Anjira, Siah-damb and Mundigak as sites of
Neolithic age. At Kili-Ghul-Muhammad Fairservice discovered four phases of occupation. Period I produced
radiocarbon samples of4400 and 4100 BC. The people had domesticated sheep, goats and oxen. Initially nomadic,
they had constructed houses of mud-brick or hard packed clay by the end of the period. Tools discovered include
blades of chert, jasper, a rubbing or grinding stone, awls or points of bone. This period belongs to the pre-ceramic
phase. Periods II and III yielded crude handmade and basket-marked pottery. In period III copper was found along
with wheel - thrown and handmade decorated potteries.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 71
At Rana-Ghundai, a series of living surfaces and hearths of nomadic people were unearthed. Plain handmade
pottery, bone points and a stone blade industry were also found. Bones of sheep, goat, ass, cattle and four them of
hemi one or semi-ass were unearthed. At Anjira, a chert blade industry, bone awls, spatula and a small bead were
found. The pottery was wheel thrown and painted with motifs. This phase was followed by a level where house
walls of river boulders were prepared.
At Mundigak in southeast Afghanistan, J.M. Casal found a very important sequence of settlements. Initially it was
a settlement of semi nomadic people followed by a level with oblong cells with walls of pressed earth. In the
subsequent levels larger houses were built with several square or oblong rooms made of sun-dried bricks. From the
beginning domestic hearths were found.
Oven for baking bread was first found outside the house but later taken to the courtyard. A terracotta figurine of the
humped bull was also found. Bone awls, alabaster vases, beads in steatite, lapis lazuli and frit, copper objects (a
needle and a small bent blade), club wheat and jujube are found. Radiocarbon dating at Mundigak show that it was
first occupied between c.4000 and 3500 BC.
In the northern Himalayan valleys the best- known Neolithic site is Burzahom which is situated about six miles
north-east of Srinagar. The Neolithic sites of this region are popularly known as Kashmir Neolithic. The earliest
occupation was before 2920 BC, characterised by pit-dwellings with post-holes around the perimeter indicating
conical roofs. Steps were cut in the deeper pits, although it is postulated that ladders were used.
Ash was found inside the pit as well as in stone hearths near the entrances. Storage pits yielded animal bones. The
pits are usually found on the lake-sides. Pottery was handmade and ill fired. A wide range of bone points, awls,
needles, harpoons, stone axes, ring stones, a distinctive pierced rectangular chopper of a not known in India,
grindstones are some of the important material remains. Complete absence of the microliths (stone- blade industry)
is a significant characteristic. Subsistence was possibly based on hunting and fishing, even though they seem to
have been acquainted with agriculture.
In the subsequent phase II which continued till 1700 BC, traces of houses of mud-brick, a single copper arrowhead,
a number of burials without grave goods have been found. Sometimes dogs and wolves were buried with their
owners which is a peculiar feature of Burzahom. This phase has also yielded a stray painted pot showing a typical
early Indus buffalo deity.
Gufkral, literally the 'cave of the potter' is another important Neolithic site in Kashmir. Situated some 41 kms
southeast of Srinagar, Gufkral has yielded three stages of early occupation. The earliest stage yielded pit dwellings
without pottery. However, in subsequent phases coarse grey pottery was used and a large number of bone tools
occur. Animal remains of early periods are of sheep, goats and cattle. Wheat, barley and lentils have been reported
from the beginning.
In the Indus system the most important Neolithic site is at Mehrgarh in the Kacchi Plain regarded as the "bread
basket" of Baluchistan. The Neolithic stratum at Mehrgarh seems to have emerged from a locally established
Mesolithic substratum. Out of seven periods, only the first three are regarded as Neolithic. The earliest was
originally the camp of a group of nomadic pastoralists.
Cattle bones and earliest food grains suggest that they were domesticated locally. Between 6000 and 5000 BC there
is a pattern of subsistence based on wheat, barley, sheep, goats and cattle. The overall subsistence pattern shows
affinities with contemporary cultures in Iran, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor.
The major features of the Neolithic phase are: 'cigar-shaped' handmade mud brick structures with fire places, stone
blade industry using flint, composite sickle, various grinding stones, bone tools, pottery in levels IB, C and 1, one
hand- modelled human figure, numerous burials with grave goods (bitumen-lined baskets, necklaces of stone or
shell beads, stone and bone pendants, anklets, food offerings including whole young goats, beads of lapis lazuli,
turquoise, fragments of conch shells etc). In level III we have first direct evidence of copper-smelting. We have
evidence of long distance trade in the form of conch shells (Arabian Sea), turquoise, lead pendant, lapis lazuli
(Badakshan). Stones of the date palm and jujube also come from early periods.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 72
Gumla is another Neolithic settlement situated north-west of Dera Ismail Khan on the right bank of the Indus. Out
of a sequence of six periods, the first belongs to the Neolithic phase in which hearths, community ovens, animal
bones, coarse pottery and microliths have been found.
The Neolithic site of Saraikhola near Taxila is located on the Potwar plateau. Out of the four occupation periods,
only period I belong to the Neolithic phase. The material culture includes ground stone axes, stone blade industry,
bone points, ground pottery with basketry-impressed base etc.
Jalilpur is another site of the Neolithic age which is situated in south-western Punjab (Multan) near the left bank of
the river Ravi. This site is characterized by stone-blade industry, bone points (both similar to Saraikhola I), use of
mud bricks, terracotta net sinkers suggesting fishing as an element of economy, animal remains of sheep, goat,
cattle and gazelle, handmade pottery of bright red clay, gold, coral and semi-precious beads, plastered floors, and
chert blades in association with the Hakra ware.
The sites discussed above are mostly located in the regions west and north of the Indus. There are certain
settlements in the regions lying east of the Indus. Around 7000 BC there was an increase in grains of cereal type.
Similar results were obtained from Koldihwa and Mahagara lying south of Allahabad.
At both these sites there are many strata of circular huts, marked by post-holes, with stone blades, ground stone
axes and bone tools, along with one crude handmade pottery with cord or basket impressions, animal remains of
sheep, goat, birds etc., a small cattle pen marked by post-holes and cattle hoof impressions etc. The most interesting
find is evidence of rice in the form of charred rice and Neolithic pottery containing rice husks.
Dates (CI4) suggested are 5440 and 4530 BC. This is supposed to be the oldest evidence of rice cultivation not only
in India but also anywhere in the world. At this site wild rice has been noted in the Mesolithic horizon as at Chopani
Mando. Chopani Mando however gives the earliest evidence of use of pottery.
The evidence of Neolithic sedentary village settlements in the lower central Gangetic valley comes much later
(2300-1600 BC). The main sites are Chirand, Chechar, Senuwar, Maner and Taradih etc excavations at Chirand
(Distt. Saran, Bihar) situated on the left bank of the Ganga, shows it to be a small village with huts of bamboo and
mud- plaster.
Other finds include pottery, microliths, ground celts, bone tools, beads of semi-precious stones, terracotta human
figurines, etc. At Chirand, the grains cultivated were wheat, barley, rice and lentil. This region appears to be the
western focus for the development of an East Indian Neolithic based partly upon rice.
At Senuwar the farmers cultivated rice, wheat, barley, field pea, lentil, some millets and grass pea. The later
Neolithic- Chalcolithic settlers at Senuwar also cultivated gram and mooing in addition to earlier crops.
At Chechar-Kutubpur lying on the bank of the Ganga near Biddupur on the opposite side of Patna, three Neolithic
sub-periods have been unearthed. The main finds are circular wattle-and-daub huts with mud floors and hearths,
storage pits, bone industry, antler tools, beads of steatite and chalcedony etc.
At Taradih or Bodh Gaya, Neolithic celts, microliths, bone tools, bones of cattle, goat, pig, buffalo, sheep, deer,
birds, fish, shell, snail and the remains of rice, wheat, barley etc. have been found. We also have wattle-and-daub
houses with hearths. This phase is replaced by copper using people.
Further east, not many Neolithic sites are reported. We have a Neolithic level at Kuchai and Baidipur in
Mayurbhanj in Orissa. Another site is Golbai Sasan on the left bank of the Mandakini River. But these sites belong
to the Neo- Chalcholithic rather than pure Neolithic phase. Excavations at Pynthorlangtein in Meghalaya, Napchik
in Manipur, Sarutaru on the border between Assam and Meghalaya and at Daojali- Hading have yielded a rich haul
of polished Neolithic tools.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 73
At Daojali-Hading in north Kachhar hills in Assam we have Neolithic stone and fossil wood axes, adzes, hoes,
chisels, grinding slabs, querns, mullers, handmade grey to dull red celts and round-butted axes associated with
crude cord-marked or basket-marked potsherds.
At Napchik, located on a hill slope in Manipur, handmade tripod vessels, stone choppers, scrapers, flakes, edged
ground knife, grinding stone polished celts etc. have been unearthed. In Meghalaya at Pynthorlangtein some
Neolithic tools and waste products in association with handmade cord- impressed red pottery have been found.
In Orissa, the sites of Kuchai and Baidipur, Mayurbhanj have yielded Neolithic levels. Baidipur is characterized by
the occurrence of rice. However, there are certain problems with the dates of these sites. In West Bengal the site of
Pandu Rajar Dhibi has shown signs of Neolithic level characterized by handmade grey ware with rice-husk
impressions, painted red pottery, ground stone tools and bone tools. Other than this, Bharatpur in Damodar valley
and Mahisadal in the Kapai Valley have also shown the existence of Neolithic levels under Chalcolithic ones.
The next major region where a Neolithic settled life began is peninsular India, popularly known as South Indian
Neolithic. This Neolithic is contemporary with the early Indus cultures of the north-western region (from c.3000
BC). These earliest sites in the south are known as the ash mound type of Neolithic settlements. Such sites are
mostly located in Karnataka at Utnur, Kupgal, Kodekal and Pallavoy, and it has been suggested that these ash
mounds were places where cattle were herded. From time to time the accumulated dung was burnt, most probably
as a part of some ritual.
The oldest known sites are located in the forest and were probably temporary settlements. The evidence suggests
that the settlers were heavily dependent on nomadic cattle husbandry and plant agriculture did not form a major part
of the economy. The material culture includes ground stone axes, stone blades and coarse pottery (burnished grey or
buff ware).
These cattle-pens were used either for the capturing of wild cattle and / or herding of domestic cattle. This phase of
Neolithic culture in the south has been called period I which came to an end around 2000 BC the second phase has
been dated between c.2100 BC and c. 1700 BC, followed by a third phase continuing down to c.1000 BC.
All three phases show a marked degree of continuity without any substantial breaks in the material culture. The
latter two phases have been found at Brahmagiri, Piklihal, Maski, Tekkalakota, Hallur, Watgal and Budihal
In the second phase, the settlements were made on the top of granite hills or on leveled terraces. We find mud floors
and circular huts of wattle-and- daub on a wooden frame. Copper and bronze objects and gold are also found. Gold
was discovered at Tekkalakota. Some new elements in potting suggesting contact with north are also noticed.
Lapidary art is a completely new feature.
This period is evidenced at Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota I, Hallur I, Hallur IIA and T. Narsipur.
The third phase is in evidence at Tekkalakota II, Hallur, Paiyampalli, Piklihal (intrusion period), Sanganakallu 1.2
etc. This phase is marked by increase in number of copper and bronze tools. A copper fishhook was discovered at
Hallur.' Grey and buff ware becomes common. Excavations at Tekkalakota, Sanganakallu and Hallur have yielded
evidence of circular huts with hearths, grinding stones, large pots (storage jars) buried up to the necks, stone axes
etc.
The economy largely depended on cattle although horse gram and finger-millet or ragi is reported from Tekkalakota
I and Hallur II. Green gram and horse gram is reported from Paiyampalli. Wood of the date palm is reported from
Tekkalakota and Utnur.
As regards animals, bones of humped cattle are most numerous, followed by goats and sheep. The cattle were used
for food and for draught work as well as for ploughing the field. Other animals include buffalo, fowl, deer, tortoise,
unique bone of an Indian elephant etc. Terracing of hill slopes was an important feature of Neolithic settlements.
In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, at sites such as Kupgal, Maski, Piklihal etc., we come across evidence of pre-
historic art. The pictures are created by crayoning rather than painting. The most frequent subjects depicted are
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 74
cattle and occasionally deer, tiger, elephants (some with riders), human figures (pin-men) etc. Horse-bones have
been found at Hallur belonging to the final phase.
A series of rock bruising have also been discovered, alongside the rock paintings, showing chiefly bulls. Extended
inhumation was the most prevalent burial custom. Some grave goods were found which included stone axes, blades
(male grave), spouted pots and a deep milking vessel (female grave). Pottery urns were used for infants. Burials
were situated among the houses.
In Kurnool district (A.P.) a large group of sites yielded a distinctive painted red ware named after the type-site,
Patpad ware (at Pattupadu). The channel-spouted bowl is a special feature whose date is not clear.
Recently at Watgal in Raichur Doab and Budihal in Shorapur Doab evidence of Southern Neolithic having four
phases have been found. At Budihal four distinct habitation localities have been identified.
The Chronology of Pre-Harappan and Harappan Cultures

5500 B.C. Neolithic Baluchistan and the Indus plains settlements like Mehrgarh to and Kili Ghul Muhammad came
up. Beginning with 3500 B.C. pastoralism with limited cultivation and seasonal occupation of the villages,
permanent villages emerged. Knowledge of wheat, barley, dates, cotton and sheep, goat and cattle.
3500 B.C. to 2600 B.C.
2600 B.C. to 1800 B.C.
1800 B.C. Onwards
Evidences of mud houses, pottery and Craft-production found.
Early Many more settlements established in the hills and the plains.
Harappan Largest numbers of villages occur in this period. Use of Period copper, wheel and plough. Extra-ordinary
range of pottery ' forms showing beginning of many regional traditions.
Evidence of granary, defensive walls, and long distance trade. Emergence of uniformities in the pottery tradition
throughout the Indus Valley. Also, the origins of such motifs as pipal, humped bulls, Cobras, horned deity etc.
Mature Emergence of large cities, uniform types of bricks, weights, Harappan seals, beads and pottery. Planned
township and long distance trade.
Late Harappan sites abondoned interregional exchange. Writing and city life abandoned. The village cultures of
Punjab, Sutlej-Jamuna divide and Gujarat imbibe the Harappan crafts and pottery traditions.
This geographical space would roughly cover the areas of modern day Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, Pakistan and
some of the surrounding areas. If we study the remains left by the people who lived in these areas before the
emergence of the Harappan civilization, we can have some idea of how cities emerged. Scholars believe that there
was a time in human past when cities did not exist and people lived in small villages. One might ask what the
ancestors of the Harappans were doing before they built up the towns and cities. There are evidences to suggest that
the forefathers of the Harappans were living in villages and small towns. Some of them engaged in pastoral
nomadic activities, and some went in for trade. The Harappan civilization represents the culmination of a period of
evolution of agricultural and semi-nomadic communities. So, let us review the pre-history of the Harappan
civilization. We start with an understanding of their geography.
GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
The areas of present day Pakistan and North-Western India formed the core region of the Harappan civilization.
These areas are characterised by dry weather and scanty rainfall. However, there are some important variations
among these areas. Whereas the areas of Punjab and Sind are dominated by the alluvial plains of the Indus river
system, the areas of Baluchistan are characterised by steep craggy hills. In North-Eastern Baluchistan the valley
floors might provide some possibilities of agriculture. This area has been inhabited by another set of people also,
namely pastoral nomads. These pastoral nomads with their herds of sheep, goat and cattle kept shifting from
uplands to low lands in search of pastures for their herd. The areas of these border lands which cut out into the
Indus plains are a continuation of the eastern Iranian Plateau. These hilly regions are fractured by many passes, like
those of Khyber, Gomal and Bolan. These have acted as highways of traffic for nomads, merchants, warriors and
various groups of people. The interaction among the population of the uplands of Baluchistan and plains of the
Indus on the one hand and the communities of Iran on the other seems to be related to this geographical feature.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 75
The similarities in the climate and landscape of the Harappan civilization and those of Iran, Iraq borderlands had
led scholars to hypothesize that agricultural communities must have emerged in these areas in roughly the same
period. In Iran and Iraq agriculture began around eight thousand B.C.
Indus Valley Civilization:

Origin, date, extent, characteristics
Assess the pattern of settlement, economy, social organization and religion of India during C2000 to 500
BC from archaeological evidences. (60) (2003)
EMERGENCE OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

In the backdrop of these processes of technological and ideological unification emerged the Harappan Civilization.
The particular mechanisms of the birth of the civilization are obscure because we have not read their script and a lot
many more excavations need to be carried out. The increasingly efficient technology and the exploitation of the
fertile plains of the Indus must have given richer returns of grain production. This created the possibilities for larger
surpluses. It would also lead to increase in population. At the same time trading contacts would be established with
distant communities by the richer section of the society who would like to possess precious commodities. The
larger surpluses would also permit the elaboration of non-farming specialisation. That is how the village priest
could become the part of a clan of priests spread over the entire region. Similar processes will occur in the case of
metallurgists, potters and I craftsmen. In villages small silos for keeping grains would be transformed into elaborate
granaries.
The existence of very many agricultural groups and pastoral nomadic communities close contact with each other
could lead to conflict among them. Once the agriculturalists had become prosperous they would attract other groups
which might be less fortunate. The pastoral nomads are known to engage in trading and looting, depending on their
own economic conditions.
The agricultural communities too could fight with each other for the control of more fertile tracts of land. Probably
that is the reason why some of the communities surrounded themselves-with a defence wall. We know that at the
time of the emergence of the Harappan civilization many sites like Kot Diji and Kalibangan were destroyed by fire.
We do not know the reasons behind this. They could simply be accidental conflagrations. However, what Seems
more plausible is the fact that among the various competing communities in the Indus region one set of people
established their power over others. This signalled the beginning of the 'Mature Harappan' period. Thus, the 'Mature
Harappan' period would not begin on one particular date considering the large geographical space covered by the
Harappan Civilization. It is likely that city as the centre of evolution emerged over a long span of time covering
hundreds of years, but the city had arrived and it was there to dominate the entire north-west for the next seven-
eight hundred years.
FROM VILLAGES TO TOWNS AND CITIES

Analyze the elements of urban civilization in the Harappan Culture. What factors were responsible for its decline?
(60) (2002)
On the foundation of agricultural communities and small townships emerged the 'Harappan Civilization'.
By the term 'Harappan Civilization' we mean that the Harappan society was characterised by the presence and
domination of large cities in this phase of its history. This would also mean the presence of specialised craftsmen,
long distance trade, the existence of rich and poor people and the presence of kings. Apart from these general
features common to all the Civilizations, there were some particular features of the Harappan Civilization. In the
geographical space where the remains of the Harappan Civilization have been found, the communities were using
the same written script. A Harappan community whether it was staying in Rajasthan or Punjab or Sind would
be using the same sets of weights and measures. The copper-bronze tools used by them were also uniform in
design, shape and size; the bricks they used had a proportion 4:2:1. Some of their town's were also characterised by
uniformities in the planning of the buildings, citadels etc. The seals, shell (shankh) bangles, carnelian beads and the
disc beads of steatite were also uniformly designed in the entire geographical space covered by the cities of the
Harappan Civilization. Most of the time a Harappan site is identified by the use of a pinkish pottery with bright red
slip.

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This pottery had standard representations of trees, animals, birds and geometric motifs in black: These uniformities
in the material features of the Harappan sites were the characteristic traits of Harappan Civilization
MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Town-Planning
Archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggot believed that the Harappan towns had a remarkable unity
of conception. This was suggested by the division of each town into two parts. In one part was a raised citadel
where the rulers were staying, in the other part of the town lived the ruled and the poor. This unity of planning
would also mean that if you were walking on the streets of Harappa-the houses, the temples, the granaries and the
streets themselves will be almost identical to those of Mohenjo-Daro or any other Harappan town for that matter.
The entire idea of unity of conception was derived from the notion of a community of foreigners suddenly
conquering the Indus Valley and building new towns. Such towns were designed to separate the natives from the
rulers. Thus, the rulers built citadels which kept them in glorious isolation. Such ideas of the sudden emergence of
the Harappan towns and the unity of planning are being increasingly rejected by new scholars. The Harappan towns
were located on the flood-plains of rivers, on fringes of deserts or on sea coast. This meant that people living in
these different regions faced different kinds of challenges from nature. Their adaptation to environment would
introduce diversity in their town-planning and life style too. Also many large and seemingly important buildings
were located in the lower city. Let us review the planning of some of the important settlements.
The settlements of Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan show certain uniformities in their planning. These cities
were divided into a citadel on the west side and a lower town on the eastern side of the settlement. The citadel was
built on a high podium of mud brick. The citadel seems to have contained large structures which might have
functioned as administrative or ritual centres. The lower city contained residential areas. In Mohenjodaro and
Harappa the citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. At Kalibangan both the citadel and the lower city were
surrounded by a wall, streets ran from north to south in the lower city and cut at right angles. Obviously, this kind
of alignment of streets and houses represents conscious town planning. However, the resources of the town planners
in those days would be very limited. This assumption is based on the finds from Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan
where the streets stagger from block to block and the alignments of streets and buildings in one part of
Mohenjodaro (Moneer area) is quite different from the rest of the areas. Mohenjodaro was not constructed in
homogeneous horizontal units. In fact it was built in different times. In Harappa and Mohenjodaro baked bricks
were used for buildings. In Kalibangan mud bricks were used. In settlements like Kot Diji and Amri in Sind there
was no fortification of the city. The site of Lothal in Gujarat also shows a very different layout. It was a rectangular
settlement surrounded by a brick wall. It did not have any internal division into citadel and lower city. Along the
eastern side of the town was found a brick basin which has been identified as a dockyard by its excavator. The
site of Surkotada in Cutch was divided into two equal parts and the building materials.
Harappans were using baked and unbaked bricks of standard size. This shows that it was not the individual house
owners who made their own bricks, but that brick making was organised on a large scale. Similarly, cities like
Mohenjodaro showed excellent arrangements for sanitation. The waste water from houses would pass through
chutes connected with public drains aligned to the margin of the streets. This again indicates the presence of a civic
administration which would take care of the sanitary requirements of all the townsmen.
Another important structure discovered in the citadel mound of Mohenjodaro is the granary. It consists of twenty
seven blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by ventilation channels. Below the granary were the brick loading bays
from which grains were raised into the citadel for storage. Though some scholars have questioned the identification
of this structure with a granary but it is certain that this large structure must have had some important function.
To another side of the Great Bath is a long building (230 x 78 feet) which has been identified as the residence of a
very high official. It includes an open court of 33 feet square on to which three verandas open. Another significant
building was an assembly hall. It had four rows of five brick plinths upon which wooden columns were erected.
In a row of rooms to the west of it was found a seated male statue. Among the well known buildings of Harappa is
the Great Granary. It consisted of a series of brick platforms forming the base of two rows of six granaries. To the
south of the granary were found rows of circular brick platforms. That they were used for threshing grains is clear
from the fact that chaffs of wheat and barley were found in the crevices of the floors.

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Kalibangan was a smaller city compared to Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The most significant discoveries here have
been those of fire altars. A series of brick platforms were discovered. On one of them was found a row of seven 'fire
altars' as well as a pit containing animal bones and antlers.
Housing Pattern
The average citizen seems to have lived in the blocks of houses in the lower city. Here too there were variations in
the sizes of houses. It could be single room tenaments meant for slaves like the ones discovered near the granary in
Harappa. There were other houses complete with courtyards and moving upto twelve rooms. The bigger houses
were provided with private wells and toilets. These houses had much the same plan-a square courtyard around
which were a number of rooms. The entrances to the houses were from the narrow lanes which cut the streets at
right angles. No windows faced the street. The description of the houses and townships of the Harappan
Civilization indicates that there were people who owned large houses. Some of them bathed in an exclusive
swimming pool (The Great Bath). There were others who lived in barracks. One can say with certainty that those
who lived in larger houses belonged to the rich class whereas those living in the barracks might have been part of a
servile class of labourers.
The houses in the lower city also contained a large number of workshops. Potters kilns, dyers vats and shops of
metal workers, shell ornament makers and bead makers have been recognised.
Pottery
Among the remains discovered in the Harappan settlements pottery forms an important category. It represents the
blending of the ceramic traditions of Baluchistan and the cultures east of the Indus system. Most of Harappan
pottery is plain, but a substantial part is treated with a red slip and black painted decoration.
The painted decorations consist of horizontal tines of varied thickness, leaf patterns, scales, chequers, lattice mark,
palm and pipal trees. Birds, fishes and animals are also shown. Among the notable shapes found in the Harappan
pottery are pedestal, dishes, goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over and various kinds of bowls. The
uniformity in the forms and paintings on the pottery is difficult to explain. Normally the explanation of this
uniformity is the fact that the local potters made the pottery.
But in areas like Gujarat and Rajasthan a variety of other kinds of potteries continued to be produced along with the
Harappan pottery. Some of the pottery has shown marks of stamp which might indicate that a few varieties of
vessels were traded also.
However, it is still unclear how such a large area exhibited a uniform pottery tradition.
Art and architecture
Arts and Crafts

Works of art give us an insight into how the society relates itself to its surroundings.
They also give us an idea of how it views nature, human beings and divinity. In pre-modern societies it is difficult
to separate arts and crafts. That is why we shall study them together.
Probably, the most famous art piece from the Harappan Civilization is the bronze dancing nude figure discovered in
Mohenjodaro. With head drawn backwards, drooping eyes and the right arm on the hip and the left arm hanging
down the figure is in a dancing stance. She is wearing a large number of bangles, and her hair is plaited in an
elaborate fashion. It is considered a masterpiece of the Harappan art. The bronze figurines of a buffalo and a ram
have beautifully caught the stance of the animals. The two little toy carts of bronze are also fairly well known
objects.
Although, one was discovered in Harappa and the other at Chanhudaro a distance of over 650 km.-they are identical
in design.
The stone sculpture of a bearded head found in Mohenjodaro is another well known piece of art. The face is
bearded with the upper lip shaved. The half closed eyes might indicate a state of meditation. Across the left
shoulder is a cloak carved in relief with trefoil pattern. Some scholars believe that it is the bust of a priest
Two small male torsos discovered in Harappa are sometimes believed to have belonged to later periods. The refined
and wonderfully realistic modelling of the fleshy parts is extraordinary. However, the Harappans do not seem to
have used stone or bronze for their artistic creations on a large scale. The findings of such works are rare.

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Terracotta figurines have been found in large numbers from the Harappan settlements. They were used as toys or
cult figures. A variety of birds and monkeys, dogs, sheep and cattle are represented in these forms along with
humped and humpless bulls. A large number of male and female figurines have also been found.
Various models of terracotta carts are remarkable for the vivacity of modelling. These models show that the bullock
carts used in those times are ancestors of the actual bullock carts used in modem times.
The Harappans used remarkably beautiful beads made of such precious and semi-precious stones such as agate,
turquoise, carnelian and steatite. The processes of making these beads are clear from the finds of a workshop in
Chanhudaro. In these processes the stone was first sawn into an oblong bar, then flaked into a cylindrical shape and
polished. Finally it was bored either with chert drills or with bronze tubular drills. Gold and silver beads have also
been found. The commonest material used for making beads was steatite.
The barrel shaped beads with trefoil pattern are typically associated with the Harappan culture. Carnelian beads are
also quite common. In Mohenjodaro was also discovered a hoard of jewellery consisting of gold beads, fillets and
other ornaments. Small dishes of silver too, have been found.
Evaluate the significance of seals and sealings in the reconstruction of socio-economic and religious life of the
Harappan people. (30) (2012)
More than 2000 seals have been found from the Harappan settlements. They are considered 'the outstanding
contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient craftsmanship. They were generally square in shape and made of
steatite but some round seals have also been found. The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals
associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script. Some seals have only scripts carved on them and
some others bear human and semi-human forms.
Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns. The animal motifs used are the Indian bison, the
Brahmani bull, rhinoceros, tiger and elephant. A series of composite animals are also shown. One such recurrent
representation is that of a face of a man with trunk and tusks of an elephant, the horns of bull, the fore-part of
a ram and the hind-quarters of a tiger. These kinds of seals might have been used for religious purpose. Seals could
have also been used for exchange of goods between distant cities. The seal of a homed deity sitting in a yoga
posture and surrounded by animals has been identified with the god Pashupati.
The artworks of the Harappans leave us a little disappointed on two counts; i) The finds are very limited in number
and ii) they do not seem to have the variety of expression seen in the contemporary Civilizations of Egypt and
Mesopotamia.
Stone sculptures was rare and undeveloped compared to those fashioned by the Egyptians. The terracotta pieces
also cannot compare with those of Mesopotamia in quality. It is possible that the Harappans were using less durable
medium like textile designs and paintings for their artistic expression, which have not survived.
The Indus Script
The seals used by the Harappans carried some form of writing. This script is still a mystery to us because we cannot
read it. So far the other forgotten scripts like those of ancient Egypt could be read again because scholars found
some inscriptions written in the forgotten script followed by some of its forms in a known script. We have not
discovered any bilingual inscription in Harappa so far. Thus, we do not know what language the Harappans spoke
and what they wrote. Unfortunately, the inscriptions discovered so far are short, usually engraved on seals. This
makes the task of decipherment all the more; difficult. All we know is that they used ideograms and wrote from
right to left. However, scholars are still struggling to unveil the mystery of the script. Once this is done it might
reveal much more about the civilization.
Subsistence Pattern
Do you think the Harappan civilization had a diversity of subsistence base?(15)(2014)
The Harappans urbanism was based on agricultural production. During various excavations a large volume of
information has emerged about the dietary habits of the Harappa. Apart from sheep and goat, humped cattle seems
to have been domesticated. Bones of boars, buffaloes, elephants and camels have also been found from many
settlements. We do not know as yet whether these animals had been domesticated or hunted wild. However, a
representation of a caparisoned elephant on some seals indicates that this animal had been domesticated. Bones of
fowls have also been found. Possibly, they had been domesticated. Bones of a large number of wild animals have

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been found. Among them are the bones of deer, rhinoceros, tortoise etc. Horse seems to have been unknown to the
Harappans.
Two varieties of wheat are frequently found in Harappan sites. Barley has been frequently found. Other crops
include dates and varieties of leguminous plants, such as peas. Besides these mustard and sesamum were also
grown. At Lothal and Rangapur rice husk was found embedded in clay and pottery. We do not as yet know whether
they represented variety of wild rice or rice domesticated and regularly cultivated. India has traditionally been
famous for its cotton clothes. At Mohenjodaro was found a fragment of a cotton cloth. This indicates that the
Harappans had already mastered the art of growing cotton and wearing cloth.
The evidence of a furrowed field in Kalibangan indicates that the Harappans were using some sort of wooden
plough. The pattern of crossed furrows widely spaced in one direction and closely spaced in another, is still
followed in this area. The modern cultivator furrows his field in this pattern for sowing horse gram or sesamum in
one direction and mustard in another. This was probably true of the Harappans also.
Thus, we find that the Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a fairly wide range of crops,
domesticated animals and wild animals. This variety would account for the strength of the subsistence system. They
were probably already growing two crops annually. They also grew two or more kind of crops simultaneously. This
provided the strength to the economy to support the large population which lived in the cities and did not produce
its own food.
ESTABLISHMENT OF TRADING NETWORKS

It is believed that active interaction among far flung areas did not exist in the pre-urban society.
What is important for us is the fact that the relationship between the city and the village was unequal. By
developing as centres of administration or religion the cities attracted the wealth of the entire country. This wealth
was siphoned off from the hinterland in the form of taxes, tributes, gifts or purchases of goods. In the Harappan
society this wealth was controlled by the most powerful section of the urban society.
At the same time the rich and well off sections in the city led a luxurious life. Their social superiority was reflected
in the buildings constructed by them and the acquisition of-luxury items which were not locally available This
indicates that a major reason for cities establishing contacts with faraway land: was to cater to the needs of the rich
and powerful. This may be one of the factors behind the Harappans attempt to establish links with the faraway
lands.
The area formed by Harappa, Bahawalpur and Mohenjodaro seems to have been the, core region of the Harappan
civilization. However, settlements showing overwhelming Harappan influence have been found in an area of
approximately 1.8 million square km.
A pertinent question to ask here is that how some Harappan out-posts are found in such far flung areas as
Shortughai in Afghanistan and Bhagatrav in Gujarat? The plausible answer seems to be economic inter-dependence
and trade network between different regions. Differential access to basic resources was crucial in linking various
regions of Indus Valley. These resources included agricultural products, minerals, timber, etc. and this could be
achieved by establishing trade routes. Emerging in the fertile Indus-Hakra plains, the rich Harappans wanted
possession of more and more luxury items. In quest of this they strengthened the ties that already existed with
central Asia and Afghanistan. They also established settlements in places like Gujarat and the Gangetic Valley.
Explain why the majority of the knows Harappan settlements are located in the semi-arid areas with saline
groundwater. (20) (2016)
Like the Yamuna, most perennial rivers have two important features on their surfaces and sub-surfaces - sand
deposition and water reservoirs, the latter on account of the constant flow of water on their floodplains. Despite
continuous exploitation of water in the sub-soil of the Yamuna, water reservoirs remain. And this could happen only
if the river was a "mighty" one, he said. But in the case of the Sarasvati, sand deposits and water reservoirs were
missing. The impact of a river with a bed ranging from 10 to 30 kilometres should be felt along its course and
depositions would be naturally available. But nowhere in the State were sand deposits visible either on the sub-soil
or the surface soil. The depth of the sand deposits would indicate the impact of the river. Even if they did find sand
deposits, it by no means would establish that the river was a perennial one. Sub-soil reservoirs were missing in
most parts of Haryana. The water was not fresh. Only in some districts, such as Karnal, Kurukshetra and Ambala,
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water was of good quality and was freely available (but not to the extent in the Yamuna belt). Most tubewells were
shallow, and that the majority of borewells were located in areas where canal water had reached. On the theory of
the dry period, Thakran said that the region received erratic rainfall from ancient times. Even so, people never made
habitations along the banks of rivers, especially mighty rivers, for the simple reason that they posed a hazard.
Rivers per se were not essential for human settlements; what was essential was the supply of water in one form or
the other. Study of modern lifestyles in the State could explain how people coped with the semi-arid conditions.
The prevalence of village ponds widely indicates a certain degree of rainwater harvesting. Wells were also
constructed alongside the ponds. The muddy water in the wells would be desilted and stored for later use. Villages
located themselves near ponds, not rivers.
Water action observed at local levels revealed surface water run-off or rainwater run-off. (no river action) After
agriculture, pastoralism is the other known source of subsistence for people in the State. Cattle outnumber other
domestic animals as they are hardy and require less water and food than others. The practice, which started in the
proto-historical times, continues even today. Pastoralists would not have known how to control such a mighty river
as the mythological Sarasvati.
Possibly Ghaggar river made no contribution to the evolution and development of the early and mature Harappan
settlements. Nor was the number of settlements found to be substantial. On the contrary, a greater number of early
and mature Harappan sites were found in the upland dry areas which had saline water, away from the rivers. A far
greater concentration of Harappan settlements was found in the Ghaggar basin and in the basins of other rivers, but
these were not in the formative phase but in the terminal phase of the civilisation. Hence the river neither was
helpful in promoting human activities nor could become a centre of human settlements by the end of the mature
Harappan phase.
But there is a preponderance of evidence to show that the Sarasvati was an important river. There were 1,500
settlements along the course of the Sarasvati, though in the late Harappan period.
Discuss the water management and its conservation planning in the harappan (Indus-Saraswati) cities (20) (2013)
water management and its conservation planning in the harappan cities
1) An efficient and well - planned drains system is a notable feature of harappan settlements. the main drains were
covered by corbelled arches made of brick or stone slabs.
2) the drains for collecting rainwater were separate from the sewage chutes and pipes
3) They made elaborate arrangement for water for drinking and bathing. the source of water were rivers, wells and
reservoirs or cisterns
4) The grate batch at Mohenjodaro is a unique example. the floor and walls of the tank were made water tight by
finely fitted bricks laid edge to edge with gypsum mortar. A thick layer of bitumen was laid along the sides of the
tank making this on of the earliest examples of waterproofing in the world
5) In the city of Mohenjodaro there may have been more than 700 wells. Most houses or house blocks had at least
one private well. Many neighborhoods had public wells along the main street.
6) In Allahdino (Near Karachi) the wells has very small diameter to enable the ground water to rise higher due to
hydraulic pressure . it may have been used to irrigate the nearby fields.
7) Dockyard of Lothal is the most distinctive feature of the site. It is roughly trapezoidal basin, enclosed by walls of
burnt bricks. The Dockyard had provisions for maintaining a regular level of water by means of a sluice gate and a
spill channel.
8) The city of Dholavira had an impressive and unique water harvesting and management system. dam were built
across two streams-Manhar and Mandsar to channelize their water into reservoirs. Several large, deep water cisterns
and reservoirs have been found which preserved precious stores of rain water.
EXCHANGE SYSTEM
The Harappans had established an extensive network of inter-regional trade inside and outside the Indian sub-
continent. However we do not know what were the actual mechanisms of exchange between the Harappans and the

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non-Harappans. Such a large area of interaction would inevitably involve communities having divergent life styles.
In those times large areas of the country were inhabited by hunter-gatherers.
Some other areas were occupied by pastoral nomads. Still others were just beginning cultivation. Compared to them
Harappans represented an advanced stage of civilization. If the Harappans had to exploit some mineral sources
from the regions inhabited by the hunter-gatherers or some other communities, how would they go about it? In
some cases the Harappans established their settlements in those areas. But this would not be feasible in every case.
Probably these non-Harappan communities would be given items which they considered valuable. In such cases the
exchange might not have been regular affair. Rather it would be determined by seasonal migrations and gatherings
of these communities. The Harappans would send their merchants to the spots where such seasonal gatherings took
place. The pastoral nomads too could have brought goods from distant regions, in course of their migrations. These
kinds of exchange activities are known from modem examples in India. However, we know very little about the
Harappan exchange system.
Dress Styles
What did the Harappans look like? The only way of finding out an answer for this would be examining the
terracotta figurines and stone sculptures surviving from that period. Another way of knowing would be examining
the skeletal remains found in some of the Harappan settlements.
The study of the skeletal type s shows that the Harappans looked like the present day north Indians. Their faces,
complexion and height were more or less similar to the present day people living in those areas. But the similarities
end here. They did not wear the shirts and trousers or Salwar-Kameej like the modern men and women. We can
have some idea about their dresses and fashions by a study of contemporary sculptures and terracotta figurines.
Men are mostly shown wearing a dress which would be wrapped round the lower half of the body with one end
worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm-like the modern saree. The other dress was a kilt and a shirt
worn by both men and women. The men arranged their hair in various ways sometimes making buns and using
headbands. The men used many more ornaments than the modem Indians. They would be wearing ring, bracelets
and ornaments round their neck and hands. Growing beard was fashionable but they would shave their moustaches.
Women seem to have used ornaments on their waist.
Women wore a large number of necklaces. Bangles too were in fashion and of course there was no end to the
number of ways in which hair was arranged. Men and women alike had long hair. We know that they used cotton
clothes also that in one sculpture the cloth was shown as having trefoil pattern and red colours. However, for all his
fashionableness if we saw a man from Harappa walk on the road-to our eyes he will probably resemble a mendicant
more than anyone else.
Food Habits
What did they eat? Again, we know very little, the Harappans of Sind and Punjab ate wheat and barley as their
staple food. Those who stayed in towns of Rajasthan had to be content with barley only. The Harappans of Gujarat
in places like Rangpur and Surkotda preferred rice and millet. Let us see where they got their supply of protein and
fat from.
They got their supply of fat and oil from sesame seeds, mustard and possibly Ghee. We do not how whether they
were familiar with sugarcane to supply them sugar.
They might have used honey to sweeten their food. Seeds of jujube and dates bund in the Harappan sites indicate
their preference for these fruits. It is likely that they also ate bananas, pomegranates, melons, lemons, figs and of
course mangoes. They seem to have consumed a whole range of wild nuts and fruits but it is difficult to identify
them. They were eating peas too. Apart from this the Harappans seem to have relished non-vegetarian food. Bones
of deer, bears, sheep and goats have been frequently found in the Harappan settlements. Fish, milk and curd too
would be known to them.
Language and Script
What language did they speak and what did they read and write is again not very clear to us. We have discovered
the written script of the Harappans. As pointed out earlier, we have not deciphered it as yet. Some scholars believe
that the language written there is ancestral to the Dravidian group of languages like Tamil. Some other writers
would like to think that it was ancestral to an Aryan language like Sanskrit.
However, no one has proved his case beyond doubt. However, one noticeable thing about their script is that it did
not change all through the life of the Harappan Civilization. All the other ancient scripts have showed distinct
changes over a period of time. This indicates that the Harappan script was not in common use. Perhaps a very small
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section of privileged scribes had a monopoly over the written word. About what they learnt and how they learnt-we
have no answers.
Main Crafts
What did the Harappans do for a living? We are on surer grounds in answering this question. This is because studies
of pre-modern civilized societies show that most of the people in those societies were engaged in agriculture.
However, quite a few Harappan townsmen were engaged in various other kinds of activities. Bead making was one
of the favourite activities of the Harappans. In settlements like Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro and Lothal a fairly large
number of Harappans were engaged in this work. Since a variety of stones like Carnelian, Lapis Lazuli, Agate and
Jasper were used for making beads it is likely that there were specialised bead makers for each type of stone. Some
other Harappans specialized in making stone tools. Apart from them groups of potters, copper and bronze workers,
stone workers, builders of houses, brick makers and seal-cutters must have lived in Harappan towns. When we talk
about the Harappan Civilization, we are basically referring to seals, bricks, pots
and other such objects surviving from those times. These objects presuppose the existence of their makers.
RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

Who did the Harappans worship? This is one question about which there has been considerable discussion among
scholars. The mute survivors of the Harappan past do not tell us anything. So, we have to fit in our logic and our,
fancies to understand their religious beliefs. One major problem is that without written information it is difficult to
differentiate their sacred and secular activities. Thus, it seems that any or every find from Harappa might have a
sacred content.
The Places of Worship
A number of large buildings in the citadel and the lower town at Mohenjodaro are believed to have been temples of
gods. This view is supported by the fact that most of the large stone sculptures were found in these buildings.
In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large building has been discovered. This building has a monumental entrance
and a double stairway leading to, a raised platform on which was found a stone sculpture 161/2 inches high. It is a
seated man with hands on knees. It has a bearded face with a fillet passing over a receding forehead and hanging
down in two strands at the back. Another stone statue was discovered in the same building. This is why scholars
have identified this building with a temple.
In Mohenjodaro several structures are reported from the citadel mound which seem to have had some ritual
significance. Among them 'The Great Bath' is the most famous. Such elaborate bathing arrangements were made in
very sacred ritual spots in the subsequent historical phases in India. So, it is likely that 'Great Bath' was not simply a
swimming pool but that it had a great ritual significance.
Near the Great Bath: was found another large structure (230 X 78 feet) which has been identified as the residence
of some high priest or college of priests. Similarly, an oblong assembly hall has also been reported from the citadel
area. To the west of this structure was found a complex of rooms in one of which was discovered a seated male
statue. This too has been identified as a part of some religious structure. These ritual structures provide us with a
glimpse of the religious practices of the people in Mohenjodaro. We can presume that some of the ritual
performances took place in the large temple like structure.
Objects of Worship
The evidence for the objects of worship comes from the study of Harappan seals and terracotta figurines. Amongst
the evidences that come from the seals, the most famous is a deity who has been identified as proto-Siva. On a
series of seals a deity, wearing a buffalo-homed head-dress is shown sitting in a yogic posture. The deity is
surrounded by animals like goats, elephants, tiger and antelope. Marshall identified him with god Pasupati (Lord of
Beasts). In several instances he has a sprouting plant emerging between his horns. In another case a deity with
horns and flowing hair is standing nude between the branches of a Pipal tree. A worshipper is kneeling in front
of it. Behind the worshipper is a man-faced goat and below are seven other human figures. They have long pigtails
and tall head-dresses. In one seal are shown snakes accompanying the yogic figure. Each of the features associated
with the horned deity are attributes of Siva of later Indian history. Moreover in some Harappan settlements
the phallic emblem of Siva (Lingam) has been found. All these evidences have led scholars to believe that Siva was
the most important male god of the Harappans.
Perhaps the temples were dedicated to the same god.
i) Mother Goddess

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The Harappan settlements have yielded a very large number of terracotta figurines. Among them are the
representations of females adorned with a wide girdle, loin cloth and necklaces. They wear a fan-shaped head dress.
Sometimes they are shown with an infant. The general notion of fertility is indicated by many representations of
pregnancy. These evidences indicate the prevalence of cults of fertility and mother goddess worship.
ii) Tree Spirits
The Harappans also seem to have worshipped tree spirits. several seals depict the Pipal tree. In many cases a figure
is shown looking through the branches. Scholars believe that this represents the tree-spirit. In many cases
worshippers are shown standing in front of the tree. In many other cases a tiger or some other animal is shown in
front of the tree. In one case seven human figures are shown standing in front of it, with a horned-figure standing in
it. As discussed earlier the horned figure probably is Siva. The Pipal tree has been worshipped in India for ages and
in many cases the Pipal tree and Siva are worshipped together. The seven figures have sometimes been identified
with the seven great sages or seven mothers of the Indian mythology.
iii) Some Mythical Heroes
Some other human figures which seem to have a religious significance are those found on seals and amulets.
Human figures with horns on the head and long tails are frequently shown on the seals. Sometimes, they have hoofs
of cattle and hind legs. Some other seals remind us of Mesopotamian mythology.
For example, a man grappling with a pair of tigers immediately brings to mind a brave warrior called Gilgamesh
who is said to have killed two tigers.
iv) Animal Worship
A large number of animals also seem to have been worshipped. Again, our information comes from their
representation on seals and sealings and in terracotta. A seal has been reported from Chanhudaro depicting a bull-
bison with erect penis, fecundating a supine human figure. A plant is sprouting from the head of the human figure.
This obviously is indicative of some fertility cult. The Brahmani bull with its heavy dewlap is frequently
represented on the seals. It is possible that the present day reverence for bulls and cows had its beginnings in
the Harappan Civilization.
v) Mythical Beasts
Many composite animals are depicted in the seals. There are animal representations of creatures with the foreparts
of humans and the hind-quarters of tigers. Similarly, composite creatures combining various portions of rams, bulls
and elephants are a frequent occurrence. They obviously represented objects of worship. The conception of
composite creatures like 'Narasimha' was very much a part of the mythology of the later Indian tradition. One
important animal frequently represented on the Harappan seals is the unicorn. This is a horse-like beast with a horn
issuing from the middle of its head. In front of the animal occurs a curious object which is not shown in association
with any other animal. It consists of a bowl on a central post carrying a cage like object. We do not know its
function-it has been taken for a sacred manger or an incense holder. In another seal impression, a 'unicorn' is shown
being cramed in a procession between two other objects, one of which was similar to the one discussed above.
Obviously the 'unicorn' was a mythical animal, since there is no such real beast. It is likely to have been a cult
object.
The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious practices. At Kalibangan in the
citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms crowned with 'fire altars' i.e., a series of brick-lined pits
containing ash and animal bones. This area also had a well and bathing places. This complex seems to have
represented some kind of ritual centre where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire rituals were
performed. Many houses in the lower town also contained a room having 'fire altars'. Several other 'fire' altars are
also reported. At Lothal too, fire altars have been found. These evidences are very important because:
a) they show that the Harappans staying in different geographical areas followed different religious practices, and
b) the fire ritual was central to the Vedic religion.
The Vedic Aryans are believed to have been a different set of people. The evidence from Kalibangan might indicate
that the Aryans adopted the religious practices of the Harappans when they came and settled down in these areas.
The Burial of the Dead
Disposal of the dead has been an important religious activity of the human groups. This is because the attitude
towards the dead is linked up with the human beliefs regarding this life and life after death. The Harappan
civilization has not yielded any monuments for the dead which could equal the pyramids of Egypt or the Royal
cemetery of the Mesopotamian city of Ur, in its grandeur. However, we have certain evidences about the burial
practices of the Harappans.
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In Harappa many graves have been discovered. Dead bodies were generally placed in a north-south orientation.
Bodies were laid on their back. A large number of earthen pots were placed in the grave. In some cases the dead
were buried with ornaments like shell bangles, necklace, and an ear ring. In some cases copper mirrors, I mother of
pearl shells, antimony sticks etc. were kept in the grave. A number of graves were constructed with bricks. A coffin
burial has been found at Harappa. At Kalibangan some other kinds of burial practices were encountered. Small
circular pits containing large urns and accompanied by pottery have been found. But they did not have any skeletal
remains. Some other burial pits with collected bones have also been found. From Lothal some examples of pairs of
skeletons with a male and a female in each case buried together.
These practices show that the disposal of the dead among the Harappans was different from the one followed
subsequently. In the historical phases the predominant System seems to have been cremation. At the same time the
careful placement of bodies provided with ornaments and toiletries is indicative of some belief in life after death.
What that belief was is unknown to us.
A study of the various kinds of objects found in excavations shows that different regions of the Harappan
civilization followed different kinds of religious practices.
Fire worship was prevalent in Kalibangan and Lothal but unknown in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Ritual bathing
evidenced at Mohenjodaro might have been absent in Harappa. The burial practices show wide variation ranging
from extended inhumation to double burials and pot burials. Finds in Kalibangan also show that different kinds
of burial practices were being followed in the same settlement. This kind of diversity of religious beliefs and
practices even in the same settlement reflects the complex nature of the urban centres. Unlike tribal societies where
every member of the tribe follows similar kinds of religious practices, the urban centres are characterised by the
presence of people following different kinds of religious practices. This apparently means that urban centres were
formed by the political and economic integration of varied social groups. Also, an urban centre means the presence
of traders from different regions with their own religious practices. These groups retained their social mores and
customs but lost their political and economic independence.
Decline
THEORIES OF SUDDEN DECLINE
Scholars have given different answers to the question as to why did the civilization end? Some scholars, believing
in a dramatic collapse of the civilization, have looked for evidences of a calamity of catastrophic proportions, which
wiped out the urban communities. Some of the more plausible theories for the decline of the Harappan civilization
are:
a) that it was destroyed by massive floods
b) that the decline took place because of the shift in the course of rivers and the gradual drying up of the Ghgggar-
Hakra river system
c) that barbarian invaders destroyed the cities
d) that the growing demands of the centres disturbed the ecology of the region and the area could not support them
anymore.
Let us discuss these explanations on their merits.
Floods and Earthquakes
Among the causes spelled out for the decline of the Harappan civilization scholars have used the evidence of
flooding in Mohenjodaro. It appears from the records of the principal excavators that in Mohenjodaro various
periods of occupation were separated by evidences of deep flooding. This can be inferred from the fact that the
houses and streets of Mohenjodaro were covered with silty clay and collapsed building material many times in its
long history. This silty clay seems to have been left by the flood waters which had submerged the streets and
houses. The people of Mohenjodaro again built up houses and streets on top of the debris of the previous buildings,
after the floods had receded. This kind of catastrophic flooding and rebuilding on top of the debris seems to have
happened at least thrice.
Borings in the occupation deposit indicated successive phases of occupation levels spanning a vertical distances of
70 feet which is equivalent to the height of a seven storied building. Many occupation deposits were divided by silt
deposits. Thick silt deposits have been noticed at points as high as 80 feet above the present day ground
level. Thus, many scholars believe that the evidences are indicative of abnormal floods in Mohenjodaro. These
floods led to the temporary desertion and reoccupation of the city throughout its history.

9987063403)_____________________________________________ 85
That these floods were catastrophic is shown by silt deposits 80 feet above the present ground level, meaning that
the flood waters rose to such height in this area. The Harappans at Mohenjodaro tired themselves out, trying to out
top the recurring floods. A stage came when the impoverished Harappans could not take it anymore and they simply
abandoned the settlement.
Raikes's Hypothesis
The theory of catastrophic flooding has been carried further by a famous hydrologist R.L. Raikes. He argued that
such flooding which could drown buildings 30 feet above the ground level of the settlement could not be the result
of normal flooding in the river Indus. He believes that the Harappan civilization declined because of catastrophic
flooding causing prolonged submergence of the cities located on the bank of the river Indus. He has shown that
geomorphologically speaking the Indus area is a disturbed seismic zone. Earthquakes might have raised the level of
the flood plains of the lower Indus river. This uplift of the plain along an axis roughly at right angles to that of the
river Indus blocked the passage of the river water to the sea. This led to the ponding of the waters of the river Indus.
A lake was formed in the area where cities of the Indus had once flourished. And thus, the rising water levels of the
river swallowed cities like Mohenjodaro.
It has been pointed out that sites like Sutkagedor and Sutka-koh on the Makran Coast and Balakot near Karachi
were seaports of the Harappans. However, at present, they are located far away from the sea-coast. This has
happened because of the upliftment of the land on the sea-coast possibly caused by violent tectonic uplifts. Some
scholars believe that these tectonic uplifts took place somewhere in the second millennium B.C. These violent
earthquakes, damming rivers and burning the towns destroyed the Harappan civilization. This led to the disruption
of the commercial life based on river and coastal communication.
Diffusion and Decline
This grand theory of the catastrophic fall of the Harappan civilization is not accepted by many scholars. H.T.
Lambrick points out that the idea that a river would be dammed in. such a manner even by tectonic uplifts is
incorrect due to two reasons:
i) Even if an earthquake artificially raised a bund down stream, the large volume of water from the Indus would
easily breach it. In recent times in Sind, a swell of ground raised by the earthquake of 1819 was breached by the
first flood it faced from one of the smaller streams of the Indus called Nara.
ii) Silt deposition would parallel the rising surface of water in the hypothetical lake. It would take place along the
bottom of the former course of the river. Thus, the silt of Mohenjodaro might not be the deposition of a flood.
Another criticism of this theory is that it fails to explain the decline of the settlements outside the Indus system.
The Shifting Away of the Indus
Lambrick has offered his own explanation for the decline. He believes that changes in the course of the river Indus
could be the cause of the destruction of Mohenjodaro.
The Indus is an unstable river system which keeps shifting its bed. Apparently, the river Indus shifted about thirty
miles away from Mohenjodaro. The people of the city and the surrounding food production villages deserted the
area because they were starved of water. This kind of thing happened many times in the history of Mohenjodaro.
The silt observed in the city is actually the product of wind action blowing in lots of sand and silt. This, combined
with disintegrating mud, mud brick and baked brick structures, produced what has been mistaken for silt produced
by floods.
This theory too cannot explain the decline of the Harappan civilization in totality. At best, it can explain the
desertion of Mohenjodaro. And if the people of Mohenjodaro were familiar with those kinds of shifts in the river
course why could not they themselves shift to some new settlement and establish another city like Mohenjodaro? -
Obviously, it appears that some other factors were at work.
Increased Aridity and Drying Up of the Ghaggar
D.P. Agarwal and Sood have introduced a new theory for the decline of the Harappan civilization. They believe that
the Harappan civilization declined because of the increasing aridity in this area and the drying up of the river
Ghaggar-Hakra. Basing their conclusions on the studies conducted in the U.S.A., Australia and Rajasthan they have
shown that there was an increase in the arid conditions. by the middle of the second millennium B.C. In semi-arid
regions like those of the Harappa, even a minor reduction in moisture and water availability could spell disaster. It
would affect agricultural production which in turn would put the city economies under stress.
They have discussed the problem of the unstable river systems in western Rajasthan. As stated earlier the Ghaggar-
Hakra area represented one of the core regions of the Harappan civilization. The Ghaggar was a mighty stream
flowing through Punjab, Rajasthan and the inn of Kutch before debouching into the sea.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 86
Rivers Sutlej and Yamuna used to be the tributaries of this river. Because of some tectonic disturbances, the Sutlej
stream was captured by the Indus river and the Yamuna shifted east to join the Ganges. This kind of change in the
river regime, which left the Ghaggar waterless, would have catastrophic implication for the towns located in this
area. Apparently, the ecological disturbances brought by the increased aridity and the shift in the drainage pattern
led to the decline of the Harappan civilization.
Interesting though this theory is, it has some problems. The theory about the onset of arid conditions have not been
fully worked out and one needs more information. Similarly, the drying up of the Ghaggar has not been dated
properly as yet.
Barbarian Invasions
Wheeler believed that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders. It has been pointed out that
in the late phases of occupation at Mohenjodaro there are evidences of a massacre. Human skeletons have been
found lying on the streets. The Rig Veda time and again refers to the fortresses of the Dasas and Dasyus.
52 The Vedic god Indra is called 'Purandara' meaning 'the destroyer of forts'. The geographical area of the
habitation of the Rig Vedic Aryans included the Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra region. Since there are no remains
of other cultural groups having forts in this area in this historical phase, Wheeler believed that it was the Harappan
cities that were being described in the Rig Veda. In fact, the Rig Veda mentions a place called Hariyupiya. This
place was located on the bank of the river Ravi. The Aryans fought a battle here. The name of the place sounds very
similar to that of Harappa. These evidences led Wheeler to conclude that it was the Aryan invaders who destroyed
the cities of Harappa.
Attractive though this theory is, it is not acceptable to a host of scholars. They point out that the provisional date for
the decline of the Harappan civilization is believed to be 1800 B.C. The Aryans on the other hand are believed to
have arrived here not earlier than a period around 1500 B.C. At the present state of knowledge it is difficult to
revise either of the dates and so, the Harappans and the Aryans are unlikely to have met each other. Also, neither
Mohenjodaro nor Harappa yield any other evidence of a military assault. The evidence of the human bodies lying
exposed in the streets is important. This, however, could have been caused by raids by bandits from the surrounding
hilly tracts. In any case, the big cities were already in a state of decay. This cannot be explained by the invasion
hypothesis.
ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE
The decline of Harappan civilization was caused by ecological degradation rather than external
invasion. Discuss (20) (2015)
“Archaeological evidence does not give direct access to the possible social and political dimensions of the decline
of the Harappan civilization. What it does indicate very clearly is that the Harappan culture underwent a gradual
process of de-urbanisation”? Comment. (15) (2018)
Scholars like Fairservis tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilization in terms of the problems of ecology.
He computed the population of the Harappan cities and worked out the food requirements of the townsmen. He also
computed that the villagers in these areas consume about 80% of their produce leaving about 20% for the market. If
similar patterns of agriculture existed in the past, a city like Mohenjodaro, having a population of about 35
thousand, would require very large number of villages producing food. According to Fairservis's calculation the
delicate ecological balance of these semi-arid areas was being disturbed because the human and cattle population in
these areas was fast depleting the scanty forests, food and fuel resources. The combined needs of the Harappan
townsmen, peasants and pastoralists exceeded the limited production capacities of these areas. Thus, a growing
population of men and animals confronted by scanty resources wore out the landscape.
With the forests and grass cover gradually disappearing, there were more floods and droughts. This depletion of the
subsistence base caused strain on the entire economy of the civilization. There seems to have been a gradual
movement away to areas which offered better subsistence possibilities. That is why the Harappan communities
moved towards Gujarat and the eastern areas, away from the Indus.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 87
Of all the theories discussed sofar Fairservis's theory seems to be the most plausible one. Probably the gradual
deterioration in the town planning and the living standards was a reflection of the depleting subsistence base of the
Harappans. This process of decline was completed by the raids and attacks of the surrounding communities.
However, the theory of environmental disaster also has some problems.
The enduring fertility of soils of the Indian sub-continent over the subsequent millennia disproves the hypothesis of
soil exhaustion in this area.
Also, the computation of the needs of the Harappan population is based on scanty information and a lot more
information would be needed to make a calculation of the subsistence needs of the Harappans.
Thus, any theory based on such scanty information will remain a hypothesis, unless substantiated by more evidence
in its favour.
The emergence of the Harappan civilization involved a delicate balance of relations between cities, towns and
villages, rulers, peasants and nomads. It also means a fragile but important relationship with the communities of the
neighbouring areas who were in possession of minerals crucial for trade. Similarly, it meant maintenance of contact
with the contemporary civilizations and cultures. Apart from this, we have to take into account the ecological factor
of relationship with nature. Any breakdown in these chains of relationships could lead to the decline of the cities.
Survival and significance

Critically examine various views regarding the Vedic-Harappan relationship in light of the latest discoveries.
(15) (2017)
THE TRADITION SURVIVES

Scholars working on the Indus civilization no longer look for the causes of its decline. This is because of the fact
that the scholars who studied the Harappan civilization right upto the 1960s believed that the collapse of the
civilization was sudden. These scholars concentrated their work on the studies of cities, town planning and large
structures. Such problems as the relationship of the Harappan cities with the contemporary villages and the
continuity of various elements of the Harappan civilization were ignored. Thus, the debate about the causes of the
decline of the Harappan civilization became more and more abstract
It is true that Harappa and Mohenjodaro were abandoned and the urban phase came to an end. However, if we take
a perspective covering the entire geographical spread of the Harappan civilization, quite a few things seem to
continue in the old style.
Archaeologically speaking some changes are observable- some of the settlements were abandoned but most other
settlements remained in occupation. However, the tradition of uniform writing, seals, weights and pottery was lost.
The objects showing intensive interaction among the far flung settlements were lost. In other words the activities
associated with city-centred economies were given up. Thus. the changes-that came about simply indicated the end
of the urban phase. Small villages and towns continued to exist and the archaeological finds from these sites show
many elements of the Harappan tradition.
In most of the sites in Sind it is difficult to observe any change in the pottery tradition.
In fact in the areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana, vibrant agricultural communities emerged in large numbers
in the succeeding period. Thus, from a regional perspective, the period succeeding the urban phase can be treated as
one of flourishing agricultural villages which outnumber those of the urban phase. That is why scholars now
discuss issues like cultural change, regional migrations and modification in the system of settlement and
subsistence. After all no one talks about the end of the ancient Indian Civilization in early medieval India when
most of the cities of the Gangetic Valley declined. Let us see what kinds of archaeological remains survive after end
of the urban phase.
The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP)

The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) is a 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age culture of the Indo-Gangetic Plain,
extending fromeastern Punjab to northeastern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh. It is considered a candidate for
association with the earlyIndo-Aryan or Vedic culture.
The pottery had a red slip but gave off an ochre color on the fingers of archaeologists who excavated it, hence the
name. It was sometimes decorated with black painted bands and incised patterns. It is often found in association
with copper hoards, which are assemblages of copper weapons and other artifacts such as anthropomorphic figures.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 88
OCP culture was rural and agricultural, characterized by cultivation of rice, barley, and legumes, and domestication
of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs. Most sites were small villages in size, but densely distributed. Houses
were typically made of wattle-and-daub. Other artifacts include animal and human figurines, and ornaments made
of copper and terracotta.
At some archaeological sites in the western part of its distribution, the OCP occurs alongside the Late Harappan
phase of the Indus Valley Civilization, but in OCP sites farther east, there is no such direct link with the Harappan
culture. The OCP marked the last stage of the North Indian Bronze Age and was succeeded by the Iron Age black
and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.
arly specimens of the characteristic ceramics found near Jodhpura, Rajasthan, date from the 3rd millennium (this
Jodhpura is located in the district of Jaipur and should not be confused with the city of Jodhpur). Several sites of
culture flourish along the banks of Sahibi River and its tributaries such as Krishnavati river and Soti river, all
originating from theAravalli range and flowing from south to north-east direction towards Yamuna before
disappearing in Mahendragarh district of Haryana.
The culture reached the Gangetic plain in the early 2nd millennium. Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India
discovered copper axes and some pieces of pottery in its exacavation at the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture has the potential to be called a proper civilisation (e.g., the North Indian Ochre
civilisation) like the Harrapan civilisation, but is termed only as a culture pending further discoveries.
Copper hoards
The term copper hoards refers to different assemblages of copper-based artefacts in the northern areas of the Indian
Subcontinent that are believed to date from the 2nd millennium BC. Few derive from controlled excavations and
several different regional groups are identifiable: southern Haryana/northern Rajasthan, the Ganges-
Yamuna plain, Chota Nagpur, and Madhya Pradesh, each with their characteristic artefact types. Initially, the
copper hoards were known mostly from the Ganges-Yamuna doab and most characterizations dwell on this
material. some scholars believe the OCP was a factor in the formation of the Vedic civilization.
Chalcolithic.
Discuss the distribution and significance of farming cultures outside the Indus system (60)(2008)
In the absence of a written script, Chalcolithic pottery gives us a fascinating insight into the culture and lifestyle of
the people of those times. Comment critically (15)(2013)
The emergence of Non-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures in Central India and the Deccan mark a change not only in
the subsistence pattern of people but an overall transition from pre to proto historic period. Critically analyze.
(15) (2017)
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF WESTERN, CENTRAL AND EASTERN INDIA

There were several local chalcolithic early farming cultures in western, central and eastern India which florished
during the second and first millennia B.C. These cultures were basically village settlements and they shared certain
common elements.
The distinctive features of these cultures are:
painted pottery, which is mostly black-on-red, and
a highly specialized stone blade/flake industry of siliceous stones.
Copper was known but its use was on a limited scale as the metal was scarce. The settlements consisted of circular
and rectangular huts and in some cases pit dwellings are also known. The economy was based on farming and
animal husbandry. These cultures are named after their type sites.
Chalcolithic Cultures
Name of the Culture Period
Kayatha 2000 - 1800 B.C.
Ahar or Banas 2000 - 1400 B.C.
Savalda 2000 - 1800 B.C.
Malwa 1700 - 1200 B.C.
in Central India and
1700 -1400 B.C. in
Maharashtra.
Prabhas 1800 - 1500 B.C.
9987063403)_____________________________________________ 89
Rangapur 1400 - 700 B.C.
Chirand 1500 - 750 B.C.
In the Tapi Valley of Maharashtra, Late Harappan non-urban habitations (about 50) are known (1800 - 1600 B.C.).
The excavations at Daimabad have shown that the Late Harappans moved further south into the Pravara Valley
(Maharashtra).
The Kayatha culture is named after the site of Kayatha (25 km. east of Ujjain) located on the bank of the Kalisindh,
and affluent of the river. Chambal. The Ahar or Banas culture is named after the river Banas and its type site is Ahar
(Udaipur in Rajasthan). More than 50 sites of this culture are known in the valleys of Banas and Berach in south-
east Rajasthan. The type site of Savalda culture is Savalda (Dhulia district, Maharashtra). It is mostly confined to
the Tapi valley but the evidence from Daimabad suggests that it reached up to the Pravara valley. The Malwa
culture was discovered in the excavations at Maheshwar and Navadatoli (Nimar district, Madhya Pradesh) on the
banks of Narmada. This culture is so named as a large number of sites were brought to light in the Malwa region.
The Malwa people began to migrate to Maharashtra around Ca. 1600 B.C., and several settlements have been
discovered in the Tapi, Godavari and Bhima valleys. Prakash (Dhulia district), Daimabad (Ahmednagar district)
and Inamgaon (Pune district) were the most extensive settlements of the Malwa culture in Maharashtra. The
Prabhas and Rangpur cultures, respectively, are known after the type sites Prabhas Patan and Rangpur in Gujarat.
The type site of Jorwe culture is Jorwe (Ahmednagar district) in Maharashtra.
Extensive occupations of the Jorwe culture succeed the Malwa culture at Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon.
Stone and Copper using agricultural communities have been reported from eastern India too. In northern Bihar at a
place called Chirand remains of an ancient village settlement have been found. People lived in small houses made
of bamboo and mud plaster. They ate rice and fish and hunted many wild animals. They too used black and red
ware pottery. Similar kinds of settlements have been reported from Sahgaura in Gorakhpur (U.P.) and Sonpur in
Gaya (Bihar) where people seen to have grown wheat and barley also. In West Bengal the sites of Pandu-Rajar-
dhibi in the Burdwan district and Mahisdal in the Bubhum district have yielded similar evidences. All these
settlements have been dated between 1500 to 750 B.C.
Let us examine the various characteristics of these cultures.
Pottery: -Diagnostic Features
We will briefly review the pottery of these chalcolithic cultures.
The Kayatha ware is characterized by three fabrics:
a thick and sturdy red slipped ware painted with designs in dark brown;
a red painted buff ware (this ware is thin with a fine fabric); and a combed ware having incised patterns, and
generally without a slip.
The majority of the pots of the sturdy red slipped ware have a ring base. The ring base recalls the pre-Harappan
Sothi types.
Sothi culture (in Rajasthan) is known from several sites in the valley of Ghaggar.
(Sarasvati) which have yielded a pottery that is akin to the pre-Harappan pottery of Kalibangan.
There are seven kinds of wares in Ahar pottery but its most chacteristic type is the black and red ware painted in
white. The Savalda culture is characterised by a black-on-red painted pottery which is decorated with naturalistic
designs such as birds, animals and fishes.
The Malwa ware is to some extent coarse in fabric and has a thick slip over which patterns are executed in black or
dark brown colour.
The Prabhas and Rangpur wares are both derived from the Harappan black-on-red painted ware, but since the latter
has a gloss it is referred to as the lustrous Red Ware.
The Jorwe Ware is painted black-on-red, and has a matt surface treated with a red wash
Economy
A greater part of the region in which these chalcolithic cultures flourished is the zone of black cotton soil. me
climate is semi-arid and the rainfall varies between 400 to 1000 mm. The mainstay of the economy of these
chalcolithic cultures was subsistence agriculture and stock-raising. Dependence on wild game and other food
sources such
i) Cultivated Crop: Carbonized remains of seeds recovered in the excavations at some of the sites indicate that a
variety of crops were raised by these farming communities. The main crops were barley, wheat,, rice, bajra, jowar,
lentil, horsegram, haycinth bean, grass pea, pea, black gram and green gram.
Other plants utilized were Jamun, Behada, wild date, ber, Myrobalan etc.
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Barley was the principal cereal during this period. Evidence from Inamgaon suggests the practice of crop rotation,
harvesting of summer and winter crops, and artificial irrigation. A massive embankment (240 m long and 2.40 m
wide) was built at Inamgaon during Early Jorwe period (Ca. 1400 - 1000 B.C.) to divert the flood water through a
channel (200 m long, 4m wide and 3.5 m deep).
That the black cotton soil was ploughed for farming operations is suggested by the find of an ard (Protom of the
ploughshare) made from the shoulder bone of cattle at Walli (not very far from Inamgaon).
ii) Animals: The excavations have revealed evidences of both domesticated as well as wild animals.
The domesticated animals during the chalcolithic period were cattle, sheep, goat, dog, pigi horse. The bones of
cattle and sheep/goat predominate at most of the sites. The cut and chop marks on the bones of these animal
indicate that they were slaughtered for food. Age determination of these bones has indicated that host of the animals
were slughtered when they were young (ranging from three months to three years in age).
Religion and Belief Systems
The finds in the excavations also shed light on the religious practices and beliefs of the people.
i) Mother Goddesses: That these Chalcolithc communities had a belief in the mother goddess, and worshipped her,
is attested by the finding of female figures of clay (both baked or unbaked). These female figures are both with
heads and without heads. From the lower levels of occupation (dated to the middle of second millennium B.C.) at
Nevasa, comes a large headless female figure, which is made without clearly showing physical features. Inamgaon
has also yielded similar terracotta female figurines, which show no physical features except breasts.
Evidence for the worship of the mother goddess has been recorded in the excavations of an Early Jorwe house
(1300 B.C.) at Inamgaon. Here buried under the floor in a comer, was found an oval shaped clay receptacle with a
clay lid. Inside this receptacle was found a headless female figurine having large pendant breasts and also a bull
figurine. These female figurines, including the one from Inamgaon point to the worship of the goddess of fertility.
These figurines (especially the headless ones), according to one suggestion, may represent the goddess Sakambhari
(of the early historic period), the goddess of vegetative fertility, who was worshipped for warding off draughts.
ii) Gods: Male figurines are rare in the Chalcolithic settlements. It has been suggested that the male figurines of
clay (two of them being unbaked, and one baked) found in the Late Jorwe levels (1000 - 700 B.C.) at Inamgaon
may possibly be identified as gods.
In this context a painted jar of Malwa period (1600 B.C.) is considered to be of some religious significance. This
pot has two panels. In the upper panel is painted a scene depicting a human figure wearing a garment of twigs
covering the loin, and is surrounded by stylized animals such as stag, deer, peacocks etc. The lower panel shows
springing tigers or panthers, which are also stylized. This vessel, richly decorated with elaborate paintings, was
probably meant for some ritualistic use.
Likewise, finds of solid cast copper elephant, buffalo etc. at Daimabad could have religious functions.
iii) Burial Practices: Disposal of the dead by burial was a common custom. Adults as well as children were usually
buried in a north-south orientation; the head towards the north and the legs towards the south. Adults were, in a
majority of cases, buried in an extended position, whereas children were buried in urn-burials-either in single
pots or, more often, in two pots-placed horizontally mouth-to-mouth in a pit. Adults, and also children, were buried
in a pit which was dug into the house floor, and rarely in the courtyard of the house. It is interesting to note that
during the Jorwe period, in the case of adults, the portion below the ankle was purposely chopped off.
These practices like burying the dead within the precincts of the house, and chopping off the feet could possibly
suggest a belief in which the dead were restrained from turning into ghosts, who could become malevolent.
The adult burials in several cases contain offerings (grave goods) which are usually two pots, or sometimes more in
number. One adult burial of the Late Jorwe period contained fifteen pots. It was also common to bury the dead with
personal ornaments. In an adult burial of the Late Jorwe period, a large copper ornament was found near the neck of
the skeleton. A child in a twin urn-burial of the same period had a necklace consisting of twelve beads of copper
and red jasper alternately.
The Jorwe period has also disclosed some unusual burials at Inamgaon. Here has been found a four legged urn-
burial made of unbaked clay, and its southern face resembles a human body. This urn (80 cm. in height and 50 cm.
in width), which has a wide mouth with a featureless rim, contained the skeleton of a male, of about 30 to 40 years
old, in a sitting posture. In this case, the portion below the ankle is not chopped off. The burial offerings were a
spouted pot with the painting of a boat design having long oars. What this boat design reminds one is the present
day Hindu belief that the departed soul has to cross waters in a ferry to reach the heavenly abode. This person who
was given such an elaborate burial could be:
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of high status, or
the ruling chief of the settlement, or
belonging to a social group that practised a different kind of burial.
Social Organisation
In the chalcolithic culture regions, a study of the distribution pattern of the sites seems to suggest that these sites
were of two types, one type representing regional centres and the other type representing village settlements. This
difference, or hierarchy, has been taken to suggest that some form of administrative organization was present in the
chalcolithic cultures. This also suggests that the chalcolithic social organisation was characterised by ranking. The
presence of an administrative authority is further supported by existence of public structures such as fortifications,
rampart and moat, granaries, the embankment and canals (well documented at Inamgaon) etc. found at different
sites.
Seen in the larger context of the post-Harappan developments, these chalcolithic cultures betray discernible
influences of the Harappan culture, though in a residual form. All the same, they are marked by strong regional
elements, and also display trade links and cultural contacts between each other.
These metal-using farming communities which flourished in the second millennium B.C. disappeared around the
first millennium B.C. (excepting Late Jorwe which continued till 700 B.C.). One possible reason attributed for such
a decay (on the basis of analyse of soil sample overlying these chalcolithic horizons) was increasing aridity and
unfavourable climatic conditions. Many of these settlements in the Godavari., Tapi and other valleys were deserted,
and were reoccupied after a gap of six or five centuries in fifth-fourth centuries B.C., heralded by urbanisation.
Megalithic Cultures:
Development of community life, Settlements,
Discuss the extent, settlement patterns and subsistence economy of the megalithic cultures. (30)(2012)
Most of the information about the iron age in south India comes from the excavations of the megalithic graves. The
megaliths usually refer to burials amidst stones in graveyards away from the habitation area. In south India this kind
of elaborate burial came with Iron Age. Megalithic burials have been reported in large numbers from Maharashtra
(around Nagpur), Karnataka (sites like Maski), Andhra Pradesh (Nagatjunakonda), Tamil Nadu (Adichanallur) and
Kerala.
The megalithic burials showed a variety of methods for the disposal of the dead. In some cases bones of the dead
were collected in large urns and buried in a pit. The pit was marked by a stone circle or a capstone or both. The pits
and the win also other cases pit articles have formed with stones for burying the dead. Cist graves made with
granite slabs have also been reported. In Kerala rock cut chambers have been made for burial. Yet another kid of
megalithic burial is stone alignment comprising rows of standing dories set in diagonal or square plan.
Material Culture
As earlier, the material remains of the Iron Age are represented by pottery with certain specificities, besides iron
and other metal objects.
i) Pottery
The pottery that we discover from all the excavated graves is the black-and-red ware. The characteristic types are
shallow tray bowls and deep bowls, both with a rounded base, conical lids with knobs or loops on the apex, pottery
ring stands and larger water pots with rounded bases, etc.
ii) Iron and other metal objects
Iron objects have been found universally in all the megalithic sites right from Junapani near Nagpur in Vidharbha
(central India) down to Adichanallur in the south: a distance of nearly 1500 km. They show use of identical tools.
There are an array of iron objects: flat iron axes often with crossed iron bands for hafting, different types of flanked
spade, hoe, and spud orpick axe, sickles, bill hooks, wedges, cowbars, spears, knives, chisels or adzes, iron tripods,
pot rests, saucers, hooklamps, many armed lam-pendants, daggers, swords (some with oranamental bronze hilts),
arrowheads and spearheads with hollow sockets, ceremonial scalloped axes, iron tridents etc. In addition to these,
there is a special group of objects which consists of horse furniture such as snaffle bits and two simple bar-bits with
looped ends (which were recovered from Junapani), a kind of bar-bit with looped nose-and-mouthpiece (known

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from Sanur), etc. Among other metal object., the most numerous are bells of copper or bronze, which might have
served either as horse or cattle bells. Beads of semi-precious stones and gold objects have also been reported.
Subsistence Economy
Excavated habitations of the Iron Age are few. So it is difficult to form a clear picture of the economy of the south
Indian megalith builders. Some of the excavated sites have yielded remains of sheep/goat and cattle, and also
millets and pulses.
An important feature of the iron objects which are grave goods recovered from the excavated burials is the
uniformity in types. Such a wide distribution of identical types of iron objects right from Junapani (near Nagpur) to
Adichanallur in the south, testifies to the movement of a fairly tightly knit group of iron workers. According to
one scholar the megalithic people of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were proficient in tracing iron ore deposits and in
the manufacture of a variety of iron objects. They were trading in these items, and gradually took to settled life. Yet
another scholar has put forward the view that these groups were nomadic pastoralists with a greater reliance on
sheep/goat herding.
The settlements found near the megalithic complexes have very thin debris of occupation. This would indicate that
these people were living in one area for very short time. May be with the knowledge of iron they could colonize
new areas. Thus, some of the population was nomadic and some settlements might indicate colonization of new
areas. Where the settlements continue from the preceding period, people continued to live in their old ways. Use of
iron tools enabled them to use granite stones for their graves It is these agro-pastoral groups that enter the historical
phase in the early centuries of the christian era. They have mentioned in the Sangam literature. Some of the graves
have yielded Roman Coins which suggests their entry into history and their participation in trade networks spread
over a large area.
In what ways can the Megalithic culture be considered a foundational phase of the history of
peninsular India?(15)(2014)
After the prehistoric period, several elements mark the beginning of the historical period. These are: settlements of
large-scale rural communities which carry on plough agriculture with the aid of the iron ploughshare, formation of
the state system, rise of social classes, introduction of writing, introduction of metal coinage, and the beginnings of
written literature. All these phenomena did not come into being at the tip of the peninsula with the Kaveri delta as
the nuclear zone until about the second century BC.
Up to the second century BC, the upland portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people who are called
megalith builders. They are known not from their actual settlements which are rare, but from their funerary
structures. The graves are called megaliths because they were encircled by large pieces of stone. They contain not
only the skeletons of the people who were buried but also pottery and iron objects. We have a list of 104 excavated
megalithic and black-and-red ware sites of the early Iron Age or early historic period.
Though some of them are found in Maharashtra, MP, and UP, most of them are located in south India. The
megalithic people used various types of pottery, including red ware, but black-and-red ware seems to have been
popular with them. It was so widespread and important that initially black- and-red ware was called megalithic
ware by archaeologists.
Obviously the practice of burying goods in the graves with the dead bodies was based on the belief that the dead
would need all these in the next world. These goods give us an idea of their sources of livelihood. We find
arrowheads, spearheads, and also hoes and sickles, all made of iron.
Tridents, which later came to be associated with Shiva, have also been found in the megaliths. However, in
comparison to the number of agricultural tools that were buried, those meant for fighting and hunting are larger in
number. This would indicate that the megalithic people did not practise an advanced type of agriculture.
The megaliths are found in all the upland areas of the peninsula, but their concentration seems to be in eastern
Andhra and in Tamil Nadu. The beginnings of the megalithic culture can be traced to c. 1000BC, though in many
instances, the megalithic phase lasted from about the fifth to the first century BC, and in a few places, this phase
persisted even as late as the early centuries of the Christian era.
The Cholas, Pandyas, and Keralaputras (Cheras) mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions were probably in the late
megalithic phase of material culture. The megalithic people in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu had certain

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noteworthy characteristics. They buried the skeletons of the dead in urns made of red pottery in pits. In many
instances, these urns were not surrounded by stone circles, and there were not many grave goods.
The practice of urn burial was different from that of cist burial or pit burial surrounded by stone circles, that
prevailed in the Krishna-Godavari valley. However, despite the use of iron, the megalithic people preferred the
slopes of hills for settlement and funerary structures. Although the megalithic people produced paddy and ragi,
apparently the area of cultivable land used by them was very limited, and they generally did not settle on the plains
or lowlands due to their thick forest cover.
State Formation and the Development of Civilization:
By the second century BC, the megalithic people had moved from the uplands into fertile river basins and
reclaimed marshy deltaic areas. Under the stimulus of contact with the elements of material culture brought from
the north to the extreme end of the peninsula by traders, conquerors, and Jaina, Buddhist, and some brahmana
missionaries, they began practising wet paddy cultivation, founded numerous villages and towns, and developed
social classes.
Cultural and economic contacts between the north and the deep south, known as Tamizhakam, became extremely
important from the fourth century BC onwards. The route to the south, called Dakshinapatha, was valued by the
northerners because the south supplied gold, pearls, and various precious stones. The Pandya state was known to
Megasthenes who lived in Pataliputra.
The earlier Sangam texts are familiar with the rivers Ganges and Son, and also with Pataliputra, the capital of the
Magadhan empire. The Ashokan inscriptions mention the Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras, and Satyaputras living on
the borders of the empire; of these only the Satyaputras are not clearly identified. Tamraparnis, or the people of Sri
Lanka, are also mentioned. Ashoka’s title ‘dear to the gods’ was adopted by a Tamil chief. All this was the result of
the missionary and acculturating activities of the Jainas, Buddhists, Ajivikas, and brahmanas, as well as the traders
who accompanied their train. It is significant that Ashokan inscriptions were set up on important highways.
In the earliest stage much of the influence of Gangetic culture over the south was felt through the activities of the
heterodox sects that are mentioned in the earliest Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. The brahmanical influence also
percolated in a large measure to Tamizhakam, but this really happened after the fourth century ad. Eventually many
elements of Tamil culture spread to the north, and in the brahmanical texts, the Kaveri came to be regarded as one
of the holy rivers of India.
These southern kingdoms would not have developed without the spread of iron technology which promoted forest
clearance and plough cultivation. The distribution of the punch-marked coins of the janapada and of the imperial
Magadhan type is indicative of the development of north- south trade.
Flourishing trade with the Roman empire contributed to the formation of three states, respectively under the Cholas,
Cheras, and Pandyas. From the first century ad onwards, the rulers of these peoples derived benefit from the export
and import activity that was carried on between the coastal parts of south India, on the one hand, and the eastern
dominions of the Roman empire, especially Egypt, on the other.
Aryans and Vedic Period:

Expansions of Aryans in India.
THE EARLY VEDIC SOCIETY: INTRODUCTION
The core geographical area to which the evidence of the Rigveda would relate was Sapta-Sindhava or the land of
seven rivers. This would correspond to the whole of Punjab and its neighbouring region Haryana, but Rigvedic
geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan and southern Jammu and Kashmir.
Indo-Aryan migration from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent. These migrants who are regarded as the authors
of the 'Vedas' are called the Vedic people.
According to this historical interpretation the Aryans came to India in several stages or waves.
The Aryans are considered to represent a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages. They are
distinguished by traditional historians and archaeologists from the non-Aryan Harappans of the preceding period.
However, in making certain observations on Early Vedic society it may be fruitful to see if literary texts and
archaeological evidence can supplement each other. If both types of sources are of the same region and of the same
period, then they together can give us more detailed ideas on economic, social, political and religious life.
SOURCES

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“Archaeology known of no Aryans only literature knows of Aryans”Examine critically. (15) (2015)
We have two types of sources to study the Early Vedic Society-Literary and Archaeological Sources.
Let us first examine the literary sources for this period.
Literary Sources
Among the literary sources we may first refer to the four Vedas:
Rigveda Samveda
Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda
Out of these the Rigveda is the earliest text.
The word 'Veda' is derived from the sanskrit word 'Vid' which means 'to know'.
The "Vedas", are essentially a compilation of prayers and hymns, offered by different families of poets and saga to
various gods. These four Vedas are also 'Samhitas', in the sense that they represent the oral tradition of the time.
Since the hymns were meant to be retained, learnt and transmitted orally, they were not written when they were
composed. Due to this reason none of the Samhitas can be dated with absolute certainty. Infact each Samhita
represents a collection through a period over a few centuries. Relative dating in terms of the context of these four
Samhitas has led scholars to believe that the period represented in the Rigveda can be placed between 1500 B.C. to
1000 B.C.
The Rigvedic Samhita comprises 10 books or "Mandalas" of which book II to VII are considered to be the earliest
and belong specifically to the Early Vedic phase.
Books I, VIII, IX and X are considered to be later additions to the Samhita.
Scholars found similarities in the language used in the Rigveda and the Avesta, the oldest Iranian texts, older to the
Rigveda. Based on these linguistic similarities and taking into account the chronological precedence of the Avesta
over the Rigveda, these scholars suggested that:
i) The people represented in both these books belonged to a common linguistic group, and they migrated from West
Asia and Iran to the Indian subcontinent. These people were called the 'Aryas'.
ii) The Aryans had a common original home, from where different groups migrated to Europe and the East.
However, the debate regarding the original home of the Aryans is no longer valid, since the concept of a common
racial identity for the Aryans has now been proved some of them still insist upon the theory of the Aryan migration.
Archaeological Sources
Evaluate various views regarding human settlements is gleaned from the Vedic sources (15)(2013)
Excavations conducted in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Northern Rajasthan, along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers over the
last 40 years, have unearthed many post-Harappan chalcolithic settlements from these regions. These have been
dated from 1700 B.C. to 600 B.C.
However, we must remember that pottery types do not reflect the entire culture of the people. Different pottery
types do not necessarily mean that people who used these pots also differed. Pottery analysis only helps in defining
a specific trait of the cultural assemblage, nothing more. Some scholars have made attempts to examine
whether the evidence provided by some of these cultures of north-western and northern India can be compared with
what we know from a study of the Vedic texts
ECONOMY
The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society
relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce.
Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not
feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints.
Hymns of the Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic society. Many
linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau). Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and
a wealthy man who owned many cattle was called 'gomat'. The terms used for conflicts and battles in this period
were gavishti, gavesana, gavyat, etc. The former literally means 'to search for cows'.
The terms themselves suggest that possession of cattle was the bone of contention between groups and led to
occasional inter-tribal fights and conflicts. The Panis, who were the enemies of the Vedic people, are stated in the
Rigveda to have hidden their wealth, mostly cows, in the mountains and forests. The Vedic god Indra was invoked

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to release these cattle. This reference suggests that cattle raids were common. The raja or the chief is called the
'gopati' or one who protects cows. In the Rigveda, Godhuli is used as a term for a measure of time. Distance is
called gavyuti. A daughter is called duhitr or one who milks the cows. Kinship units are labelled as gotra.
All these terms are derived from gau and suggest that social religions and all important areas of Rigvedic life
centred round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands, cow pen, dairy products and domesticated
animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers.
Compared to the very substantial linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in the Rigveda, agricultural activities find
very fem references. Most of the references to agriculture are of a later date. Apart from 'Yava' or barley, no other
grains are mentioned. The Early Vedic people did not use iron technology. Copper, with which they were
familiar, did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements.
Stone tools (like axes) were used and these are mentioned in the Rigveda. Fire was used to burn down the forest
cover and shifting agriculture was practised. Further, the region under discussion receives low rainfall and all the
rivers mentioned in the Rigveda i.e. the Satluj, Indus, Ghaggar, Ravi etc. are known to change their courses
frequently. Without the facilities of large-scale irrigation which were not developed in this period, the alluvial lands
near the rivers could not be cultivated on a permanent basis. Thus the hoes, sickles and axes mentioned in the texts,
were probably used for slashing purposes or shifting cultivation. The evidence of pastoralism as well as
shifting cultivation suggests that the people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic.
They moved out of their villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their cattle. The literary and
the archaeological sources do show that the people did not lead a fully sedentary life. The mobile character of the
population is seen in the term 'vis' which also implied a settlement. The suffixes Punar (vis), Upa (vis) and Pra
(vis) were constantly used, and the settlements were qualified by them to mean settling near (asettlement), re-
entering (a settlement) or coming back (to the settlement).
Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the society.
Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and presentations, i.e. bali, to the victorious chiefs by the defeated or
the subordinate groups. The rest of the clansmen of the victorious tribe had a share in the spoils and booty won in
the war. The chief also fed and gave gifts to his clansmen during ceremonial occasions. This was done by him to
acquire prestige. Evidence of trade and commerce in Early Vedic society is meagre. There was no concept of
private property based on land-ownership.
SOCIETY
The Early Vedic Society was a tribal society, in which social relations based on kinship ties were predominant. The
Society was not divided according to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), the purohitas (priests), the artisans etc.
were parts of the clan networks. The tribe was referred to as the janas and many references to the different tribes are
found in the Rigveda. Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, an example being the battle of the Ten Kings mentioned
in the Rigveda. Some of the tribes, which fought in this battle were the Bharatas, the Purus, the Yadus, the Druhyus,
the Anus and the Turvasus. Tribal conflicts, as mentioned earlier, were related to cattle raids, cattle thefts etc. The
chief of the tribe was the raja or the gopati. He was the leader in battle and the protector of the tribe. His office, was
not based on heredity, but he was selected from amongst the clansmen. The warrior category was the "rajanya".
Many clans (vis) formed a tribe. The clans settled in villages or grama. The basic social unit was the Kula, or the
family, and the Kulapa i.e. 'one who protects the family' denoted the eldest male member or the head of the family.
Tribe (Jana), Tribal Unit (Vis), Village (Grama), Family (Kula), Head of the family (Kulapa).
Society was patriarchal. The birth of a son was the common desire of the people.
The importance given to the male members is reflected in the hymns, where the desire for a son is a constant prayer.
Even though society was patriarchal, women had also important position in it. They were educated and they had
access to the assemblies. There are also instances of women who composed hymns. They had a right to choose their
partners, and could marry late. However women were always thought to be dependent on their fathers, brothers or
husbands. Education was imparted orally, but the tradition of education was not very well developed in this period.
The authors of the Rigveda distinguished themselves from other groups whom they called Dasas and Dasyus. The
Dasas are described as dark, full-lipped, snub-nosed, worshippers of the phallus and of hostile speech. They were
rich in cattle and lived in fortified strongholds. We learn about another people called the Panis who were wealthy in
cattle treasures. The term Pani came to be associated with merchants and wealth in the subsequent ages. These
groups fought and befriended each other from time to time and one cannot define them as separate racial or the
linguistic groups. For example the most famous chief mentioned in the Rigveda is Sudasa who led the

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Bharata tribe in the battle of the ten kings. The Dasa ending in his name might suggest some links with the Dasas.
However, the presence of different groups in the same area might have contributed to the emergence of the Varna
system.
Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, priests
etc. are also mentioned. The chariot makers occupied a special social status. There are no references to beggars,
wage-earners or wages in the Rigveda. However, society was economically stratified, and we do find references
to rich people possessing chariots, cattle, etc. and making generous gifts of them.
POLITY
The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian. A division is found in the Rigveda itself, which is seen in
references of two groups-the Rajanyas, or those who fought the wars, and are credited to be the senior lineage, and
the rest of the clansmen or the vis, who formed the junior lineage. Though none of the groups occupied a distinct
social hierarchy, constant conflicts and inter-tribal wars helped to create a division in the society. The growing
needs for more pasture lands, cattle for the protection of people and their settlement all probably contributed to an
increase in inter and intra-tribal conflicts and warfare. The clans held large yajnas or sacrifices to help the warrior
groups in the wars. In these yajnas the officiating priest or the purohita acted as the mediator between his clansmen
and the gods. He also invoked the god’s blessings for the tribal chief, for his success in the wars. Initially, the whole
clan participated in these yajnas on an equal footing. Large scale distribution of wealth, food, etc. was made during
these sacrifices and members got an equal share.
But with the growing incidence of conflicts and fights, yajnas or sacrifices also became important and the purohita
assumed a special status in the society. In the later part of our period, they received a major share of the gifts from
the rajas, and assumed a superior position vis-a-vis the other clan members.
The office of the raja also assumed importance on account of wars, etc. and the division between the senior and the
junior lineages became sharper. At what point of time these political distinctions became apparently difficult to
state, but we must remember that the 10th book of the Rigveda contains the "Purusha-Sukta" hymn, and in the Later
Vedic texts we find evidence of the superior rajnaya groups, assuming the status of the Kshatriya-a separate varna
by itself. These developments took place after 1000 B.C. This does not mean that the society was stagnant during
our period of study. In fact it was changing slowly but surely leading to the development, in the Later Vedic phase,
of a complex socio-political structure Tribal assemblies e.g. the Gana, Vidatha, Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in
the Rigveda. The Sabha may have been the council of select clan members and the Samiti perhaps comprised the
whole clan. These assemblies performed the functions of the government and administration and were also
involved in the selection of the raja from amongst the clansmen. They thus kept the power of the warriors in check.
However, as stated before, though we do not find well defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic set up, the
changes during the period gave rise to a socio-political hierarchy which manifested itself in the origin of the Varna
system during the "Later Vedic phase". Early Vedic Society was governed by tribal values and norms and was
largely egalitarian.
Vedic Period: Religious and philosophic literature;

Evaluate the various approaches to the understanding of vedic religion. (30)(2009)
Evaluate the conceptual basis of the Vedic deities. (30) (2011)
RELIGION
The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda. They venerated the natural forces
around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire etc.) which they could not control, and invested nature with
divinity conceived in human forms, which were mostly masculine. Very few female deities were venerated.
The religion thus reflected the patriarchal society and was that of primitive animism.
Indra was the god of strength, who was invoked to destroy the enemies. He was the god of thunder and was the
rainmaker who was asked periodically to release the water. He could not be vanquished. Thus thunder and rain
(natural phenomena) were related with strength, which was personified in a masculine form, represented in
the god Indra. The concept of a tribal chief, who was a war-lord is also found represented in the character of Indra.
Agni, next in importance to Indra, was the god of fire. He was considered to be an intermediary between heaven
and earth i.e., between gods and men. He dominated the domestic hearth and marriages were solemnized in his
presence. Fire destroyed dirt and germs, and hence Agni was considered to be pure. The importance of Agni

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can be related to that of the yajna or sacrifice in the Early Vedic society. It was supposed that the oblations offered
to Agni were carried to the gods in the form of smoke. Varuna personified water, and he was the upholder of the
natural order of the universe.
Yama was the god of death and had an important place in the Early Vedic religious belief.
There were many other gods e.g. Surya, Soma (also a drink), Savitri, Rudra etc., and hosts of celestial beings like
Gandharvas, Apsaras, Maruts to whom prayers and hymns were addressed in the Rigveda.
The Vedic religion was sacrificial. Sacrifices or yajnas were performed to invoke the gods in order to grant boons-
either victory in battles or for acquisition of cattle, sons etc.
We find some hymns dedicated to the power residing in the sacrificial implements, especially to the sacrificial altar,
to the stones used for pressing the Soma plant, to the weapons of war, mortars etc. Hymns and prayers were recited
in these sacrifices and generally priests performed these yajnas. The growing importance of sacrifices in the Vedic
society resulted in the growing importance of priests as well.
The ritual of sacrifice also led to the growth and development in the knowledge of mathematics and animal
anatomy. Elementary mathematics was necessary to make the calculations which were required to establish the
positions of various objects in the sacrificial area. Also, the frequent sacrifices of animals led to a knowledge of
their anatomy. For the Vedic people, the world grew out of a vast cosmic sacrifice and was not maintained by the
proper performance of sacrifice. Religion was not based on magico-ritual formulae, rather it stressed direct
communication with the gods through sacrifices, hymns etc. Gods were not worshipped for the spiritual
upliftment of the people, nor for any other abstract philosophical concept, but were invoked to grant material gains.
Sacrificial religion is a religion of the pastoral people. Animal sacrifice is rampant in the pastoral society, where the
older animals who can no longer produce milk or meat, or used for breeding purposes, i.e. those who are no longer
economically viable, are killed in order to lessen the burden on their owner. Hence animal sacrifice was one way of
destroying the old animals and thus had an important role in the society. In the agrarian society however older
animals are employed in the fields, used for traction purposes and hence the destruction of animals is frowned upon
by a society which primarily depends on agricultural activities. Thus the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchal
pastoral society and was materialistic in perspective.
“The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of the Vedic thought.” Discuss. (15)(2014)
The concept of Shramanic religions, with particular reference to Buddhism, had their roots in Upanisadic ideas.
Discuss. (15) (2018)
The Upanishads are religious and philosophical treatises, forming part of the early Indian Vedas.1 The preceding
portions are the Mantras, or Hymns to the Vedic gods, and the Brāhmaṇas, or directories on and explanations of the
sacrificial ritual. Accordingly these three divisions of the Śruti, or ‘Revelation,’ may be roughly characterized as the
utterances successively of poet, priest, and philosopher. The distinction, of course, is not strictly exclusive; for the
Upanishads, being integral parts of the Brāhmaṇas,2 are continuations of the sacrificial rules and discussions, but
they pass over into philosophical considerations. Much that is in the Upanishads, particularly in the Bṛihad-
Āraṇyaka and in the Chāndogya, might more properly be included in the Brāhmaṇa portion, and some that is in the
Brāhmaṇas is Upanishadic in character. The two groups are closely interwoven.
This fact, along with the general lack of data in Sanskrit literature for chronological orientation, makes it impossible
to fix any definite dates for the Upanishads. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, of which the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upanishad
forms the conclusion, is believed to contain material that comes down to 300 bc The Upanishads themselves
contain several references to writings which undoubtedly are much later than the beginnings of the Upanishads. The
best that can be done is to base conjectures upon the general aspect of the contents compared with what may be
supposed to precede and to succeed. The usual date that is thus assigned to the Upanishads is about 600 or 500 bc,
just prior to the Buddhist revival.
Such is the philosophy of the Upanishads in what may very probably have been its order of development. Many
tendencies made up the process; and perhaps centuries elapsed between the first and last of the speculations
recorded, from the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka and the Chāndogya to the Maitri. The thinkers were earnest in their search for
truth, and they unhesitatingly abandoned conclusions which had been reached, when in the light of further
reasonings and new considerations they were proved inadequate. The changes from the first realistic materialism to
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the final speculative idealism form an interesting chapter in the history of philosophy. Their intuitions of deep truths
are subtile with the directness and subtlety of new seekers after truth. In a few passages the Upanishads are sublime
in their conception of the Infinite and of God, but more often they are puerile and groveling in trivialities and
superstitions.
As it was suggested before, so it must be emphasized again that, although at first the order of exposition here
followed was in all probability the historical order in the progress of thought in the early Hindu philosophy, yet
there are not the chronological data in the Upanishads upon which an unquestioned order can be maintained
throughout. The Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Taittirīya, Aitareya, Kaushītaki and Kena 14-34, from their structure
and literary characteristics, as well as from their contents, are quite certainly assigned to the earlier group of the
Upanishads. But even in them there is a variety of philosophical doctrines which are not in the same stage of
development. The heterogeneity and unordered arrangement and even contradictions of the material make it
difficult, indeed impossible, to set forth in systematic exposition a single system of philosophy. The purpose has
been, therefore, to discern the different tendencies that are undoubtedly present in the philosophy of the Upanishads
and to present them in what seems to be the most probable order of development. For the purposes of exposition
there have been followed out and connected with each other certain lines of thought which in the actual
development of the philosophy could hardly have been as independent as they are here set forth.
The thought of any people and of any generation is exceedingly complex, consciously or unconsciously containing
certain elements from the past, which are being gradually discarded, and also certain presentiments of truth which
are only later fully recognized. Yet in it all there is a dominant tendency which may readily be discerned. So in the
Upanishadic period there were mythical cosmologies inherited and accepted, whose influence continued long after
they had logically been superseded by more philosophical theories. In the main, however, there was an appreciation
of idealism. This, having seen in the psychic self the essence of the whole world, and having identified it with
Brahma, reacted against the realistic philosophy which had produced the concept of Brahma; and then it carried the
Ātman, or the purely psychical, element over into the extreme of philosophical idealism.
Pantheism it may, in general, be called; for, although very different types of philosophy have been shown to be
represented in the Upanishads, pantheism is their most prevalent type and the one which has constituted their chief
heritage. Still, even as pantheism, it is hardly the pantheism of the West, nor is it the monism that is based upon
science. It is like the simple intuition of the early Greek philosopher Xenophanes, who (after a prior course of
cosmological theorizings similar to those in the Upanishads) ‘looked up into the expanse of heaven and declared,
“The One is God.” ’ (Aristotle’s Metaphysics, 1. 5.) Can such faith in such form, although it has laid hold of the
profound truths of ultimate unity and spirituality, be expected to furnish the highly inspiring religion of progress
and the elaborately articulated philosophy, correlated with science, which modern India demands?
These thirteen principal Upanishads the records eager quest which India has been pursuing through the centuries,
which is tersely expressed in the Bṛihad-Āraṇyaka Upanishad in its first division (at 1. 3. 28):—
‘From the unreal lead me to the real.

From darkness lead me to light.
From death lead me to immortality.’
Iron industry.
Evaluate the introduction of iron technology in the development of human history of ancient India. (20) (2011)
IRON TECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT
An important question to be asked here is: does the knowledge of iron lead to any advancement in the metal
technology of the period? Similarly one would also like to know the extent to which the introduction of a new
technology changes the material milieu of the society.'
The evidence of the Later Vedic period suggests a transition from a pastoral society to a sedentary agrarian society.
It was earlier suggested that the socketed axes made of iron were extensively used to clear the forests and the
Gangetic Doab for permanent cultivation. It was also believed that iron tipped ploughshares and hoes increased the
efficiency of the agricultural implements which furthered agricultural activities. Thus scholars believed that the
knowledge of Iron technology was an important factor for the development of agrarian economy. However, we now
know that the Later Vedic period was neither purely agrarian, nor was it well advanced in iron technology. The
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rich iron ore mines of Bihar were still not exploited and the technology of smelting iron was primitive.
The objects which are found in the excavations are iron tipped arrowheads, spearheads, etc. i.e. weapons of which
the largest number comes from the Ahichhatra excavations. Sickles, hoes, axes are rarely found in the excavations.
One ploughshare, has been reported from Jakhera which probably belongs to the end of this period.
Thus, from the excavations, it appears that the use of iron was restricted to making weapons. Iron did not influence
the agricultural technology until the second half of the first millennium B.C. when the marshlands and monsoon
forests in the middle Gangetic valley were gradually cleared.
In the Later Vedic period, clearing of forests by burning was carried out in the upper Doab. We have the description
of the burning of the Khandavavana in the Mahabharata to establish the city of Indraprastha. Iron tipped weapons
and horse chariots helped military activities which were rampant in this period and have been extensively
documented in the Mahabharata. However, in subsistence related activities, iron technology had practically no role.
THE NATURE OF THE ECONOMY
The growth of agriculture in the Later Vedic period was made possible by the availability of vast tracts of fertile
alluvial lands of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the middle Ganga valley-an area which was slowly settled
throughout the first millennium B.C. However, the later vedic texts reflect the continued importance of pastoralism.
Both archaeological and literary sources document the introduction of rice as the staple diet of the people. The
PGW and Banas culture yield charred grains of rice from the excavated sites. The Vedic texts mention Vrihi,
Tandula and Sali, all denoting rice. It appears that cropping was practised now, and the fields grew both barley and
rice. The elaborate sacrifices of this period, e.g. the rajasuya, include offerings of grain along with milk, ghee and
animals. The twelve sacrifices prescribed in the Atharvaveda for acquiring material benefits recommend the gifts of
cows, calves, oxen, gold, cooked rice, thatched houses and well cultivated fields to the brahmanas. The items of the
offerings are a clear indication of the growing importance of sedentary settlements and agriculture. Later Vedic
texts also refer to eight, twelve and even twenty four oxen yoked to the plough. Though the number of oxen
mentioned is possible symbolic, the reference suggests that plough cultivation was familiar in this period.
Importance of Pastoralism Declines
Pastoralism was no longer the main subsistence activity of the people as it was in the Early Vedic period. Mixed
farming which included cultivation and herding was the occupational norm of this period. Agricultural activities in
this phase were not labour intensive. The sites from where rice remains are found in the excavations are located
on the elevated areas of the Doab. This suggests that wet rice cultivation which is labour intensive was not practised
as yet.
Mixed farming led to the rise of sedentary settlements. The PGW deposits are generally 2 to 3 m. deep and indicate
that people were living in the same spot for a long time. At Bhakpura and Jakhera, the excavations show that the
earlier phase of circular huts made of wattle and daub or wood were replaced in this period by more substantial
houses with earth walls. Thus durable materials were being used for house construction owing to the adoption of a
sedentary life style.
Changes in the Functions of the Rituals
In the Early Vedic society rituals were performed to bring about the welfare of the entire tribe. Gods were
worshipped for ensuring victory over other tribes, granting cattle and sons. It was also an occasion for the chiefs to
distribute wealth. In the Later Vedic society the function of the rituals underwent a subtle change. Rituals became
much more complicated which could continue for years. Thus only the rich could perform them. The spirit of
collectivity was reduced. Sacrifices were performed to ensure control over rest of the tribe. Gifts were no longer
given to the entire tribe.
Rather the chief gave gifts to the Brahmans who performed sacrifices for him. The rituals were so complicated that
it needed expert Brahmans to perform it since a wrong incantation could bring disaster to the performer. The
performer of sacrifices was supposed to grant super-human status to the chiefs meaning that they were superior to
rest of the tribe. For this service the chief passed on a large part of his wealth to the Brahman priest. Thus, the
rituals became a mechanism for ensuring the material and spiritual superiority of the chiefs and the Brahmans.
Emerging Importance of Land
Land was cultivated through family labour and the help of domestic servants and slaves. In this period, initially
land was owned by the clan or the vis. When clan ownership gradually changed to family ownership the gahapati or
householder became a man of wealth. The vaisyas (those who originally belonged to the vis) were the producing
class in the society and they became the source of wealth and subsistence for the Kshatriyas and the1Brahmanas
who did not actively participate in food production. The vaisyas had to give presentations to the Kshatriyas in lieu
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of the latter protecting their lands, and dana and dakshina to the priests for their moral upliftment. The vis/vaisya,
characterizing the householding economy, became the mainstay of economy. Presentations and dana to the non-
producing classes helped in the distribution of subsistence goods. There are no references to the sale of land.
Visvakarma Bhauvana, a ruler, was rebuked by Prithvi (the earth) when he tried to make a grant of land. This
textual reference suggests communal ownership of land over which the vis had major participatory rights.
Transformation from Rig Vedic period to the later Vedic period; Political, social and economical life;
Describe the social life of the later Vedic people. How was it different from the Rig-Vedic life? (60) (2004)
In what way was the egalitarian character of the early Vedic society changed during the later Vedic period? (15)
(2016)
POLITY AND SOCETY

The transition from a predominantly pastoral to a mixed farming economy had a great impact on the character of
the LaterVedic society and polity. The main trends of changes were :
Tribal identity of the Early Vedic society gradually gave way to territorial identity and consequently the nature of
chiefship changed.
The social structure which was based on relations within a clan and was largely egalitarian in the Early Vedic
period became much more complex. This type of society is marked by inequality. Even the same clan was divided
into groups, some of which could have high status in society and some low status.
Polity
Jana was used in the sense of people or tribe in the Rigvedic period, but now the concept of janapada emerged.
Janapada meant the area where the tribe settled. The word rashtra was also used for the first time in the Later Vedic
texts. However, it was still not used in the sense of a state with well defined territories.
The Kurus, who were formed from the union between two major Vedic tribes-the Bharatas and the Purus, are
mentioned in texts as occupying the area in the upper portion of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Similarly, the Panchalas
are mentioned as people who occupied the middle portion of the Doab, called the Panchala desa. This indicates that
tribal identities were merging with territorial identities. It is also stated that when the Kurus and the Panchalas came
together, their authority over the upper and middle reaches of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab was complete. These
changes in the relationship between the Jana and the area over which it wielded control helped towards the
formation of the mahajanapadas and janapadas by the 6th century B.C.
When tribal groups came to be associated and identified with particular territories, it also brought about a change in
the status and functions of the tribal chiefs. The rajan or the chief was no longer involved only in cattle raids but
emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled.
The rajanya which already was a superior lineage during the Rigvedic period, now became the 'Kshatriya' i.e. those
who held power over dominions, which is the literal meaning of the word 'Kshatriya'. The Kshatriya class based
their power on their role as the protector of their tribes and the land over which their tribes settled. The vis had to
pay presentations to the Kshatriya, in lieu of the latter's protection and thus the status of the vis was progressively
subordinated to the Kshatriya lineage. Bali and Bhaga no longer meant presentations given at will, but gradually
assumed the forms of regular tributes and taxes.
Tribal Assemblies: The change in the status of the Kshatriya or the warrior class is also reflected in the changing
nature of the tribal assemblies. The sabha became more important than the samiti during this period.
Reference to rajas in the assembly or the sabha suggests that they helped the king in his duties. The office of the
raja or the chief was not based solely on birth but the choice of raja is restricted to the Kshatriyas.
Raja's Legitamacy: In the absence of firmly established principles of heredity and primogeniture, consecrator)
rituals became very important for the ruler in order to assert this authority. Hence, ceremonial sacrifices like
rajasuya, asvamedha and vajapeya were performed on lavish scale. In the Rigvedic period, the ashwamedha
yajna was a small affair. But in this period, this was performed to subjugate other areas rind legitimize the ruler's
hold over alien lands. The other yajnas included prayers for the rulers' health and all three were in essence
legitimizing methods, employed by the raja to proclaim his superiority and power. For instance the sacrificer was
proclaimed as Yajman in the course of the rajasuya. These sacrifices were found to be of relevance in later periods
also when new kingdoms and new monarchs emerged. They used sacrifices to give religions legitimacy to their
power.
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The raja was also required to integrate his territory with resources, economic production and distribution which
enhanced his status considerably from a mere raider, or a leader. However, he was not yet the sovereign. The fact
that he was elected and could be removed put severe constraints on him, since he was answerable to the clan. Also,
he did not appoint the other rajas who helped him with his duties. They were chiefs in their own right. What is
important is that the Kshatriya lineage gained a distinctly superior status during this period, the reason being that
the concept of territorial identity was established now. Thus territory became the physical manifestation of the
ruler's power to rule.
Tribal Conflicts: The nature of the intra-tribal conflicts, conflicts within tribes also changed. Fights were no longer
mere skirmishes over cattle, now the acquisition of land was also important element in these disputes. The necessity
of increasing territory can be connected with the growth of population within the tribes. Iron weapons and light
wheeled chariots driven by horses raised the efficiency of the fighters. The Mahabharata depicts intra-clan warfare
between the Kauravas and the Pandavas of the Kuru clan.
The Priest: With the rising importance of the rajanya Kshatriya, the Brahmanas too became important since they
legitimized the office of the ruler through the consenator- rituals. The redistribution of wealth through dana and
dakshina on such occasions was primarily from the Kshatriya yajamana to the brahmana priests. The elaborate
consecratory rituals suggest that initially the power of the raja was not so secure and hence he had to provide proof
of his ability to rule. 'The status of the officiating priests became at par with the gods, in the later period. It is felt
that the gods had to be propitiated with yajnas and the officiating brahmana had to be satiated with dana. Thus the
channel of redistribution was between the two higher status groups, and political supremacy was slowly becoming
the domain of the Kshatrp.
Society
We have already read about the declining status of the vis and the ascendancy of the Kshatriyas and the Brahmanas.
Society was thus composed of unequal groups.
This hymn describes the origin of the four varnas, i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and the Sudra, from the body of
the universal creator, Rajapati. The 'Hymn of the Primeval Man' comes from the later portion of the Rigveda. Thus
hymn for the first time describes the origin of the four varnas. It says .......
"When they divided the Man, into how many parts did they divide him? What was his mouth, what were his arms,
what were his thighs and his feet called?
"The Brahman was his mouth, of his arms made to be Kshatriya, his thigh became the Vaisya, of his feet the Sudra
was born".
The symbolism which is projected in these hymns is that Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra are limbs of the
society. However, these limbs did not have equal status.
The Brahman was compared to the head whereas the Shudra was compared to the feet, In social life Brahmans were
considered the highest Varna because society could communicate with gods with the help of Brahmans only. The
Sudras on the other hand performed menial tasks and included slaves captured in wars.
Varna system.
The verna concept may always have been largely a theoretical model and never an actual description of society.
Comment in context of ancient India (15)(2013)
Concept of Varna: The system of varna had the following features:

a) status by birth
b) a hierarchical ordering of the varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya, Sudra) with Brahmana at the top and Sudra
at the base).
c) rules of endogamy and ritual purity.
The Varna system is further tied with the concept of universal law, and the varna dharma was an attempt to establish
a social law for a systematic functioning of the society. However, the varna dharma system was not properly
developed in the Later Vedic society.
The division of social groups was based on occupation alone, and society was still flexible, where one's occupation
did not depend on birth.

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Even in the later times i.e., post-Vedic, the varnadharma described the ritual status of each group. The varna system
did not prevent the non-kshatriyas from claiming kshatriya status and becoming rulers (examples being the Nandas
and the Mauryas) nor brahmanas from claiming political suzerainity.
Thus the theoretical model of the varna system could never be rigidly enforced in the post-Vedic period.
It is Likely that during the Later Vedic period, with the shift in the geographical focus, the Vedic people
encountered many non-Vedic tribes and considerable interaction must helped formation of a composite society. At
least the Atharvaveda depicts a host of non-Vedic religious practices which were sanctioned by the priests.
However, tribal endogamy with strict marriage rules, was the aim in order to maintain the purity of the tribe. Also,
the growing importance of the kshatriyas and the brahmanas in the society made it imperative to maintain their
exclusive superior status, as compared to the rest. During the Later Vedic period however, the concept of varna
was rudimentary in nature. 'The notion of untouchability for instance is absent.
Gotr: The institution of gotra (literally meaning-cow pen) appeared during this period. As against tribal endogamy
(marriage within tribe) people practiced gotra exogamy (marrying outside the gotra). Gotra signified descent from a
common ancestor and marriages could not take place between couples belonging to the same gem.
The patriarchal family was well established and the grihapati acquired higher status. Since householding economy
was gaining predominance, the position of the householder too acquired economic importance. The rights on land
were based on usage, and communal ownership of land prevailed. The grihapatis were wealthy end their ritual role
was that of a yajamana (i.e. he who orders sacrifice). Their wealth did not came from gifts, but was produced by
their own efforts. Through yajnas, which they were bound to perform to gain merit, a part of their wealth got
channeled to the brahamanas. Despite the presence of some women philosophers and the references to a few
queens participating in the coronation rituals, women were considered subordinate to men, and were not involved in
any major decision making.
Three stages of life: Three ashramas, i.e. stages of life were prescribed and these stages were represented by the
brahmachari (studentship), grihastha (householder), vanaprasthi (partial retirement from householding life by living
in the forest). It seems that the fourth i.e. the sanyasa (or complete retirement from participation in the world) stage
of life was not known till the time that the upanishada were written. The sanyasis or the ascetics in later periods
were individuals who protested either passively or actively against the Vedic social structure.
Significance of the Vedic Age;

Examine the view that sacrifice was a ritual and a form of Social exchange in Vedic India.(30)(2010)
RELIGION
The texts of this period indicate two different religious traditions:
the Vedic, which is documented in the Sama and Yajurveda. samhitas and the Brahmans, and the non-vedic or
perhaps the folk tradition extensively documented in the Atharvaveda.
The fact that the Atharwan religious tradition was considered to be part of the Vedic suggests assimilation of
different culture and beliefs into the Vedic religious system.
The Yajurveda Samhita and Brahmanas document the religions of the period. Sacrifices became very important
during this period and they assumed both a public and private character. The public sacrifices e.g. the Rajsuyas,
Vajapeya, Asvamedha were conducted on a massive scale, where the whole community participated. Some of the
rituals performed in these sacrifices show elements of a fertility cult. For instance the Asvamedha yajna required
the chief queen to lie next to the sacrificial horse, where the queen represented the earth, and this ritual was thought
to ensure the prosperity of the king. A number of agricultural rituals were performed in the Rajasuya and the
Vajapeya yajna. The periodical rejuvenation of the earth and its fertility are some of the themes which were
included in the ceremonial yajnas.
Priestcraft
Later vedic texts reveal the elaboration of rituals which were complicated and needed professional men, trained in
the art of performing them. Vidhis or rules for performing the sacrifices were formulated and the Vedic sacrifices no
longer meant simple offering of food/obligations in to the fire. The types of offering, types of sacrifices etc. differed
according to the needs of the patron or the yajamana.
Sacrifices were now endowed with mystical symbolism and every ritual act was endowed by mysterious power. A
new science of priestcraft emerged because of the complexities involved in the performance of these yajnas
whether private or public.

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Thus a class of priests became specialists in the performances of Yajnas. There were even different sets of priests
for performing different stages of the same sacrificial ritual.
The Changing Gods
Two prominent early Vedic gods, Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati the creator became important. This
phenomenon also represents the importance of sedentism now, since creation myths are important in the agrarian
groups. Ruddra, a minor deity in the Rigveda, became important now and Vishnu was conceived as the creator and
protector of the universe. Pushan who protected cattle in the former period now became the god of the Sudras. The
changing status of the deities are in indication of the change in the character of the tribes from pastoral groups to
sedentary agriculturist groups. The Early Vedic gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly discarded
and the personification of; natural elements as divine beings became very complex. It was no longer easy to find the
natural element which represented a particular god from the hymns of the Later Vedic period.
Folk Tradition
The Atharvaveda is a mine of information regarding the folk tradition. Its contents are radically different from the
Vedic sacrificial religion and it is concerned more with magic. The contents of this Veda cover different aspects of
human life. The hymns deal with:
the cure for diseases prayers for health
charms for the prosperity of home and children cattle and fields
charms to produce harmony
charms concerned with love and marriage or conversely rivalry and jealousy etc.
The Atharvaveda thus documents the kinds of superstition and beliefs which were prevalent. The term Atharvan
indicates a magical formula and the Atharvan priests officiated in this religion. Gods of the Vedic tradition were
invoked but the reasons for which they were invoked were trivial and individualistic. Many godlings and spirits
such as pisacas, rakshasas and so on (some malevolent and some benevolent), were invoked either to bring good
fortune or to cause havoc and destruction to one's friends and foes respectively. The invocations and the chants
related to the domestic and the household and were close to the daily cycles of existence of the common man.
For example, Indr8 was asked to kill the houserobber, the worm in the body and the wolf devil. The Asvins were
entrusted with the protection of agriculture and the killing of rats. Savitri was summoned to fix a place where a new
home could be built.
Pusan was invoked to bring harmony and safe delivery of babies, while Surya was invoked to remove demons.
Towards the end of this period, a strong reaction against the priestly domination and against the complexities
involved in the yajnas resulted in the formulation of a philosophical doctrine which is enunciated in the Upanisads.
These texts emphasized the knowledge of the atma or the soul as against ritualistic practices and the wasteful
expenditure which accompanied sacrifices. Thus the materialistic aspect of the religion was discarded and religion
was raised to the realm of philosophy. The Upanisads emphasized the changelessness and indestructability of the
soul which in away seemed to emphasize the need for stability and integration in a period when the janapadas and
mahajanapadas, i.e. republics and monarchies were emerging.
Thus we find that a great change in religious beliefs and practices had taken place between the Early Vedic and the
Later Vedic period. This change was partly related to the shift from pastoralism to agriculture. The religious
changes of this period parallel and reflect the socio-political and economic changes that had taken place from the
Early Vedic to the Later Vedic phase.
UNITS OF SETTLEMENT-I: THE JANAPADA

The contemporary texts indicate that changes in society and economy were taking place in a well defined
geographical space. The literature relating to the period that we are discussing refers to various kinds of, units of
settlement. They are referred to as Mahajanapada.
Janapada, Nagara, Nigama, Grama etc. Let us first see what the Janapadas were.
Janapada, literally meaning the place where the people place their feet, is often referred to in the texts of this period.
You remember the meaning of Jana. In the Vedic society. it referred to members of a clan. In the early Vedic society
the members of Jana were pastoral groups roaming in search of pastures. However, in the later Vedic phase the
members of Jana took up agriculture and began to settle down. These agricultural settlements were called
Janapadas. In the initial phases these settlements were named after the dominant Kshtriya lineages settled in that
area. For example, the areas around Delhi and upper U.P. were known as the Kuru and Panchal Janapadas after the
names of the dominant Kshatriya lineages. Once they settled down in one place there was all expansion of
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agriculture, especially with the use of iron axes and plough shares. These iron tools could clear the forests and dig
deeper than the stone or copper tools available to the agriculturists of the preceding centuries. The middle Gangetic
Valley i.e. the area east of Allahabad was suited to wet rice cultivation. Rice yields are higher than wheat yields per
acre. All this would lead to gradual agricultural expansion as also growth of population. The chiefs of the lineages.
At war with each other. had more to loot and defend. This was because besides cattle. Now of agricultural
expansion, war and conquest the Vedic tribes had come in closer contact with each other, and with the non-Aryan
population. This in fact had led to the formation of larger territorial entities. For example, the Panchalas represented
the coming together of five smaller tribes.
Some of the Janapadas were to develop into Mahajanapadas by the sixth century B.C. This happened as a result of a
series of changes in the internal socio-political structure of the Janapadas. One such important change was the
expansion of agricultural communities. This is indicated by the fact that the contemporary texts list agricultural land
as a very important economic asset. These texts discuss the varieties of rice in as much details as did the Vedic texts
discuss the varieties of cows.
Evolution of Monarchy
The Chakravatin Concept
The Chskravartin (universal emperor) concept which was an important ideal in ancient Indian political theory sheds
further light on the problem under discussion. The ideal Chakravartin was supposed to become a universal
conqueror and achieve universal dominance. The realm of the emperor (Chakravarti Kshetra) or his universe is
equated by Kautilya's Arthasastra with the region between the Himalayas and the sea. The said area, interestingly, is
synonymous with the Indian sub-continent. Later, many other writings also echo this ideal again and again.
The Asvamedha sacrifice was performed by a ruler who claimed the status of a universal monarch. In ancient
Indian political ideas the Chakravartin concept remained a vital force.
Kingship was thus always associated with universal dominion.
However, neither Kautilya nor his successors describe how a pan-Indian empire was to be administered. What
seems possible is that the Chakravartin ideal meant the subordination of rivals, extension of authority over their
territories and thereby the expansion of the empire.
This does not mean that the subjugated territories always became a part of a uniform administrative system or that
strict control was exercised over them. In other words, it meant the demonstration and exercise of superior political
power which had nothing to do with such aspects as administrative regulation, management and organization.
In spite of such limitations of the ideal what is important is that its realization was prevented by the strong
personality of the natural regions and the strength of regionalism. The desire to politically unite the sub-continent
continued to linger on even if such aspirations remained largely unfulfilled. This is largely borne out by the
inscriptions of the early historic period when even petty rulers performed Asvamedha sacrifices as evidence of their
might and made tall claims about the extent of their sovereignty and kingdom. This in fact is a clear cut example
which highlights the difference between the actual and the ideal and emphasises the existance of a range of
differentiated natural regions all through our history.
EMERGENCE OF NEW GROUPS

How far it correct to say that changes in the post Vedic economy gave birth to new religious
movement in India? (20) (2015)
One very important change was the emergence of new categories and groups of people in the society. Let us look at
this aspect in some details.
Gahapati
A Gahapati was the master of an individual household which owned land. A Brahman Gahapati is said to have
owned so much of land that he needed five hundred ploughs to get it cultivated. In the later Vedic society it was the
'Vis' which performed agricultural activities. Land was jointly owned by the lineage. With the emergence of
agricultural society land became an important form of wealth. As such the ruling clans of the Kshatriyas and
Brahmanas brought it under their control. Out of these groups emerged the Gahapati, who signified the
disintegration of joint ownership and the emergence of big individual landowners. The Gahapatis got their land
cultivated by slaves (dasa), hired labourers (karmakara) and Shudras. People captured during war were made
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slaves. The impoverished members of the tribe also joined the ranks of the labourers. The use of dependent labour
was indicative of the emergence of a deprived class whose labour was being used to produce surplus food. The
product of the land would not go to the Sudra or the dasa but to the master i.e. the Gahapati.
Merchants
It was possibly from the ranks of the Gahapatis that an important class of traders emerged.
Through the sale of their produce they built up a certain amount of capital which was used for trading. The word
frequently used for trader in the Buddhist sources is Setthi, meaning 'a person having the best'. It shows that the
people who dealt with money matters had acquired considerable prestige and power. The Brahmanical sources
generally looked down on trading and the vaisyas, who were generally associated with trading. However, by the
sixth century B.C. trade and merchandise became an independent sphere of economic activity. The traders lived in
cities and their emergence is related to the emergence of towns and cities in the period. These merchants traded
over very large areas. By trading among different principalities they created a possibility for kings to try and control
larger areas visited by merchants..Thus by the sixth century B.C. a class of free peasants and merchants had
emerged. They had freed themselves from clan obligations of sharing surplus food or wealth with the other
members of the lineage as was the case earlier. Private property in farm animals. in land and its produce had
emerged as the dominant economic reality of the time.
Ruler and the Ruled

Combined with developments in the socio-economic field were changes in the nature of polity in the
Mahajanapadas. In the preceding period the word Raja referred to the chief of a lineage. For example, Rama whose
legends are related to this period, is often referred to as Raghukularaja meaning one who rules over the Raghu clan.
Similarly, Yudhisthira is called Kuru raja. They ruled over their lineage and the notion of a ruler ruling over a
territory had not emerged. The taxes collected from the kinsmen were largely voluntary tributes. The king was
considered a generous father figure ensuring the prosperity of the lineage. He did not have an independent taxation
system or army. The references to kings in the sixth century B.C. on the other hand indicate his rule over a territory
with a regular taxation system and army. There are references to Krsaka i.e. peasants who paid taxes to the king.
Now the peasant and the my were not linked in any kinship tie with the Raja. The distinction was now between
Raja and Praja. The Praja included people from the non-lineage groups also. A standing army implied control over
local peasantry through force and an attitude of permanent confrontation with the people and kings of the
neighbouring territories The cattle raids of the preceding period were replaced by organised campaigns In which
territory was annexed and agriculturists and traders were forced to pay taxes. Officials entrusted with the work of
tax collection are repeatedly mentioned. An official called bhagadugha collected bhaga i.e. a share of the
agricultural produce. Survey of the agricultural land was done by an official called Rajjugahaka. The Jatakas
mention royal officials measuring out grain to send it to the King's granary. The Mahajanapadas did not bear the
name of the dominant Kshatriya lineage in most of the cases. For example Kosala, Magadha, Avanti and Vatsa
were not named after any Kshatriya lineages.
Thus we see that a new kind of political system had emerged by the 6th century B.C. The chief of the tribe who
used to raid enemy territory and distribute the loot among his followers was transformed into a King having an
army unfettered by tribal loyalties. The my was paid out of the revenues collected from the cultivators. The Vedic
chief's desire for glory and sacrifices led to his breaking away from the lineage. The tribe would not be interested in
fighting wars in distant areas and would oppose any regular tax for the maintenance of the army. This the King
needed for his glory and power. The King's authority was not based on the distribution of wealth among the fellow
tribesmen. It was based on breaking coherent lineage groups and recognising individuals and groups who
would produce wealth. Some of this wealth was taken away from its producers in the form of taxes. In a lineage
society where everyone was regarded as everyone else's relative such arbitrary taking away of wealth by the chief
would not be allowed. The new King levied taxes and protected the peasants and merchants from internal and
external aggression.
UNITS OF SETTLEMENT II: THE JANAPADAS & MAHA JANAPADA
Formation of States (Mahajanapada)
A new type of society marked by the presence of the Gahapati: the merchant and the relationship between the ruler
and the ruled was reflected in new kinds of politico geographical units called the Mahajanapadas. The word
Mahajanapada means large Janapadas like those of Magadha. Kosala etc., ruled by powerful kings or oligarchies. In

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fact. many of the Mahajanapadas of the sixth century B.C. came up by incorporating Janapadas which were
previously autonomous. For example. Kosala Mahajanapada included the Janapada of the Sakyas and of Kashi.
Magadha came to include the Janapadas of Anga, Vajji. etc. even before it grew into an empire. The new society
which is reflected in the contemporary Buddhist texts can be seen in the story of Jivaka. Historians read these
stories to understand the hopes. ambitions. and struggles of men of those days and their contemporary social milieu.
The Story of Jivaka
The story of Jivaka. the famous physician comes to us from the time of the Buddha. In the city of Rajagriha (Rajgir,
near Patna) there was a prince named Abhaya. He saw an abandoned baby on a street. He brought him home and
ordered the maid servants to take care of the child. The boy was called Jivaka.
When Jivaka grew up, he wondered what he should do for a living. He decided that he would become a physician
(Vaidya). In those days Taxila was a famous centre of learning.
Jivaka decided to go there to learn medicine.
Jivaka stayed in Taxila for seven years. He studied hard under the guidance of a famous medicine man. At the end
of his apprenticeship his teacher took a test. He asked Jivaka to look around the surroundings at Taxila and bring
some plants which could not be used for medicinal purposes. Jivaka went out and looked about as carefully as he
could for some plants which were useless for medicine. When he returned the teacher asked him. "How many
plants did you find?" Jivaka said. "Sir, I could not find a single plant which did not have any medicinal value". The
teacher was very pleased and said that his education was complete.
Jivaka set out for Rajagriha. He ran out of money after he had covered half the distance only. He looked for some
work and found out that the wife of a wealthy merchant had been ill for seven years. Jivaka cured her. The
merchant gave him lots of money. Thus. Jivaka came back to Rajagriha. In Rajagriha Jivaka became the private
physician of the King Bimbisara. Bimbisara was so impressed with his skill that he used to send him to look after '
the Buddha. Thus Jivaka came in contact with the Buddha. He gave lots of gifts to the Buddhist monks.
Just compare the setting of the story with the happenings in the early Vedic society. No cattle raids, no sacrifices
and no priests. The story points to the existence of flourishing urban settlements and the important characters of the
story are an abandoned child who chooses to become a physician. a merchant (Sresthin) a king (Bimbisara) and the
Buddha, exponent of a new doctrine. And look at the geographical range-the early vedic Aryans seem to have been
ranging the plains of Punjab in search of pastures. Jivaka travels all the way from Bihar to the north-western border
of Punjab. This would mean that he covered a distance of more than two thousand kilometres to be able to learn the
practice of medicine.
These new kinds of settlements. new kinds of occupations and new networks of roads are symptomatic of a
changed historical situation.
Jivaka moved in a world of new kinds of settlement i.e. the city. The city flourished in a universe of prosperous
villages. Village was the basic unit of the socio-political organization of Mahajanapadas. And so we take a round of
the village in the sixth century B.C.
Villages
In the Mahajanapadas the basic unit of settlement was the Grama. Remember the early Vedic times. It used to be a
mobile unit of people and when two gramas came together it led to Sangrama (literally coming together of villages)
i.e. battle. This was because they were mobile units and when two hostile gramas met it led to attempts at
snatching away each other's cattle. The villages of the sixth century B.C. were settlements where people generally
pursued agricultural activities. (This signifies a shift from a pastoral to agricultural activities). There were various
kinds of small and large villages inhabited by a single household or many families. The households seem to have
been part of an extended kin group, meaning that everyone was related to everyone else in the villages. However,
with the emergence of families who had large landholdings and who employed the labour of dasas, karmakaras and
porisas, villages inhabited by non-kinship groups also came into existence. There are references to land ownership
and tenancy rights of varied kinds. Kassaka and ksetrika denoted the common peasants who were generally of the
Sudra jati. The leaders of the villages were called Gramini. The Gramini are also referred to as soldiers, elephant
and horse-trainers and stage managers. The trend towards increasing craft specialisation is evident from references
to villages of cattlekeepers, ironsmiths, wood workers, etc. These references to villages specialising in activities
other than agricultural operations are indicative of increasing trade and prospering economy. This is because the
villagers who were not producing their own food must have got their food from other villages. This suggests that
regular exchange of goods had become an integral part of the economic life of the people. Also their specialisation
in one craft is indicative of the fact that there was a large scale demand for the goods produced by them.
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Republics
Give an account of gana-sanghas (non-monarchical state systems)? Why did they decline? (15) (2018)
Ganasanghas were an alternative polity to kingdoms, which had its roots in an earlier system. There was a
connection between ganasangha type of polity and the new religious reformation of the sixth century BCE. It is
interesting to note that both Buddha and Mahavira hailed from the ganasangha type of polities; their respective
clans followed the non-monarchical system of polity in early India. It is noteworthy that although there are varied
sources for the ganasanghas, the Brahmanical sources are completely silent about the functioning of the
ganasanghas. It is only Panini who makes a passing reference to the ganasanghas while explaining grammatical
rules. The Buddhist texts however furnish valuable details on the functioning of the ganasanghas, and referred to
the methods by which the ganasangha type of polity operated in the early Indian scenario. During the sixth century
BCE there existed a strong monarchical state system, with the emergence of the Mahajanapadas and the rise of
certain kingdoms like Magadha, Anga, Kosala and others. But that does not indicate that the ganasanghas were of
less importance, as is proved by the existence of significant ganasanghas, like the Vrijji or Vrijjian confederacy.
These Ganasanghas were located not in the middle Ganga plains, but were generally situated in the peripheral areas,
such as the foothills of the Himalayas, or further south, or in the north-west, and sometimes in the eastern part of
the subcontinent. The reason for this was perhaps that they did not want to be a part of the original orthodox
heartland of the Ganga valley. They had their own system of functioning and were outside the pale of varnashrama
dharma. This in turn explains why the Buddhist texts talk of the Ganasanghas, whereas the Brahmanical texts are
not only completely silent about them, but on the contrary decry these ganasanghas as being entities of degenerated
Kshatriyas, or even as Shudras. Varnashrama never figured in the teachings of the Buddha, and even when he spoke
on the social order, he always ranked the Kshatriyas on top of the social ladder, and as being superior to the
Brahmanas. The term gana means a group of people, and when the term sangha is added to it, it means an assembly.
Another term called ganarajya meant governance. These terms indicate that the ganarajyas or ganasanghas were
used to a polity where governance was by a cluster of people and not by a single monarch. The Vrijjian
Confederacy of the sixth century BCE was composed of different kinds of clans. All these clans ruled
independently and had their own independent points of view. But when a decision had to be taken, it was done
through an assembly. This type of polity has been explained in different ways by the historians of early India.
K.P.Jayaswal, a nationalist historian, characterized the ganasangha polity as a form of democracy in early India.
This view has been criticised as being untenable, as we find that the ganasanghas were actually ruled by a particular
group of people, and the opinions of the common people were never taken into consideration. Thus the ganasanghas
cannot be termed as democracies, as the fundamental premise on which democracy is based, or the will of the
common people, was absent in them. J. P. Sharma has taken a more positive approach, and prefers to designate the
ganasanghas as a republican or a kind of oligarchic form of government, where a group of people functioned as the
actual rulers. Romila Thapar regards the ganasanghas as more like protostates. She traces the evolution of the
ganasanghas as a stage in the formation of a state without any actual functioning, from the early chiefdoms in the
Vedic age. Functioning of the Ganasanghas The ganasanghas were generally organised in an assembly of a group of
people belonging to the ruling elite, and as such resembled the corporate sector. There were two sets of people of
whom the term Rajakula refers to the royal kinsmen, while the dasakarmakara denoted the non-kin labourers. There
were no middle strata in the whole structure of the ganasangha type of polity. While explaining their functions the
Buddhist texts refer to an assembly, and furnishes details of the discussions that took place in that assembly.
Whenever there was any dissension, they took recourse to voting, and then arrived at a decision. It was more a
decision of a group of people than a decision of a single monarch. There could have been ministers to advise the
chief of the clan, but the decision of the assembly was final. This was a reason why the monarchical polities feared
the ganasanghas whose main strength lay in their cohesion, and unity. It was this cohesion and unity that took them
ahead, and provided them with the resilience to fight the big monarchical powers. Buddha professed that if the
ganasanghas could stay together, and retain their cohesive attitudes, then no power on earth could ever defeat them.
When Ajatasatru came to the Vrijjian confederacy. Prior to Ajatasatru, the Vrijji and Bimbisara had maintained
friendly relations, and there was no direct conflict between the Magadhan kingdom and the Vrijjian confederacy.
But Ajatasatru wanted to grab the Vrijjian territory, located to the north of Magadha. This territory was significant
not only because it had a very important location trade wise, but also because it was situated in the lower foothills

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of the Himalayas, where different kinds of resources were available. Ajatasatru knew that it would be extremely
difficult to defeat the Vrijjians because they were united. He even sent his minister Vasakara to meet the Buddha
and ask him for his advice. The Buddha in the course of his discussions referred to the unity of the Vrijjians as the
reason that kept them strong, which he took to be a hint. Later on we find that Ajatasatru took recourse to the plan
of sowing the seeds of dissension among the members of this confederacy, in an attempt to weaken them, to enable
him to conquer them. A text called the Attakatha mentions this sowing of the seeds of discontentment. It states that
Vasakara went to the Vrijjian states, stayed there, and proceeded with the plan. The Attakatha goes on to say that it
was possible for Ajatasatru to confront the Vrijjians only because he possessed two weapons that he had innovated
for this purpose, one of which was the Mahakantakashila and the other the Rathamushalam. Mahakantakashila was
more like a catapult and the Rathamushalam was a chariot with two maces attached to it. The use of these two kinds
of weapons, made it easier for Ajatasatru to get hold of the Vrijjian confederacy, which was in the meantime
weakened by internal dissensions and the constant wars with the monarchical powers. The protracted struggle of
Ajatasatru against the Vrijjian Confederacy. The Jain sources corroborate the Buddhist sources. There are
references in Jain literatures to the eighteen ganarajyas of Kashi and Kosala, along with the eighteen groups of
Mallas, and the eighteen groups of Vrijjians. The confederacy thus consisted of thirty-six clans, who got together to
fight the Magadhans. Jain texts also state that it took sixteen long years for Ajatsatru to fight the Vrijjian
Confederacy. This event should not be considered as a protracted struggle but as a policy. It has been rightly
pointed out by H. C. Raychaudhuri that the Kosalan and Vrijjian war should be viewed as a policy of Ajatasatru to
get hold of these territories in order to completely destroy the ganasangha type of polity. D.D. Kosambi calls this
type of policy as’ boring from within.’ Ajatasatru was very adept at ‘boring from within’ through his policy of
‘bheda’, a term that appears in the text, Mithuveda, and denotes the idea of creating dissensions. It was by putting
into practice this ‘bheda’ that Ajatasatru finally overpowered the confederacy of the Vrijjis. The ganasanghas,
according to available evidence in the texts, discussed only means of consolidating their territory. We have
references to small Karmeshas between two different groups or between other groups, but there are no references to
any discussions about any long term struggle within the Ganasanghas for attainment of power. For example we do
not have any reference where we find that the Vrijjian confederacy was trying to control the Mallan confederacy, or
the Sakyas trying to get hold of the Jnatrikas. We have some references to some small ganarajyas like the Jnatrikas
but there appears to have been no effort on the part of the larger ganarajyas to conquer the smaller ones. The
Attakatha, gives a detailed account of the story of Ajatasatru. It talks about how Buddha actually tried to protect the
ganarajyas, and to the elite known as the setthis and gahapatis, who were part of the ganarajya system. The main
focus in the ganarajyas was trade and commerce, and it was only natural that the setthis and gahapatis would play
an important role in the functioning of the ganarajyas. The ganarajyas undoubtedly had a strong economy, but they
did not know the use of resource extraction, or how to mobilise resources for military purposes, which the
monarchical states were adept at. Magadha was particularly adept at resource extraction and especially under
Bimbisara who had a strong revenue network. The ganarajyas found it extremely difficult to keep pace with the
monarchical states, with the kind of functioning they were used to. An important feature of the ganasangha type of
polity was that land was considered to be the property of the clan and all the members had equal control over it. The
Lichchavis even considered the people or even a person as property of the clan. For example Ambapali was not
allowed to marry because she was thought to be the property of the ganarajya. This kind of attitude of the
ganarajyas became detrimental for their existence in later years. The ganasangha society consisted of two strata in
society, the Kshatriya Rajakulas and the Dasakarmakaras. The dasakarmakara or the non-kin labourers have been
referred to in the Buddhist texts as persons who were doing all the work, but who were never represented in the
assembly. This reveals clearly that even in the ganashanga type of polity there did not exist an egalitarian society,
which some historians with nationalist ideas wanted to prove. There thus existed a clear distinction between the
elites and the common people in the ganarajyas, with common people being denied any share in the functioning of
the government. It was always the Rajakulas, the members of the royal elite who had the final say in the running of
the administration. Their non-acceptance of Vedic ceremonies, and Vedic gods and goddesses is amply proved by
the fact that they often practised tree worship and even had sacred groves. The different kinds of rituals that
prevailed in the ganarajyas were not similar to the Vedic rituals. The Dasasanskaras or ten sacraments that a person
had to undergo starting from conception till death, mentioned in Vedic sutra literature were not adhered to or
practised by the ganasangha polities. The income of the ganasanghas was generated mainly from agriculture and
trade. This is significant as they were all located on very important trade routes. The ganasanghas in the north-
western area and the five Punjab Rivers were all a part of the larger trade route which connected north India to West
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Asia, known as the grand Uttarapatha. This trade route connected the Ganga plains, the foothills of the Himalayas
and north-west India with countries in West Asia. This extra impetus of trade provided them with sufficient revenue
to sustain them. The location of the ganasanghas in the foothills of the Himalayas, and in regions near it, ensured a
steady income from wet-rice cultivation, and gave an impetus to agricultural development. The ganasanghas thus
had steady sources of income, which proved to be sufficient for them. The problem with this kind of resource
generation was that the ganarajyas could not do what the Magadhan state or a monarchical state could do. When
there ensued a struggle between the Magadhan polity and the ganarajyas, the resources of the latter could not match
that of the former, and proved grossly insufficient when they got involved in any protracted struggle, and proved to
be their undoing. The ganasanghas thus had to succumb to the aggressive monarchical polities. Another distinction
between the monarchical form of government and the ganarajyas, relates to the selection of the ruler. The
monarchical form of government abided by the maxim that the king was the choice of the Gods, or according to the
divine right theory of kingship. So far as the ganasangha type of polity was concerned the Digha Nikaya mentions
that the ruler was elected. He was elected as the Mahasammata or ‘the great elect’. This indicates that the ruler was
selected on the basis of the decision of the members of the clan. There were two janapadas which had a non-
monarchical structure. There are references to the Kurus, Panchalas and others, which were originally monarchical
but later became non-monarchical. It is intriguing as to why polities which were originally monarchical converted
to a non-monarchical form of government. The answer may be that the more egalitarian approach of the non-
monarchical polity proved a more attractive alternative. After the sixth century BCE these Ganarajyas continued for
a pretty long time. Although some succumbed to the monarchical powers, there were others which continued,
particularly those that were located in and around the five Punjab Rivers, where they continued to exist for a long
period, like the Yaudheyas, the Malavas, the Arjunayanas, and the Sanakanikas. Following Maurya rule, these
ganarajyas again came into power, and became quite important, and even started issuing punch mark type of cast
copper coins or dice struck coins. These ganarajyas or ganasanghas were finally pushed from their original habitat,
the five Punjab river areas, and had to move further south into the areas of Rajasthan or into the areas of Himachal
Pradesh where they could find their own identity and were far from the Ganga valley tradition. The Brahmanical
literature refers to them as degenerate Kshatriyas or as the Bratya- Kshatriyas. The peole who lived in the
ganasanghas were not very comfortable with the varna ideology, preferred to live away from areas that followed the
varnashrama dharma. The arid plains of Rajasthan with the mines situated there, which were somewhat similar to
the Punjab plains proved to be more attractive to these people. In the Asthadhyayi or the Ganapatha, Panini calls
these sanghas as Ayudhajeevisanghas, or a kind of sangha which survives on the use of arms. This points to a
situation in which these people had to have access to sufficient mineral resources, to make the metals. Panini has
been accepted as a preMauryan author who lived in the Sialkot region around the fifth century BCE, which in turn
points to the existence of these groups known as Ayudhajeevisanghas in the same area and around the same time. It
seems to have been relatively easy for this non monarchical group to come to the Rajasthan region, find a footing
for themselves and start staying in this place. If we look at the structure of these ganarajyas we find that there were
different kinds, of which one was like the Sakyas, who were a single clan ganarajyas, where the family and the
chief of the family was the main ruler. The other type of ganarajyas was like the Vrishni and the Vrijjis with
different clan groups ruling together. The ganarajya experience gives a wide variety of political structures which
ancient India saw during the time of the rise of the janapadas. When we study the ganarajyas it must be from the
point of view of a polity which was an alternative. The ganarajyas were alternative to kingdom, but at the same
time it is important to note that they were a kind a polity which was running parallel with the monarchical type of
polity. The history of the ganasanghas of ancient India span over a period of over a thousand years. Their military
defeats at the hands of the monarchical states can be seen as a result of the inability of their system of governance
and military organisation to meet the challenges of empire building.
THE BACKGROUND TO THE SIXTH CENTURY B.C.

“The Sixth century B.C. was a period of religious and economic unrest in India”. Comment. (60) (2003)
Over a period of time the Brahmins emerged as a caste category, who specialized in ritual activity. Then came the
class of Kshatriya warriors and landowners pho gradually started levying taxes over cultivators and merchants. The
later Vedic chieftains seem to have burnt up or distributed their wealth during sacrifices. The competition among
the chiefs to perform more and more sacrifices on a larger and larger scale meant that they had to look for more and

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more booty, taxes and tribute. In this settled agricultural society agricultural produce and cattle were the most
important forms of wealth.
Especially agricultural produce was one form of wealth which could be augmented from year to year by either
extending the cultivable land or adopting more intensive agricultural practices. The rulers' desire for more and more
wealth probably led to the cultivation of more land and settling down of many more pastoralists and forages. The
archaeological records indicate that many agricultural settlements came into existence between 8 th to 6th century
B.C. Two factors which proved to be of great help in increasing agricultural production were the increasing use of
iron tools and the practice of wet rice cultivation in the middle Gangetic Valley.
Use of Iron and Wet Rice Cultivation
By about 1000 B.C. Indians had learnt the art of smelting iron. Over the next three or four centuries iron came into
increasing use. That is why a large number of iron tools and implements have been found from Ujjain, Sravasti and
Hastinapur. Iron weapons in particular have been found in large numbers. These would have increased the power of
the warrior classes vis-a-vis the peasants. With more powerful weapons the warrior classes could extract more
wealth from the peasants. Iron weapons also increased their desire for war, conquest and booty.
Iron had a direct impact on the economy too. Iron axes could be used to clear forests and iron plough shares could
facilitate agricultural operations. This was especially useful in the middle Gangetic Valley (the areas between
Allahabad and Bhagalpur) where wet rice wet rice cultivation are substantially higher than those of wheat or millet
in traditional agriculture. As such there was much larger output of foodgrains in the rice producing middle Gangetic
Valley than the wheat producing upper Gangetic Valley. It has been observed that varieties of rice and paddy fields
are repeatedly mentioned in the early Buddhist texts. This indicates a decisive shift to wet rice cultivation.
Larger food production made it possible to sustain increased population, which is reflected in an increase in the
number of settlements in the archaeological records of this period. All this created the possibility of the emergence
of social groups not engaged in food production.
The Vedic sacrifices meant that most of the surplus accumulated by the chiefs was gifted away at the time of
performing sacrifices. In the areas of the middle Gangetic Valley the Vedic rituals and sacrifices did not have the
kind of hold as in the upper Gangetic Valley.
This meant that the surpluses which were collected by the chiefs were not spent away during sacrifices. The groups
that grew up controlling this surplus wealth became the ruling class of the newly emergent kingdoms. And on the
foundation of this wealth were born the cities of the sixth century B.C.
SOCIETY
The society of the sixth to fourth century B.C. is a society undergoing tremendous change. Preachers, princess and
merchants vie for our attention. This was the time when cities came into existence for the first time in historical
India. This was also the time when a literate tradition began. Towards the end of this period the society had
acquired the knowledge of writing and the earliest script of ancient India is called the Brahmi script. The invention
of writing expanded the horizon of knowledge. Socially acquired knowledge had been transmitted through
memorisation from one generation to another. There was a possibility of lots of things being forgotten or changed
over a period of time. The invention of writing meant that knowledge could be stored without tampering with it.
This fact heightened the consciousness of change. This was because social structure and beliefs kept changing in
time. Once things were written down those changes became observable to the people of the subsequent period when
ideas and beliefs had changed. Let us discuss about the various sections of society who are caught in the flux of
change.
Kshatriyas
The Ksharriyas appear to be the most visible and powerful section of society in the contemporary literature. Buddha
and Mahavira belonged to this group. In the Brahmanical texts the Kshatriyas have been equated with the warrior
caste. This is the second highest caste in the varna order. They were supposed to be the rulers of the society.
However, the Buddhist literature gives a different picture of the KShatriyas. They did not have the compactness and
strict rules of marriage which characterise a caste. They are mentioned as the ruling lineages of the Ganasamghas
like those of Vaisali and Kapilavastu, referred to as the Shakyas, Licchavis, Mallas etc. They were groups who
owned land collectively. Their land was cultivated by slaves and labourers called the Dasa, Karmakaras. They do
not seem to have performed the Brahmanical rituals. As such we find that the Buddhist literature generally talks of
only two groups in the Ganasamghas. They are the high caste and the low caste. In these areas instead of the four-
fold Brahmanical caste structure there is a two-fold division. The Brahmans and Shudras are missing. These
Kshatriya clans practiced various kinds of marriage customs which included the cross-cousin marriage. In fact they
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were so particular about whom to marry and not to marry that the Shakyas are supposed to have been destroyed
because of this. According to a story their overlord, the King of Koshala called Prasenajita, wanted to marry a
Shakya girl. The Shakyas could not refuse the offer. So, they sent a Shakya slave girl who was married to the King.
The progeny of this marriage succeeded to the throne. Upon discovering this ruse played by the Shakyas, he
destroyed them in anger. Although both, the Koshalan monarch and the Shakyas were Kshatriyas they did not inter-
marry. This indicates that the Kshatriyas were not a caste in the sense we understand it. The Kshatriyas were very
proud of their lineage and status. The Shakyas, Licchavis, Mallas and other such clans jealously guarded their rights
of entry in their assemblies and other people were not allowed into these places. These assemblies decided most of
the socio-political issues bf their society. They did not pay land taxes and they did not have a standing army. In
times of war the entire lineage would take to arms.
In the Kingdoms of Kosala, Kashi etc. the rulers are referred to as Kshatriyas. However unlike the Brahmanical
sources the Buddhist sources place them at the top of the four caste structure. In one of the discourses Buddha says
'even when a Kshatriya has fallen into the lowest depths, he is still the best and the Brahmans are low in
comparison to him.' Some of the Kshatriyas are shown as learned teachers and thinkers. Some others are described
as taking to trade. As such one can say that the Brahmanical r:etion of Kshatriya as the warrior caste was applicable
to only some princely families in the upper and middle Gangetic plains.
They performed a variety of activities like preaching, trading and supervising agriculture.
Especially in eastern India Kshatriyas did not exist as a caste. Rather there were many separate groups who called
themselves Kshatriyas.
Brahmanas
The Brahmanas mentioned in the contemporary texts seem more like a caste group.
Brahman is one who is born a Brahman. He may change his profession, still he remains a Brahman. The
Brahmanical texts give them the privilege of mediation between man and god. They had the exclusive rights of
performing sacrifices. This group was imbued with a consciousness of being the highest caste. They also seem to
have followed certain rules of avoiding impure food and habitations. The Shatapatha Brahmana a contemporary
Brahmanical text mentions four important marks of a Brahmana. They are Brahmanical parentage, suitable
behaviour, attainment of fame and teaching of men. For doing this they were supposed to enjoy certain privileges.
They were to be respected, given presents. And were given immunity from death sentence. Many Brahmanas did
follow the life of renouncement and teaching. The Buddhist literature is generally critical of the Brahmanas.
However, it is critical of the Brahmanas who had deviated from pious ethical life. They criticised the excessive
ritualism and greediness of the Brahmanas. Many Brahmanas embraced Buddhism. It had been found that among
the early followers of the Buddha Brahmanas were present in largest number. However, the Pali literature also
indicates that the Brahmanas had taken to various kinds of professions. In the Dasabrahmana Jataka we are told a
story which will give us an idea of the Buddhist attitude towards the Brahmanas.
"In ancient times there reigned in the city of Indrapratha in the Kingdom of Kuru. King Koravya of the family of
Yuddhitthira: He was advised by his minister Vidhura in worldly and spiritual things ... He (the King) gave him a
seat and asked his advice. "Seek Brahmanas Vidhura, that are virtuous and learned. who eschewing sensual
pleasures would enjoy my gifts, gifts, 0 friend, we will make where. what is given will bear rich fruit."
"Very difficult to find are Brahmanas. 0 King. that are virtuous and learned, who, eschewing sensual pleasures,
would enjoy your gifts.
"Verily, there are ten classes of Brahmanas, 0 King. Here when I distinguish and classify them clearly: Provided
with roots, they gather herbs, bathe.
Physicians they resemble, 0 King, even if they call themselves Brahmanas. they are now known to you, 0 great
King, to such we will go."
"Strayed-have they" replies King Koravya" .....
"Little bells they carry before you and ring, messages also they can and they know how to drive wagons, servants
they resemble" .....
"Carrying a waterpot and a bent stick they run behind the Kings into the villages and the Country towns, saying 'If
nothing is given, we will not leave the village or the forests'. Tax Collectors they resemble" .....
"With long nails and hair on the body; filthy teeth, filthy hair. covered with dust and din, they go out as beggars.
Wood-cutters they resemble" .....
"Myrobalans, mango and jack fruits. baskets made of sugar, scents, honey and ointment, the most diverse wares
they sell, 0 Lord. Tradesmen they resemble." .....
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"Agriculture and trade they carry on. they breed goats and sheep, their daughters they give away (for money).
marriages they arrange for their daughters and sons. The Ambattha and versa they resemble" .....
"Some purohitas eat food brought from outside. many people ask them (regarding omens). animals they castrate
and lucky signs they prepare. Sheep are also slaughtered there (in the houses of the putohitas), as also buffaloes,
swine land goats; slaughterer. they resemble." .....
"Armed with the sword and the shield axe in hand, they stand in the roads of the varsas (i.e, in the business streets)
lead the caravans. (Through roads exposed to robbers).
Cowherds they resemble and nishadas" ......
"Building huts in the forest, they make nooses; hares. cats, lizards, fish and tortoises they kill. Hunters are they .......
''Others lie for love of money under the bed of kings; the latter bathe over them after a Soma offering is ready.
Bathers they resemble" .......
This story gives us an idea of the variety of activities-performed by the Brahmanas. It also gives us a glimpse of the
range of professions present in the contemporary society. Even with the changes in profession they are considered
unworthy Brahmanas. They do not lose their caste. References to learned Brahmans are also legion. So are the
references to Brahman agriculturists who cultivated their own land or got their land cultivated by slaves and
servants. However, their primary identity as a caste concerned with the divine, had already been formed.
Vaishyas and the Gahapati
In the Brahmanical varna system Vaishya was the third caste in the ritual order. They were entrusted with cattle
herding, agriculture and trade. The Buddhist literature on the other hand uses the term Gahapati more frequently.
Gahapati literally means the master of the household. This community of landholders, cultivated its land with the
family labour or the labour of slaves and servants. They seem to have emerged out of the rajanya and groups
mentioned in the Vedic literature. Their emergence represents the emergence of family and individual ownership of
wealth. Earlier wealth was collectively owned by the entire lineage.
Apart from the Gahapatis the Buddhist literature mentions a whole range of professionals and merchants who
would fall under the category of the Vaishyas of the Brahmanical texts.
Each of them were closed kinship groups who would not inter-marry. Their identity was defined by the kind of
professions they followed and by their geographical location. As such there never was a Vaishya caste in the
Brahmanical sense of the term. Rather there were many groups having caste like formations. Let us look at some of
these groups.
As already mentioned the Gahapatis form a prominent category of landowners.
Interestingly enough they are rarely found in the Ganasamghas where land was owned by Kshatriya lineages. They
are frequently mentioned in the monarchies of the middle Gangetic Valley. They were the primary exploiters of
agriculture and the source of revenue for the Kings. Gahapatis included men of wealth who were also associated
with carpentry, medicine etc. The Pali texts use another term Kutumbika in a synonymous sense which would
mean the head of the household (Kutumba). They are shown as rich landowners, dealing in corn or money
transactions.
Apart from the big merchants and landlords many small scale traders are also mentioned.
Among them shopkeeper, retailer, trader, pedlars, selling pots and pans, carpenters, ivory carvers, garland makers
and smiths can be mentioned. These groups formed professional unions. No one else but a family member could
take up that profession. This local division of different kinds of works and the hereditary character of various
professions. gave them the character of guilds. They used to have a head who would look after their interests. The
King was supposed to respect the internal rules of the guild and protect it. The presence of the guild indicates
increased trading and manufacturing activity. It meant that groups identified specifically on the basis of their
economic activity came into existence. These groups did have the character of caste. Each of these groups would
marry inside the group only and their rules were considered inviolable.
Shudras
The Shudras were the lowest caste in the Brahmanical order. Their only duty was service to the other three castes.
The non-brahmanical texts give us a picture of many oppressed and poor people who are bracketed as Shudras. The
Pali literature frequently mentions dasas (slaves) and karmakaras (wage labourers). The term dalidda is used for
denoting extremely poor people who did not have anything to eat and no covering for their back. So, for the first
time we have references to the rich living in luxury. and the poor destitute. The process of such impoverishment and
the formation of the Shudra caste may be attributed to the appropriation of land and other resources by the powerful
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groups. The Shudras without any resources were reduced to servility and forced to work on the land of the rich. The
more general reference to the Shudras included artisans and craftsmen also. The Dharmasutras ascribe the origins of
various groups of the Shudras by the notion of the Sankirna jati, which means that if there is an inter-caste
marriage, their progeny would be of a very low caste. This was the counterpart in ritual status to the economic and
social deprivation of the peasants, slaves and craftsmen. They had the most to lose from the erosion of kinship ties,
characterising the Vedic society.
Dasasuddra is frequently mentioned in the contemporary literature. They were slaves who did not have any legal
status. War-prisoners and people who could not pay back their debts seemed to be the chief sources of supply of the
Shudra labour. They were forced to work on the land of the rich. The dasas, karmakaras and kassakas were the
sources of labour supply in rural areas. With the emergence of cities the inequality between the rich and poor
further increased.
All the groups mentioned above by no means exhaust the list of social categories present in the time of the Buddha.
Wandering dancers and musicians moved from village to village and impressed their audiences with their skills.
Tricksters, tramps, elephant tamers, stage managers, soldiers, writers; archers, hunters and barbers were some of the
groups which come in our view. It is difficult to place them in the caste order. Probably, they would be considered
out-castes. Most of them were outside the pale of the newly emerged agrarian society. As such they were generally
despised. Sometimes these groups rose in revolt. The Jataka stories are full of descriptions of war. The poor
Shudras are mentioned as living outside the city. The logical outcome of this process was the emergence of
untouchability.
The chandalas are described living in separate villages. Their presence was believed to be so polluting that the
daughter of a Setthi washes her eyes on seeing a chandala. Similarly, a Brahmana is disturbed about the fact that a
breeze blowing past a chandala would touch him.
The candalas were supposed to wear the garments of the dead and eat their food out of broken pots. Other such
despised groups were the Pukkusas. Nishadas and Venas. One of the justifications of the King's rule was that they
protected the villages from the plundering, pillaging tribes.
Wandering Ascetics
One very visible group in this period was of the Paribrajakas and Sramanas. These were people who had renounced
their homes. They travelled from place to place and held discussions on the meaning of life, society and spirituality.
Condition of Women
The changes in the economy and society of the sixth century B.C. also affected the condition of women. Since,
property was inherited from father to son, there was obsession with the need to prevent adultery. The books
repeatedly say that the two most important functions of the King are punishing the violation of property and of the
family. The meek slave like wife was considered the ideal wife. However. this was true of the wives of the rich. For
them the main function of a wife was producing legitimate heirs. However, there were a larger number of women
who spent their lives labouring for their masters and mistresses. Women were looked down in comparison to men.
They were described as incapable of sitting in a public assembly. They were permanently in the charge of men-
father, brother or son. Even if they join the Samgha they were treated as inferior to men.
Rise of urban centres;

Trace the development of urbanization from the third millennium B.C.E. to 6 th century B.C.E. (60) (2011)
Towns and Cities

Towns and cities dominated by Kings and merchants but at the same time containing a heterogeneous population
were the new kinds of settlement which came into existence during this period. They are variously referred to as
Pura, Nigma and Nagara. The differences among these settlements are not clear. They probably referred to the size
as well as varying features of the settlements. These towns and cities were substantially larger than the villages.
Contemporary literature refers to big cities like Ayodhya and Varanasi covering anywhere between thirty to fifty
square kilometres of area. These accounts are exaggerated as the excavations conducted in these cities show modest
settlements in this period. In no period did the size exceed five square kilometres in circuit. However, this historic
phase is associated with settlements using a deluxe pottery called the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The
settlements witnessed an increase in trade and population. Massive fortifications have been found around the cities
of Kausambi, Ujjaini, Rajghat (Varanasi) and Rajgir. What is clear from the references in literature is the fact that

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the cities had emerged as the focus of power and control over the Mahajanapada. The Kings ruled from their cities.
The newly emerging merchant class controlled trade from these centres, especially after the introduction of coinage.
WHAT IS AN URBAN CENTRE?
Many scholars have tried to define an urban centre. On the face of it, it seems fairly easy to define an urban centre.
But when we get down to details the problem becomes complicated. For example. some writers believe that the
urban centre is characterised by a large population. However, it has been pointed out that some modem Indian
villages have populations larger than those of some Australian towns. Similarly, some scholars argue that urban
centres are larger in size than villages. However, it is difficult to determine a standard size for the towns. We know
that some of the villages today are larger in size than say a Harappan town like Kalibangan. Thus, the number of
people or the size of the settlement cannot be the reliable criteria for defining an urban or rural centre. Hence it is
important to identify the kinds of activities people are performing. In a village most of the people are engaged in
food production. So, the social landscape of the villages is dominated by fields and farmers. In the towns, on the
other hand, the dominant people are either rulers or merchants or priests. It is possible that many people in the town
might engage in agricultural activities but it is essentially the non-agricultural activities that define a town.
Let us take the example of Benaras which is among the oldest surviving cities of India. Its fame rests not on the
very good quality rice produced there but on its being a very important pilgrimage centre. Benaras attracts pilgrims
from all over India. These pilgrims offer various kinds of gifts to the deities in the temples. In this way the keepers
of the temples are able to draw upon the resources of the people coming from all over the country. Thus, the other
characteristic of an urban centre is that it functions in relationship to a large hinterland. The residents of the city
might provide administrative, economic or religious services to a population residing in an area much larger than
the physical space of the city. This relationship with the population of the hinterland is advantageous to the urban
centre. This means that the residents of the city are able to harness the resources of the people living in the
hinterland. This might be done in the form of taxation in kind or tribute. The merchant living in the city is also able
to appropriate a share of the resources of rural areas by controlling the supply of metals, minerals or some luxury
items. This means that the class of 20 kings, priests and merchants living in the cities have more wealth than a
common man.
These classes use their wealth for acquiring more wealth, prestige and power. Now, the rich and powerful in every
society have their own way of showing off. The rich in some societies build large palaces. others build beautiful
temples. still others perform grand sacrifices. Some others are content with the possession of precious metals and
stones.
Apart from the kings. priests and merchants and farmers various groups of craft specialists also stay in the city who
produce luxury items for the city and other objects needed by the people outside the city. These craft specialists
need not enjoy the same privileges as the rich.
For example. the administrator or merchant might be very rich but blacksmiths or masons or carpenters might be
quite poor. Thus, the city is characterised by the presence of rich and poor people.
We can say that an urban centre refers to a place where the most powerful and visible sections of population are
engaged in activities other than food production.
Such diverse socio-economic activities create the problem of proper coordination among those engaged in them.
For example, the blacksmith would need food from the cultivator or the merchant will need protection from robbers
while transporting his goods to and from distant areas. In a situation where each of the groups cannot survive
without the other there is a need for a centralized agency coordinating their activities. The need to keep in check
hostilities between the rich and poor and the need for mobilising agricultural produce for urban consumption also
create the possibilities for the emergence of a centralized power.
The emergence of centralized decision-making groups coincides with the emergence of groups exercising
monopoly over the use of force. This kind of social structure also implies the coming into being of a state society.
Thus, the urban society is characterised by the presence of craft specialists, rich and poor people and a state
administration.
Rise of urban centres, Economic growth; Introduction of coinage;

Examine the relationship among economic growth, urbanization and State formation from c. 7 th century BCE to 3
rd century BCE. (15) (2016)

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Precondition for Urbanization and State Formation:
(1) Surplus Production
 Both state formation and urbanization heavily relied on the surplus of agricultural production. The
landholdings of the town people are so small that they can not produce their own food themselves ,So, they
have to depend on the village folk for its supply.
 It was only in the sixth century B.C. that the people of the Gangetic valley learnt to produce two or three
crops in a year. They started wet rice cultivation. It became possible to produce more than any other crops.
They gradually started producing more than their own requirement. Thus, surplus production in agriculture
began. The iron-ploughshare-based food producing economy provided subsistence not only to direct
producers but also, to many others.
 Before the large scale settlements in the Gangetic valley, most of the area was covered with forest or marsh.
To clear them for agriculture, labour was needed. To control and direct such labour people felt the necessity
of an administrative system.
(2) Control of Surplus

 Production of surplus in a society has to be collected by a group,
 The collecting group distributes it later,
 The collecting or controlling group is very small,
 The collection, control and distribution of the surplus by the small group is acceptable to the larger society.
 In the Gangetic valley in sixth century B.C. the same thing happened. The small group which controlled the
surplus agricultural products became powerful there. They claimed authority and special status in the
society. On the other hand, another section of people could take some professional crafts as their
livelihood . Because, they knew that even if they did not produce their own requirements of rice, pulses or
vegetables, they could exchange it with their own crafts products in the market. But again, like the farmers,
these craftsmen also had to rely on a group of people who collected and distributed the crafts products and
organized the distribution of raw materials for the industry.
 This made possible collection of taxes and maintenance of armies on a long term basis, and created
conditions in which large territorial States could be formed and sustained.
(3) Role of Iron in Changing Society

 The use of iron tools had a clear link with agriculture in 600 B.C. Earlier people burnt forests to clear land.
Now the iron axes helped clearing of forests. It provided more land for cultivation. Iron here was
effectively used for preparing land for agriculture. Moreover, initially ploughshare enabled the farmers to
plough deeper. It was more useful in the heavy and dry soils, particularly in the Gangetic valley. Iron not
only brought a change in agriculture. More than agriculture iron was of various use in the fields of crafts,
weapons etc.
 The use of iron thus helped in the expansion of agricultural fields. It ultimately brought about urbanization
and state formation.
 However, it would be wrong if you think that everywhere, where iron technology was used and there was
agricultural surplus, urbanization took place or state formation occurred. Some places, particularly the
megalithic societies had both these features. But they remained as pre-state and pre-urban societies. On the
other hand some places saw the growth of urban centers and formation of early states. Why was it so?
 This shows that apart from the use of iron there must be some other factor which was also important for the
transformation of the societies. The factor was the process of collection and redistribution of surplus. It
involved two steps. Firstly, a portion of the surplus came to the treasury as revenue. Secondly, to ensure a
continuous supply of revenue control over the farmers and craftsmen was also necessary. Thus, a new
relationship was established in many areas between those who laboured in agriculture and crafts and those
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who controlled these labourers. Only these areas saw the growth of urban centers and formation of states in
the 6th century B.C.
NBPW Culture and Second Urbanization (6th century B.C. to 3rd century B.C.) and its Characteristics:
 Panned township was the characteristic of Harappan civilization. It is the first known urbanization in India.
However, it would be wrong to assume that everywhere in India urban centers grew along with the
Harappan civilization. It could influence only those areas which were nearer to Harappa. There were still
many societies untouched by it.
 There was a large number of hunter-gatherers, farmers and rural folks unaffected by its influence. Many of
such societies started using copper, bronze and iron in the second millennium B.C. Such chalcolithic
societies emerged in many parts of India, particularly in the Gangetic valley. Thus the Gangetic plain was
the location of the second urbanization.
Causes for Second Urbanization:

 In the 6th century B.C. different kinds of towns grew out in the areas of earlier settlement in the Gangetic
plain. There are various factors responsible for urbanization.
 First, some areas, which were the centres of political and administrative activities, emerged as towns.
Capitals of different kingdoms thus soon became urban areas. In this regard we may mention the names
of Rajagriha of Magadha, Sravasti in Koshala, Kausambi in Vatsa, Champa in Anga and Ahicchatra in
Panchala.
 Secondly, in the 6th century B.C. some other township grew out of economic activities, particularly market.
In such cases different villages, producing different agricultural surplus, selected a particular convenient
place. They brought their own commodities and exchanged them with that of others. This system of
marketing is called the barter system. Some of such selected market places were located on trade routes. To
such places goods were brought from the far distant places. The process of urbanization was faster and
more intense in such places. Ujjain was the most important urban center to grow out of such a process.
 Thirdly, religion played an important role in the urbanization in the Gangetic plain. In the 6th century B.C.
people had worship places in only a few places. There used to be big gatherings with people coming from
distant places. Gradually, these religious places saw the emergence of towns. Vaishali was one of such town
to grow out of religious importance.
 Fourthly, there were some places which had all the above mentioned characteristics. These were important
places for administration, economy and religion. Kausambi was such an urban centre.
 In these urban centers there was a greater concentration of people than in the villages. There were more
alternative sources of livelihood and more products were available for their use.The exchange centers and
the local markets were known as nigama and pulabhedana. They were greater than the gramas. The towns
were called nagaras. Larger towns were called the mahanagaras.
 Another factor that helped the process was the use of coins. Although literary evidences regarding the use
of coins in the form of Nishka or Satamana are found, the use of coins became regular during the period of
Buddha. The first coins in India, called punchmarked metallic coins, came at this time. Towards the end of
this period a script was also developed.The period produced texts dealing with measurement
(Sulvasutras), which presupposes writing.
Two Ways of Urbanization:

 Some ancient books refer to two ways by which towns emerged. First one was related with economic
activities. Have you heard about villages like Kumargaon, Kamargaon, Sonarigaon etc ? From these names
you can assume that Kamargaon was the village of the blacksmiths Kumhargaon was the village of the
potters and Sonarigaon was the village of the goldsmiths. This shows that villages can be formed on the
basis of a particular profession.

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 In the same way, in the Gangetic plains, some villages were formed on the basis of specialized professions.
These were blacksmith, pottery, carpentry, cloth weaving, basket weaving etc. These villages grew in
places where new materials were available. They had to distribute their produced goods. So, they linked
villages to big routes or some markets. These villages were gradually transformed into towns.
 When the towns had both production and distribution facilities, they became important commercial centers.
A few of such centers were Vaisali, Shravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Kausambi and Kashi. Some towns
like Ujjain and Taxila could send their commodities to distant places because they were situated on the
trade routes.
Two Areas of Urbanization:

 There were two main areas in the Gangetic plain where urbanization occured. These were western or doab
area and eastern plains.
 There was a concentration of population in these two areas. People used metals like copper, bronze, and
iron. Therefore, the society is called a chalcolithic society. Along with urbanization, states were also formed
in these two areas.
 But there was a difference in these two societies. The doab and western Ganges plain saw the growth
of Painted Gray Ware Culture (1200B.C.- 400 B.C.). This means that people produced commodities
particularly pots with gray paint on this surface.
 On the other hand, the eastern societies used potteries with black and red surface. Later on, soft, bright and
luxurious pots were used there. It is known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (B.C.700-200).
 Archaeologically, the sixth century B.C. marks the beginning of the Northern Black Polished (NBP) phase,
which was characterised by a glossy, shining type of pottery.
Population and Migration:

 Initially, the population of the doab region was small. It settled close to the rivers. Later on, it expanded.
Some moved to the interior places and cleared land for cultivation.
 In the east, people used wet rice cultivation. It gave higher return. Under such condition people from the
north-west migrated to these areas of the Gangetic plains. Scarcity of water or a change in climate perhaps
were two reasons for which people from the Punjab and north-west migrated to the doab region. These
people, who wanted fertile land, migrated to the eastern Gangetic plains. The new settlers influenced the
early settlers with some technological knowledge and they mingled with the existing cultures. The process
of urbanization accelerated after this.
Trade Items:
 Different commodities were available or produced in different areas. Most of them became items of trade.
Most common trade items were iron objects such as hoes, sickles, knives, nails etc.
 Salt was mined in the north-west. Along with it horses were brought to the Gangetic valley. In trade, the
exchange system or barter system was used.
Urban Planning:
 There were some common characteristics in a town of the Gangetic plains in the 6th century B.C. There
were particular and specific places which were allotted to different occupational groups.
 The palace or the court of the kings or the assembly hall was built there. Towards the later part of
urbanization beautiful monumental buildings were built as palaces. Some towns gave religion more
importance and built religious institutions in the middle of the towns. Kausambi built a Buddhist monastery
at the center. On the other hand, some towns did not give religions much importance. Monastery or temple
was absent at Bhirmound.
Comparision with Harappa(1st Urbanisation):

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 In case of the second urbanization people did not make any conscious attempt to imitate the first. There
were some citadels or tall fortresses built at the centres to monitor over the towns. Many of the towns or
urban centres emerged on the banks of the rivers in the second urbanization. Floods could inundate such
towns at any time during the rainy seasons. But no attempt was made to protect it by erecting brick
foundations particularly walls.
 There was also a difference in the necessities of the towns people in the Gangetic plains and Harappa. It
brought some differences in characteristics between these two urbanizations.
Northern Black Polished Ware culture ( NBPW Culture) and Second Urbanization:
The second urbanization gave rise to the organized corporate activities that reached their zenith during the
Gupta period. Discuss. (20) (2017)
 The Northern Black Polished Ware culture is an urban Iron Age culture of the Indian Subcontinent, lasting
700–200 BCE, succeeding the Black and red ware culture (of early iron age, 12th – 9th century BCE,
directly influenced the Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished Ware cultures) and Painted Grey
Ware culture (of early iron age, roughly 1200 BC-400 BC, a successor of the Black and red ware culture).
 It developed beginning around 700 BC, or in the late Vedic period, and peaked from 500–300 BC,
coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or mahajanapadas in Northern India, and the subsequent
rise of the Mauryan Empire.
 NBPW was a very grossy, shining type of pottery which was made of very fine fabric. It was a fine gray
metallic ware with a glossy black surface. It is a hard, wheelmade ware, mainly bowls and dishes. The
surface is made with an alkali flux and fired in a reducing atmosphere (that is why it is associated with iron
age and iron also needed to be fired in high temperature just like NBPW ware).
 It was a luxury style of burnished pottery used by elites. It is associated with the emergence of Second
Urbanisation since the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. This re-urbanization was accompanied by
massive embankments and fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, and
wide-ranging trade networks.
 There are similarities between NBPW culture and the much earlier Harappan cultures, among them the
ivory dice and combs and a similar system of weights. Other similarities include the utilization of mud,
baked bricks and stone in architecture, the construction of large units of public architecture, the systematic
development of hydraulic features and a similar craft industry.
 There are also, however, important differences between these two cultures; for example, rice, millet and
sorghum became more important in the NBP culture.
 The NBP culture may reflect the first state-level organization in the Indian Subcontinent.
 Important NBPW sites are:
1. Charsada (ancient Pushkalavati) and Taxila, in Pakistan
2. Delhi or ancient Indraprastha
3. Hastinapura, Mathura, Kampil/Kampilya, Ahichatra, Ayodhya, Sravasti, Kausambi, Varanasi in Uttar

Pradesh
4. Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, and Champa in Bihar
5. Ujjain and Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh
6. Mahasthangarh, Chandraketugarh, Wari-Bateshwar, Bangarh and Mangalkot (all in Bangladesh and West
Bengal, India)
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Economic Growth:
 Besides, the establishment of big empires, another important feature of the age was increased prosperity
and the growth of towns. The primary reason of increased prosperity of India was its growth of foreign
trade with the countries of the North-West, Western countries and several countries of Asia.
 The development of a stable agricultural society led to concepts of private property and land revenue, and
to new forms of political and economic organization. Commerce among the Janapadas expanded through
the Ganges Valley, and powerful urban trading centers emerged. Craftsmen and traders
established guilds and a system of banking and lending emerged.
 The towns became good markets and both artisans and merchants were organised into guilds under their
respective headmen. Eighteen of the more important crafts were organised into guilds (Sreni, Puga), each of
which was presided over by a Pramukha (foreman), Jyeshthaka (elder) or Sresthin (chief). Sarathavaha was
the caravan-leader.
 Towns became not only the centers of trade but centers of industries as well. Various goods were produced
on a large scale to feed the foreign trade and that could be possible only in town or vice versa. By that time,
Indian rulers had started minting good coins of different metals. It helped in the development of trade and
growth of industries because coins proved to be a good medium of exchange and, thus, facilitated
transactions.
 The system of barter was also prevalent. This led to localization of crafts and industries and the emerging
of artisans and merchants as important social groups.
Introduction of Coinage:
 The need for coins arose due to difficulty in continuing with the barter system for smaller or fractional
items or where the mutual needs of the parties to the barter
were disproportionate.The terms nishka and satamana in the vedic texts are taken to be names of coins but
then seem to have been prestige objects made of metals (silver and few copper). It seems that in vedic times
exchange was carried on through baster and sometimes cattle served as currency.
 The first coins in India were minted around the 6th century BC by the Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic
Plain, and certainly before the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. Cities began to use
coins made of metals for the first time.Punch-marked coins are a type of early Coinage of India, dating to
between about the 6th and 2nd centuries BC. As the name denotes, various symbols were ‘punched’
manually and separately on the coins when the metal was still hot.
 Punches on these coins with the most common the sun and six-armed symbols, and various forms of
geometrical patterns, circles, wheels, human figures, various animals, bows and arrows, hills and trees
etc.The prominent use of the Sun or Solar symbol is not unusual as since time immemorial, mankind and
civilizations across the world has associated Sun with divine powers, source of life etc.
 What has not been ascertained as yet is the meaning and significance behind placing these symbols on the
coins or the particular order of placing the symbols or whether these symbols relate to a particular king,
mint, denomination etc. In the absence of any script or legend on the PMC, these have been attributed to
the various Janapadas on the basis of the nature, number and type of symbols found on the coins as these
were localized to a particular area or region that were also the source for most coin hoards found in those
areas.
 Most of the PMCs are uniface however many bear smaller counter-punches both on the front (obverse) and
back (reverse) of the coin indicating marks placed as either a guarantee of the weight or authenticity by the
issuer or as ‘test’ for the purity of the metal content (may be forgerers existed then also).

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 The coins of this period were punch-marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas or Pana. Several of these
coins had a single symbol, for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, and Dakshin Panchala had
a Swastika, others, like Magadha, had several symbols.
 These coins were made of silver (also Copper) of a standard weight but with an irregular shape. This was
gained by cutting up silver bars and then making the correct weight by cutting the edges of the coin.They
are mentioned in the Manu, Panini, and Buddhist Jataka stories.
 Basic silver punch marked coin of the usual type was Kasapana or pana (3.76 gram).
The masa or masika weighed 1/16 th of this. Various intermediate weights are attested, as well as large
silver coins of 30 and 20 masas and small half masa found.
 Punch marked Copper Coins were based on a different standard- a masa of 0.58 gram and Karsapana of
9.33 gram.
 Quarter masas in copper called Kakinis (0.13 gram) as well as large coins of 20, 30 and 45 copper masas
were found.
 Only one gold punch marked coin is known and gold was rarely minted before the beginning of the
christian era.
Maurya Coins:
 During the Mauryan period, punch-marked coins continued to be issued in large quantities, these are a
continuation of the Magadha Kingdom coinage as the ruling house of this empires established the Mauryan
Empire. They contained on average 50–54 grains of silver in each coin.
 The basic coin is called the Karshapana (pana) in numismatic terms but the Arthasastra stated there are at
least 4 denominations of silver coins in pana, ardhapana (half pana), pada (quarter pana) and ashta-bhaga,
or arshapadika (one-eighth pana).[citation needed] But only the Karshapana is found.
 The style of these coins is not artistic, but they do show recognizable designs such as Buddhist Shrines and
Chaitya, or animals such as the elephant, horse, lion, etc.
Trade routes;
 Of the riparian ports, Sahajati (in Central India), Kausambi on the Yamuna, Banaras, Champa and later
Pataliputra on the Ganges and Pattala on the Indus, deserve special mention. The great inland routes mostly
radiated from Banaras and Sravasti. The chief articles of trade were silk, embroidery, ivory, jewellery and
gold.
 Uttarapatha or the great northern road that ran from eastern Afghanistan, through the Gangetic plains, to
Bengal. Mahabharata gives account of the ancient roadways. It refers to Uttarapatha which linked the
territories of Kirata (perhaps of Magadha), Kamboja, Gandhara and Yavana countries.
 Uttarapatha was the main trade route that followed along the river Ganges, crossed the Indo-Gangetic
watershed, ran through the Punjab to Taxila (Gandhara) and further to Balkh (Bactria) in Central Asia. The
eastern terminus of the Uttarapatha was Tamraliptika or Tamluk located at the mouth of Ganges in west
Bengal. This route became increasingly important due to increasing maritime contacts with the seaports on
the eastern coast of India during the Maurya rule.
 Documentation exists that the states from the Uttarapatha like Kamboja and Gandhara were actively
engaged in commercial intercourse not only with the states of Gangetic valley but also
with Myanmar, Suvarnabhumi, south-west China and other nations in the Southeast Asia.

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 The ancient Pali literature says that merchants from the nations of Uttarapatha were engaged in
international trade following the well-known Kamboja-Dvaravati Caravan Route.
 Merchants from Kamboja, Gandhara, Sovira, Sindhu and other places used to sail from ports
of Bharukaccha (modern Bharoch) and Supparaka Pattana (modern Nalla-Sopara, near Mumbai) for trade
with Southern India, Sri Lanka and nations of Southeast Asia. Huge trade ships sailed from there directly to
south Myanmar. This trade had been going on for hundreds of years before the Buddha. Some merchants
from northern India had settled in Myanmar, in the ports and towns located at the mouths of Irrawaddy,
Citranga (Sittang) and Salavana (Salween) rivers.The name Irrawaddy for the chief river of Burma
(Myanmar) was copied from river Irrawati (Ravi) of north Panjab.
 Uttarapatha was famous from very early times for its fine breed of horses and the horse-dealers. There are
ancient references to an ongoing trade between the nations of Uttarapatha and the states of East India.
Buddhist and Puranic sources attest that the merchants and horse-dealers from Uttarapatha would bring
horses and other goods for sale down to eastern Indian places like Savatthi (Kosala), Benares (Kasi),
Pataliputra (Magadha), Pragjyotisha (Assam) and Tamarlipitka (in Bengal).
 Evidence exists that horse-dealers from Kamboja in the Uttarapatha were trading horses as far as Sri Lanka.
The merchants from north-west Kamboja had been conducting horse-trade with Sri Lanka following the
west coast of India since remote antiquity. A Pali text Sihalavatthu of fourth century specifically attests a
group of people known as Kambojas living in Rohana in Sri Lanka.
Dakshinapatha:
 Dakshinapatha (the “great southern highway”) was the name of southern high road which originated
from Varanasi (Magadha), followed through Ujjaini and Narmada valley to Pratisthana (Paithan) in the
Mahajanapada of Ashmaka, a kingdom on the Godavari River(in modern Maharashtra), onwards to the
western coast of India and running in the southern direction.
 The Dakshinapatha trade route was one of two great highways that have connected different parts of the
sub-continent since the Iron Age. The other highway was the Uttarapatha or the great northern road.The
trajectory of the northern road has remained roughly the same from pre-Mauryan times and is now NH2.
However, the southern road appears to have drifted.
 The crossing of the two highways made Sarnath (just outside Varanasi) a major place of exchange of goods
and ideas in ancient India. This is why the Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath.
 The philosophies of the easterners were disseminated precisely by the intercourse that went on along
the Uttarapatha and the Dakishinapatha trade routes.
Trade and Trade Routes

Linked with the growth of specialisation of crafts is the development of trade. In those days trade, both inland and
foreign, was fairly brisk. Merchants made fortunes by dealing in articles like silks, muslin, amour, perfumes, ivory,
ivory works and jewellery etc. They travelled long distances up and down the great rivers of the country, and even
undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east and from Broach in the west. Inland,
the traders followed certain well established routes. One of them ran from Sravasti to Pratisthana; another linked
Sravasti with Rajagriha; a third skirted along the base of the Himalayas from Taxila to Sravasti; and a fourth
connected Kashi with the ports of western coast. Long distance trade was, however, centred in the towns rather than
at rural sites because the former were centres of production and consequently of distribution besides being better
protected.
The age of barter was almost drawing to a close. Now the ordinary medium of exchange was a coin called
Kahapana (Karsapana). It was of copper and silver and marks were punched on it by merchants or ruler's guilds,
guaranteeing its standard. Banks were unknown, and surplus money was either converted into ornaments, or
hoarded in jars and buried in the ground, or put in the custody of a friend.
RISE OF NEW RELIGIOUS IDEAS

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Spread of Jainism and Buddhism;
Write what you know of the rise and spread of Buddhism before the first century A.D. (60) (2007)
The new religious ideas during this period emerged out of the prevailing social, economic and religious conditions.
Let us examine some of the basic reasons which contributed to their emergence:
i) The Vedic religious practices had become cumbersome, and in the context of the new society of the period had
become in many cases meaningless ceremonies. Sacrifices and rituals increased and became more elaborate and
expensive. With the breakup of communities, the participation in these practices also became restricted and as such
irrelevant to many sections in the society.
ii) Growing importance of sacrifices and rituals established the domination of the Brahmanas in the society. They
acted both as priests and teachers and through their monopoly of performing sacred religious rites, they claimed the
highest position in the society which was now divided into four varnas.
iii) Contemporary economic and political developments, on the other hand, helped the emergence of new social
groups which acquired considerable economic power. You have seen that merchants living in cities or even rich
agricultural householders possessed considerable wealth. Similarly, the Kshatriyas, whether in the monarchies or
in the gana-samghas, came to wield much more political power than before. These social groups were opposed to
the social positions defined for them by the Brahrnanas on the basis of their heredity. As Buddhism and Jainism did
not give much importance to the notion of birth for social status, they attracted the Vaisyas to their folds.
Similarly, the Kshatriyas i.e. the ruling class were also unhappy with Brahmanical domination. Briefly put, it was
basically the discontent generated by the dominant position of the Brahmanas in the society, which contributed to
the social support behind the new religious ideas. It is worth remembering that both Buddha and Mahavira came
from Kshatriya class but in their search for answers to the pressing problems of society they went beyond
boundaries set by their birth. Further, when we try to find out how their ideas were received by their
contemporaries, we notice that they had a range of people responding to them: Kings, big merchants, rich
householders, Brahmans and even courtesans. They all represented the new society which was emerging in the sixth
century B.C. and Buddha and Mahavira, and other thinkers of those times, in their own ways, responded to the
problems of a new social order. The Vedic ritualistic practices had ceased to be of much relevance to this new social
order.
Buddha and Mahavira, were by no means, the first to criticise the existing religious beliefs.
Many religious preachers before them, like Kapila, Makkali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambalin and Pakuda Kachchayana
had already highlighted the evils of the Vedic religions. They also developed new ideas on life and God. New
philosophies were also being preached.
However, it was Buddha and Mahavira, who provided an alternative religious order.
This was the background which helped the emergence and establishment of new religious orders in the sixth
century B.C. Among these Buddhism and Jainism were most popular and well organised.
GAUTAMA BUDDHA AND ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM

Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha who had been given the name Siddhartha by his parents. His father
was Suddhodana, the chief of the Sakya clan and mother was Maya, princess of the Koliya clan He was born in the
Lumbini grove (modem Rumindei) in Nepal Tarai. We know this through an inscribed pillar of Asoka. The date of
birth of Buddha is a matter of dispute but most of the scholars place it about 566 B.C.
traditions describe it, he was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick person, a dead body and an ascetic.
The misery of the human life cast a deep spell on Gautama.
In order to find a solution to the misery of-mankind, he left home at the age of 29.
Gautama spent six years as a wandering ascetic. From a sage named Alara Kalama he learned the technique of
meditation and the teachings of the upanishadas. Since these teachings did not lead Gautama to the final liberation,
he left him with five Brahmana ascetics.
He practised rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of self torture to find the truth. Ultimately abandoning
this he went to Uruvela (near, modem Bodh Gaya on the banks of Niranjina river) and sat under a pipal tree (Bodhi
tree-). Here he attained the supreme knowledge (Enlightenment) on the 49th day of his continuous meditation.
Since then he was called the Buddha (the enlightened one). From here he proceeded to the Deer park at Sarnath
near Varanasi and gave his first sermon which is known as 'Dharmachakra Pravartana' (setting in motion the
wheel of Dharma).
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Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana. Sari-putra and Anada were the first five disciples of Buddha.
He preached most of his sermons at Sravasti. Anathapindika, the rich merchant of Sravasti became his follower and
made liberal donations to the Buddhist order.
At the age of 80 (486 B.C.) he died at Kusinagara (Casia in Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh), the capital of the
Mallas. Let us examine the teachings of Buddha which became popular and gave a new direction to the religious
ideas of the time.
TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA
Buddha’s teachings to a large extent could be helpful in understanding and resolving the problems
of today’s society. Analyse critically. (15) (2014)
Buddhism and Jainism were social movements under the umbrella of religion. Comment. (15) (2017)
The basic teachings of Buddha are contained in:

a) Four Noble Truths, and
b) Eight Fold Path
The following are the Four Noble Truths:
i) The world is full of sufferings.
ii) All sufferings have a cause: desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of sufferings.
iii) The suffering could be removed by destroying its cause.
iv) In order to end sufferings one must know the right path. This path is the Eight Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga).
The Eight Fold Path consists of the following principles:
i) Finding the right view. It is to understand that the world is filled with sorrow generated by desire. The ending of
desire will lead to the liberation of the soul.
ii) Right aim. It seeks to avoid the enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love humanity and increase the
happiness of others.
iii) Right speech, which seeks to emphasise the speaking of truth always.
iv) Right action, which is understood to be unselfish action.
v) Right livelihood. It instructs that a man should live by honest means.
vi) Right effort. It is the proper way of controlling one's senses so as to prevent bad thoughts. It is through correct
mental exercises that one can destroy desire and attachment.
vii) Right mindfulness. It is the understanding of the idea that the body is impermanent and meditation is the means
for the removal of worldly evils.
viii) Right concentration. The observation of it will lead to peace. Meditation will unravel the real truth.
Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of 'karma'. According to this law present is determined by the past
actions. The condition of a man in this life and the next depends upon his own actions.
Every individual is the maker of his own destiny. We are born again and again to reap the fruits of our 'karma'. If an
individual has no sins, he is not born again. Thus the doctrine of karma is the essential part of the teachings of
Buddha.
Buddha preached 'nirvana', the ultimate goal in the life of a man. It means the shedding of all desires, and ending of
sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain
'nirvana'. Therefore, Buddha preached that annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and sacrifices will not
end the desire. So unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in Vedic religion he laid emphasis on the moral
life of an individual.
Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of God. He was more concerned about the individual and his
actions. Buddhism also did not believe in the existence of soul.
Besides these Buddha laid stress on certain other aspects:
Buddha emphasised on the spirit of love. Love could be expressed on all living beings by following 'ahimsa' (non-
killing). Though the principle was well understood, it was not emphasised as much as in Jainism.
An individual should pursue the middle path and both severe asceticism as well as luxurious life are to be avoided.
Teachings of Buddha put forward a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas:
i) Buddha's liberal and democratic approach quickly attracted the people of all sections.

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His attack on the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins was welcomed by the people of the lower orders.
Irrespective of caste and sex people were taken into the Buddhist order. In Buddhism salvation lay in one's good
deals. So there was no need of a priest or middle man to achieve 'nirvana' the ultimate goal of life.
ii) Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedas and condemned animal sacrifices. He protested against the
complicated and meaningless rituals. He said that neither a sacrifice to gods can wash away sin, nor any prayer of
any priest do any good to a sinner.
Buddhism in a very short period emerged into an organised religion and Buddha's teachings were codified.
Spread of Buddhism
Explain the social aspects of Buddhism and account for its decline in India. (60) (2004)
Even during the life time of its founder, Buddhism was accepted by a large section of people. For example people
of Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi had embraced Buddhism.
The republics of Sakyas, Vajjis and Mallas also followed the process. Later on, Asoka and Kanishka made
Buddhism state religion and it spread into central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka. This appeal of Buddhism to a
large section of population was because of the following factors :
Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind and a simple philosophy,
attracted the masses towards Buddhism.
The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay followers accept Buddhism.
Merchants, like Anathapindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, accepted the faith because they got due respect in
this religion.
The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of the religion. This was
because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself so the use of Sanskrit which was not the language of the masses.
The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid growth of Buddhism. For example
according to tradition Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism.
He also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.
The institution of Sangha had helped to organise the spread of Buddhism effectively.
The Institution of the Sangha
The Sangha was the religious order of the Buddhists. It was a well organised and powerful institution which
popularised Buddhism. Membership was open to all persons, irrespective of caste, above fifteen years of age.
Criminals, lepers and persons affected by infectious diseases were not given admission into the Sangha. Initially
Buddha was not in favour of admitting women in the Sangha. However he admitted them at the repeated requests of
his chief disciple Ananda and his foster mother Mahapajapati Goutami.
On admission, the monks had to ceremonially shave their head and wear yellow or saffron robes. Monks were
expected to go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism and seek alms. During the four months of the rainy
season they took up a fixed abode and meditated.
This was called the retreat or 'vasa'. The Sanghas also promoted education among the people. Unlike Brahmanism
people of different orders of the society had entry to education.
Naturally the non-Brahmins who were deprived of education got access to education in Buddhism and thus
education reached wider sections of the society.
The Sangha was governed by democratic principles and was empowered to enforce discipline amongst its
members. There was a code of conduct for the monks and nuns and they were bound to obey it. The Sangha had the
power to punish the sangha members.
Buddhist Councils
According to tradition, after the death of Buddha the first Buddhist Council was held in 483 B.C. in the Saptapmi
cave near Rajagriha. Mahakassapa presided over the assembly.
All the teachings of Buddha were divided into two Pitakas, namely
a) Vinaya Pitaka, and
b) Sutta Pitaka.
The text of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali and those of Sutta Pitaka was settled under
the leadership of Ananda.

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The second Council was held at Vaisali in 383 B.C. The monks of Vaisali and Pataliputra had accepted certain rules
which were declared as contrary to the teaching of Buddha by the monks of Kausambi and Avanti. The Council
failed to bring about a compromise between the two opposing groups; Hence the council ended in a permanent split
of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadins and Mahasangikas. The former upheld the orthodox Vinaya Pitaka while
the latter favoured the new rules and their further relaxation.
The third Council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Asoka under the chairmanship of Moggaliputta Tissa.
In this Council the philosophical interpretations of the doctrines of Buddha were collected into the third Pitaka
called Abhidhamma Pitaka. An attempt was made in this Council to free the Buddhist order from the dissidents and
innovations.
Heretical monks numbering sixty thousand were expelled from the order. The true canonical literature was defined
and authoritatively settled to eliminate all disruptive tendencies. The fourth Council was held during the reign of
Kanishka in Kashmir. This council was a gathering of Hinayanists of North India. It compiled three commentaries
(Vibhashas) of the three Pitakas. It decided certain controversial questions of differences that arose between the
Sarvastivada teachers of Kashmir and Gandhara.
Buddhist Schools
In the second Council held at Vaisali, the Buddhist order was split into two schools namely :
a) Sthaviravadins, and
b) Mahasangikas
The Sthaviravadins followed strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws as originally prescribed.
The group which followed a modified disciplinary rules was called the Mahasangikas.
Mahayanism developed after the fourth Buddhist Council. In opposition to the group (Hinayana sect) who believed
in orthodox teaching of Buddha those who accepted the new ideas were called the Mahayana sect. They made an
image of Buddha and worshipped it as god. In the first century A.D., during the period of Kanishka some doctrinal
changes were made.
ORIGINS OF JAINISM
According to Jaina traditions, twenty four Tirthankaras were responsible for the origin and development of Jaina
religion and philosophy. Of these, the first twenty two are of doubtful historicity. In the case of the last two,
Parsvanatha and Mahavira, Buddhist works also confirm their historicity.
Parsvanatha
According to Jaina tradition the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsvanatha was the son of King Asvasena of Varanasi
and his Queen Vama. He abandoned the throne at the age of thirty and became an ascetic. He received
enlightenment after 84 days of penance. He died at the age of 100 years, nearly 250 years before Mahavira.
Parsvanatha believed in the eternity of 'matter'. He left behind him a good number of followers. The followers of
Parsvanatha wore a white garment. Thus it is clear that even before Mahavira some kind of Jaina faith existed.
Mahavira
The twenty-fourth Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was born in Kundagrama (Basukunda), a suburb of
Vaisali (Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in 540 B.C. His father, Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan.
His mother was Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess. Vardhamana was given a good education and was married to
Yashoda. He had a daughter by her.
At the age of thirty, Vardhamana left his home and became an ascetic. At first he wore a single garment which he
abandoned after 13 months and began to wander as a 'naked monk'. For twelve years he lived the life of an ascetic
following severe austerities. In the 13th year of his asceticism, at the age of 42, he attained the 'supreme
knowledge'. He was later known as 'Mahavir' (the supreme hero), or 'Jina' (the conqueror). He was also hailed
as 'Nirgrantha' (free from fetters).
For the next thirty years he moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in Kosala, Magadha and further
east. He wandered for eight months in a year and spent the four months of the rainy season in some famous town of
eastern India. He often visited the courts of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. He died at Pawa (near Rajagriha) in Patna
district at the age of 72 (468 B.C.).
TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However, he made some alterations
and additions to them.
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Parsvanatha advocated the following four principles:
a) truth
b) non-violence,
c) non-possession, and
d) not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given. To this Mahavira added celibacy (brahmacharya).
Mahavira believed that soul (jiva) and matter (a jiva) are the two basic existing elements. . . ..
previous births. By means of continued efforts the soul can be relieved of bondage. This is the final liberation
(moksha) of the soul. The liberated soul then becomes 'the pure soul'.
According to Jainism, man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain 'moksha' by pursuing a life of
purity, virtue and renunciation. Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by observing the following three principles
(ratnatraya):
i) Right belief. ii) Right knowledge, and iii) Right action.
He advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of 'nirvana' or the highest spiritual
state.
He believed that the world was not created by any supreme creator. The world functions according to an eternal law
of decay and development.
He thought that all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul. He believed that they feel pain or the influence of
injury.
He rejected the authority of Vedas and objected to Vedic rituals and the supremacy of the Brahmanas.
A code of conduct was prescribed both for householders and for monks. For the purpose of avoiding evil karmas, a
householder had to observe the following five vows:
i) non-injury , ii) non-stealing,
iii) non-adultery , iv) speaking the truth, and
v) non-possession.
It was also prescribed that a householder should feed cooked food to the needy everyday. He preached that lay
worshippers should not take to agriculture, since this involved the removal of plants and insects.
A monk had to observe certain strict rules. He had to abandon all worldly possessions. He had to root out every hair
of his head by his own hands. He could walk only during the day, taking care that he did not kill or injure any
being. He had to train himself so as not to be affected by objects of the senses.
Jainism believed that the monastic life was essential to attain salvation and a householder could not attain it.
According to tradition the original doctrines taught by Mahavira were contained in 14 old texts known as 'purvas'.
In the first Council at Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra divided the Jaina canon into 12 'angas' or sections. This was
accepted by Svetambaras. However, the Digambaras refused to accept this claiming that all the old scriptures were
lost. At the second Council held at Vallabhi new additions were made in the form of 'Upangas' or minor sections.
Among the 12 angas the Acharanga sutta and Bhagavati sutta are the most important.
While the former deals with the code of conduct which a Jaina monk is required to follow, the later expounds the
Jaina doctrines in a comprehensive manner.
DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM
Teachings of Mahavira became very popular among the masses and different sections of the society were attracted
to it. Like Buddhism in Jainism also with the change of time a lot of changes came in. We will now see what
contributed to the spread of this religion and what were the developments in it.
Spread of Jainism
Mahavira had eleven disciples known as Ganadharas or heads of schools. Arya Sudharma was the only Ganadhara
who survived Mahavira and became the first 'Thera' (chief preceptor) of the Jaina order. He died 20 years after
Mahavira's death. The Jain order in the days of the late Nanda King was administered by two Theras :
a) Sambhutavijaya, and
b) Bhadrabahu.
The sixth Thera was Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of the Maurya King Chandragupta Maurya.
The followers of Mahavira slowly spread over the whole country. In many regions royal patronage was bestowed
upon Jainism. According to Jain tradition, Udayin, the successor of Ajatsatru was a devoted Jain. Jain monks were
seen on the banks of the river Indus, when Alexander invaded India. Chandragupta Maurya was a follower of
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Jainism and he migrated with Bhadrabahu to the South and spread Jainism. During 'the early centuries of the
Christian era Mathura and Ujjain became great centres of Jainism.
The success of Jainism was more remarkable than Buddhism. One of the important causes for the success was the
popular dialect (Prakrit, Religious literature was also written in Ardhamagadhi) used in place of Sanskrit by
Mahavira and his followers. The simple and homely morals prescribed to the masses attracted the people. The
patronage extended by Kings helped Jainism to gain a place in the minds of the people.
Jain Councils
Towards the close of Chandragupta Maurya's rule a terrible famine broke out in South Bihar. It lasted for about 12
years. Bhadrabahu and his disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola in Karnataka. Other Jains remained in Magadha
with Sthulabhadra as their leader. They summoned a council at Pataliputra at about 300 B.C. In that council the
sacred teachings of Mahavira were divided into twelve angas.
The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 A.D. and was presided over by Devardhi
Kshemasarmana. The purpose of this Council was to collect the Sacred texts and write them down systematically.
However this time the 12th anga drawn at the first Council was lost. All the remaining angas were written in
Ardhamagadhi.
Sects
The split in the Jaina order is widest from the third century B.C. The differences over wearing a garment was
apparent even during the times of Mahavira. The followers of Bhadrabahu, after their return from Sravanabelgola to
Magadha refused to acknowledge the canon holding that all the 14 purvas were lost. Moreover a wide gulf had
developed between those who emigrated and those who stayed in Magadha. The latter had become accustomed to
wearing white garments and made a departure from Mahavira's teachings, while the former still continued going
naked and strictly followed his teachings. Hence, the first split in the Jaina order was between the Digambaras (sky
clad or naked) and Svetambaras (clad in white).
During the later years further splits took place among both the sections, the most important of them being one that
renounced idol worship altogether and devoted itself to the worship of the scriptures. They were called the
Terapanthis among the Svetambaras and the Samaiyas among the Digambaras. (This sect came into existence about
the sixth century A.D.)
OTHER HETERODOX IDEAS

Many non-vedic ideas were prevalent in this period. They later developed into small sects. Among them the Ajivika
sect had a considerable number of followers with a recognized organisation.
Ajivikas
The Ajivikas are said to be sudra sanyasins. The sect was said to be established by Nanda Vachcha, who was
followed by Kisa Sankichcha. The third religious chief was Makkali Gosala, who popularised this sect. He denied
the theory of 'karma' and argued that man is subject to the laws of nature. The Ajivikas believed that the thought
and deed of an individual were predetermined (decided before birth). They did not believe that there was any
special cause for either the misery of human beings or for their deliverance. They did not believe in human effort
and held that all creatures were helpless against destiny. Gosala maintained that all creatures had to face misery and
it would end after the completion of fixed cycles. No human effort would reduce or lengthen the period. Gosala's
followers centred round Sravasti, the capital of Kosala where Gos.ala preached and died sixteen years before
Mahavira.
Other Ideas
The Charvakas believed in complete materialism. They held that an individual's body is formed of matter and
finally would end in matter. Therefore, the aim of human life should be to enjoy all the material pleasures of life.
Purana Kassapa preached the doctrine of Akriya or non-action. He was a Brahman teacher whose main doctrine
was that action did not lead to either merit or demerit. According to him, even if a man killed all the creatures on
earth he would not incur any sin. Similarly, he would not e m any merit through a good deed or even by standing on
the bank of Ganges.
Similarly self-control, gifts and truthfulness would not give them him any credit.
Ajita Kesakambalin preached that everything ended with death and there is no further life after death. -He did no1
believe in the fruits of good or bad acts or persons possessing higher or supernatural powers. According to this sect
there is nothing wrong in enjoying the pleasures of the world, and there is no sin in killing.

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Pakudha Kachchayna preached the doctrine of Asasvatavada. According to it, there are seven elements, which are
immutable and do not in any way contribute to pleasure or pain.
The body is ultimately dissolved into these seven elements.
IMPACT OF THE NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
The rise and development of the new religious ideas had brought some significant changes in the contemporary
social life. Following are some of the important changes.
i) The idea of social equality was popularised in this period. The Buddhists and Jains did not give any importance to
the caste system. They accepted members of different castes in their religious order. This was a great threat to the
age long domination of the Brahmanas in the society. Acceptance of women in the Buddhist order also had an
important impact in the society because this gave women equal status with men in the society.
ii) Brahmanical texts had assigned an inferior position to traders. Sea voyages were also condemned. But as
Buddhists and Jains did not give any importance to caste and did not look down upon sea voyages so the trading
community was very much encouraged by these new religious ideas. Moreover the emphasis on 'karma' by this new
religious ideas for future life also indirectly favoured the activities of the trading community.
iii) The new religions gave importance to languages like Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi. Buddhist and Jaina
philosophies were discussed in these languages and later, canons were written in the local language. This paved the
way for the development of vernacular literature. Thus the Jains, for the first time, gave a literary shape to the
mixed dialect, Ardha Magadhi, by writing their canons in this dialect.
Rise of Magadha and Nandas.

Analyse the causes of the success of the Magadhan imperialism upto the reign of Ashoka the
Great. (60) (2001)
Magadha was one of the sister mahajanapadas which flourished shortly before the time of Gautam Buddha.
Magadhan imperialism was the result of the efforts of enterprising and ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru
and Mahapadma Nanda.
Bimbisara, contemporary of Buddha, laid the foundation of the Magadhan imperialism. He started the policy of
conquest and aggression which ended with kalinga war of Ashoka. He also strengthened his position by
matrimonial alliances. His first wife was a sister of Prasenjit, the king of Koshala. She brought him as dowry a
Kashi village, yielding revenue of 100.000.
His second wife Challena was a Lichchavi princess from Vaishali and his third wife was Khema, daughter of the
King of Madra. This policy gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the expansion of Magadha westward and
northward. Ajatshatru, reign saw the high water mark of the Haryaka dynasty.
He followed his father’s aggressive policy of expansion with more vigor. Sisunagas also pursued the policy of
empire building. It was Mahapadma Nanda who finally succeeded in establishing the first great empire in India.
Bimbisara maintained friendly relations even with distant power. He received the embassy Pukkusati, king of
Gandhara. He maintained good relations with Pradyota, king of Avanti. He sends royal physician java to cure
Pradyota when he fell ill.
Apart from this Magadha occupied a strategic position of geographical importance. The richest iron deposits were
situated not far away from Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha. It enabled the Magadhan Prince to equip
themselves with affective weapons, which were not easily available to their rivals.
The older capital Rajgir was protected by a group of five hills and the later on, Pataliputra, occupied a pivotal
position commanding communication on all sides.
It was situated at the confluence of the Ganga, the Gandak and the son and the fourth river called the Ghaghar
joined the Ganga not far from Patliputra. It served as admirable means for defence and communication and trade.
Pataliputra was a true water fort (jaladurga) which was not easy to capture in those days.
The natural facilities of communication and trade both with north India and the sea helped it in its economic
prosperity. Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangatic plain. It was very fertile which yielded rich harvest.
Therefore proved to be regular and substantial sources of income to the state. It enabled the king to maintain big
army.
Besides, while neighboring forests provided timber for building and elephant for the army, its own iron ore deposits
made possible the manufacture of better implements and weapons and profitable trade in iron.
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The princes of Magadha also benefited from the rise of towers and use of metal money. On account of trade and
commerce with north and east India, the princes could levy tolls on the sale of commodities, accumulate wealth’s to
pay and maintain their army.
Magadha enjoyed a special advantage in military organizations. Although the Indian states were well acquainted
with the use of horse and chariots, it was Magadha which first used elephants on a large scale in its war against its
neighbours. The eastern part of the country could supply elephants to the princes of Magadha. According to the
Greek sources the Nandas maintained 6000 elephants which could be used for storming fortresses.
The unorthodox character of Magadhan society was another important factor in the rise of Magadha imperialism.
Culturally, Magadha, being in the East, was a place where a balanced synthesis between the Aryan and the non-
Aryan culture took place. Its inhabitants- the kiratas and Magadhas – were held in low esteem by the Brahmanas.
But the Brahmanic culture could not claim dominance therefore the liberal tradition in religion and society could be
maintained in Magadha. Since it was recently Aryanized, it showed more enthusiasm for expansion than the
kingdom which had been brought under the Vedic influence earlier. It was quite possible that the Vedic polity by
now had spent its force and it was now the turn of the sturdy people of the east, who were not much affected by the
Aryan invasion to play their part.
Heterodox sects like jainism and Buddhism took their birth within the territories of Magadha. They participated in
enhancing the liberal traditions. The liberal traditions, particularly a sense of social equality and catholicity of
religious ideas, contributed to the building of a strong empire in Magadha.
On account of the ambitious rulers of Magadha, its geographical location, fertility of its land, its mineral resources,
forest and there by its economic prosperity and liberal cultural traditions of the people of magadha helped in its rise
making it the first imperial power of India.
ORIGIN OF MAURYAN RULE

Mauryan Empire:
Foundation of the Mauryan Empire, Chandragupta
It has been suggested by D.D. Kosambi that the most immediate and unexpected by product of Alexander's invasion
of the north-west was that "it hastened the Mauryan conquest of the whole country." He has argued thus because
since the tribe of Punjab had already been weakened, it was not difficult for the Magadhan army under
Chandragupta to conquer the whole of Punjab. Most of the Gangetic Valley was already under the control of
Magadha. According to Classical sources, Chandragupta is supposed to have even met Alexander and advised him
to attack Magadha which was under the unpopular rule of the Nandas. Though this is difficult to verify, both Indian
and Classical sources suggest that Alexander's retreat resulted in the creation of a vacuum, and, therefore, it was not
difficult for Chandragupta to subdue the Greek garrisons left there. However, what i5 not clear is whether he did
this after his accession to the throne of Magadha or before it. Some scholars date his accession to 324 B.C. while
now it is generally accepted as 321 B.C.
According to Indian tradition Chandragupta was assisted by the Brahmin Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or
Vishnugupta. to rise to power. It is further suggested on the basis of a play of the sixth century A.D. which in its
description of the overthrow of the Nandas, Chandragupta, hints that at his accession to the throne at twenty-five
years of age, he was in fact a weak ruler and the real ruler of the empire was Chanakya. The Arthasastra is
attributed to chanakya who is said to have been well-versed in not only the political principles of warfare and
aggrandisement, but was also deeply knowledgeable about the organisation of the State and society to ensure that
the empire did not collapse.
Though the early years of Chandragupta's reign are little known, most historians agree to assign either a 'low caste'
or a tribal origin to the Maurya family. According to some accounts Chandragupta was the son of the last Nanda
king by a "low born" woman called Mura; from her came the family name Maurya. The Buddhist tradition
tells us that he was a member of the Moriya clan of Pipphalivana and thus suggests that this dynasty was in some
way linked to the tribe of the Sakyas to which the Buddha belonged. In this explanation the family name Maurya is
said to have been derived from the name of the tribe. This also indirectly implies that as an old family of chiefs they
were in some senses Kshatriyas. The Puranas do not link the Nanda and Maurya dynasties, though they too describe
the latter to be Shudras. The Brahmanical perception about them is however based on its earlier idea of the
Magadhan society generally being unrighteous and of mixed caste origin. The Classical sources which know of the

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last Nanda king also do not link these two dynasties, though Chandragupta, known to them as Sandrakottus, is
described to be of low origin. It is also suggested that the name ending 'Gupta' in Chandragupta's name, and the
later episode of-Asoka's marriage to the daughter of a merchant of Vidisa, lend credence to the view that the
Mauryas could have been of Vaishya origin.
Though the caste affiliation of the Mauryas remains obscure, it is significant that the most important rulers of this
dynasty turned to the heterodox sects later in their lives.
On the other hand, the several sources that point to the role of the Brahmin Kautilya as the advisor and the
motivating force behind Chandragupta cannot be ignored. The Puranas even suggest that Chanakya had appointed
Chandragupta as the king of the realm. One can perhaps suggest that the Mauryas rose to power in a society which
was never very orthodox. In the north-west there had been considerable contact with the foreigners and Magadha.
itself was looked down upon in Orthodox Brahmanical tradition. Besides, it was considerably exposed to the ideas
of Buddha and Mahavira.
It was thus amidst considerable turmoil-social and political--that Chandragupta was successful in ascending the
throne of Magadha.
Many historians who understand the Mauryan state as an empire primarily in terms of its territorial extent, attribute
great importance to the role Chandragupta Maurya played in ruthlessly steaming the tide of foreign interference in
the north-west and suppressing indigenous rulers in west and south India. Source material on the exact nature of
these military exploits is wanting and therefore, one has to construct these details on the basis of accounts which are
available for his successors who inherited this empire.
Both Indian and Classical sources agree that Chandragupta overthrew the last of the Nanda kings and occupied his
capital Pataliputra and this success is linked with his accession to the throne in around 321 B.C. As mentioned
earlier, the political rise of Chandragupta was also linked 4th the invasion of Alexander in the north-west. The years
325 B.C. - 323 B.C. were crucial in the sense that many of the governors who were stationed in the north-west,
after Alexander's invasion were assassinated or had to retreat and this enabled Chandragupta to gain control of this
region rather quickly.
Here, it needs to be stated that there is an uncertainty about whether Chandragupta routed the foreigners first or
defeated the Nandas. In any case both these tasks were complete by 321 B.C. and the state was set for further
consolidation.
One of the first major achievements of Chandragupta Maurya on the military front was his contact with Seleucus
Nikator who ruled over the area west of the Indus around 305 B.C. In the war that ensued Chandragupta is said to
have turned out victorious and eventually, peace was established with this Greek viceroy in around 303 B.C. In
return for 500 elephants Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus. The
Satrapies thus called were Arachosia, Paropanisadae, Aria and Gedrosia. A marriage alliance was also concluded.
Further, Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megasthenes who lived in the court of Chandragupta for many years.
This achievement meant that the territorial foundation of the Mauryan empire had been firmly laid with the Indus
and Gangetic plains well under Chandragupta's control.
It is suggested by a majority of scholars that Chandragupta ultimately established his control not only in the north-
west and the Ganges plains, but also in western India and the Deccan. The only parts left out of his empire were
thus present day Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of North-eastern India. Details of the conquests in different parts of
India are lacking. The Greek writers simply mention that Chandragupta Maurya overran the whole country with an
army of 600,000. The conquest and subjugation of Surashtra or Kathiawar in the extreme west is attested in the
Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman of the middle of the second century A.D.
This record refers to Chandragupta's viceroy or governor, Pushyagupta by name, who is said to have constructed
the famous Sudarshana Lake. With regard to his control over the Deccan too we have late sources. These are some
medieval epigraphs informing us that Chandragupta had protected parts of Karnataka.
The Tamil writers of the Sangam text of the early centuries A.D. make allusion to the "Moriyar" which is said to
refer to the Mauryas and their contact with the south, but this probably refers to the reign of Chandragupta's
successor. Finally, the Jaina tradition informs us that Chandragupta having become a Jain abdicated the throne
and went South with Bhadrabahu, the Jain saint. At Sravana Belgola, the Jaina religious centre in south Karnataka,
he spent the rest of his life and died in the orthodox Jain way by slow starvation.
Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, is said to have ascended the throne in 297 B.C.
There is comparatively little known about him from either Indian or Classical sources.

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To the latter he is known as Amitrochates. They also inform us that he had contacts with the Seleucid king of Syria,
Antiochus I, whom he requested to send-him sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist.
In a very late source of the sixteenth century, in the work of the Buddhist monk Taranath of Tibet, we are told of
Bindusara's warlike activities. He is said to have destroyed kings and nobles of about sixteen cities and reduced to
submission all the territory between the eastern and western seas. The descriptions of early Tamil poets of the
Mauryan chariots thundering across the land probably refer to his reign. Many scholars believe that since Asoka is
credited to have conquered only Kalinga, the extension of the Mauryan empire beyond the Tungabhadra must have
been the work of his predecessors. It can therefore be suggested that it was probably in Bindusara's reign that the
Mauryan control of the Deccan, and the Mysore plateau in particular, was firmly entrenched.
Though Bindusara is called "slayer of foes", his reign is not very well documented, and, therefore, the extent of his
conquests can only be arrived at by looking at a map of the empire of Asoka who conquered only Kalinga (Orissa).
His religious leanings are said to have been towards the Ajivikas. Buddhist sources suggest the death of Bindusara
around 273-272 B.C. After his death there was a struggle for succession among his sons for about four years.
Ultimately, around 269-268 B.C. Asoka was crowned Bindusara's successor.
ASOKA MAURYA
Ashoka; Edicts;
Till about 1837 A.D. Asoka Maurya was not a very well known king. In that year James Prinsep deciphered a
Brahmi inscription referring to a king called Devanampiya Piyadasi (Beloved of the Gods). This was compared
with what was known from the Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamsa and then it could be established that the king of
the inscription was indeed Asoka Maurya. The fame of Asoka is due to the fact that he turned away from war and
tried to establish a system of rule based on the principle of Dhamma. Below, we discuss some relevant details of his
early life, the Kalinga War and the extent of the Mauryan empire during his reign.
The Kalinga War
During his father’s reign Asoka served as a Viceroy at Ujjain and also at Taxila. It is suggested that he was sent to
Taxila for a special purpose, namely, to quell a revolt.
After being successful at Taxila, the Buddhist sources tell us, he was sent to Ujjain as Viceroy. The events in his
personal life here, like his marriage to a Vidisha merchant's daughter and the birth of their two.children Mahinda
and Sanghamita, are said to have had a great influence in turning Asoka towards Buddhism. Any of the details
about his early life come from the Buddhist cronicles, and, therefore, certain ambiguities in them cannot be denied.
About the accession of Asoka too there are several versions, but there is some general agreement that he was in fact
not the crown prince (Yuvaraja). Therefore, he was involved in a struggle against other princes before he ascended
the throne His portrayal as an extremely wicked king before his conversion to Buddhism is undoubtedly
exaggerated in Buddhist accounts so as to enhance his piety as a Buddhist. It is necessary to point out that though
Buddhism played a significant role in Asoka's later life, one has to discount those versions that depict him as a
fanatic or bigot. An idea of the King's personality and beliefs comes through more clearly from his many
inscriptions in Which his public and political role are both described.
They also suggest his conversion to Buddhism to have taken place after the Kalinga War.
Though Asoka's predecessors had intruded into the Deccan and the South and perhaps conquered parts of it,
Kalinga, i.e., the present-day State of Orissa, still had to be brought under Mauryan control. It was of strategic
importance as it controlled routes to South India both by land and sea. Asoka himself in Rock Edict XIII describes
his conquest of Kalinga which is said to have taken place eight years after his consecration, around 260 B.C. In this
war the Kalingans were completely routed and "One hundred thousand were slain, and many times that number
died." Though on the battlefield Asoka, was victorious, the inscription goes on to describe his remorse which then
ultimately turned him towards Dhamma. A policy of conquest through war was given up and replaced by a policy
of conquest through Dharmavijaya. This was meant to work both at the State and personal levels, and totally
transformed the attitude of the king and his officials towards their subjects.
Magadha at Asoka's Death
The location of the various Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts through which Asoka preached his policy of Dhamma
gives us a fair idea of the extent of the Magadha empire during his reign. There are fourteen Major Rock Edicts,
seven Pillar Edicts and some Minor Rock Inscriptions which give us this information. The Major Rock Edicts are
located at Shahbazgarhi and Maneshra near Peshawar, Kalsi near Dehra Dun, Sopara in Thana district, Girnar near
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Junagarh in Kathiawar, Dhauli near Bhuvaneshwar and Jaugada in Ganjam district of Orissa. In Karnataka, the
Minor Rock Edicts appear among other places at Siddapura, Jatinga-Rameshwara and Brahmagiri. Other Minor
Rock Edicts are found at Rupnath near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh, Sahasram in Bihar, Bairat near Jaipur in
Rajasthan and Maski in Karnataka. The Pillars bearing Asoka's inscriptions are found in Delhi (originally located at
Topara near Ambala and Meerut), Kausambi in Uttar Pradesh, Lauriya Araraj, Lauriya Nandagarh and Rampurva in
Bihar; Sanchi, near Bhopal; Sarnath, near Benaras: and Rummindei in Nepal. The exact location of these sites is
indicated in the map attached to this Unit and gives a clear idea of the large territorial spread of the empire under
Asoka. The placement of the edicts also highlights the care with which they were located on important trade routes
linking river and road traffic.
Therefore, as suggested by recent writings on the subject, access to raw materials appears to have been the main
motivation particularly in controlling the peninsula.
The Edicts also describe people on the borders of the empire and this confirms the delineation of the empire noted
above. In the South are mentioned the Cholas, Pandyas, Sataputras and Keralaputras as people living outside the
Mauryan empire.
Inside the empire too there were people of diverse origins and diverse cultures. For example, in the north-west are
mentioned the Kambojas and Yavanas. They are mentioned along with other peoples like the Bhojas, Pitinikas,
Andhras and Pulindas who can be located in parts of western India and the Deccan.
Apart from studying the locations of Asoka's edicts on a map, the exact extent of his empire can be ascertained, to
some extent by distinguishing the 'Conquest territories' (Vijita) and 'royal territories' (Rajavishaya) from the
bordering territories (pratyanta). Just as the territory of the Seleucid king Antiochus-II lay outside his empire in the
north-west, so were the territories of the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Keralaputras and the Satyaputras, as also the
island of Srilanka outside his empire in the south. In the east the empire of the Mauryas seems to have included
north and south Bengal.
The Magadhan empire thus reached its greatest territorial expansion under Asoka. However, simultaneously, there
was also a conscious attempt to end all wars in his empire. The extension of the principle of non-violence to state
policy was a unique experiment that was never repeated in the annals of the political history of India.
Often, in writings of different historians, Asoka has been idealized as a benevolent despot. This tends to overlook
the more enabled Asoka to ideologically control a vast empire which otherwise would perhaps have been difficult
to rule. Finally, though the find spots of the Mauryan inscriptions are on well known trade routes, some of them
bordering peripheral zones of the empire, it still remains to be conclusively decided whether the regions where no
evidence of inscriptions is found, were controlled in the same way as those where they were found.
MATERIAL AND SOCIAL BASIS OF PRODUCTION

Economy
A substantial surplus of agricultural produce was now created. This surplus not only transformed the material basis
of society, but also gave rise to new social groups. Many of these new social groups began living in the
newly emerging towns.
The Greek writer Arrian stated that it was not possible to record with accuracy the number of cities because of their
immense numbers. This can be taken to indicate that there may have been an increase in the number of towns in
this period.
Descriptions by Megasthenes of the well organised administration of towns indicate large concentration of
population in these centres. For living in these towns regulations were apparently stringent. Excavations have
however, failed to produce any substantial evidence of city planning in this period and the remains of Mauryan
architecture are few. That many of the building structures were made of burnt bricks can be deduced from the fact
that they have been found in large quantities from excavations in sites spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Houses
were made also of timber because Megasthenes speaks of wooden structures at the Mauryan capital, Pataliputra. At
Kumrahar (modern Patna) excavations also revealed some structures which have been identified as a pillared hall of
a Mauryan palace. In terms of structures one of the most important finds of this period are a large number of
ringwells which were probably used to supply water for domestic purposes. They became widespread in other parts
of the country in the subsequent ages. The hallmark of the structural development was thus the extensive use of
ringwells and burnt bricks. They imply the easy availability of timber for them to be made. Use of burnt bricks, and
finds of Northern Black Polished Ware sherds and other remains help us gauge how widely towns were distributed
in several parts of the Mauryan empire.
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General Features of Agrarian Economy

Settlement of permanent villages was recognised in the Arthsastra as a method for the expansion of agrarian
economy.
These settlements ensured a sound and stable resource base for the State to extract taxes and the land tax formed the
bulk of it. This process of settlement was called janapadanivesa, but the extent of how this was done is not clearly
known. According to R.S. Sharma it would be reasonable to presume that most of the Ganges Basin was brought
under cultivation in this manner and some efforts may have been made in the outlying areas as well.
Growth of agriculture meant that the cultivator began to assume an increasingly important role. Megasthenes in his
account of the Indian society and its division into seven classes mentions the farmers as the second class, next only
to the philosophers who are mentioned as the first class and followed by the soldiers who are mentioned as the third
class. 'Though his perception of the division of Indian society was not absolutely correct, the farmers drew his
attention because they were numerically a large class devoted to land. 'The Classical sources specifically mention
that the cultivators were without arms. Megasthenes also maintains that the peasants were left untouched during
war. 'This seems difficult to believe as the example of the Kalinga War and the figures quoted in the Asokan
inscriptions of those dead and deported must have included a fair number of peasants.
We have already seen that some lands were sita or crown lands. In these areas the King's and the State's rights of
possession, cultivation, mortgage and sale were naturally superior. Infact, in the Arthasastra a sitadhyaksa or
superintendent of agriculture is mentioned who probably supervised the cultivation works here. These areas were in
all probability fertile and suited to high productivity. It is difficult to identify the origin of these State farms. It is
possible that their origin lay in large estates owned by individual landowners in pre-Mauryan times. These were
also areas where slaves were deployed working under direct State supervision. The advanced knowledge of
agricultural techniques, described in depth in the Arthasastra, also probably refer to these lands.
Agriculture in other areas of the Mauryan State, known as janapada territories, was in all probability, carried on
privately. In the Jataka stories there are frequent references to gahapatis and grambhojakas. These groups are
said to have employed hired labourers on land indicating their capacity to do so as a land-owning gentry. In
contrast, the labourers are described to be in a pitiable condition and sometimes, slaves are also mentioned. The
King could own land in his personal capacity in both sita and janapada areas though direct references to this for
this period are lacking.
Thus though it is not possible to discuss the full complexities of the land ownership pattern for the whole of India in
detail, for the Ganges Valley alone one can suggest that different types of it existed. This naturally entailed varied
systems of cultivations and also different levels of agricultural development. The Arthasastra references to
different types of agricultural operations supervised by officials thus refer to lands owned by either the State or
King. However, a small section of the text deals with the sale of land and buildings. This suggests that individuals
could own small areas of cultivable land which they could cultivate themselves.
The most important reason for the success of agriculture in the state owned lands was the facility of irrigation
provided by the State. There were rules for the regulation of water supply for the benefit of agriculturists.
Megasthenes informs us that a number of officers were employed who measured the land and inspected sluices by
which water was distributed into the branch channels. That irrigation facilities existed in other areas as well is
indicated by the mention of an irrigation cess amounting to a fifth, a fourth or a third of the produce in the
Arthasastra. Since this cess was levied only on irrigated soil it can be deduced that the State regulated irrigation
facilities in areas where rainfall was scarce. In these areas a regular supply of water could ensure a normal yield of
crops. Pushyagupta, one of the governors of Chandragupta Maurya, is said to have built a dam for creating a
reservoir of water near Girnar in Saurashtra. This was known as Sudarshana tadaga (water tank). This reservoir
became so famous that its history can be traced to the middle of the fifth century A.D. for a period of about eight
hundred years.
Land Revenue Organisation
The Classical writers state that some villages were exempted from taxation. They were probably rare exceptions
and in fact, it has been suggested that this was so because these villages may have provided soldiers to the State. It
is also suggested by scholars that in order to bring virgin soil under cultivation in some village’s remission of taxes
was allowed for a period of time.

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The essential resources needed for the Mauryan State could only be got from land revenue. Therefore, the land
revenue collection had to be efficiently organised so as to expropriate the maximum possible surplus from the
people. It is generally stated that the Mauryan rule constitutes a landmark in the history of the improvement of
the system of taxation in ancient India. The Maury as in fact attached great importance to the assessment of land
revenue and the highest officer in charge of this was the samaharta. The sannidhata was the chief custodian of the
State treasury. Since the revenue was also collected in kind, providing storage facilities was also the duty of the
latter.
The classical writers mention that 114th of the produce was paid in tax by the peasants. They also suggest that a
tribute was paid by them. Land tax (bhaga) was the main item of revenue. According to the texts, it was levied at
the rate of 1/6th of the produce. But it is possible that in the Maurya period it was quite high and levied at
the rate of 1/4th of the produce. The Lumbini Edict of Asoka says that when he visited Lumbini. the birthplace of
the Buddha, he exempted the village from the payment of bali and reduced the payment of bhaga to 1/8th. Even
Asoka's great respect for the Buddha did not prompt the emperor to exempt the village totally from the payment
of taxes.
Sharecropping was another way by which the State collected agricultural resources.
The sharecroppers were in the first place provided with seeds, oxen, etc., and received arable land for cultivation. In
this kind of situation the peasants probably gave half of the produce to the State.
The above taxes were further supplemented by a large number of customary dues Economy of the Mauryan Empire
that the peasants had to pay. The Mauryas also introduced some new taxes and made already existing ones more
effective. The peasants paid a tax called pindakara paid by husbandsmen, which was assessed on groups of villages.
This was also customary in nature. Often the villages had to supply provisions to the royal army passing through
their respective territories and this naturally increased their burden. The exact nature of hiranya is also not known,
but it was probably a tax paid in cash because hiranya literally means gold. Bali, the traditionally known levy from
the Vedic times, continued under the Mauryas, and all the above taxes which are described by Kautilya in the
Arthasastra must have burdened the peasantry considerably. Nonetheless, he continues to recommend that in case
the State still falls short of its needs, several other fiscal measures for periods of emergency could be made use of.
For example one such measure was the levy of pranaya which literally meant a gift of affection. This is a tax first
mentioned by Panini but elaborated upon for the first time in the Arthasastra. It amounted to 1/3 or 1/4 of the
produce according to the nature of the soil. It is usually interpreted as a voluntary gift but once put into practice, in
reality it must have become obligatory. Further, in times of emergency the cultivators could be forced to raise two
crops. The importance of these measures was constantly emphasized as the country did face famines, and during
these bleak periods the level of revenue collection must have naturally fallen.
As land revenue was the backbone of the Mauryan economy, the Arthasastra is careful in designing the revenue
system of the State. It is particular in defining the different types of villages to be taxed as the fertility of soil varied
from place to place. There is also attention paid to special categories of revenue collectors and assessors.
Undoubtedly then, the Mauryan State, atleast in its major areas, must have ensured a substantial land revenue
collection without which the government machinery and the army would have been difficult to maintain.
Organisation of Trade
Trade did not suddenly develop during this period. It was part of the larger process of economic change which had
begun much before the Mauryan times. The Jataka stories have frequent references to caravan traders carrying
large quantities of goods to different parts of the country. The security provided by Mauryan rule enabled internal
trade to blossom. Major trade routes to West Asia and Central Asia passed through north-west India. The main trade
routes in northern Indian were along the river Ganges and the Himalayan foothills. Major centres like Rajagriha in
Magadha and Kausambi, near present-day Allahabad, were connected in this way. Pataliputra, the capital of the
Mauryas, had a particularly strategic location and was connected by river and road in all four directions. The
northern route going to such sites as Sravasti and Kapilavastu was connected through the city of Vaisali. From
Kapilavastu this route linked up Kalsi, Hazara and eventually led up to peshawar. Megasthenes
also talks of a land route connecting the north-west with Pataliputra. In the south it was connected to Central India
and in the South-east to Kalinga. This eastern route turned southwards to finally reach Andhra and Karnataka. The
other part of the eastern route continued down to the Ganges delta to Tamralipti which acted as an exit point for the
south and south-east. From Kausambi moving westwards another route led to Ujjain. This continued either further

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west to the coast of Gujarat or west south across the Narmada and was regarded as dakshinapatha (southern route).
The overland route to countries of the West went via Taxila near Islamabad.
The opening up of communications in various parts of the Indian sub-continent was the direct result of the
expansion of settlements, as it facilitated movement from one place to another. This naturally fostered trade.
Internal trade was considerably benefited because river transport had been improved once the forests around the
Valleys had been cleared under State initiative. The State's policy particularly under Bindusara and Asoka to have
peaceful and friendly relations with the Greeks gave fillip to foreign trade as well.
Trade was carried on in different ways. It was intrinsically linked to the methods of production and its organisation.
Primarily in north India craft production was organised on guild (sreni) lines. This was so in the pre-Mauryan
period as well. Under the Mauryas when the number of artisan groups had increased we find guilds organised in
different towns, inhabiting particular sections of them. These guilds generally worked and lived together in a
closely .knit relationship. Craft was necessarily hereditary and in most cases specialization was handed down from
father to son. These guilds became very powerful in the post-Mauryan period as is evident from a number of
inscriptions. Megasthenes also mentions the artisans as one of the seven castes/classes he noticed during his stay in
India. The well-known guilds of the period were those of metallurgists of various kinds, carpenters, potters,
leatherworkers; painters, textile workers, etc. Akin of the Northern Black Polished Ware is a good example of craft
activities. It became a specialized kind of pottery-making craft and its availability outside the Ganges Valley is
limited. His indicates that it was a technique developed in this-part of the country and was perhaps dependent on a
particular type of clay available here.
Like the artisans, the merchants were also organised along guild lines. Certain kinds of merchants were connected
to particular artisan groups which made distribution of goods easier. They too inhabited identifiable parts of the
cities which came to be associated with their professions.
It is however, important to note that the State administration under the Mauryas also took up the organisation of
trade. This administrative control on production and distribution made it more efficient. This did not mean that it
directly interfered with and changed the guild organisations. On the other hand, it increased its control on the
distribution of their goods and itself became a producer. At another level, it gradually converted some crafts into
some sort of small-scale industries. The State did this by directly employing some of the artisans like. armourers,
shipbuilders, builders in stone, etc. They were exempt from payment of tax because they rendered compulsory
labour service to the State. Other artisans like spinners, weavers, miners etc., who worked for the State were liable
to tax.
The above mentioned steps to organise trade and commodity production were part and parcel of State policy. This
policy was aimed at augmenting its efficiency in economic spheres of activity and its revenues. Megasthenes
mentions a superintendent of commerce whose duty was to fix prices of goods and also to interfere if there was a
glut in any commodity. He is also mentioned in the Arthasastra as panyadhyaksa. This text lists the various officials
that were in charge of the different economic activities. The office of the samsthadhyaksa that looked after the
markets was infact to check the wrong practices of the traders. The pautavadhyaksa or superintendent of weights
and measures exerted a strict control on maintaining standard weights and measures. State boats that facilitated
transport were put under the charge of a navadhyaksa. He helped in-regulating river transport and collecting ferry
charges. All traders had to pay taxes and custom's dues ranging from 1/5th to 1/25th of the value of goods. These
were supposed to be collected by a superintendent of tolls called the sulkadhyaksa.
Where the State produced goods, different categories of officials looked after particular departments. These goods
were called rajapanya. The State was careful to choose those areas of commodity production and trade that were
essential for its functioning and yielded good revenues. Sometimes State goods could also be sold by private traders
as their network of distribution was more well-organised and widespread. Despite the above changes it would be
right to conclude that the majority of artisans either continued to work individually or within the complex structure
of the guilds. The guilds continued to serve the very important purpose of cohesively organising petty producers
and most importantly, controlling them, Even the artisans found it advantageous to join them since this eliminated
the expenses of working alone or competing with others of the same profession. From the State's point of view the
guilds facilitated the collection of taxes. Finally since they concentrated locally and also specialized in particular
crafts there was a strengthening of that particular trade. We need however, to conclude with the point that guilds
were not found to flourish in all parts of India during this period. Particularly in the extreme South, even in the
post-Mauryan period it is difficult to find mention of them. The major pre-requisite for guilds to flourish was of
course an urban milieu to which we now turn our attention.
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Growth of Urban Economy
The process of urbanism which had begun in the pre-Mauryan period witnessed further growth in the Mauryan
period. Two major sections of population inhabited the towns, namely, artisans and merchants and the officials of
the government. The urban economy characterised by the activities of the manufacturers of goods and of merchants
as also by a system of exchange began to spread from the Ganges Valley to other areas of Western and Central
India, the Deccan and South India.
Proliferation of rural settlements and the prosperity of the gahapatis enabled the social base of urban centres to
expand further. In many cases it. were the rich rural families that developed contacts with towns and provided
financial support needed particularly by merchant groups.
Material remains of the Mauryan phase to show that the urban centres had definitely increased during this period. It
is however impossible to measure this growth. Going by Kautilya's Arthasastra we learn that through a process of
durganivesa or durgavidhana, the State founded walled towns. These towns were said to be peopled by priests,
nobles, soldiers and also merchants, artisans and others. There are also detailed descriptions in this text on the
protection of towns and their lay-out so that economic regulations could be carried out properly. Indeed, the
Arthasastra viewed towns (durga), as it viewed the janapadas, as an important source of revenue. The taxes received
from towns paid rich dividends to the State and therefore, development and administration of towns was given
much importance. Infact, when mention is made of taxing
guilds located in the capital or durga, we get an impression that those in the countryside enjoyed exemption. This
may have been because town population was easier to regulate and organise.
Megasthenes' detailed description of the Mauryan capital gives us some idea about how towns were administered
and which areas of urban economy were regulated in the interest of the State. He tells us that Pataliputra was
administered by thirty officials who were divided into six Committees of five members each. Of these six
Committees four were related to economic activity. These were Committees dealing with industrial arts, trade and
commerce, the supervision of the public sale of manufactured goods and the collection of tax on articles sold. The
other two committees were concerned with the welfare of foreigners and the registration of births and deaths. The
general administration of law and order in the cities was thus important to ensure the proper functioning of its
economic activities.
The above description may apply to other similar big and developed cities in the heartland of the Mauryan Empire.
In the absence of enough information it is not possible to describe the exact nature of the administration of small
cities, port towns and pilgrimage centres. What is however, important to emphasize is that the development to the
Mauryan economy in general made it possible for towns of various kinds to flourish. Population mobility and
interaction between social groups was necessary for the urban economy to remain healthy and prosperous. This
could be ensured by a certain degree of political stability in the metropolitan and core areas of the empire.
Another significant aspect of the urban economy is that it created the situation for the development of transactions
in cash and the circulation of coined money. Though the use of currency began in an earlier period, it became fairly
common during the Mauryan period because of the development of commerce. Its use in trade is self-evident but
the importance of cash in the economy can be gauged from the fact that it was probably used to pay salaries of the
officials. The Arthasastra lists for us the range of salaries expected to be paid and this varied from 48,000 panas to
60 panas annually. For such a powerful cash economy to function the minting of coins and the supply of metals like
silver and copper required to do so were of prime importance. That these were harnessed by the Mauryas is evident
from the innumerable punch-marked, mostly silver, coins which are assignable to this period.
Of these the majority are stated to be from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar which constituted the core area of the empire.
For the kind of urban economy that envisaged substantial State control, the State also had to maintain a monopoly
in certain important spheres of activity. Thus, the Arthasastra provides for a superintendent of mines called
akaradhyaksa whose chief function was to look for new mines and reopen old ones. Like mining metals another
area of State monopoly was mining salt. The importance of different kind of metals not only for minting coins but
for such important commodities as making weapons.
cannot be we find the mention of a superintendent of iron. Apart from equipping soldiers with arms, the
government was probably also concerned about supplying implements for agriculture.
The concern for keeping a monopoly over mining and trading in mineral products thus secured for the Mauryan
State the most crucial raw materials. Proper utilization of these in turn secured for them a greater return in both
agrarian and non-agrarian sectors.

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Once economic-control of urban centres was established and their administration well-regulated, control over
various janapadas through these towns also increased.
Due to an increase in commercial transactions, the centres of exchange and trade had also increased in number.
Socio-Economic Changes in Mauryan India

From the above discussion it appears that the most distinguishing feature of the Mauryan Economy was the
emphasis on State control in agriculture. trade and industry. We have shown that it was necessary for the State to
levy a variety of taxes. The requirements of resources for the Mauryan State were very high. The taxes realised
from the region of Magadha and adjoining areas were not enough to meet this demand. Therefore, attempts were
made to control resources in other parts of the country as well. For example, Kalinga, the Karnataka plateau and
Western India where Asokan inscriptions are found, were such areas. To regulate certain types of economic
activities in such far off regions, the Mauryas worked out different strategies. This depended on the nature of
resources the particular region offered.
The conquest of Kalinga, for instance, offered control of an agriculturally rich area as well as the control of
important trade routes that passed through it to the mineral rich areas of South India. Thus the main motive behind
acquiring such regions as Karnataka seems to have been that they were rich in gold and other precious materials.
What about those areas where Mauryan inscriptions are not found? It has been recently argued by Romila Thapar
that it is difficult to gauge the political or economic control of the Mauryas in such regions. Northern Deccan, the
Punjab and Sind and Rajasthan may be cited as examples of such areas. What is the extent of their influence on the
economies of the areas where their presence is indicated? Here it may be suggested that no large scale restructuring
was done even in these areas. The main interest of the Mauryas was the exploitation of resources of these areas and
they depended on influential sections of population in these areas for doing this. It may be pointed out that most
regions outside the Ganges Valley were at different levels of economic development in this period. Because of this
uneven development, radical change and restructuring of all these regions was very difficult.
The Arthasastra and the inscriptions of Asoka tell us about the tribes (atavikas, aranyacas) that inhabited the various
parts of the empire. They often separated the more developed areas from the less developed areas. Kautilya's advice
to the State was to win them over to a settled agrarian life. He devotes a full chapter to wow tribes
could be systematically broken up and several methods, fair or unfair, were deployed to do this. This was necessary
in order that groups of five to ten families could settle down permanently for bringing more land under cultivation.
Asoka's attitude towards the tribes was paternalistic, but he too warns them that in case they failed to conform or
disobeyed orders of the Mahamatras, stern action would be taken against them.
Controlling of the forest tribes was important from two points of view:
i) First, it was necessary for new agrarian settlements to be secure as disturbances from tribes would interrupt their
economic development.
ii) Secondly, trade routes often bordered or passed through tribal regions and these had to be made secure.
It is difficult to have an exact idea of how many tribal groups were thus converted to peasants, but, that the process
was encouraged by the State is significant to take note of. Archaeological evidence for many parts of India shows
habitation sites that were not fully developed as urban centres during this period. The case of the innumerable
megalith sites, especially those dated to the third century B.C. or so, in many parts of the Deccan and South India,
indicate simple farming or pastoral communities with only a limited knowledge of craft production.
It was impossible to totally change the cultural pattern of a vast country like India in the third century B.C. but at
the same time Mauryan rule did initiate some major changes in the material and socio-economic setting which bore
fruits in the subsequent centuries.
Some of these changes may be briefly highlighted. In many areas of the Mauryan empire such as north and west
Bengal, Kalinga, the Deccan, and also in the neighbouring south, the beginning of early historical cultural pattern
dated to only Mauryan or post-Mauryan periods. This means that, impressive human settlements like towns and
cities in which different social groups lived, use of coins, use of scripts, use of sophisticated objects on a significant
scale-all began in these regions only from the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods. This change in material culture
implies that there were not only changes in technology and material life in general but also in social organisations
and in ideas. Society started becoming organised in a much more complex manner, resulting in separation between
social groups and ultimately in the institution of the State. The fact that we find local states appearing in many of

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the regions after the Mauryas suggests that the process of major socio-economic change associated with the
production of surplus in society began in many parts of India through contact with the important regions of the
Magadhan Empire.
Polity, Administration;
Determine the extent of the Mauryan Empire. (60) (2005)
Examine the nature of the Mauryan State. Bring out the features of their administrative system. (60) (2002)
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The Mauryan Empire had many major administrative units like the centre and the regions which had various sub-
units down to the village. All these units had their own administrative set up but they came under the central
authority. The Central administration can be classified under following heads:
i) The King ii) The Council of Ministers
iii) City Administration iv) Army
v) Espionage network vi) Law and justice
vii) Public Welfare
The King
The King was the supreme authority of the state. All basic policy matters as well as crucial decisions were taken by
the King. The Arthasastra forthrightly mentions that if over an issue the traditional law (Shastra) holds a different
point of view from that of the King's law, it was the King's law which prevailed. The Mauryan Empire, in fact,
represents a centralised political system under which the monarchy had emerged victorious over the gana-
samghas. The Arthasastra gives final authority to the King in all aspects of administration. It gives the King
primacy among the seven.
The argument in favour of King's central position in the Arthasastra is because it is the King who:
appoints or removes the ministers (Amatyas),
defends the treasury and the people,
works for the progress and welfare of the people,
influences the people (Praja) through his morality.
But not every one was fit to be a King and the Arthasastra also mentions certain necessary virtues for the King like:
birth in a high family (uchchakula),
capability to keep under control various small kings and officials,
sharp intellect,
truthfulness, and
upholder of Dharma, etc.
Not only this but the Arthasastra specifies certain subjects which the King should master in order to carry out his
functions. He should undergo military training and have knowledge of various departments of economic life
(Vartta), writing (Lipi) etc.
The Arthasastra further goes on to explain his conduct and daily routine.
The Arthasastra also lays down three-basic pre-conditions for successful administration of the empire by the King: '
i) he should pay equal attention to all matters,
ii) he should remain vigilant and active for taking action or corrective measure, and
iii) he should duly discharge his duties.
Beside this he had to be constantly accessible to his advisors and officials. That the King did so is also evident from
the account of Megasthenes and from the Asokan edicts.
By the time of Asoka the Mauryan Empire had consolidated its position. An important development in the King's
position now was the emergence of a paternal attitude towards his subjects. In the Dhauli inscription Asoka states:
All men are my children and just as I desire for my children that they should obtain welfare and happiness both in
this world and the next, the same do I desire for all men.
But in spite of this paternal attitude the monarch was conscious of his absolute authority. For example in the same
inscription, addressed to the officials at Tosali and Samspa, he states:
Whatever I approve of, that I desire either to achieve by taking action or to obtain by effective means. . . . . and
these are my instructions to you.

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There is no doubt that Asoka kept the welfare of the people as the prime aim of administration but in terms of
political analysis he was an absolute monarchy. By I adoption of the title Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods)
Asoka; according to Romila Thapar, made "an attempt to emphasize the connection between kingship and divine
power, perhaps even to the degree of excluding the intermediaries, the priests." This, in fact, indicates that the King
was now exercising his authority in religious matters.
Council of Ministers
The Arthasastra as well as the Asokan inscriptions refer to a Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad). The Arthasastra
mentions that the work of the state cannot be carried out without assistance. It mentions that "as the chariot cannot
move on one wheel hence the King should appoint ministers and listen to their advice". Similarly the, Girnar Rock
Edicts of Asoka mention about the functions of the Council: Rock Edict III implies that the Parishad was expected
to see that new administrative measures were carried out by different categories of officials.
Rock Edict VI mentions that the ministers can discuss the King's policy during his absence; suggest amendments;
and decide upon any important matter which the King has left to them. Yet the Council had to report its opinion to
the King immediately.
The power of the Council might have varied from time to time; yet its primary role remained that of an advisory
body. This was because the final authority vested with the King. There was no fixed number of ministers and
Kautilya mentions that it should be decided according to the needs. But he opined that "a large council is beneficial
for the King". He has also listed the issues on which the King should consult his ministers. These included:
consultation on how to start the works which the state wants to undertake, to determine the manpower and finances
involved in carrying out these works, to determine the areas-where the works have to be carried out, and finding
solutions to deal with calamities, etc.
Kautilya mentions that the work should be carried out according to the majority verdict in the council but in case
the King feels that the majority verdict will not be able to achieve the goal, he should decide according to his own
thinking.
He makes it clear that the "ministers should see to it that the King's orders are carried out properly".
An interesting point mentioned in the Arthasastra is the criteria or the qualifications for the appointment of
ministers. For example the person should be such as not to be lured by wealth, not to succumb to pressure, etc. i.e.,
he should be a Sarvopdashudha (purest of all). 'There are also references to an inner council (Mantrins) - small
group of ministers who would be consulted on issues which needed immediate attention.
We do get references about eighteen departments (Tirthas) of the central government in the Arthasastra. For
example the Karmantika looked after the industries, the Antarvamsika looked after the King's security and the
Sannidhata looked after the treasury, etc.
Examine the role of adhyaksha in the Mauryan administration. (30)(2012)
The Central administration was conducted by a highly skilled Superintendents or Adhyakshas who looked after
various departments. Kautilya in the second book of his Arthasastra, Adhyakshaprachara, gives an account of the
working of nearly 27 adhyaksas. Some of the important officials are mentioned below.
The Akshapataladhyaksha was the Accountant-General who was in charge of the two offices of currency and
accounts. The Sitadhyaksha was the superintendent of the agriculture of crown lands or government agricultural
farms.
The Akaradhyaksha was the superintendent of mining and possessed scientific knowledge of mines, metallurgy,
gems and precious stones. Lavananyadhyaksha was the salt superintendent, as the manufacture of salt was a
government monopoly.
Navadhyaksha was the Superintendent of Ports who controlled traffic and transit by waterways. The
Panyadhyaksha was the controller of commerce who was in the charge of the control of supply, purchase and sale
of commodities.
The Sulkadhyaksa was the collector of customs and tolls. TheSuradhyaksha was the Superintendent of Excise who
controlled the manufacture and sale of liquor. Pautavadhyaksha was the superintendent of weights and measures.
The Lakshanadhyaksha was the superintendent of the mint, etc.
City Administration

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Megasthenes has given a vivid description of administration in Palibothra (Patliputra). This account, though
different from that in the Arthasastra, helps us in understanding the city administration during this period. In this
account the city council was divided into six sub-councils or committees and each committee had five members:
1) The first committee looked after industry and crafts. Its functions included inspection of such centres; fixing the
wages, etc.
2) The second committee looked after the foreigners. Its functions included; arranging for their food, stay and
comfort, security, etc.
3) The third committee's work was registration of births and deaths.
4) Looking after trade and commerce, the functions of the fourth committee included: inspection of weights and
measures, controlling the market, etc.
5) The fifth committee inspected the manufactured goods, made provisions for their sale and a strict watch was kept
to distinguish between new and second-hand goods.
Interestingly enough, there is no mention of such committees in the Arthasastra in spite of the well defined plan of
city administration. However, we do find in this planning almost all the functions mentioned by Megasthenes. For
example, in Arthasastra the functions of the fourth committee are performed by the Panyadhyaksha; the collection
of taxes (Sixth Committee) was the responsibility of Sulkadhyaksha and registration of births and deaths was the
work of Gopa. The head of the urban administration was called Nagariaka. He was assisted by two subordinate
officials - Gopa and Sthanika. Besides these there were a host of officials whose functions have been elaborately
defined. For example: Bandhanagaradhyaksha looked after the jail.
Rakshi i.e. the police, was to look after the security of the people.
Work in the centres where goods were manufactured was looked after by a host of superintendents like the
Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika, etc.
The Arthasastra also refers to a variety of activities of city administration, regulations related to them and penalties
on their breach. These included:
Sanitation and water sources
checking adulteration,
watch over inns, and
precautions against fire, etc.
The law enforcers were not above the law. For example in case the Rakshina (policeman) maltreated a woman, he
had to face severe punishments. At the same time if the citizens broke any of the regulations they were subjected to
penalties. For example if any citizen moved out during the curfew hours at night and his explanation for this did not
come under the exempted categories, he had to pay a heavy fine.
Thus, we can say that the city administration during this period was elaborate and, well planned.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION-II
Kautilya and Arthashastra;
Certain areas of administration also came under the purview of central administration. However, in some cases like
public welfare works their implementation depended on various local, administraitive units.
Army
The Nanda kings had a strong army, and it is interesting that the army which Kautilya and Chandragupta had raised
to defeat the Nanda King consisted of mercenary soldiers. Both the Greek and Indian literary sources refer to this.
Violent Kalinga war in Asoka's time point towards a large and well organised military set up under the Maurya.
According to Megasthnese the branches of the army consisted of:
infantry, cavalry,
elephants, chariots,
transport, and admiral of the fleet
Each branch was looked after by a committee of 5 members. Kautilya has referred to Chaturangabala (i.e.
infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants) as the main components of the army -each under a commander.
The officers and soldiers were paid in cash.
Salaries of Army officers
Senapati - 48000 Pana
Mukhyas - 8000 Pana
Adhyakshas - 4000 Pana
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There was a separate department to look after the production and maintenance of a variety of armaments whose
chief was known as Ayudhagaradhyaksha. There is a detailed description of the work of various Adhyakshas. For
example the Rathadhyaksha also had to look after the construction of chariots and the Hiastyadhyaksha looked after
the elephant force. The Arthasastra also refers to the recruitment policy, war plans and fortifications, etc.
There is no doubt that the state spent a large amount of revenue in maintaining its army, which in the long run
might have adversely affected its treasury.
Espionage
The Mauryan administration had a well knit system of espionage. A watch was kept practically on all important
officials as well as on general public. The main tasks of the spies recruited involved:
keeping an eye over the ministers,
reporting on government officials,
collecting impressions regarding the feelings of citizens, and
know the secrets of foreign rulers, etc.
For these activities they would seek the help of various people like cooks, barbers, etc. They would themselves
adopt various guises like ascetics, students etc., to seek information. At times they even directly reported to the
King on matters of importance. In fact the Arthasastra mentions a well knit system of espionage.
Justice and Punishment
In order to maintain social order, smooth functioning of the administrative system and flow of revenues to the state
an orderly legal system was established under the Mauryas. The Arthasastra is full of codes listing punishments for
various offences.
These included a vast range from violation of marriage laws, divorce, murder adulteration, wrong weights, etc.
There were various kinds of courts to try the offenders of law or settle disputes at various levels. If the Gramika
had judicial powers at the village level there were also courts at the level of Janapada and the centre. Two kinds of
courts are mentioned in the Arthasastra:
1) Dharmasthiya i.e. courts which decided personal disputes.
2) Kanhkmaba i.e., courts which decided upon matters related to individuals and the state.
For example, the first kind of courts would settle issues related to disputes over Stridhan (wife's wealth) or
marriages etc., and the second category of courts dealt with wages to workers, conduct of workers, murder, etc. The
courts functioned under certain regulations. Cases were properly registered and ample opportunity given to produce
witnesses and plead on one's behalf. The sources of law, as mentioned by Kautilya, were:
2) Vymvrhar i.e., current legal codes,
3) Chraritra i.e., customs, and
4) Rajyasasana i.e., the royal decree.
The king was the upholder of Dharma and held the supreme judicial power. According to Megasthenes the
incidence of crime committed in Maurya India was not very high. But the range of punishments mentioned in the
Arthasastra indicates that breach of laws and crime were not uncommon in the Mauryan social fabric.
Hence, the need for a severe Penal code. However, due stress was laid on evidence and the witness. Cases were
decided by a "body of arbitrators' with a system of appeal to the king. However, it is worth mentioning here that the
penalties in Arthasastra were based on Varna hierarchies meaning that for the same kind of offence a Brahmana
was punished much less severely than a Sudra.
Revenue Administration
State revenues, during the Mauryan period, were derived from various channels Kautilya has listed different
resources from where revenue flowed into the state treasury which was looked after by an official Sannidhata.
Public Works
The Mauryan state took a keen interest in public works. The account of Megasthenes and the Arthasastra refer to
these works:
The state took considerable interest in irrigation because it could be a major source of revenue. Megasthenes has
mentioned officials who supervised irrigation. In Arthasastra also there are references to various modes of irrigation
like dams, ponds, canals etc. There were certain regulations regarding the use of water resources and breaking
these was a state offence. The state also encouraged people for repairing dams at their own initiative and for this
land revenue remissions were granted. In the inscription of Rudradaman (written in the middle of second century

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A.D.) there is mention of the construction of a water reservoir (tadaga) called Sudarsana during Chandragupta's
times. This was obviously built to facilitate the supply of water.
2) There are a many references to medicine men of various kinds during this period like ordinary physicians
(Chikitsakah), midwives (Garbhavyadhi) etc. From Asokan inscriptions we know that medical treatment and
medicines were available to both men and animals.
3) The state also helped its citizens during natural calamities like floods, famines etc.
4) The Arthasastra mentions that the King should look after orphans, old unattended women, etc. To what extent
these were actually carried out we do not know.
5) An important aspect of public works was the laying down and repair of roads and opening inns.
Thus, we can say that the state did spend a certain amount from its revenues on public works. This must have
increased during the time of Asoka due to his concern for public welfare and paternal attitude towards his subjects.
Do you agree with the popular view that Mauryas established a unitary and highly centralized if not monolithic
state system? (20) (2018)
This overview of the Maurya administrationspeaks of the creation of a well organized polity. But it is difficult to
perceive that theadministration was run solely and uniformly atthe instructions issued from the capital by theapex
political authority. The Mauryaadministration seems to have recognized localand regional variations which
wereaccommodated and not wiped out. Readings into Asokaís edicts do not uphold the image of amonolithic and/or
unitary polity, recommended by the Arthasastra, where every commandseemingly emanated from the capital.
Asokahimself admits that his realm being vast, hisofficers were allowed to issue elaborate (vistata),medium-sized
(majhima) and abridged (samkhita) edicts (RE XIV). That subordinateofficers could modify the central text of
royalorders according to their respective local needsand situations, is clearly upheld by the Mauryaemperor. The
accommodation of localpeculiarities is best indicated by the issuance of edicts in Greek and Aramaic languages
andscripts, specifically catering to the local needs which could not be served by the use of Prakritlanguage and
Brahmi or Kharoshthi scripts. Onthe other hand, Asoka chose to cause theengraving of the edicts in peninsular India
inBrahmi script and Prakrit language though thearea could well have been more familiar withDravidian speeches
than Prakrit. Some degreeof centripetality in the Maurya realm is visible,but this does not imply the existence of a
unitary,monolithic polity bereft of local diversities. Atany rate the direct authority of the apex Mauryagovernment
was effective mostly in themetropolitan and core areas of the empire, thatis in the Ganga Valley, while its
penetration intothe peripheral areas was limited.
DHAMMA – CAUSES
Concept of Dharma
“The concept of Ashoka’s Dhamma as found through his inscriptions had its roots in Vedic-Upanishadic literature.”
Discuss. (15) (2017)
In examining the causes for the policy of Dhamma, we have already outlined the historical background, earlier in
this Unit. We have suggested that the policy of Dhamma was an earnest attempt at solving some of the problems
that a complex society faced. However, the policy was nurtured in the mind of Asoka and through it he attempted to
resolve some of the tensions within the society. Asoka's private beliefs and his own perceptions of how he should
respond to the problems of his empire were responsible for the formulation of the policy of Dhamma. It is
necessary for us to understand the immediate social environment in which Asoka grew up as it influenced him in
the later years of his life.
The Mauryan kings are known to have adopted an eclectical outlook. Chandragupta took recourse to Jainism in his
later years and Bindusara favoured the Ajivikas.
Asoka himself adopted Buddhism in his personal life, though he never imposed Buddhism on his subjects. Before
studying 'the actual contents of Dhamma let us briefly recapitulate the main points of the overall situation that
shaped a policy such as this:
By the time Asoka ascended the throne the Mauryan imperial system had become a complex phenomenon. The
imperial system encompassed various cultures, beliefs and social and political patterns. Asoka had to either
maintain the structure by force, which would incur tremendous expenses, or to define a set of social norms which

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would be acceptable to all, cutting across all social practices and religious beliefs. Asoka found his answer in the
policy of Dhamma.
Asoka was aware of the tensions which the rise of heterodox sects like Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikism had
generated in society. They were all opposed to the domination of the Brahmanas in some way or the other and had a
growing number of supporters. But Brahmanas continued to have strong hold on society and some measure of
hostility was inevitable. It was essential to bring about a climate of harmony and mutual trust in a situation such as
this.
There were obviously many areas within the empire where neither Brahmanical system nor following of the
heterodox sects prevailed. Asoka himself refers to the country of the Yavanas where neither Brahmanical nor
Sramanical culture was in vogue. Besides, there were many tribal areas in the empire where people were
obviously not familiar either with Brahmanical or heterodox ideas. To make the empire survive and to bring some
measure of cohesion within the empire in the midst of such diversity it was essential that there should be some
common pattern, of behavior and common approach to the problems of society.
CONTENTS OF DHAMMA
Edicts
The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different communities
and following any religious sect. Dhamma was not given any formal definition or structure. It emphasised on
toleration and general behaviour. Dhamma stressed on dual toleration-it emphasised on toleration of people
themselves and also an toleration of their various beliefs and ideas. There is a stress on the notion of showing
consideration towards slaves and servants; there is stress also on obedience to elders; generosity towards the needy,
Brahmanas and Sramanas, etc. Asoka also pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a
sense of harmony.
The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence. Non-violence was to be practised by giving up war and
conquests and also as a restraint on the killing of animals. However, Asoka realized that a certain display of his
political might may be necessary to keep the primitive forest tribes in check.
The policy of Dhamma also included certain welfare measures, like planting of trees, digging of wells, etc. Asoka
attacked ceremonies and sacrifices practised regularly on various occasions as meaningless. A group of officers
known as the Dhamma mahamattah were instituted to implement and publicise the various aspects of Dhamma.
Asoka thrust a very heavy responsibility on them to carry his message to the various sections of the society.
However, they seem gradually to have developed into a type of priesthood of Dhamma with great powers and soon
began to interfere in politics as well.
In order to make all these aspects of Dhamma clearer, we will see how the policy chronologically developed by
examining the contents of some of the Edicts.
Major Rock Edict I declares prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday of festive gatherings.
Major Rock Edict II relates to certain measures of social welfare which are included in the working of Dhamma.
It mentions medical treatment for men and animals, construction of roads, wells, tree planting, etc.
Major Rock Edict III declares that liberality towards Brahmanas and Sramanas is a virtue, respect to mother and
father, etc are all good qualities.
Major Rock Edict IV is a very important statement of the policy of Dhamma. The edict comments that due to the
policy of Dhamma the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahmanas and Sramanas, violence, unseemly
behaviour to friends, relatives and others and evils of this kind have been checked. The killing of animals to a large.
extent was also stopped.
Major Rock Edict V refers to the appointment of Dhamma-mahamattas for the first time in the twelfth year of
his reign. These special officers were appointed by the king to look after the interests of all sects and religions and
spread the message of Dhamma in each nook and corner of the society. The implementation of the policy of
Dhamma was entrusted in their hands.
Major Rock Edict VI is an instruction to Dhamma-mahamattas. They are told that they could bring their reports
to the king at any time, irrespective of whatever activity he may be engaged in. The second part of the Edict deals
with speedy administration and transaction of smooth business.
Major Rock Edict VII is a plea for toleration amongst all the sects. It appears from the edict that tensions among
the sects were expressed intensely, perhaps in open antagonism. The plea is part of the overall strategy to maintain
unity.
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Major Rock Edict VIII states that Dhammayatras (tours) would be undertaken by the emperor, The earlier
practice, of the emperor, of going out on hunting expeditions was given up. Dhammayatras enabled the emperor to
come into contact with various sections of people in the empire.
Major Rock Edict IX attacks ceremonies performed after birth, illness, marriage and before setting out for a
journey. A censure is passed against ceremonies observed by wives and mothers. Asoka instead lays stress on the
practice of Dhamma and uselessness of ceremonies.
Major Rock Edict X denounces fame and glory and reasserts the merits of following the policy of Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict XI is a further explanation of the policy of Dhamma. Emphasis is on respect to elders,
abstaining from killing animals, and liberality towards friends.
Major Rock Edict XII is again an appeal towards toleration among sects. This edict reflects the anxiety the king
felt due to the conflict between sects and carries his plea for harmony.
Major Rock Edict XIII is of paramount importance in understanding the Asokan policy of Dhamma. The Rock
Edict pleads for conquest by Dhamma instead of War. This is a logical culmination of the thought processes which
began from the first Rock Edict, and by conquest what is perhaps meant is the adaptation of the policy of Dhamma
by a country, rather than its territorial control. The text of the Edict reads:
"When he had been consecrated eight years the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi, conquered Kalinga. A
hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed and many times that number
perished. Afterwards, now that Kalinga was annexed, the Beloved of the Gods very earnestly practiced Dhamma,
desired Dhamma and taught Dhamma. On conquering Kalinga the Beloved of the Gods felt remorse, for, when an
independent country is conquered the slaughter, death, and deportation of the people is extremely grievous to the
Beloved of the Gods, and weighs heavily on his mind. What is even more deplorable to the Beloved of the Gods is
that those who dwell there, whether Brahmans, Sramans, or I those of other sects, or householders who show
obedience to their superiors, obedience to mother and father, obedience to their teachers and behave well and
devotedly towards their friends, acquaintances. colleagues, relatives, slaves and servants-all suffer violence, murder
and separation from their loved ones. Even those who are fortunate to have escaped, and whose love is diminished
(by the brutalizing effect of War), suffer from the misfortunes of their friends, acquaintances colleagues and
relatives. This participation of all men in suffering weighs heavily on the mind of the Beloved of the Gods. Except
among the Greeks, there is no land where the religious orders of Brahmans and Sramans are not to be found, and
there is no land anywhere where men do not support one sect or another. Today, if a hundredth or a thousandth part
of those people who were killed or died or were deported when Kalinga was annexed were to suffer similarly, it
would weigh heavily on the mind of the Beloved of the Gods."
"This inscription of Dhamma has been engraved so that any sons or great grandsons that I may have should not
think of gaining new conquests, and in whatever victories they may gain should be satisfied with patience and light
punishment. They should only consider conquest by Dhamma to be a true Conquest, and delight in Dhamma should
be their whole delight, for this is of value in both this world and the next."
This is Asoka's testament against war. It graphically depicts the tragedy of war and shows why he turned against it.
It s a unique event in the annals of the ancient world because we do not know of any other contemporary monarch
who renounced war.
Asoka embarked on the policy of Dhamma after this war.
ASOKA'S DHAMMA AND THE MAURYAN STATE

Discuss different interpretations of historians about the nature of Asoka’s ‘Dhamma’. Did his
principle of `Dhamma-vijaya’ render the Mauryan Empire militaristically weak? (20) (2014)
Asoka's Dhamma was not simply a collection of high sounding phrases. He very consciously tried to adopt it as a
matter of state policy for he declared that "All men are my children" and 'whatever exertion I make, I strive only to
discharge the debt that I owe to all living creatures". It was a totally new and inspiring ideal of kingship.
In the Arthasastra the King owed nothing to anyone. His only job was to rule the state efficiently.
Asoka renounced war and conquest by violence and forbade the killing of many animals. Asoka himself set the
example of vegetarianism by almost stopping the consumption of meat in the royal household. Since he wanted to
conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions to propagate Dhamma. Such missions were sent to

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far off places like Egypt, Greece, Sri Lanka, etc. The propagation of Dhamma included many measures for people's
welfare. Centres for the medical treatment of men and beasts were founded inside and outside the empire. Shady
groves, wells, fruit orchards and rest houses were laid out. This kind of charity work was a radically different
attitude from the king of Arthasastra who would not incur any expenses unless they brought more revenues in
return.
Asoka also prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to waste and indiscipline and
superstition. As mentioned earlier, in order to implement these policies he recruited a new cadre of officials called
Dhammamahamattas. Part of this group's duties was to see to it that people of various sects were treated fairly.
Moreover they were especially asked to look after the welfare of prisoners. Many convicts who were kept in fetters
after their sentence had expired, were to be released. Those sentenced to death were to be given a grace for three
days. Asoka also started Dhamma yatras. He and his high officials were to tour the country in order to propagate
Dhamma and establish direct contact with his subjects. It was because of such policies that modem writers like
Kern called him "a monk in a king's garb."
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
D.D. Kosambi stressed on the economic problems that the Mauryan faced. These contributed substantially to the
decline of the Mauryan empire. His arguments centre around two themes indicating that there were financial
constraints on the Mauryan economy:
a) that the State took excessive measurer to increase the taxes on a variety of things, and
b) that the punch-marked coins of this period show evidence of debasement of the currency.
The latter argument is based on his statistical analysis of the punch-,marked coins of the period.
Some of Kosambi's views which have now generally been accepted as crucial factors in bringing about major
changes in the Magadhan empire and thereby, its ultimate decline are briefly as follows:
i) It is suggested that gradually the State monopoly of metals was being lost. The demands on iron, so crucial for
the expanding agrarian economy, could no longer be met by Magadha alone. In fact, there were attempts to locate
and develop new sources of it in the Deccan. Though such pockets of iron ore were found in Andhra and Karnataka,
the Magadha State found it a costly operation to tap these pockets. Of the many problems they faced in this
connection was also the protection of the mining areas from intrusion by the local chiefs.
ii) The other point which is stressed is that expansion in cultivation, extensive use of forest wood and deforestation
in general may have led to and famines. There is in fact evidence of a big famine in north Bengal in the Mauryan
period. Thus many factors may have combined to bring down drastically the amount of the state revenue. In years
of famine, the state was expected to provide relief on a substantial scale.
In a centralized administrative system, the problem of not having enough revenues created many other acute
difficulties. To enhance the revenues, the Arthasastra suggested that taxes should be imposed on actors, prostitutes
and so on. The tendency to tax everything that could be taxed, emerged out of the necessity of the treasury needing
more funds or, the currency having become debased due to inflation. The Arthasastra measures to be adopted in
times of emergency are interpreted in this light. Further, the decreasing silver content of the punch-marked coins
attributed to the later Maurya rulers indicate that debasement had actually taken place to meet the needs of a
depleted treasury.
The burden of expenditure had also increased. This can be seen in the large amounts of money spent under Asoka
for public works. Also his tours and those of his officials meant using up the surplus wherever it was available. The
earlier stringent measures of the State's control on its finances had thus begun to change even during Asoka's reign.
Romila Thapar has further commented on these issues. According to her the debasement of coins need not
necessarily have meant a pressure on the general economy. In fact,-it is difficult to say precisely when and where
the debasement of coinage took place. In positive terms she argues that for many parts of the Indian sub-continent
the general picture of the economy on the basis of the material evidence in fact indicates an, improvement. This is
particularly seen in the use of better quality materials which indicates a technical advance. There may have been
debasement of coinage but in her opinion it was not because of a decline in material standards, but rather, because
of extreme political confusion, particularly in the Ganges Valley. This must have led to hoarding of money by
merchant classes and debasement of coinage.
MAURYAN ART

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Art, Architecture and sculpture
In the Mauryan period stone culture dramatically emerged as the principal medium of Indian artist. Some evidence
is put forward by John Irwin that Ashokan columns may be the culmination of the ancient pre-buddhist religious
tradition in India of a cult of one cosmic pillar of axis mundi.
To say that a school of art fully matured and created lasting monuments in stone suddenly appeared is not
believable. In all likelihood it could have been anilines importation. In particular the city of persepolis of the
Achaemenids influenced Mauryan sculpture and architecture.
The finest examples are those of Ashoka particularly his monolithic pillars. Each pillar consists of one piece of
stone supporting a capital made of another single piece of stone. The stone is highly polished and gracefully
proportioned while the polish was lustrous. Even this polish pales into insignificance before the high artistic merits
of the figures that exhibit realistic modeling. The four lions on the Sarnath pillars and the smaller figures of animals
in relief of the abacus exhibit remarkable beauty and velour. The jewellery of the Mauryan period also exhibits a
high degree of technical skill and proficiency.
The inscriptions of Ashoka were placed either in sacred enclosures or in the vicinity of towns. The most commonly
found remains are the animal capitals of the pillars. They were generally cut from a single block of stone and stood
in an enclosure, which was regarded as sacred.
Stones from the regions of Mathura and Chunar near Benaras were carried to different parts of the empire because
of improvement in communications. Not only stones were sent but even craftsman accompanied them. The
uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted by craftsmen of the same region. Only
at Taxila, possibly the local craftsmen were employed.
Apart from the monolithic pillars, Ashoka built a large number of Stupas. Traditions puts their number as 84,000.
Some of them were later enlarged and enclosed. Possibly the Stupa and Sanchi dates back to Ashoka. According to
Sir John Marshall the original brick stupa built by Ashoka was probably of more than half the present dimension.
The present railing also replaced the older and smaller one.
A few Mauryan figure sculpture have come to light - identifiable by the Mauryan polished surface. Two headless
metal torsos have been found at a site near modern Patna. They are the earliest known sculptures of Jain
Tirthankaras.
Perhaps the figures of Yakshi and Yaksha found at Didarganj and Patna respectively belong to the Mauryan period.
These figures seem to be emerging into reality from a melting volume of stone. They have smooth glossy faces, but
they have meticulously carved details of jewels and fabrics. Some scholars think that they were the best of
Mauryan products.
The last Mauryan / Sung figure is that of the eight feet high image found at Parkham near Mathura. It is made out
of cream sandstone. A bolt from Rampurva (2 feet in length and barrel shaped) is an excellent specimen of the
copper-smiths' art.
A more important heritage of the Mauyas are the caves built out of Barbar caves. They were built for the Ajivika
sect by Asoka. They are 19 miles away from Bodh Gaya. Smith records the art of polishing hard stone was carried
to such perfection that it is said to have become a lost art beyond modern powers. The two sites of Barabar caves
are polished like glass mirrors. The two widely know wood-imitating chambers are the Lomas Rishi and Sudama
caves. The details of these caves show a clear influence of wooden architecture. These rock-cut chambers mark the
beginning of great tradition which would spent more than 1000 year in the history of Indian Art.
The earliest examples of the rock-cut method like some aspect of the Lomas Rishi caves in Barabar show that they
were faithful copies of the stone structure of wood and thatch. The use of bamboo in roof construction is to be seen
in the Gopi cave during the reign of Dasaratha.
Contemporary Greek writers refer magnificent halls in the capital city of Patliputra and regard them as the fines and
grandest in the world. All of them have perished but in recent times excavations have laid bare their ruins. The
extant of architectural remains consists mainly of the rock-cut chaitya halls in Barabar hills and the neighboring
localities in the Bihar Sub-division of Patna district. Although the caves were excavated from hardest rocks they are
polished like glass.
Terracotta objects of various sizes have been found at Mauryan sties. The tradition of making mother-goddesses in
clay, going back to the prehistoric period is revealed by the discovery of these objects at Mauryan levels at
Ahicchatra. Many have stylized forms but technically they are most accomplished in the sense they have well
defined shapes and clear ornamentation.
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Also, a large number of terracotta's have been found near Taxila consisting of primitive idols, votive reliefs with
deities, toys, dice, ornaments and beeds. Toys were mostly wild animals, the elephant being a particular favorite.
Despite the extraordinary creations in the field of art and intriguing questions remains. The artist of Ashoka must
have relied on a long history of artistic traditions. How is it then that we came explain the almost total absence of
specimen of Indian art before 250 B.C. ? we have to wait for this answer to be provided by archaeologists. So far,
there is no evidence that the art tradition of the Indus valley had any kind of impact on the Mauryan achievements.
Indian artist of the Pre-Mauryan period possibly worked both on stone and wood. The stone art effects have not
been excavated so far. We many suppose Indians first began to work on stones during the Mauryan period. The
results of their endeavor to change from wood to stone are seen in the crude inferior pillars of Ashoka, while those
which are excellent and highly finished were the works of foreign artists employed by the great emperor. According
to this theory this trend continued long after Ashoka until a full-fledged Indian art was developed under the imperil
Guptas.
Major Kingdoms
The disintegration of the Mauryan empire was followed by the rise of a number of kingdoms in different parts of
India. Immediately after the Mauryas Pushyamitra established the Sunga dynasty and the Sungas were able to
control only a part of the erstwhile Mauryan empire. The Sunga family had held the Viceroyship-at Ujjain in
western Malwa or the neighbouring region of Vidisha in eastern Malwa under the Mauryas. The Sungas tried to
revive Vedic practices and sacrifices which may have perhaps been necessary to face the new invaders, namely the
Greeks and to establish their strength after their first king had usurped the throne. The Sungas were followed by the
short-lived rule of the Kanvas. The Greeks, however, in due course of time became exceedingly successful in most
parts of north-west India. Their rule could only be terminated by the Sakas who had settled along the Indus. The
Parthian or Pahlavas also made inroads in north-western India. But, the most successful foreign intrusions were
made from the first half of the first century A.D. with the establishment of the Kushana empire.
In the Ganga valley, Rajasthan, eastern India and the Deccan many ruling families came to power. It is clear that
under the Mauryas the maximum settlements of villages had been in the Ganges Valley. The hills and plains of
Assam and Bengal still remained to be opened up. Similarly, the south and south-east of India had contact with the
Magadhan empire but a large scale agrarian economy had yet to come up in these regions. After the decline of
Mauryan rule many local rulers started ruling in regions like Vidarbha, eastern Deccan, Karnataka and western
Maharashtra. Gradually, the family of the Satavahanas built up an empire in the Deccan by bringing together many
local centres.
At about the same time when the early Satavahanas were establishing themselves, Kharavela of Kalinga emerged as
a powerful king in the Mahanadi region. In an inscription written during his reign and found at the Hathigumpha
cave of Udayagiri hill near Bhubaneshwar, Kharvela claims that he was the third ruler of the Mahameghavarna
family of Kalinga; that this family was a branch of the ancient Chedi family. He is said to have raided a major part
of the country including Magadha and the Satavahana and Pandya countries. He was an ardent follower of Jainism.
Foreign Relation of Asoka

Delineate the nature and impact of India’s contact with Western and the Mediterranean
world during the Mauryan period (15) (2015)
Diplomacy and geographical proximity primarily determined the foreign relations maintained by Asoka.
Particularly, the century in which, Asoka lived was one of continued interactions between the Eastern
Mediterranean and South Asia. That is why most of Asoka's contacts were with South Asia and the West. It appears
that this interest was not one sided. A fair number of foreigners lived in Pataliputra to necessitate a special
committee under the municipal management to look after the needs of welfare of the visitors. Apart from these
major factors determining the foreign relations of Asoka, one more parameter was the desire of Asoka to spread his
policy of dhamma to distant lands.
To begin with, Asoka in his foreign relations was a realist defeat and annexation of Kalinga. Also his realism is to
be seen in Asoka not annexing the southern kingdoms (Cholas, Pandvas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras) while being
satisfied with their acknowledgement of his suzerainty. He probably felt that it was not worth the trouble to annex
the small territories too.

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In other foreign relations Asoka reveals as an idealist or a monarch who wore the robes of a monk. He sent various
missions, though not embassies, to various countries. Their main purpose was to acquaint the countries they visited
with his policies, particularly that of dhamma. They may be compared to modern goodwill missions helping to
create an interest in the ideas and peoples of the country from which they came. Also, the fact that they are quite
unheard of in contemporary literature or in later sources would suggest that they made only a short-lived
impression.
In spite of the above reservations, the missions must have opened a number of channels for the flow of Indian ideas
and goods. It is unlikely that Asoka expected all the kings who had received missions to put the policy of dhamma
into practice, although he claims that his did happen. It is curious to observe that there is no reference to these
missions in the last important public declaration of Asoka, the seventh pillar edict. In this edict Asoka mentions the
success he had with his welfare services and the widespread propagation of dhamma but all within the empire.
The territory immediately adjoining the empire of Asoka on the West and that Antiochus. There is ample evidence
of contacts of similarity in cultures. The use of Kharoshti in the Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra edicts in the north is
evidence of strong contact with Iran. The fragmentary Aramaic inscription at Taxila and another of the same kind
from Kashmir point to continue inter communication between the two areas.
Apart from contacts with Iran, Asoka Empire was close to various Greek kingdoms. There are references to the
Greeks in the rock edicts of Asoka. On certain occasions the word used refers to the Greek settlements in the north-
west and on others to the Hellenic Kingdoms. Antiochus II these of Syria is more frequently mentioned. Other
Hellenic Kings where missions were sent were Ptolemy-II Philadephus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus
gonatas of Messedonia, and Alexander of Eorius.
Apart from these western contacts, tradition maintains that Asoka visited Khotan. This cannot be substantiated. On
the other hand, Asoka maintained close relations with modern Nepal. Tradition states that his daughter, Charumati
was married to Devapala of Nepal.
On the East, the Mauryan empire included the province of Vanga, Since Tamralipti was the principal port of the
area, Indian missions to and from Ceylon are said to have traveled via Tamaralipti.
The extent of the influence of Asoka's power in South India is better documented than in north India. The edicts of
Asoka are found at Gavimathi, Palkigunda, Brahmagiri, Maski, Yerragudi and Siddapur, Tamil poets also make
references to the Mauryas.
More Important were the contacts with Ceylon. Information is available in the Ceylonese Chronicles on contacts
between India and Ceylon. Coming of Mahindra to Ceylon was not the first official contact. Earlier, Dhamma
missions were sent. A Ceylonese king was so captivated by Asoka that the top called himself as Devanampiya.
Asoka maintained close relations with Tissa, the ruler of Ceylon. Relationship between Asoka and Tissa was based
on mutual admiration for each other.
What interests of the country or the aims of Asoka were served through his missions? Asoka primarily tried to
propagate his dhamma and may be incidentally Buddhims. He claimed that he made a spiritual conquest of all the
territories specified by him as well as a few more territories beyond them. This claim definitely appears to be an
exaggeration. There is no historical evidence to show that Asoka missions did succeed in achieving their aim
particularly when the dhamma happened to be highly humanistic and ethical in nature. After all, Asoka was neither
a Buddha nor a Christ to appeal to various people. Neither a St. Peter nor an Ananda to successful spread the
message of their Masters. Nor did he possess fighting men to spread his message just as the followers of prophet
Mohammed. Thus, when there is no follow up action after the missions visited the various parts of the world, it is
understandable that no one paid any heed to his message.
Nevertheless, there is one intriguing point about the success of his foreign missions. In likelihood, the history of the
Buddha and his message must have spread to the various parts. What did they need to? Although it is difficult to
answer this question, it is of importance to observe that there are certain similarities between Christianity and
Buddhism - suffering of man, Mara & Satan, Sangha Monasteries with Bikkhus and Monks, and the use of rosary
by Buddhist and Christian's monks.
Decline of The Mauryas

Disintegration of the empire
The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it
was the succession of weak kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the

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partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish
some degree of their previous power.
Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri contends that the revolt by Pushyamitra was the
result of brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors.
Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the decline
because of the following reasons.
(a) Prohibition of the slaughter of animals displeased the Brahmins as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them.
(b) The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga.
(c) Asoka's claim that he exposed the Budheveas (brahmins) as false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed
towards Brahmins.
(d) The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the triumph of Brahmins.
All these four points can be easily refuted. Asoka's compassion towards animals was not an overnight decision.
Repulsion of animal sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up by the book
Divyavadana, cannot be relied upon since it was during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut
stupas were completed. Probably the impression of the persecution of Buddhism was created by Menander's
invasion who was a Budhhist. Thridly, the word 'budheva' is misinterpreted because this word is to be taken in the
context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, this word has nothing to do with brahminism. Fourthly, the victory
of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an incompetent ruler since he was overthrown
in the very presence of his army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against Asoka's patronage of
Budhism. Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the
Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms.
After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and never more than the
difference between saivism and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic conception,
which was unknown to India for a long time. Buddha himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a
Hindu saint and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist
in the same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain. But in the view of the people of the day he
was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His own inscriptions bear ample witness to the fact.
While his doctrines follow the middle path, his gifts are to the brahmins, sramans (Buddhist priests) and others
equally. His own name of adoption is Devanam Priya, the beloved of the gods. Which gods? Surely the gods of the
Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine
declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was essentially a Hindu,
as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged.
Raychaudhury too rebuts the arguments of Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and there was no revolution.
Killing the Mauryan King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup d’état not a revolution. The
organization were ready to accept any one who could promise a more efficient organisation. Also if Pushyamitra
was really a representative of brahminical reaction his neighboring kings would have definitely given him
assistance.
The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests
that Asoka was a stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign. He was shrewd enough in
retaining Kalinga although he expressed his remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half lakh sudras
of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and cultivate land. More than this his tours of the
empire were not only meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal tendencies of the
empire. While addressing the tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to forgiven. More draconian was
Ashoka's message to the forest tribes who were warned of the power which he possessed. This view of
Raychoudhury on the pacifism of the State cannot be substantiated.
Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed by kosambi. He based his arguments that
unnecessary measures were taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period show evidence of
debasement. This contention too cannot be up held. It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during
the period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may also indicate that there was an increased
demand for silver in relation to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More important point
is the fact that the material remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. Instead the
economy prospered as shown by archaeological evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalgarh. The reign of Asoka was
an asset to the economy. The unification of the country under single efficient administration the organization and
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increase in communications meant the development of trade as well as an opening of many new commercial
interest. In the post - Asokan period surplus wealth was used by the rising commercial classes to decorate religious
buildings. The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the contribution of this new bourgeoisie.
Still another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples' revolt
against Mauryans oppression and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as far interest in Mauryan
Art.
This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk
tradition that Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far. The character of Sunga art changed because
it served a different purpose and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art conformed more to
the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors
of this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more in the mainstream of folk tradition.
One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on Asoka's ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban
festive meetings and discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the population but it is doubtful
whether these prohibitions were strictly enforced. The above argument (people's revolt) also means that Asoka's
policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption not confirmed by historical data. Furthermore, it is
unlikely that there was sufficient national consciousness among the varied people of the Mauryan empire. It is also
argued by these theorists that Asokan policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not a
historical fact.
Still another argument that is advanced in favor of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that the land tax under
the Mauryas was one-quarter, which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical evidence shows
something else. The land tax varied from region to region according to the fertility of the soil and the availability of
water. The figure of one quarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to the fertile and well-watered
regions around Pataliputra.
Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satisfactorily explained by referring to Military inactivity,
Brahmin resentment, popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were more fundamental. The
organization of administration and the concept of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings
of considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was definitely a weakening at the center particularly
after the division of the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the Mauryan rule.
Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant
that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had
no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy.
The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme centralization and the virtual monopoly of all
powers by the king. There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing public opinion. That is why
the Mauryas depended greatly on the espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions there was
no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the government. An incapable king may use the officers
either for purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the successors of Asoka happened to be
weak, the empire inevitably declined.
Added to these two factors, there is no conception of national unity of political consciousness. It is clear from the
fact that even the resistance against the Greeks as the hated mlecchas was not an organized one. The only resistance
was that of the local rulers who were afraid of losing their newly acquired territory. It is significant that when Porus
was fighting Alexander, or when Subhagasena was paying tribute to Antiochus, they were doing so as isolated
rulers in the northwest of India. They had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they even mentioned in any Indian
sources as offering resistance to the hated Yavanas. Even the heroic Porus, who, enemy though he was, won the
admiration of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in Indian sources.
Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and
autocratic was the first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for long, it could be because
of the failure of the successors of Asoka to hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire.
Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not in tune with the spirit of the time because
Aryanism and brahminism was very much there. According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was only
an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or architecture factor influencing the whole of life. In other words, the
sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State was never established in India. Such being the
reality, when the successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the thinking that was needed to make
a success of a centralized political authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyone's regret.
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Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of national unity were the ownership of land
and inequality of economic levels. Land could frequently change hands. Fertility wise the region of the Ganges was
more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan administration was not fully tuned to meet the existing disparities
in economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the empire could have witnessed economic
homogeneity.
Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities and the trade
centers were a great contrast to the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to the economic
and political structures being different from region to region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were
varied. The history of a sub-continent and their casual relationships. The causes of the decline of the Mauryan
empire must, in large part, be attributed to top heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a
few persons while national consciousness was unknown.
The Splendour of the 'Dark Centuries'

How justified are we in characterizing the post Mauryan five centuries as the “Dark – Period” of Indian History?
Give reasons in support of your answers. (60) (2008)
The period of Indian History from 3 rd century B.C.E. to 5 th century C.E. was the period of innovation and
interaction. How will you react? (20) (2017)
What was the impact of trans-regional and trans-continental trade in the post Mauryan period on social and
cultural life of India? (20) (2018)
The five centuries which passed between the decline of the first great Indian empire of the Mauryas and the
emergence of the great classical empire of the Guptas has often been described as a dark period in Indian history
when foreign dynasties fought each other for short-lived and ephemeral supremacy over Northern India. Apart from
Kanishka's Indo-Central Asian empire which could claim to be similar in size and importance to has china, the
parthians of Persia and to the contemporary Roman empire this period did lack the glamour of large empires. But
this 'dark period' particularly the first two centuries AD was a period of intensive economic and cultural contact
among the various parts of the Eurasian continent. Indian played a very active role in stimulating these contacts.
Buddhism which has been fostered by Indian rulers since the days of Ashoka was greatly aided by the international
connections of the Indo-Greeks and the Kushanas and thus rose to prominence in Central Asia. South India was
establishing its important links with the West and with Southeast Asia in this period. These links especially those
with southeast Asia, proved to be very important for the future course of Asian history.
But India it self experienced important social and cultural changes in this period. For centuries Buddhism had
enjoyed royal patronage. This was partly due to the fact that the foreign rulers of India found Buddhism more
accessible than orthodox Hinduism. The Vedic Brahmins had been pushed into the background by the course of
historical development all though Hinduism as such did not experience a decline. On the contrary new popular cults
arose around gods like Shiva, Krishna and Vishnu-Vasudeva who had played only a marginal role in an earlier age.
The competition between Buddhism which dominated the royal courts and cities and orthodox Brahminism which
was still represented by numerous Brahmin families every where left enough scope for these new cults to gain
footholds of their own, of great importance for the further development of Hinduism and particularly for the Hindu
idea of kingship was the Kushana rulers identification with certain Hindu gods - they were actually believed to
attain a complete identity with the respective god after their death.
Religious legitimation was of greater importance to these foreign rulers than to other Indian kings. Menander's
ashes had been distributed according to the Buddhist fashion and Kanishka was identified with Mithras but wima
kadphises and Huvishka were closer to shiva as shown by the images on their coins. Huvishka's coins provide a
regular almanac of the iconography of the early Shiva cult. The deification of the ruler which was so prevalent in
the Roman and Hellenistic world as well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on
the future development of Hindu Kingship.
Another future of crucial importance for the future political development of India was the organization of the Shaka
and Kushana Empires had been, but were based on the large-scale incorporation of local rulers. In subsequent
centuries many regional Empires of India were organized on this pattern.
The most well-known contribution of the 'dark-period' was a course, to Indian art. After the early sculptures of the
Mauryas which were greatly influenced by the Iranian style, a new Indian style, a new Indian style has fist emerged

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under Shungas and their successors in the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi which particularly showed a
new style of relief sculpture. The merger of the Gandhara school of art, with its Graeco-Roman style and the
Mathura school of art which included 'archaic' Indian elements and became the center of Indo-Kushana art, finally
led to the rise of the Sarnath school of art. This school then set the pattern of the classical Gupta style.
Less-well-known, but much more important for the future development of Hindu society, was the compilation of
the authoritative Hindu law books (dharmasastra), the foremost of them being the code of Manu which probably
originated in the second or third century AD. After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga Empires, there must
have been a period of uncertainty, which led to renewed interest in traditional social norms. These were then
codified so as to remain inviolate for all times to come. If we add to this the resurgence of Sanskrit, as testified by
Rudradaman's famous rock inscription of the second century AD. We see that this 'dark-period' actually contained
all the element of the classical culture of the Gupta age. Thus the many splendoured and much maligned 'dark-
period' was actually the harbinger of the classical age.
THE SUNGAS
Sungas and Kanvas.
The Sungas, a brahmana family, possibly originally belonged to the region of Ujjain in Western India, where they
worked as officials under the Maurya Kings. The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga who
according to tradition, assassinated the last of the Maurya Kings Brihadratha in 180 B.C. is corroborated by Bana,
the Sanskrit prose writer and court poet of Harshvardhana of Kanauj. Pushyamitra appears to have been a keen
supporter of Brahmanism and is known to have undertaken the performance of the asvamedha or horse sacrifice, a
Vedic ritual symbolising royal glory. In the Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva, Pushyamitra is credited with the
performance of two horse sacrifices. This is indicative of Pushyamitra's hold over a large territory and also of
Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhist sources claim that he persecuted the Buddhists. The Buddhist tradition as is
preserved in the Divyavadana depicts Pushyamitra as a destroyer of Buddhist monasteries and places of worship,
particularly those constructed by Asoka.
The Puranas assign a reign of 36 years to Pshyamitra, who was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. Very little
information has been gathered about his rule. Muladeva appears to be an important King with whom may have
started the disintegration of the Sunga dynasty. Some historians have identified him as the King whose coins have
been found at Ayodhya and he may be regarded as a predecessor of Dhanadeva described as 'Lord of Kosala' in the
Ayodhya inscription. Muladeva has been regarded as the ruler of the independent principality of Kosala. The
original Sungas soon came to be confined only to Magadha and the Central Indian territories only. The last Sunga
King was Devabhuti. He was the fourth ruler of the line and if we believe Banabhatta, author of Harsha-Charita
he fell victim to the conspiracy of his brahmana minister Vasudeva. Thus, the Sunga line came to an end around
75 B.C. and although Vasudeva started a new line of rulers, called Kanva, it lasted only four generations.
THE INDO-GREEKS
Post - Mauryan Period (Indo-Greeks)
From about 200 B.C. a series of movements across the north western borders of the Indian sub-continent took
place. Among the first to cross the Hindukush were the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, south of the Oxus river in the
area covered by North Afghanistan. Alexander's invasion in north western India did not result in Greece and India
coming together in any significant manner. The mingling of the two cultures came about in the second century B.C.
through the Greek kings of Bactria who moved into northwest India and came to be called the Indo-Greeks.
After the fall of the Achaemenid rule in Iran and the death of Alexander, Iran and the neighbouring areas passed
under the rule of Alexander's generals. Gradually the Greek rulers of Bactria who were originally subordinate to the
Seleacids, and the Arsacid rulers of Parthia started asserting their autonomy. The Greek rulers faced a severe threat
from the Scythian tribes. With the construction of the Chinese Wall the Scythians could not move towards China
and in turn attacked the Greeks and Parthians. Pushed by the Scythian tribes the Bactrian Greeks were forced to
move towards India. These invasions had begun by the end of the Mauryan rule and the successors of Asoka were
not strong to resist them. From the first half of the second century B.C. the Indo -Greeks occupied a large part of
north western India. They also undertook occasional expeditions to the Ganga basin and other parts of the country
and they came as far as Panchala, Saketa and Pataliputra.

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One of the most famous Indo - Greek rulers was Menander or Milinda. During the period of his rule, the Indo
-Greek power extended from the Swat Valley to Punjab as far as the Ravi river. He had his capital at Sakala
(modem Sialkot) in Punjab. Menander is best remembered for his conversion to Buddhism by Nagasena, a Buddhist
monk and philosopher. Menander asked Nagasena many questions relating to Buddhism. These questions and
Nagasena's
answers were recorded in the form of a book known as Milinda - Panha or The Questions of Milinda.
The names of at least thirty Bactrian Greek rulers are known from a large number of coins.
Menander's coins have been located as far as Kabul in the north and Mathura near Delhi. The history of the Indo -
Greeks has been reconstructed mostly with the help of their coins bearing legends in Greek and later in Kharosthi
and Brahmi as well. The evidence is sometimes confusing, as many kings had identical names and the coins of one
ruler can be distinguished from those of another only with great difficulty. Influence of Indo –Greek coinage,
particularly silver coinage, which was excellent in workmanship is found present in some coin series issued by
some local rulers of the period. The nature of the coinage and the wide area in which it circulated suggest wide
trade contacts. The Indo - Greeks are also important for their introduction of Hellenistic art features in north-
western India which culminated in the Gandhara art style.
THE SAKAS
Sakas
The Sakas are referred to also as Scythians. In the Indian context, the sources sometimes mention the Scythians arid
Parthians together as Saka-Pahalawa. Even from the names of the rulers it is at times impossible to distinguish
between a Saka and a Pahlawa. Even so some families of rulers, which were associated with different regions of
north-western, northern and western have been distinguished as Saka. The Sakas poured into India through the
Bolan Pass and may have first settled in lower Indus region. There are coins and other sources associated with
different branches of the Sakas. One branch is believed to have settled in Afghanistan. Another line of the Sakas
settled in Punjab with Taxila as the capital. There was another that ruled from Mathura. A fourth branch was that
which established itself in Western and Central India from where they continued their rule till about the fourth
century A.D.
The Sakas were successful in destroying the Greek suzerainty over Bactria. They belonged to the nomad hordes of
Central Asia. The Sakas were forced by another Central Asian tribe, the Yueh -chi to leave their habitat on the
Bactrian border and follow the Greeks into India. The Sakas gradually spread their supremacy over the northern
and north-western regions of India at the expense of the local Indo - Greek rulers. There are different types of
sources for the reconstruction of the Sakas in India. There are references to the people in Greek and Greeco- Roman
annals and in early Chinese accounts. Epigraphic and numismatic sources are also useful. The earliest Indian
textual reference to the Sakas is perhaps to be found in the Mahabhashya. The Puranic and epic texts also mention
the Sakas along with the Kambojas and the Yavanas in the extreme north.
The first Saka King in India was Maues or Moga, who established Saka power in Gandhara. Maues is known from
a series of coins and also from inscriptions, one of which contains a date. A dated copper plate inscription is
discovered in Taxila records the establishment of the relics of Buddha in a Stupa during the period of Maues. Maues
was succeeded by Azes who successfully attacked the last of the Greek kings in Northern India, Hippostratos.
Although the Sakas established their rule in different parts of the country, it was only in Western India that they
could hold power for about four centuries. The most famous of the Saka rulers of Western India was Rudradaman I
(C. A. D. 130 -152). His sway extended to Sindh, Kutch, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Konkan, the Narmada Valley, Malwa,
Kathiawar and Western Deccan. His military); achievements, his territories and his many personal qualities are
highlighted in the famous Junagadh inscription, written in 150 A.D. This inscription also records in detail the
repairs which his officials undertook of the damaged Mauryan dam of Sudarsana Lake in the semi-arid zone of
Kathiawar. This lake had been in use for irrigational purposes from the time of the Mauryas. This lengthy
inscription is the first major inscription to be written in Sanskrit. It is evident that Rudradaman patronized Sanskrit.
After the death of Rudradaman the Sakas of this area continued to' rule, despite occasional upsets until the end of
the fourth century A.D.
The Sakas along with the Parthians introduced the Satrap system of government which was similar to that of the
Achaemenid and Seleucid systems in Iran. Under this system the kingdom was divided into provinces each under a
military governor called Mahakshatrapa (great Satrap). Governors with lower status were called Kshatrapas
(Satraps). These governors issued their own inscriptions and also minted their own coins. This is indicative of a
more independent status than was otherwise normal in an administrative set-up. The Saka kings used such
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prestigious titles as 'king of kings' (rajadhiraja) in addition to 'great king' (Maharaja) which they took over from the
Greeks.
THE KUSHANAS
Kushanas
The Kushanas succeeded the Parthians in the extreme north-west and spread themselves in successive stages in the
regions of Northern India. The Kushanas are also referred to as Yueh-chis or Tocharians. They belonged to one of
the five clans of the Yueh-chi tribe. They were a nomadic people, originally from the steppes of North Central Asia,
living in the vicinity of China. They were responsible for
ousting the Sakas in Bactria and also the Parthians in the Gandhara region. The Kushanas first consolidated
territories beyond the Indian border. Gradually their authority in India expanded and came to extend to over lower
Indus basin and most of the Gangetic plain down Varanasi. Although their empire lasted for about one century and a
little more, their connection with India, their assimilation into Indian society as well as their contribution to
Indian culture left a deep impression on the Indian mind. Like the Sakas and Pahlavas, they too are mentioned in
Epic, Puranic and other literature. The Kushanas were particularly important as their empire became a meeting
point of civilizations of the Mediterranean world, Western Asia, Central Asia, China and India.
We have coins, inscriptions and other sources which provide evidence about two successive dynasties of the
Kushanas. The first line was started by Kujula Kadphises who is believed to have united the five tribes of the Yueh-
chi and made successful inroads into India, establishing himself in Kabul and Kashmir. Kujula Kadphises minted
different types of coins in copper and one type of his coins has a Roman-style male bust on it. Kujula Kadphises
was succeeded by Vima Kadphises. Vima introduced a new phase of coinage in India. The practice of issuing gold
coins by Indian rulers regularly started with him. He minted different types of gold coins which broadly followed
the weight system of Roman gold coins and this system continued, with certain modifications, till the Gupta period.
Obviously, Vima's gold coins and copper coins indicate further intensification of contact with the Roman world of
the time.
The Kadphises rulers were succeeded by Kanishka I, who is the best known Kushana ruler in Indian history,
particularly because of his association with Buddhism. The relationship between the first two kings (Kadphises)
and Kanishka is shrouded in mystery, but he too was of Central Asian origin. He may not have been directly related
to the first two kings. The Kushanas reached the zenith of their power under Kanishka I. His period is historically
significant for general cultural development in Northern India as well as for the intermingling of peoples of
different geographical regions.
The accession of Kanishka to the throne has been variously dated somewhere between A.D. 78-144 and sometimes
even later. An era with its initial date in A.D. 78 has popularly come to be regarded as the Saka Era and this date
seems to be the most likely date for Kanishka's accession. The Kushana empire at its peak extended to Sanchi in
Madhya Pradesh and to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. Mathura appears to have been the second capital city, the first
being at Purushapura near modem Peshawar. At Purushapura, Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge Stupa.
Kanishka I is an important figure in the history of Buddhism as being one of its great patrons. He sponsored the
fourth Buddhist council during his reign to discuss matters relating to buddhist theology and doctrine. The doctrines
of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized at the council. Missionary activity was given an impetus and
during his period Buddhist monks started travelling to Central Asia and to China. Kanishka was also a patron
of art and Sanskrit literature.
The successors of Kanishka I continued to rule for over a century, but Kushana power gradually declined. Some of
the rulers used very Indian names such as Vasudeva. The Kushana empire in Afghanistan and in the region west of
the Indus was superseded in the mid-third century A.D. by the Sassanian power which began in Iran. Peshawar and
Taxila were lost to the Sassanians and the Kushanas were reduced to the position of subordinates of these rulers.
Material Remains
The material remains in the form of structures and pottery and coins give us a clear picture of the introduction of
new elements in the already existing techniques. The Saka-Kushana phase is demonstrative of an advance in
building activities. Excavations have revealed several layers of structures in Northern India. They point to the use
of burnt bricks for both the floor and the roof. Brick wells may also have been introduced during this period. The
pottery of this period is red ware, both plain and polished, with sometimes medium and sometimes fine fabric. The
distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels. They have resemblance to the red fabric found in the same
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period in the Kushana layers of Central Asia. Some of the coins of the Kushanas borrowed many features of Roman
coins. The Saka coins in many cases were adaptations from those of the Indo-Greeks, though striking originalities
are met with.
Polity
The Sakas and the Kushana put great emphasis on the notion of the divine origin of kingship. The Kushana kings
were referred to as Sons of God. This title may have been borrowed from the Chinese. They also sometimes used an
Indian version of the Roman title Caesar. This was used to stress royal authority. Similar ideas are found in the
work of the Brahmana law giver, Manu.
The Sakas had introduced the satrapa system in the administrative set-up. The entire empire, was divided to satraps.
Evidence of governing through subordinate rulers is available. The method of administering districts and other
smaller units with the help of such officials as meridarkhs was in vogue in the period of Indo - Greek rule.
Epigraphic and numismatic data furnish us with names of a large number of Kshatrapas and Mahakshatrapas.
Some of the foreign rulers also introduced the practice of hereditary dual rule which meant two kings, holding
higher and lower status, ruling in the same kingdom at the same time.
For example, father and son would rule simultaneously. The practice of military governorship was also introduced
probably by the Greeks. These governors were known by the title of Strategos. They were important for two
reasons : (a) for maintaining the power of the rulers over the indigenous people and (b) for blocking invasions from
the north west.
Religion and Art Forms
Some of the kings like Menander and Kanishka were converted to Buddhism. Some of the rulers were worshippers
of Vishnu; others of Siva. We have an example of the Kushana ruler Vasudeva, whose name is one of the many
names of Krishna who was worshipped as an incarnation of Vishnu. Some Kushana rulers worshipped both Siva
and Buddha and the images of these two Gods appeared on some of the Kushana coins. We can discern therefore
that in the process of assimilation into Indian cultural patterns, the foreigners adapted to Indian ideas and forms of
worship. The foreign rulers were also patrons of Indian art and literature. We have evidence that masons and other
artisans coming from outside interacted with local workers. Indian craftsmen thus came into contact with those
skilled in Greek and Roman craftmanship. We have the example of Gandhara in which images of the Buddha were
sculpted in a style which was typical of the synthesis of many cultural elements present in the region. The influence
of Gandhara art spread to Mathura. Mathura also has given us many beautiful images of the Buddha and other
specimens of art of this period.
coinage,
Examine the significance of the Deities depicted on coins of the Kushanas. (30) (2010)
The divine investiture of Kings was the concept in ancient time, which justified them to rule over their subjects and
the one whom they had conquered. They insisted that it is God's wish that they rule over their subjects. They
began depicting effigies of Gods who bestowed the kings. The copper coinage of Kujula had Greek deity Heracles
which shows the influence of Pahlavas.
Vima used only one deity on his coins, a God from Indian viewpoint is SHIVA seen either standing alone with a
trident or standing with his humped bull-Nandi (Vrsaba). This can be evidenced by his epithet "mahisvarasa" as
stated earlier. Siva has been named 'Oesho' on his coins whose etymology seems to be more likely in Sanskrit -
I'sha. Symbols expressing Siva's characteristics on these coins are Damaru, club, trident-cum-axe. Close to the
trident/axe is shown the symbol Nandipada, a Saivite symbol and as usual the insignia of Kushan on the left to it.
Except for few coins where Siva is nude, always wears a long robe covering the body from shoulder to ankles. In
few coins, Siva is shown even with moustache and sacred thread. The hair is either arranged in the form of twisted
locks or has been matted-hair (Jata) with lateral strands.
The religious images of Kushana's encounter in Bactria were probably the Bactrian deities depicted in the initial
issues of Kanishka's coins. They were Elios - a solar deity shown draped and with a nymbus behind the head,
Nania - a multivalent Goddess related to Inna Ishtar shown holding a wand with a protome of an animal, Salene -
the moon goddess shown with a club on the left hand and with shoulder flames, the Ephaistos - the God of Fire
holding the forge shown draped and bearded, with shoulder flames and a crescent on the head. The legend were in
Greek revealing the influence of earlier rulers (Pahlavas). The second issues of coins were with Bactrian names
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instead of Greek, for the same God named as Miiro, Mao, Nana and Athso. Some issues of coins which Kanishka
carried out had the symbol of Buddha - Gautama and Buddha - Maitreya. These were probably a commemorative
issue. In one type, a figure of deity holding out a diadem in front of the horse with a greek legend Lrooaspo
probably represented a Zoroastrian "God of Horse" (based on the Iranian meaning - Possessing a healthy horse).
Fire God is depicted with the fire on two shoulders with a greek legend Athsho (Zoroastrian Fire God). A four
armed King sitting on a Simhasana (throne with Lion legs) with a greek legend Manaobago, signified that he is son
of the moon (Vohu Mano, the Concience - a Zoroastrian angel). The Greek Wind God carrying a mantle
represented in the pose of a runner was subsequently replaced with a Bactrian name Oado instead of greek name
Anemos. Oesho is depicted with a trident in hand, erect phallus and with four arms. Buddha's image has a double
circular nymbus behind the head, with urnisa on his head and an urna between the eyebrows.
Huvishka stuck coins with Greek, Hindu, Zoroastrian and Bactrian deities(Pidti, Ardochsho, Miiro, Oado). Some
of his rare coin issue shows Goddesses Uma (Ommo in Bactrian) and Simhavahini Durga with her vehicle Lion.
The representation of Nana with Oesho on some of Huvishka's coins is significant. Nana appearing with Siva was
intended to represent his consort Uma - Ommo. In a unique coin, a eagle can be seen on the right hand of Yama
(Iamsho). On reverse of some gold coins of Huvishka, appears a winged female figure Nimbate standing to left
holding a cornucopiae in the left hand and a wreath or a trophy in the right hand identified as the deity Oanindo
(Goddess of victory). Coins of Huvishka even carries the Greek legend "WORMOZDO" with a image on the
reverse represented by a bearded male deity nimbate standing to left, and holding a sceptre in the left and a wreath
on the right hand. It signifies the supreme God of Iranian religion 'Auhramazda'. The greek legend 'RIOM' on some
of the coins shows the Indian Goddess of fortune 'Riddi' (Kubera's wife). Later Kushana rulers (VasudevaI,
KanishkaII, Vashishka) used either Shiva or Lakshmi in their coinage absorbing themselves in Indian culture. The
deities on the Kushana coins reveal one of the most extraordinary facts of the Kushana dynasty; its broad cultural
horizon and habits of religious syncretism.
EXPANSION OF TRADE AND PRODUCTION OF COMMODITIES

economy,
Justify Pliny's statement the Rome was being drained out of its gold by India during the first century of the
Christian era. (30) (2012)
Agriculture was now generating enough surplus. It had created such social classes which required varieties of items
that could be acquired only through trade. Agricultural produce was itself now an item of trade because the majority
of people living in cities did not produce their own food.
Both Buddhism and Jainism which had a large following by now encouraged the accumulation and reinvestment of
wealth and trade was one of the occupations held in high regard. Hence we find that there was one of the
occupations held in high regard.
Hence we find that there was a close relationship between the traders and the Buddhist Sangha and Buddhist
monastic establishments were located at important points along trade routes.
The expansion of urban centres meant that there was a growing class of consumers for subsistence as well as luxury
goods.
Together with these internal factors was an increased demand from outside for various Indian goods. Two major
empires that arose at this time were the Roman Empire in the west and the later Han Empire in China. Within the
Roman Empire there was greater demand for products of the east such as spices, aromatic woods, etc. Similarly the
rulers of the later Han Empire adopted an encouraging approach towards merchants and this resulted in an
acceleration of contacts between India, Central Asia and China.
Evidence for craft production at this time.
A large number of inscriptions have been found at Buddhist sites all over the country. These inscriptions record
donations and gifts made to the Buddhist Sangha but at the same time they also indicate the prosperity of certain
professions and occupational groups.
Thus the inscriptions at Mathura refer to several categories of merchants such as vanik, sarthavaha and sresthin
and to occupations of the goldsmith, jeweller, treasurer, iron merchant, etc. In addition there are references to guilds
- one of them being identified as the flour-makers guild. Information about craftsmen and guilds is also available in
early Buddhist literature as well as the Arthasastra of Kautilya. There are references to specialised groups living
together in certain villages. For example the Jatakas mention a border village in Kasi where a number of carpenters
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lived and merchants regularly visited the village for trade. Another way of procuring goods was by visiting the
ports. When a ship arrived in port, merchants converged there to buy the goods and often had to pay money in
advance to secure a share in the cargo.
According to the Arthasastra some of the craftsmen worked independently with apprentices, while others were
organised into guilds. Inscriptions refer to donations made by these craftsmen and archaeological excavations
provide us with actual specimens of their handiwork. Weaving was prominently represented among the crafts and
cotton textiles were exported from India. There were many centres of textile production in the north including
Mathura and Varanasi. One of the donations at Mathura was by the wife of a dyer. Other categories of craftsmen
included jewellers, perfumers and iron-mongers. Actual finds of beads and other ornaments are prolific at early
historical sites. Stones, glass, ivory and terracotta and these were in great demand from several centres in the north.
Workers in ivory figure in the inscriptions at Sanchi and exquisite examples of ivory working have fortunately been
preserved. A hoard of ivory figurines was recovered during excavations at the site of Begram or ancient Kapisa in
Afghanistan.
Thus we find that a diverse range of commodities were involved in trade at this time. These included luxury items
such as ivories, jewellery and beads, pearls, diamonds and other precious stones as well as items of regular use such
as cloth, agricultural products and iron objects. No doubt many of these were also exported. Wine was perhaps
another item of trade. The Arthasastra deals in great detail with the production of fermented juices and its
popularity is confirmed by the depiction of drinking scenes in the sculptures of the period, particularly from sites
like Sanghol and Mathura.
Internal Trade
While literary sources such as the Milindapanho and the Jatakas provide information on the organisation of trade
networks, further confirmation comes from archaeological artefacts such as coins, seals and sealings. The
Milindapanho was written about the beginning of the Christian era. The original text is now lost and the present
work is a Pali translation of a copy made at a very early dace in Sri Lanka. Also written in Pali, the Jatakas are five
hundred in number and narrate stories connected with the previous births of the Buddha. At the same time they
provide a vivid account of the social and economic conditions of the period. From the carvings on the Buddhist
monuments we know that many of these stories were known by the second-first centuries B.C. The Jatakas show
that there were many different types of commercial transactions and many ways in which the price of a commodity
was fixed. For example, horses, elephants and gems were used mainly by the ruling classes and their price was
fixed by a valuer present in the court. The best horses came from West Asia and Central Asia. These were
transported and sold by specialised merchants referred to as horse dealers in the early Pali and Sanskrit texts.
Traders were organised into guilds; others traded with their own money; while still others were only financiers and
provided the money to trade with. The terms used for these different type of merchants also varied. A vanik was
primarily a general trader, while a setthi was a financier and a sarthavaha was a leader of a caravan which
transported good over long distances.
In addition to these literary references is the evidence of seals, sealings and coins. A seal is a stamp either inscribed
with the name of its owner or with some symbol, while its impression on any material is called a sealing. Seals
were made in a variety of materials such as stone, ivory, copper or lead and were used both as identification marks
as well as for securing merchandise. In the case of goods, the merchandise was first fastened with strings or rope
and over the knot a lump of moist clay was applied and then stamped with a seal. The clay was then dried either in
the sun or by applying indirect heat. These clay sealings with string-marks on the back have been found extensively
at archaeological sites in the north.
A good indicator of trade transactions is the coinage system. In the Mauryan period silver punch-marked coins were
in use together with uninscribed cast copper coins. In the post- Mauryan period, the variety, number and types of
coins being minted increased rapidly.
Inscriptions were introduced on coins and the technique of minting coins showed great improvement. Several
thousand moulds for casting copper coins dating to 100 B.C. have been found at different localities such as
Khokrakot in district Rohtak, Sunet in district Ludhiana, Taxila and Sanchi. Nearly 200 types of copper coins were
issued by the local dynasties and gana-samghas of north India.
The Indo-Greek kings in the north-west introduced a splendid series of portrait coinage – a type that was followed
in India for several centuries. These coins in silver and copper carried bilingual inscriptions, written on one side
Greek language and script and on the other in Prakrit and generally in Kharosti script. In western India, the coins of
the Kshatrapas are important because these show the earliest use of the Saka era which henceforth provides a firm
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basis for dating. Another remarkable coin series of the early centuries A.D. is that of the Kusans. In addition to
those in copper, the Kusanas minted a large number of gold coins and these depict a variety of Indian, Greek and
Iranian deities. This abundance of coin-types and coinage systems indicates the extensive use of money.
The Arthasastra refers to wages being paid in money while the Jatakas mention goods being purchased against
securities and traders borrowing money against bonds. We also know that guilds accepted money deposits and paid
an interest on these as mentioned in an inscription at Mathura. Together with the indigenous coins, foreign coins,
especially Roman coins also came, into the country by way of trade. Very few Roman coins have been found in
the north, though imitations of these in clay as 'bullae' occur widely at the excavated sites. Many of these 'bullae'
have a loop for threading and were probably used as ornaments.
External Trade
Contact with outside world
We have mentioned earlier that maritime trade started during the Mauryan period. The early links flourished and
expanded in the early centuries of the Christian era. One reason for this was the demand from the two major
empires that arose at the beginning of the Christian era.
In the west was the mighty Roman empire while in the east was the Han empire in China. Information about the
period is thus available in many foreign sources. One of the works that tells us a great deal about early maritime
trade is the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. This Greek text was written by an anonymous sailor in the first
century A.D. and contains an account of the ports that he visited during his travels between the Red Sea and India.
We also know of the commodities that were traded at each port from his account.
The two major ports to which trade goods were sent from the centres of north India were those of Barbarikon at the
mouth of the Indus and Bharoch at the mouth of the Narmada. We have already referred to the routes along the
Indus that connected Barbarikon with Punjab and. Gandhara. Bharuch or Barygaza as the Greeks called it, was
linked to Ujjain, Mathura and the Ganga plains. In the east, Tamluk was an important outlet for coastal trade with
Andhra and Tamil Coasts.
The Periplus tells us that the imports in the north included brocades, coral, frankincense, glass vessels, money and
some wine. The Romans are famous for the technological improvements that they made in the manufacture of
glass. As a result the different varieties of glass objects made by them were highly valued in many countries
including India and China. Frankincense is a gum-resin produced by a tree indigenous to Arabia. It was used as an
incense and also for medicinal purposes. So far very few gold and silver Roman coins have been found in north
India, although, a large number of them have been found in peninsular India. This has led some scholars to suggest
that these imported coins were melted and re-used by the Kusanas and the Ksatrapas to mint their own currency.
In exchange for these, the exports from India were spices, precious stones like turquoise, lapis lazuli and carnelian
and Chinese silk and yam. We should not assume from here that trade was controlled by the Roman merchants only.
There were many partners in this trade including the Arabs, Jews, Oriental Greeks and Roman subjects based in
Egypt. In addition, Indian seamen sailed in their own ships to the ports of the Red Sea. The Jatakas narrate several
stories of Indian merchants who undertook long sea-voyages in order to make money. This is also corroborated by
references in the Arthasastra of Kautilya and by inscriptions. Among the donors at Buddhist monasteries an
important category is that of the navika or mariner.
One category of goods that requires explanation is Chinese silk and yam. Why was Chinese silk traded through
India rather than being sent directly? The reason for this was the political situation. The Parthians were powerful
rulers along the north-western boundary of the Indian sub-continent. There was constant hostility between them and
the Roman Empire and as a result, overland routes between China and the west were disrupted.
Many of the products from China were hence traded along the land route to India. Information about early contacts
between India, Central Asia and China is to be found in Chinese histories written at this time. It is generally
accepted that together with merchants Buddhism also spread to Central Asia and China around the first century
B.C. - first century A.D. A series of Buddhist caves were made along the northern route to Central Asia from the
first century A.D. onwards and from the third century A.D. many Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese.
So far we have said very little about early trade with countries in Southeast Asia such as Burma, Thailand and
Indonesia. This is because no early written texts are available in these countries, unlike the situation in the Roman
and Chinese empires. Hence, our only source of information are archaeological excavations. These show that many
items of Indian workmanship such as seals and beads of semi-precious stones, ivory comb, etc., were treasured and
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valued by Southeast Asian communities at this time. But in the absence of written records it is difficult to say much
more about the organisation of trade in the early centuries of the Christian era.
Principal Trade Routes
Bactria in the Oxus valley in north Afghanistan was the main centre for the international trade with Central Asia
and China. From this city a route ran through Kapisa and the Kabul valley to the core region of the Kusana empire.
Within the Indian sub-continent there were two major routes mentioned in the different sources. The uttarapatha
or northern route connected the major centres of the north while the dakshinapatha linked the centres of peninsular
India. The uttarapatha originated at Pushkalavati or modern Charsada and went via Taxila, Mathura, Kausambi and
Varanasi to Pataliputra and from there onwards to Champa and Chandraketugarh. This ancient route was already in
existence under the Mauryas and references to it occur in Greek writings. From Mathura another route branched off
westward to Sindh and it was along this route that horses were brought to the north. Mathura .... " route ran parallel
to the river Indus and connected Taxila to Patala at the mouth of the river.
A point to be noted here is that the major route followed the channel of the Ganga and there are many references to
the transportation of commodities by boat along the river. This major route was linked to several minor routes, one
of them going past Vaisali and Sravasti to Nepal.
Role played by Guilds (Sreni)

Assess the role of guilds and trade organizations in the development of early Indian economy. (30)(2010)
Trace the role of guilds and trade organisations in the development of early Indian economy. (15)
(2015)
Literary and epigraphic evidence show that Srenis or guilds formed an important feature of economic life of people
of antient India.
The Shreni was more in nature of group of professionals, merchants or artisan who worked in an association.
Mahavastu and Milendpanho mention 75 different occupations many of which transformed into guilds. The Jatak
mention the number of guild as 18.
The growing importance of guilds is attested by the fact that law-givers like Gutam and Manu recognises rights of
traders, cultivators, horsemen to frame rules for their respective associations. These rules were to be taken into
consideration by king in giving legal decision. Manu refers to Shreni-dharma as having the force of law.
The guilds beginning from 6th B.C. gradually gained importance in economy. They become crucial factor in
organisation of production. The vast majority of artisians joined guilds, since it was difficult for them to compete as
individual against the guilds. With increasing demand for particular commodities and the consequent neccessity to
raise their output some guilds began to emply hired labour and slaves.
Leading guilds were those of potter, metal workers, carpenters etc. Their size can be gauged from the fact that one
wealthy potter name Sadalputta had owned five hundred potter shop. In addition he organised his own distribution
and owned large number of boats which took pottery from workshops to various parts of Gangas. With increase in
trade and commerce the major guilds grew even larger.
Guilds fixed rules of work and guality of finished product and in price to safeguard both the artisen and customer.
The guilds also controlled ‘the prices of manufactured articles and thses either depend on quality of work or were
calculated according to fixed scale.
Many guilds opereated at local as well as on larger country level. Certain guilds were also involved in foreign trade.
‘Manigramam’, another guild composed of multiple nationalities undertook foreign trade.
The ‘Royal connection’ of the guild was also a significant factor which influenced the role played by guild in
economy. Royalty had a financial interest in guild. Investment in commercial enterprise brought larger returns.
Royalty thus had interest in ensuring well of guild.
Another fact which emerges from inscription is the guild could act as banker, finance and trustee as well. Generally
these functions were carried out by different category of merchants known as Sreshthin in North India and
Chettyars in South India.
Urban Centres
Growth of urban centres
We get information about the urban centres of north India from descriptions found in early Pali and Sanskrit texts.
But many of these descriptions are of a rather general nature. The best sources for the purpose however are
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archaeological excavations conducted at the important urban sites. These tell us in detail about the way the houses
were constructed and the implements and other artefacts used by the people who lived there.
Excavations at Taxila (30 kms north-west of the modem Islamabad) were conducted many decades ago by Sir John
Marshall. The excavations started in 1913 and continued for nearly twenty years. These showed that Taxila had
been occupied from at least the Mauryan period onwards, though it was under the Indo-Greeks that the first planned
city developed. A fortification wall was added later to this city. Fortification walls have been identified at many
other sites also but generally these were made of clay and well-rammed mud. The use of burnt-brick was known
and it was widely employed for various structures. Circular structures, on the other hand, were made of wedge-
shaped brick.
As compared to the Mauryan period, houses of the early historical period were better made and there was extensive
use of burnt-brick for walls and tiles for roofs. Artefacts of material culture found during excavations show that the
settlements were more prosperous than those of the earlier period. A large number of beads were found suggesting
the increased use of, ornaments and jewellery. Clay was used in a variety of ways. It was required for making pots
and in addition was employed for modelling human and animal figurines. Some of these figurines were produced in
moulds and show intricate carving and details of ornamentation. Another point to be noted is the increase in the
number of urban centres. Excavations have revealed many flourishing settlements such as Purana Quila, Mathura
and Kausambi on the banks of the Yamuna. Ahichhatra in Bareilly district was the capital of the north Panchalas.
Rajghat in Varanasi h as provided evidence for ivory-working and the manufacture of textiles at this time. Vaisali,
identified with the present day Vaisali in north Bihar yielded a large number of clay seals and sealings, many of
them belonging to traders and artisans. Two important sites in Bengal were Tamluk and Chandraketugarh.
Excavations at Chandraketugarh showed that the site was surrounded by a mud rampart in the early centuries A.D.,
while Tamluk was a port-town providing an outlet to traffic along the Ganga. Further west was a fortified
settlement at Ujjain which was also famous for its bead-making industry. In addition excavations at all these sites
have uncovered remains of extensive brick walls and other structures.
ROLE OF RELIGION IN TRADE
We had earlier mentioned that Buddhism provided encouragement to traders and was also patronised by a large
number of occupational groups. We get information on this from inscriptions found at several Buddhist sites. These
are records of donations made by kings as well as by a cross-section of the population. We also know that the
important Buddhist monasteries were located along the trade routes at this time.
A major centre was the region around Taxila where several Buddhist monasteries were located. Here a distinct style
of art known as Gandhara art developed under the Kusanas. A second stronghold of Buddhism was the region
around Mathura which was equally famous as a centre of art also. Here, however, both Buddhism and Jainism were
patronised and excavations have unearthed both Buddhist and Jaina monastic remains. Another large Buddhist
centre was at Sanchi near present day Bhopal. Merchants from many centres in the Deccan and the north travelled
to Sanchi and made donation; their inscriptions being significant indicators of routes. The major share of the money
for building the Stupa at Sanchi as provided by the residents of Ujjain. Also in central India was the Stupa at
Bharhut. Here donations were made by the residents of Nasik in the Deccan as well as by, those of Pataliputra and
Vaisali in the north.
These donations of money and land added to the wealth of the monasteries and led to a change in the role of the
Buddhist Samgha in society. When Buddhism originated around the fifth century B.C. monks led a very simple
life. With the growth of the influence of Buddhism, specific groups of Buddhist sects and teachers became very
wealthy. Thus by the Kushana period we find that certain Buddhist monastic centres possessed money and land and
there are many instances of monks and nuns themselves making donations of money.
One of the reasons for the division of the Buddhist Samgha was the dispute that arose about the interpretation of
certain rules. There was an ongoing debate about whether monks could own property or not. Another question was
about the deification of the Buddha and the worship of his image. By the first century A.D. the Buddhist Samgha
had split into two major schools known as Mahayana and Hinayana. Of these two, the Hinayana was the more
conservative. But what is important for our purpose is that the worship of the Buddha image led to an increase in
ritual observances. Monasteries now required oil for lighting lamps, incense for fragrance and silk banners for
decorating the Stupas. Once monks started living permanently in monasteries, they required clothes. They now
owned land and money and were no longer dependent on begging for their food and other necessities. Thus,
gradually they became one of the major consumers of many of the items traded at this time.
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Until now we have talked only about Buddhism and Jainism. What about Brahmanism or Hinduism? There are
references in inscriptions to money given to feed brahmanas and to the performance of Vedic sacrifices. Early
images of Siva and Vishnu dated to the Kusana period have also been found. But the structure and form of the
Brahmanical temple developed mainly from the Gupta period onwards and it was later the temple became the
nucleus of activity in society.
POSITION OF' TRADERS
Brahmanical texts in Sanskrit of the early centuries A.D. divide society into four categories, i.e. brahmana,
kshatriya, vaisya and sudra. Agriculture and trade were generally prescribed to the vaisya, though the profession of
the artisan was associated with the sudra. As contrasted to this, early Buddhist texts refer to a variety of ways in
which society could be divided. In addition to the varna or caste hierarchy they also mention distinctions on the
basis of work and craft. Here the division is on the basis of high and low.
Agriculture, trade and cattle-keeping were considered high work. Thus in many Buddhist texts young men of good
family are always associated with agriculture, trade and cattlekeeping. Similarly, accounting and writing are rated
high among crafts, while leatherworking, basket-making, weaving, etc. are considered low. On the whole, in
Buddhist society identification was on the basis of occupations and traders has a high place in society.
We find this reflected in the inscriptions as well. The donors at the Buddhist monastic sites mention only their
occupations and nowhere does the caste affiliation figure. Traders and merchants are prominently represented and
guilds occur in their own right.
BUDDHISM
Development of religions, Mahayana
The growth of Buddhism had suffered a minor setback during the Sunga-Kanva period. This was because both the
Sungas and the Kanvas who succeeded the Mauryas in Magadha professed Brahmanical faith.
The Buddhist work Divyavadana accuses Pushyamitra Sunga as a vertible enemy of Buddhism. It is said that he
attempted to destroy the Kukuta Arama monastry at Pataliputra.
According to this source he also fixed a prize of 100 dinaras for the head of every monk.
However, although these rulers may have been personally opposed to Buddhism, it does not mean that social
support to Buddhism declined on any significant scale. In fact, the Bharhut Stupa in Central India was built during
the rule of the Sungas. The Sanchi Stupa was enlarged twice its size and the gateways (torana) and the railings were
added in their period only. The version of Divyavadana seems to be highly exaggerated, but there is no doubt that
the kind of royal patronage Buddhism had enjoyed during the Mauryan rule was no more there at the time of the
Sungas and the Kanvas.
Expansion and Patronage
We notice expansion of Buddhism in all parts of India during the period 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. Buddhism gained a
strong foothold in the north western India. Many of the foreigners like the Indo-Greeks and the Kushanas, who
invaded India during this time accepted Buddhism.
Among the Indo-Greek kings, it was Menander who figures prominently as the ruler who was drawn towards the
doctrines of Buddhism. He accepted Buddhism. He is called king Milinda of Sakala in a Buddhist work which
gives the story of how he was converted. This work, known as 'Milinda-Panha' (Question of Milinda) was written in
the form of a dialogue between Menander and the Buddhist monk Nagasena.
Many Kushana kings adopted Buddhism. For example, Kujula Kadphises and Kaniska-I were followers of
Buddhism. It was in Kaniskas rule that Buddism reached a supreme position. During his period the Fourth Buddhist
Council was convened on the advice of Parsva –the Buddhist monk. Though there is some controversy regarding
the place of the meeting, it is generally accepted, on the evidence of many contemporary authorities, that it was
held somewhere in Kashmir. Vasumitra acted as its president. A thorough discussion took place on some difficult
passages of the scriptures and these discussions were compiled in the form of commentaries known as 'Vibhasha
sastras'. It was in this council that Buddhism got split into Hinayana and Mahayana.
Development in Religion
Kaniska-I helped to propagate Buddhism in different parts of the country. For example, he built a Stupa and a
monastery at Peshawar which served as a great centre of Buddhist learning and culture. However, in this period
monks from India carried the doctrines of Buddha also to Central Asia and China.
In the Deccan the Satavahana kings and Kshtrapa rulers of western India patronized Buddhism. Many Stupas were
built and were endowed with munificent gifts. For example, the Amaravati Stupa was enlarged and enclosed in
richly carved marble slabs in the days of the Satavahana King Pulumavi.
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Along the Western Coast, many caves were excavated on the Western ghats by the Satavahanas and the Kshatrapas.
They functioned as shelters for Buddhist monks and as monasteries. These rock cut caves are found at places like
Nasik, Karle, Bhaja, Gunnar, Kanheri, etc.
Some traces of Buddhism are also noticed in the Tamil country during this period. The early cave inscriptions from
the Tamil country refer to some places occupied by the Buddhists. These inscriptions also record donations by the
lay worshippers.
Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
The growth of Mahayana Buddhism contributed to the further development of Buddhism as a popular faith all over
India and beyond her frontiers. The religious emotions of a number of people, with different origins and cultural
affiliations gradually transformed Buddha into a God. In the early centuries of the Christian era the installation and
worship of Buddha images came into vogue. This paved the way for the advent of Mahayana Buddhism.
Mahayana Buddhism originated in about the first century B.C. in the Andhra region. It became a recognisable
form of Buddhism at the time of Kaniska and then spread all over North India in the first and Second centuries A.D.
However, due to the opposition from orthodox Buddhism it could not make much headway in the beginning. It was
with the advent of Nagarjuna, the most outstanding exponent of Mahayana that it started gaining popularity.
Although Mahayana Buddhism originated in the first century B.C. the formal division of the Buddhist samgha into
Hinayana and Mahayana on the basis of sharp doctrinal differences seems to have taken place after the fourth
Buddhist council at the time of Kaniska-I. Literally, Hinayana means "Lesser Vehicle" and Mahayana, "Greater
Vehicle", but these were terms which were invented to show the superiority of Mahayana over Hinayana. The
essential difference lay in the Mahayana belief, first preached by a Buddhist sect called Mahasanghika, that every
being could aspire to Buddhahood and could attain it-through various stages as Bodhisattva. One could become a
Bodhisattva by performing the meritorious acts or Paramitas. Other features associated with Mahayana faith are:
Belief in sunyata or void or non-reality of objects; belief in mantras, belief in numerous Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
and the practice of worshipping gods and goddesses. Most of these beliefs and practices, the Hinayanists thought,
were not expounded by the Buddha himself. They also thought that it was not practical to teach that the ideal of
Buddhahood could be attained by every being.
Sects
With the spread of Buddhism to different parts of the country many sects appeared. For example, the Theravadins
had their centre of activity at Kausambi; Mathura was the centre for the Sarvastivadins; and the Bhadra Yanika sect
flourished at Nasik and Kanheri.
The origin of these sects may not have been originally due to differences in the doctrines. In fact, what contributed
to their origin and growth were factors related to geographical diversities of the country, attitudes of various
communities at the local levels and perhaps lack of coordination between the various exponents of the sects. Under
the Satavahavas, the Dhanyakataka (Amaravati) region became the most important stronghold of Mahayana
Buddhism whereas the Sthaviravadins were popular in the north.
..
These sects brought about certain changes in Buddhism. Some of these were:
Whereas earlier Buddha was considered as a teacher only, now in the Mahayana sect he was worshipped as God.
This brought about a change in the form in which he was worshipped. For example, earlier in sculpture he was
represented through a pair of foot prints; a white elephant and a flower, etc. But now people began to worship
Buddha images and idols.
The concepts Bodhisattvas also underwent a change. For example, according to one sect the Bodhisattva was an
incaration of the Buddha whereas another sect depicted Bodhisattva as an unselfish individual working for the good
of all.
Now the idea of successive re-births was strengthened. It emphasised that one could Development in Religion
accumulate merit through successive births.
Merit now could also be transferred from one person to another person by conducting appropriate pious acts.
Centres
The earlier religious and pilgrimage centres remained as popular centres even in this period: a Barhut, Bodhgaya
and Sanchi continued to be celebrated places of pilgrimage during the Sunga period and later.

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Purushapura was a great centre of Buddhist culture under the Kushans. However, Taxila continued to be the most
important centre in this region. Infact, in the entire region of Gandhara which included Purushapura and Taxila,
Buddhism was so important that it gave rise to a regional school of art called Gandhara art.
a Mathura was a major centre of Buddhism and like Gandhara produced its own school of art. Bodhisattva images
of Mathura were taken to far-off places. In western Deccan, Nasik, Kanheri and Karle numerous other monasteries
were excavated on the hills during this period and provided residence to Buddhist monks.
In the eastern Deccan, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda were the famous centres where Buddhist art flourished. The
Mahachaitya of Nagarjunakonda was a place of pilgrimage among the Buddhists all over India.
Some of these centres developed into great educational centres also. For example Taxila, Mathura, Benaras and
Nalanda emerged as centres of Buddhist learning. Taxila attracted students from many parts of the country. It
offered the highest learning in humanities, sciences, crafts, martial arts, law and medicine.
JAINISM
Jainism did not spread as fast as Buddhism. Further, royal patronage to Jainism was not as extensive as it was in the
case of Buddhism. Inspite of these difficulties, the monks were active and organised missions to spread Jainism.
By the early centuries of the Christian era it had consolidated its position in India. But Jainism, unlike Buddhism,
did not attempt to spread its doctrines outside India.
Spread and Patronage
Generous patronage was extended to Jainism by some kings, and the name of Kharavela, the ruler of Kalinga,
stands foremost in this regard. Not only he and his queen practised Jainism but they dedicated some caves for the
use of the Jaina monks in the Udayagiri hills. In the Kushana period Jainism was popular in Mathura. The Mathura
School of Art produced many images of the Tirthankaras and other objects of worship for the Jainas.
In the Tamil country the Tamil kings dedicated some caves to the Jainas. Athiyan Nedurnan Anji dedicated a cave to
the Jainas at Jambai in South Arcot district. The cave at Sittanavasal (Pudukkottai district) was dedicated by the
local people to a Jaina monk. This indicates the popularity of the Jaina faith among the people of that region.
Jaina monks organised many missions to spread Jainism. These missions were originally intended to provide relief
and shelter to Jaina monks who were suffering from famine or drought. However, these relief missions ultimately
turned into religious missions for the spread of Jainism.
The first such mission was organised in the Mauryan period. According to tradition, Bhadrabahu, contemporary of
Chandragupta Maurya, migrated to provide shelter to the monks. He, with the King Chandragupta Maurya, went
south and established a centre at Sravanabelgola in Karnataka. From this place the Jainas spread to different parts of
the Tamil country and the Andhra region.
A Svetambara tradition mentions in the time of Kharavela, the migration of Jaina monks from Magadha to the
eastern Andhra coast. This tradition is supported by a late inscription from Hathigumpha cave on the Udayagiri
hills near Bhuvaneswar.
Another tradition mentions the migration of Jainas to Mathura. The ruins of the Kankali Tila at Mathura and a
number of dedicatory inscriptions testify to the existence of Jainism in Mathura during the first-second centuries
A.D.
The story of Kalakacharya refers to the movement of Jainas to Malwa as early as the first century B.C.
From the evidence of Junagadh inscription-it is clear that by the early centuries of the Christian era Jainism had
spread to Gujarat.
Sects
The Svetambara and Digambara sects were known from as early as the second century B.C. Those who discarded
all garments and went about naked were called Digambaras and those who wore a white garment were named
Svetambaras. There is very little doctrinal differences between these two sects. This continued in this period also.
The Yapaniya developed as another Jaina sect around the first century A.D. It was probably founded by Kalasa, a
monk of Svetambara sect at Kalayanagara. A significant feature of this sect was that it though that even women
could attain moksha and that kevalins should take their food in morsels.
By and large Jainism remained faithful to its original doctrines and hence the number of its adherents remained
fairly constant.
Centres
Among the many Jaina centres, Rajagriha or Rajgir developed into an important centre during the first and second
centuries A.D. Vajra Muni of the Svetambara sect was associated with this place.

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Mathura was another important centre. From the sculptures found in Mathura and from the dedicated inscriptions
on them, it is evident that the merchant class patronised Jainism here on a significant scale. It continued to be an
important centre of Jainism for many centuries. According to a late tradition. Ujjain was another important centre of
Jainism in this period.
In the northwest, Sirkap in Taxila grew into a Jaina centre from the early centuries of the Christian era in addition to
being a major Buddhist centre. It had a large Jain establishment. Similarly, Broach and Sopara on the western coast
were great centres and monks frequented there.
In Orissa, Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneswar were other centres from the Mauryan times, and they
continued to flourish even after the rule of Kharavela.
In the Tamil country, Madurai and Sittannavasal may be considered as important centres.
Large Jaina establishments existed at these places in the second century B.C. and afterwards.
BRAHMANISM
It has already been mentioned that Brahmanism received support from several kings during this period.
Contemporary sources refer to the performance of certain Vedic rituals by the kings. For example Pushyamitra
Sunga performed two horse sacrifices (Asvamedha Yajna). Satakarni-I of the Satavahana dynasty performed
Asvamedha, Rajasuya and a few other sacrifices. The Chola and the Pandaya chiefs of the Tamil country are also
said to have performed many sacrifices.
New Developments
Brahmanism too acquired many new features during this period and we see the gradual crystallization of what may
be called Puranic Hinduism. The central feature of this was worship of gods and goddesses and not performance of
sacrifices. For example, the idea of a supreme deity gained strength and this deity was either Vishnu or Siva. This
sharply divided the religious pantheon into two groups and led to the development of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
Though both the sects believed that salvation could be attained only by devotion or bhakti, there was sharp
division among the devotees of the two deities. There also arose the concept of trinity of gods. All the gods in the
Brahmanical pantheon were now grouped under three major gods with Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the
protector and Siva as destroyer. Though these three deities had their origins in the Vedic age, their importance
and significance rose to new heights in this period. While Siva and Vishnu attracted a large following, in the case of
Brahma it was not so.
The characteristic changes apparent in this period were:
The shift from the pure ritual to bhakti or devotion, and assimilation of some of the local traditions into the
Brahmanical religion.
Vaishnavism, for example, absorbed a number of different gods like the Vedic Vishnu, deified sage Narayana and
deified heroes Vasudeva and Balarama. The epic heroes Rama and Krishna were accepted and they gained an
enviable position among the Brahmanical deities.
The Tamil deities, mentioned in the Sangam literature, were adopted into the Brahmanical faith. In the same way
some of the local deities of north India were also admitted into the Brahmanical pantheon.
Other Deities
A variety of deities were also worshipped. Among them Brahma, Agni, Surya and Indra were some of the popular
ones. The four guardian deities (dikpalas) namely, Yama, Varuna, Kubera and Vasava were also worshipped.
Beside these:
Animals like elephant, horse and cow were worshipped,
The Naga or Serpent worship was popular in almost all parts of the country, and
Many trees and tree spirits were also worshipped.
Growth of Vaishnava and Saiva religions

SAIVISM
The origin of Saivism can be traced back to the pre-Vedic times and by the early centuries of the Christian era it
was a popular sect in almost all parts of India. Siva was the principle deity of this sect and was worshipped in the
linga (phallus) form. This form of worship seems to have been popular from the beginning of the Christian era.
Siva was also worshipped in his human form, the descriptions of which are found in some literary texts.
Saivism also received some royal support during this period. Among the Kushana kings, Wema Kadphises was an
ardent devotee of Siva. On the reverse of his coins is found a representation of Siva holding a trident. Although
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Kaniska was a Buddhist, the reverse of some types of his coins bore the image of Siva. Worship of Siva was very
popular in the Deccan from the early days. We find reference to Siva worship in the Prakrit text, Gathasaptasati of
the Satavahana King Hala and one of the earliest stone sculptures of the linga comes from eastern Andhra Pradesh.
In the Tamil country, Saivism was well rooted. The Tamil Sangam works refer to Siva as the greatest of all the gods
(mamudu mudalvan). Many of his exploits and his attributes are know from the Sangam works which also
mention his form and other qualities. For example, he is described as having matted hair and wearing tiger skin. He
was also known as the deity who destroyed the three heavenly cities (Tripurantaka).
Along with Siva many other deities were also worshipped and thus came to be formed the Saivite pantheon. Siva's
consort Parvati assumed a place of importance and was adored as 'Sakti'. The idea that from her emanated all
energy was now introduced. She was also considered the mother of Skanda and Ganesha. She was worshipped in
here ferocious form as Durga. In the Satavahana kingdom she was also worshipped as Gauri, another form of
Parvati.
Skanda worship became popular in this period. He was regarded as the son of Siva. He was identified with the
leader of the forces of the Gods. Kartikeya and Kumara were identified with him. In the Tamil country he was
worshipped in the Muruga form. Many of his attributes and his temples are known from the Sangam literature.
A less popular deity in this period was Ganesha, the elder brother of Skanda. He was the leader of the Ganas (hosts
of Siva) and was also known as Vinayaka.
Among the Saiva sects the most popular and well represented sect was the Pasupata sect. It was started by Lakulisa
in Gujarat sometime in the second century A.D. and Pasupata ascetics spread to different parts of the country. Siva
was worshipped in the form of Pasupati. The Kapalika and the Kalamuka sects developed much later. All these
sects emphasised that Siva was the supreme god.
VAISHNAVISM
Vaishnavism was another popular sect of Brahmanism followed by a larger group of people in all parts of India.
The principal deity of this sect was Vishnu who is referred to as the protector in the Brahmanical religion. The cult
of Vishnu in the early period was known by the name Bhagavatism, which was developed from the Vedic cult
Vasudeva-Krishna.
Bhagavatism owed its origin to the Upanishadas. It arose around the Mathura region. It stressed upon the idea of a
supreme god called 'Hari' and sacrifices and other rituals were regarded as of minor importance. Devotion to
Vishnu was considered as the supreme virtue.
For quite sometime it was confined to the Mathura region. By the beginning of the Christian era it spread to
different regions in India. Inscriptions testifying to the worship of Vasudeva are found in Maharashtra, Rajaputana
and Central India.
Vasudeva who was the central figure in the Bhagavata cult came to acquire an important position in the
Brahmanical pantheon. Earlier he was considered equal to deities like Dharma and Indra. In the second century
A.D., in the Satavahana kingdom. Gautamiputra Satakarni was described as equal to Balarama, Kesava and
Bhimasena, the epic heroes.
It was sometime before the second century B.C., that the Vishnu and Narayana were united Development in
Religion and identified as one deity. This kind of amalgamation probably helped Brahmanism to check the spread
of Buddhism. The Bhagavata cult, centring around the worship of Vasudeva and others was also a part of
vaishnavism.
Kings like Demetrius and Menander were followers of Buddhism but some of the Indo-Greeks also embraced
Bhagavatism. For example, from the Besnagar Pillar Inscription we know that Heliodorus of Takshasila (Taxila)
who was an envoy of Indo-Greek King Antialcidus to the court of a Sunga ruler was a follower of the Bhagavata
cult and erected a pillar with Garuda, the emblem of Vishnu, at Besnagar (Vidisa) near Bhopal in honour of
Vasudeva.
In the Tamil country also the worship of Vishnu was very popular. His different qualities and attributes are
mentioned in the Tamil Sangam works. He is identified with Krishna. He was also worshipped in his avataras
(incarnations) as Rama and Balarama.
Vishnu, the chief deity of the Vaishnava sect, had manifested himself in many avataras.
Vishnu, was thus worshipped also in his avatara forms. Krishna, Rama and Balarama were : most respected
avataras of Vishnu. But other avataras like Narasimha and Varaha were also worshipped.

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, The emblems associated with Vishnu were also worshipped. Thus, Garuda, the vahana of Vishnu and Chakra, the
circular weapon, came to be held in veneration. Garuda, his emblem, was worshipped and pillars with Garuda
emblem were set up to mark a place as sacred for the Vaishnavas.
Lakshmi, Vishnu's consort was also now worshipped. Many of Vaishnava religious ideas occur in the epics
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Some of the most important ideas like the theory of Karma are explained in the
Bhagavat Gita, a work supposed to have been incorporated in Mahabharata during this period. It emphasised that
one has to do his worldly duties according to one's status in the society as prescribed in the scriptures. This was
expected to ultimately lead him to liberation.
SCULPTURAL ART
art, architecture
Explain as to how the early Buddhist stupa art, while using motifs and narratives and common cultural symbols,
succeeded in transforming these themes for expounding Buddhist ideas (20)(2013)
Review critically the evolution of different schools of art in the Indian subcontinent between the
second century BCE and the third century CE, and evaluate the socio-religious factors responsible
for it. (20) (2014)
Sculptural art cannot be separated from architecture because sculptures form part of a total complex like a Stupa or
a Chaitya. When single images were fashioned they too were generally housed in Viharas or were located at
religious centres. In this period, we notice the development of regional or local styles or schools in creations of
sculptural art. Gandhara and the Mathura schools developed in the north while in the south, Amaravati was the
major early centre in the lower Krishna-Godavari valley.
In general, the art of the post-Mauryan period was distinct in character from earlier Imperial Mauryan Art. The
Mauryan art has been described as palace art, whereas the art of the Sunga-Kanva period had a much wider social
base. It is also different in motive, technique and significance.
The art of this period is mostly represented in the Buddhist images and relief sculptures carved on the railings,
gateways and plinths of the Stupas and also on the facades and walls of the Viharas and Chaityas. Brahmanical
sculptures for this period are very few.
However, an important development of this period is modelling of the image of the Buddha both in the Mathura and
Gandhara schools. Following the Buddhists and Jainas, the Brahmanical religion also conceived of images of
different gods and goddesses.
In addition to sculptures made in relief on panels, many sculptures were also made in the round. These figures are
large in size and well-modelled. However, they do not conform to accurate anatomical proportions; they were not
intended to do so. The Yakshas and Yakshinis occupy the most important place in this group.
Icon or image worship among the Jainas may be traced to the Sunga period. The, damaged torso of a nude figure
from Lohanipur (Patna) is identified with a Tirthankara. According to the Hathigumpha inscription, the existence of
image worship among the Jainas of eastern India goes back to the pre-Mauryan times. Some of the Jaina images
found in the votive tablets of the Jainas with ashtamangalas (eight auspicious marks) from Mathura suggest that
image worship among the Jainas too was becoming common by the first century A.D.
Among the Buddhists it was the Mahayana sect that propogated image worship. Seated and standing images of
Buddha were carved in Mathura and Gandhara.
The bas reliefs of Sanchi, Barhut and Bodh Gaya represent an early phase in the art of relief carving. Most of these
sculptures are found on the medallions or rectangular panels on the railings that surround a Stupa. The relief
sculptures represent themes from Buddha's life and scenes from Jataka stories, and the events are depicted in a
continuous narration.
Gandhara School
Gandhara is located in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent on both banks of Fiver Indus. It included
the valley of Peshawar, Swat, Buner and Bajjora. It was ruled by the Achaneminds of Iran in the sixth-fifth
centuries B.C. Later it was occupied by the Greeks, Mauryas, Sakas, Pahlavas and Kusanas. As a result, this place
produced a mixed culture. Its art, which was mainly Buddhist. was profoundly influenced by Hellenistic art. For
example the depiction of transparent garment draped in Greco - Roman fashion and vary curly hair in Buddha idols,

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(see illustrations). But at the same time we must remember that the chief patrons of Gandhara art were the Sakas
and the Kusanas.
The main centres from where the art pieces of Gandhara School have been found are Art and Architecture
Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram and Taxila. Gandhara art can be divided into two schools, early and later.
During the early school, which existed during first and second century A.D., blue-grey schist stone was used to
make idols. However, in the later school instead of schist stone, mud, lime, pilaster and stucco was used to make
the idols. These idols give a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of
the body.
They are depicted with sharp features and anatomical accuracy.
Besides idols we find beautiful carvings on reliefs and bas-reliefs the theme being the life of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas. For example :
 The drum of the Chira Stupa, at Taxila, is decorated by images of Bodhisattvas placed in niches for
worship.
 On the ramparts of small pillars, of the Sehribhelol Stupa, the images of Buddha, Bodhisattvas and
incidents from their 'life have been carved out.
 A bronze reliquary was recovered from the side walls of the Stupa at Shah-ji-ki-dheri. It depicts Buddha,
Kusana kings and flying geese (symbolic of wandering monks).
The Gandhara art had many other aspects also. For example a gold reliquary has been found at Bimaran in which a
series of figures are contained within an arcade. Similarly ivory plaques have been found from Begram.
Mathura Art
The origin of Mathura art form is traced back to the second century B.C. By the first century A.D it had not only
become a major centre of art but the art pieces of this school were in demand in far off areas. In a time span of
nearly four hundred years this school produced a variety of sculptures and other pieces of art for the followers of
Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical faiths. A significant dimension of Mathura art is that it also produced, like
Afghanistan in the Kushana period, images of kings and other notables. This shows that Mathura artists were aware
of various forms of art activities of the period and were catering to the requirements of different social groups of
Indian and non-Indian origin. At the same time what they were creating, from local red stone, were uniquely of
Mathura. Another aspect worth noting about this school is that it depicted various patterns of life on the votive
pillars. For example, we have scenes from forests where men and women are collecting flowers; women playing
with cranes or offering fruits to birds and women playing in gardens and water tanks. The votive pillars from
'Kankali Tila' demonstrate how feminine beauty has been utilised by the sculptor. The themes handled by the
Mathura artists are in fact many, and, as in Sanchi and Bharhut, the artist chose elements from nature to enrich his
creation.
The sculptures here were carved out of red sandstone which was available locally. Let us briefly take a thematic
study of the sculpture belonging to the Mathura school.
1) The Buddha idols: The earliest images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha were perhaps made at Mathura and sent
also to other regions. For example, the Sarnath image of standing Bodhisttvas installed in the period of Kanishka-I
was made at Mathura. We get Buddha images mainly in two postures - standing and sitting. Among the sitting idols
the one found at Katra is among the oldest. The characteristics of this idol are:
 Buddha sitting under a Bodhi tree,
 Right hand in abhaya posture, a Dharam chakra and tri-ratna chiselled in palms and at bottom of the
feet, and The head is shaven except one lock.
In fact, some of the general characteristics of the Buddha idols of this age are:
i) They are made of white spotted red stone.
ii) Images started getting fashioned in the round so that they could be seen from every side.
iii) The head and face are shaven.
iv) The right hand is shown raised in abhaya posture.
v) There is no mark on the forehead.
vi) The dress is always tight on the body and the left hand holds the frill.
2) Jaina specimens : Mathura was a sacred centre of the Jains as it was of the followers of Brahmanical and
Buddhist faiths. It has yielded a number of inscriptions which refer to lay followers of Jainism, to Jaina monks and
nuns and to donations and dedications made by them. For example, as early as the middle of the second century
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B.C., an inscription (pasada-torana) by a Jaina Sravaka named Uttaradasaka. Kankali Tila was the main Jaina site at
Mathura and it has yielded an overwhelmingly large number of Sculptures ayaqapatas or stone slabs with Jaina
figures in centre and auspicious marks or with representations of Jaina Stupas (these were objects of worship)
Various architectural fragments like pillars, capitals, crossbars, railing - posts, etc.
The representations of the Jainas or the Tirthankaras on the ayaqapatas date before the Kushana period but regular
images become common only from the Kushana period onward.
Of them Parsvanatha is recognizable from his canopy of snake hoods and Rishabhanatha from rocks of hair falling
on his shoulders but other Tirthankara images are not so easily identified.
3) Brahmanical Images: Few Brahmanical images have been found in Mathura.
The earliest representations are of Siva, Lakshmi, Surya and Sankarshana or Balarama. During the Kushana period
Karttikeya, Vishnu, Sarasvati, Kubera and certain other gods, including Naga images, were represented in sculpture.
Some of iconographical features or features which characterize each deity are present in images of this period.
For example Siva, though he is represented in the linga form, began to be carved in the form of Chaturmukha linga.
This refers to linga with four human faces of the Siva on all four sides.
The Surya in the Kushana age is shown riding a chariot driven by two horses. He wears a heavy coat, a dress in the
lower half of the body resembling a salwar, boots, a sword in one hand and a lotus in the other.
Balarama has a heavy turban on his head.
Saraswati is seated with manuscript in her hands. Dressed in a simple way she wears no ornaments and is attended
by two other figures.
Durga in her Mahisha-mardini form, is depicted as the killer of buffalo demon.
A number of Yaksha and Yakshini images have been discovered in Mathura. They are associated with all the three
religions - Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism. Kubera was, another deity shown with a bulging belly. He is
associated with wine and with parties where participants indulge in drinks. He bears resemblance to Bachhus and
Dionysius respecting the Roman and Greek gods of wine.
4) The images of rulers: The Mat village in Mathura yielded big images of Kushana Kings and other notables like
Kanishka, Wima and Chastana. The idea of building reliquaries or structures for housing portrait-statues of rulers
and other dignitaries of the State possibly came from Central Asia. This was done to give the rulers a divine status:
The dresses which the dignitaries wear were also of Central Asian origin.
Many heads of Scythian dignitaries have also been found at Mat. These discoveries indicate that Mathura was the
most important centre of the eastern part of the Kushana empire. They also forcefully suggest interaction between
Gandhara and Mathura art forms.
In due course Mathura art forms contributed significantly to the development of Gupta art forms.
Amaravati Art
In the eastern Deccan, in the lower valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari developed the Amaravati School of art
during this period. This was patronised by Satavahana rulers and later by Ikshvaku rulers, by other political
dignitaries and families, by officials, merchants, etc. Inspired by Buddhist themes the main centres of this art were
Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati. Goli, Ghantasala, Jaggayyapeta etc. The most productive and prosperous phase of this
art has been dated to 150 8.C.-350 A.D. The sculptural forms again come to us from the railings, plinths and other
parts of several Stupas. The reliefs represent the traditional narrative art taking themes from the Buddha's life and
from Jataka stories. For example, on a relief medallion at Amaravati is depicted the story of the taming of an
elephant by the Buddha and the commotion preceding it. The whole depiction of the story has been done by the
sculptor in a natural way:
An infuriated elephant approaching the Buddha on a street, men and women are frightened; men throw up their
hands and women cling to men, Buddha moves towards the elephant in a spirit of adoration and humility, the
elephant kneels down in submission, and the entire episode is being watched by women and men from balcony and
windows.
The entire story has been depicted in relief on a medallion by the sculptor.
The general features of Amaravati art are:
the figures are carved out of white marble,
they are well modelled with long legs and slender frames,
physical beauty and sensual expressions command this art,
though nature is depicted, the central characters are human beings, and
kings, princes and palaces figure prominently in sculptural representations.
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Amaravati art shows distinct evolution toward maturity of style in a period of five hundred years. For example, the
earliest examples which we get from Jaggayyapeta date back to 150 B.C. In these, the figures are isolated units and
are not interrelated in one composition. However, "one can see here the beginning of that tall and slender human
frame which is so characteristic an ethnic form in the narrative reliefs of the Krishna valley, and later, of Pallava
sculpture". In later narrative reliefs the figures are well-shaped and interrelated.
Art and Architecture
In thematic treatment there is a striking similarity in certain cases with Mathura. For example, a relief panel at
Amaravati which shows a group of six bathing women with water pots is very close to such depictions of Mathura.
The way we have the representations of Kushana kings from Mathura in the form of statues, we find the kings and
princes as themes represented in Amaravati sculpture also. However, at Amaravati, they are not individual statues
but are arts of a narrative. For example:
the story of King Udayana and his queen is depicted on a relief,
a relief medallion depicts a court scene where the king is receiving presents, and
in a relief panel is depicted a scene showing a king on march, with elephants, horse riders and footmen.
In fact, the Amaravati school, under its Satavahana patrons and master craftsmen, produced some of the finest art
pieces in ancient India
OUTLINE HISTORY OF THE SATAVAHANA DYNASTY
Early State and Society in Deccan, The Satavahanas
According to Purana tradition it was Simuka Satavahana who established Satavahana power. Kanha or Krishna, his
brother, is perhaps known to us from an inscription at Nasik. Another record that lists several rulers of the dynasty
is the Nanaghat inscription of Queen Nayanika, the widowed queen of Satakarni, who performed Vedic sacrifices.
Nanaghat was a major pass connecting Junnar with the coast, and in a cave at the head of the pass portraits of the
Satavahana rulers were carved. 'unfortunately, the sculptures are now completely destroyed and all that remains are
labels over their heads giving their names.
We know very little about the rulers that followed Satakarni till we come to the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni. An
inscription of his mother engraved on the entrance to a cave at Nasik, provides us details about the extent of his
kingdom and the events of his reign. A major achievement of Gautamiputra Satakarni was the defeat of the
Kshatrapas of western Deccan and Gujarat. His mother's epigraph praises him as the restorer of Satavahana glory
and further proof of this comes from numismatic evidence.
After his victory, Gautamiputra counterstruck silver coins of the Kshatrapa Nahapana with his own legend and
symbols. According to the Periplus of the Erytheaen Sea, as a result of the rivalry between the Kashatrapas and the
Satavahanas, Greek ships entering Kalyan, a port near present Bombay, were sent under guard to the port of
Bharuch. Perhaps control of the lucrative foreign trade was one of the causes for the conflict. It would also seem
that under Gautamiputra Satakarni, Satavahana rule extended over Andhra as well.
Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Pulumavi and it was at this time that the Satavahanas consolidated their
power in the eastern Deccan. For the first time we find Satavahana inscriptions outside the western Deccan at
Amaravati. Yajnasri Satakarni was the last important Satavahana ruler and after him the kingdom was splintered,
and divided between his successors - one line of kings ruling in the Andhra region It was also under the later
Satavahanas that wins with bilingual legends were issued and In addition to the name of the king in Prakrit these
carried a legend in a south Indian language opinion being divided on its identification between Tamil and Telugu.
In addition to the Kshatrapas, an early Satavahana (ruler) had to contend with the power of Kharavela from Orissa
or Kalinga. Khavavela rose to power in Kalinga in the middle of the first century B.C. He dispatched an army to the
west without caring for Satakarni; this suggests that early Satavahana power suffered setbacks both at the hands of
the Kshatrapas and of Kharavela. It was revived only through the exploits of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
One of the problems of Satavahana history is that we know very little about the different pockets of the Deccan. For
example, the inscriptions refer to marriage relations of the Satavahanas with the Maharathis and the Mahabhojas -
in fact in the Nanaghat labels inscriptions a Maharathi finds precedence over a Kumara or prince, and Queen
Nayanika herself was the daughter of a Maharathi. Maharathis are also known to have made independent donations
-most of their inscriptions having been found around Karle, while the records of the Mahabhojas occur along the
west coast.
ADMINISTRATION

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Administration under the Satavahanas was much simpler that under the Mauryas. Inscriptions refer to ministers
who were incharge of various functions. Among other things, they served as treasury officers and maintained land
records. The exact number of ministers is not known. These ministers were appointed directly by the king and the
post of a minister does not seem to have been hereditary, i.e. passed from father to son.
They were perhaps paid in money from the revenue collected by the state. We do not have exact figures for the
amount of revenue collected, but we do know that the state collected taxes both from (agriculture and trade. One of
the practice started by Satavahana rulers in the first century A.D. was that of donating revenue of a village to, either
a Brahmana or the Buddhist Sangha. This practice became much more widespread under the Gupta rulers.
The importance of land-revenue for the king can be judged from the elaborate procedure that was used to record
donations of land. These donations were first proclaimed in an assembly gama-sabha. It was then written down
either on a copper-plate or cloth by an officer or minister. This record was then delivered to the donee to whom the
grant had been made. There was a keeper of records who maintained a detailed account of these donations.
The rulers at this time were eager to bring more land under cultivation so that they could earn extra revenue. It
seems that anyone who cleared the forest and tilled a plot could claim ownership of the land. The revenue from
trade was another major source of income. Much of the trade was handled by guilds who also acted as bankers. The
state took elaborate measures to encourage trade. Highways were made secure and rest-houses were constructed
along them.
SOCIETY
The social structure of the Deccan under the Satavahanas shows many features which are different from those
prescribed in the sanskrit texts such as the Manusmruti. For example, many inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers
mention the names of their mothers rather than those of their fathers, such as Gautamiputra Satakarni or Satakarni,
son of Gautami. This is not in keeping with the Dharmasastras which state that in the approved forms of marriage
the bride acquires the gotra of her husband and loses that of the father.
Another interesting feature of the inscriptions is that the Satavahanas refer to themselves as unique Brahmanas who
crushed the pride of the Kshatriyas. According to the Brahmanical texts it was only the Kshatriyas who had the
right to rule. The inscriptions are also usefull as they record donations by a cross-section of the population and from
this we can judge the prosperity of certain sections of the society. Traders and merchants figure prominently as
donors, but also important are blacksmiths, gardeners and fishermen. No doubt these artisans and craftsmen
benefitted from the increased long-distance trade. What is noteworthy is that they mention their occupations with
their names and not their castes. Buddhist texts prescribe a somewhat different division of society as compared to
the Brahmanical texts. Here the distinction was based on work and craft and in most cases people were known by
their occupations rather than their castes.
Another category of donors that is known at this time was that of yavanas or foreigners. The term yavana originally
denoted an Ionian Greek, but around the Christian era it was used indiscriminately for any foreigner. Many of the
yavanas adopted Prakrit names and made donations to Buddhist monasteries. Women frequently made gifts either
on their own or sometimes with their husbands or sons. One of the Satavahana queens named Nayanika also
performed Vedic sacrifices and made large donations to the Brahmana and Buddhist monks.
These examples indicate that society in the Deccan, as it is known from the records of the period, were not
governed by rules laid down by the Brahmanical texts. Thus any reconstruction of the ancient social structure
should carefully analyse textual references and establish their veracity by comparing these with other sources such
as inscriptional or archaeological.
The role of the Buddhist monasteries mentioned in the records of the period had also changed a great deal since the
time of the Buddha. In the beginning Buddhist monks were allowed very few personal possessions. These were
limited to a few robes and a begging bowl. Gradually the influence and membership of the Buddhist Sangha
increased. We have seen that Satavahana kings donated large sums of money and land to the Buddhist monasteries.
This added to the wealth of the Sangha. It is also at this time that we get references to donations made by Buddhist
monks and nuns themselves.
Significance Of The Satavahanas
(1) It was the emergence of Vakataka power in the Vindhya area some where about the middle of the third century
that brought about the downfall of the Satavahanas. But an empire so firmly established in its home domains does
not break down with the fall of a dynasty. The Rastrakutas and the Chalukyas in the Godavari valley and the
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Pallavas in the south originally the viceroys of the Satavahanas, claimed succession to the empire with in their own
territorial limits as the Vakatakas claimed it to the north of the Vindhyas. The Gangas and the Kadambas were also
the inheritors of the tradition and as the Vijayanagar emperors claimed in time to be Chalukya Chudamanis, or the
crest jewels of the Chalukya dynasty and as the great kings of Gujarat equally claimed succession from the
Chalukyas, the imperial tradition of the Satavahanas may be said to have been carried forward at least to the
beginning of the seventeenth century.
(2) The rise of the Satavahanas signified that the economic revolution of the Gangetic region was repeated allover
India. Added to this because of the peculiar geographical terrain of the Deccan peninsula a number of small
kingdoms came into existence but not any big empire.
(3) Since the Satavahanas had controlled part of the Deccan and part of northern India, they acted as the couriers of
Aryanism to southern India.
(4) It is intriguing to note that the Satavahana inscriptions were primarily in pali but not in Sanskrit indicating it
look long time to establish Sanskrit language as the language of the elite although people professed Aryanism much
earlier.
(5) The administrative structure of the Satavahana is a revealing one because it was not a highly centralized
administration and it conceded the emergence of feudalism. Feudal chiefs like maharathis, mahasenapatis and
mahabhojas issued their own coins.
(6) The artistic excellence that was achieved under the aegis of the Satavahanas had a tremendous significance.
Buddhist monuments came into existence at Nasik, Vidisha, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and amaravati. Most
probably human figure was first carved out at Amaravati and Amaravati's sculptures influenced South-east Asian
sculptures.
(7) Under the aegis of the Satavahanas trade was given a boost. The important pores were Koddura and
Chinnaganjam on the east and Kalyan, Sopara, Goa and Pigeon islands on the West coast. And some of the
important commercial centers were Tagara, Pratishthana, Nasik, Junnar and Dhanyakataka.
Saka-Satavahana Conflict
1. There is controversy about the name 'Sakas'. It was from the Gupta period that the name 'saka' came to be applied
to this family of people.
2. The one reason that was responsible for the southward thrust of the sakas was the Kushan pressure from the
north.
3. To begin with they established themselves in western Rajputana, Gujarat and Kathiawad. Then they took malva
and even northern Maharashtra from the Satavahanas. At one time they even got southern Maharashtra as far as
Vijayanti from the Satavahanas.
4. The earliest known king of the Kshaharatas, a branch of the Sakas, was Bhumaka. He ruled over Gujarat,
Kathiawad and north Konkan coins belonging to him are found.
5. His successor was Nahapana-title Raja-numerous coins-advanced at the expense of Satavahanas-this advance
began five years before the end of Nahapana's rule. After Nahapana defeated the Satavahana he assumed the title of
Maha Kshatrapa. A Jaina work mentions Broach as the capital of Nahapana.
6. Ushavadata was the general and son-in-law of Nahapana and he succeeded him as the Saka ruler. He took
western deccan including Malva. It is not known whether Paithan, the capital of Satavahanas was lost or not. He
defeated Satavahana rulers were Sundara Satakarni, Chakora Satakarni and Siva sati.
It is interesting to note that Ushavadata following Puranic Hinduism gave cows to brahmins - gave religious
benefactions - also gave villages to Buddhists - Saka country was divided into districts.
7. It was Gautamiputra Satakarni who revived the glories of Satavahanas. He defeated the successor of Nahapana,
Ushavadata was killed. Some say that he defeated Nahapana. Also a Jaina work speaks of Nahapana's defeat and
death at the hands of Satavahanas. The coins of Nahapana were re-issued by Gautamiputra Satakarni. Some land
grants also confirm this victory. It is said that the Satavahana king made preparations for 16 years to defeat the
Sakas.
8. The conflict was re-opened during the days of Pulumayi II, the king after Gautamiputra Satakarni, as well as, Sri
Pulumayi.
9. After this Ghamotika appeared on the stage who ruled over Kathiwad. His successor, Ghashtana also inflicted

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defeats on the Satavahanas. Rudraman too defeated the Satavahanas. The victory of Rudraman and Ghastana
around 150 A.D. (confirmed by Junagarh inscription) mad the Patavahanas lose all their northern conquests.
Significance:-
(1) The conflict between the Sakas and Satavahanas was inevitable as such conflicts were natural in feudal times.
Probably the Sakas were perforce driven to expand southward because of the establishment of Kushan empire. The
Saka-Satavahana conflict was because of the basic factors working in the political dynamic of the day.
(2) The Sakas issued coins of great artistic value. Gautamiputra Satakarni re-issued the coins of Nahapana. In other
words, the Sakas had a better artistic sense.
(3) Evidence shows that the Sakas introduced new ideas and institutions in south-silver coins, free use of Sanskrit
and Vigorous patronage of Buddhists and brahmins. Kshaharatas used Khoreshthi - alphabet of extreme north-west.
Society In the Deccan

In the Deccan all the three major religious systems i.e. Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism enjoyed large
following.
The Satavahana ruler extended their patronage to Vedic ritualism. For example Naganika, an early queen of the
Satavahana family performed several Vedic rituals and made gift mentioned in the Vedic texts. Jainism had some
following in the region and some of the famous teachers of the Digambara sect flourished in this period,
Kondakundacharya, the founder of the Mulamngha which became popular in the South, lived in the region,
Buddhism spread as a popular movement and that religion could enlist participation of a large number of followers,
mostly traders and artisians. The Mahayana sect of Buddhism enjoyed good popularity, Ruling authorities, rich men
and workers donated liberally to the viharas and stupas. Acharya Nagarjuna, the greatest exponent of Mahayana
faith flourished in the Deccan. Some foreign elements like Yavanor, Soka and Pahlava embraced either the
Brahmanical or the Buddhist religion. Thus the period witnessed the fusion of various cultural elements in society.
The rulers of foreign descent used Pakrit and later on Sanskrit, in their inscriptions and even adopted Indian
personal and family names.
The idea of the four-fold division of society was familiar in the Deccan. The practice of calling people according to
their profession was popular. Halaka (ploughman), gob (shepherd), vardhokl (carpenter), kollka (weaver),
tilaploaka (oil presser) and Kamara (smith) were some such professional labels. Caste rules were much flexible and
this might be due to mixing up with foreign elements. Joint family system was the normal feature of society. Male
domination is clearly attested to in social life. Sometimes some women are found accepting the titles of their
husbands like Bhojiki, Maharathini, Mahasenapatini etc.
NEW ELEMENTS AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Evaluate the ownership of land in ancient India on the basis of literary and epigraphic sources (15)(2013)
In the Deccan some new elements made their first appearance in the agrarian order during the first centuries A.D.
The Satavahana and Kshatrapa rulers donated plots of land and even entire villages to religious beneficiaries such
as Buddhist monks and Brahmanas. Along with land, certain economic privileges in the form of the right to collect
revenue from the village and to enjoy the right over mines were also transferred to the grantees. It appears that the
land grants included some fiscal and administrative rights over the peasants. The royal grants freed the village folk
from obligatory payments to administrative functionaries and soldiers who visited the village. In the past many
grants to individuals had been temporary. But now the trend was to make the grant perpetual.
The privileges and immunities sanctioned by the rulers and the grant of permanent right over land placed the
religious beneficiaries in a highly powerful position. These new developments in the agrarian sector brought about
serious and far-reaching changes in the land system and economy.
In the first place the religious beneficiaries became powerful authorities of the villages received by them with the
new economic and administrative privilages in addition to the spiritual control which they exercised.
Secondly, land grants to monks and priests created a new class of non-cultivating land owners. Buddhist monks and
Brahman priests were not cultivators themselves. They had to employ others to work on their land. The actual tillers
were thus separated from the land and its produce.
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Thirdly, this type of private ownership abolished earlier collective rights over forests, pastures, fisheries, and
reservoirs.
Fourthly, the beneficiaries enjoyed the rights dot only over land but also over peasants who worked on land. 'This
led to an erosion of the rights of the peasants who became servile.
These developments in the Deccan were to become prominent elsewhere in the subsequent centuries. Finally, the
practice of land grant contributed, with several other features, to the creation of a social order which is described by
some scholars as "Indian feudalism".
Land source of food for human settlement and fodder for cattles of migrating tribes. So from neolithic period we
can say claim on land resource has taken front seat.
- Settlement around Koldiva tells us about people living there was aware about agriculture here we found burnt
food grains. here we can say some sedentary society started settling down.
- In case of Harappan periods it is difficult to assess control on resources however with available resources like
double furrow in Kalibangan or ox and plough form of terrycota indicates land was important for those people.
- Vedic literature gives us hint about migratory nature and later on they settled in the form of clans. Earlier land was
belong to clan and laboured through dasa karmakaras (may be slaves). Later on society galvanised and king
claimed ownership on land.
- Arthashastra tells us whole land belong to empirer and peasant pays tax to empirer. New land clearing and
establishing new tribes is also mentioned here.
- During Gupta period land grants became phenominal, however Gupta given less land grants but vakatakas has
given many grants. Ex. Prabhvati gupta land grant and its copper plate inscription.
So this whole land ownership played major role in shifting power center in the History. It is said that land grants
caused decline of Gupta empire and rise of feudatories in early medieval period.
The question of facilities for transportation, storage and shipping is relevant particularly in the context of long
distance trade in which the movement of bulk items is a problem. In the far south, pepper, paddy and salt were the
main items which required movement in bulk. In western Deccan timber also was a bulk item of demand from the
West. Pack animals and carts were used for inland transport.
In Tamilaham there were several routes which connected the interior tracts with the settlements in the river valleys,
port towns and seats of rulers. One such route went from the western areas of the Kaveri valley to the Chola port
town Kaveripumpattinam.
How does the numismatic evidence of the period reflect the political and economic outlook of the Kushanas and the
Satavahanas? (15) (2016)
Local Coins
Local coins of different varieties were prevalent in different regions in peninsular India. Ancient Tamil literature
speaks about some of them such as Kasu, Kanam, Pw and Ven Pon. But actual coins which may correspond to
these names have not been discovered. In the Deccan, inscriptions refer to the use of Kahapanas which were silver
coins locally minted and tosuvarnas which refer to gold coins either of the Romans or the Kushans.
Actual coins of different varieties and minted in different metals like lead, potin (Copper mixed with tin and other
metals), copper and silver were in use. The earliest among them were punchmarked coins which, came to be minted
in north-west and north India from 6th-5th century B.C. onward. In peninsular India too different varieties of
punchmarked coins were minted in different regions. Other varieties of coins, manufactured by using other
techniques like casting and die-striking, gradually came into use. From the second century B.C. Kings of small
localities of members of the important, Maharathi and other families started minting coins in their own name. To
these were added coins of Satavahana rulers minted in different metals, possibly from the first century B.C. onward.
In the northern Deccan, Gujarat, Malwa and adjacent regions, silver coins of the Kshatrapas were in great demand.
Thus, between the second century B.C. and the close of the second century A.D., the largest varieties of local coins
were minted and were in circulation in peninsular India.
Satavahan coins
The Satavahanas are among the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting
with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Kshatrapas he defeated, itself
originating with the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest.
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Thousands of lead, copper and potin Satavahana coins have been discovered in the Deccan region; a few gold and
silver coins are also available. These coins do not feature uniform design or size, and suggest that multiple minting
locations existed within the Satavahana territory, leading to regional differences in coinage.
The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. Some
reverse coin legends are in Tamil, and Telugu languages.
Several coins carry titles or matronyms that were common to multiple rulers (e.g. Satavahana, Satakarni, and
Pulumavi), so the number of rulers attested by coinage cannot be determined with certainty. The names of 16 to 20
rulers appear on the various coins. Some of these rulers appear to be local elites rather than the Satavahana
monarchs.
The Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair,
long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually
struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings. The Satavahana coins also display various traditional symbols,
such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the
end.
Roman Coins
Ancient Tamil literature refers to Yavana (Roman) ships bringing large quantities of gold to Tamilaham to be
exchanged for pepper. The Roman emperor Tiberius wrote to the Senate in 22 A.D. that the wealth of the empire
was being drained off to foreign lands in exchange of petty things. In the 1st Century A.D., Pliny, the author of The
Natural History, complained that every year a huge amount of Roman wealth went out to India, China and Arabia
for luxury articles. These statements are well supported by the large number of Roman Coins found in hoards in
various places of peninsular India like Andhra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Most of the coins belong to a
period between the lst century B.C. and the 3rd Century A.D. This suggests that Roman Contact with peninsular
India was brisk during this period.
The Roman coins are mostly in gold and silver. Copper coins are extremely rare but not altogether unknown.
Roman money was brought to purchase items which were dear to the Westerners.
These items could not be procured by exchanging Roman things in bulk. Big transactions were done by means of
gold wins. Silver coins were used for comparatively small purchases. Some scholars are of the view that Roman
gold was accepted not as coin but as bullion. It is also held by certain scholars that Roman gold was used as
ornament by the South Indians.
Some numismatists have maintained that the Roman coins and the punch-marked coins were current in the country
side by side. The Roman coins were of roughly the same weight as the punch-marked coins. In some hoards they
are found along with the punch-marked coins. Both types are equally worn out, and this suggests that they were
current for a long time before they were placed in hoards. Imitations of Roman coins were also current in south
India, especially on the Coromandal Coast, where there were some Roman trading stations. These imitated coins
may have been manufactured to satisfy the needs of such 'colonies'.
REVENUE FROM TRADE

Collection of revenue as a regular source of income to the treasury depends on several factors including the
efficiency of the government. Political developments in different regions in peninsular India in our period were not
uniform in character.
Toll was collected for merchandise moving on pack animals and carts. This toll was known as sulka. This seems to
indicate that the idea of toll was borrowed from the north. However, all the crowned chieftains and the lesser
chieftains of the south are said to have been interested in trade, especially with the Yavanas, evidently with an eye
on the income from commerce. In the Chola port town of Kaveripumpattinam there were the Chola ruler's agents to
affix the Chola emblem of the tiger on the merchandise. Toll was also levied on the articles. Detailed information
about this aspect is not available.
Further north, in the territory of the Satavahanas, taxation seems to have been more regular and systematic. Toll
was collected on each item of trade. Custom duties and various tolls were levied on merchants at each major town.
The rates of such duties and tolls are not specified anywhere. Ferry duties were another source of income.

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Ushavdata, son-in-law and representative of the Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana of western India is said to have made
arrangements for toll-free ferries on some rivers.
Revenue was received in kind or in cash.
Artisans had to pay tax on their products. This was known as Kerkira (Kara = artisan and Kara = tax).
From this fragmentary information one can only say that the ruling authorities derived considerable income from
trade and commerce.
Tamil States of the Sangam Age; Administration, economy,

How do recent Archaeological findings and Sangam literary texts, enlightened us about the early state and
society in South India. (60) (2008)
Three Early Kingdoms:
The southern end of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna river was divided into three kingdoms:
Chola, Pandya, and Chera or Kerala. The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom
was celebrated for pearls. He also speaks of it being ruled by a woman, which suggests some matriarchal influence
in Pandya society. The Pandya territory occupied the southernmost and the south-eastern portion of the Indian
peninsula, and it roughly included the modern districts of Tirunelveli, Ramnad, and Madurai in Tamil Nadu with its
capital at Madurai.
The literature compiled in the Tamil academies in the early centuries of the Christian era and called the Sangam
literature refers to the Pandya rulers, but it does not provide any coherent account. One or two Pandya conquerors
are mentioned. However, this literature shows clearly that the state was wealthy and prosperous. The Pandya kings
profited from trade with the Roman empire and sent ambassadors to the Roman emperor Augustus. The brahmanas
enjoyed considerable influence, and the Pandya king performed Vedic sacrifices in the early centuries of the
Christian era.
The Chola kingdom, which came to be called Cholamandalam (Coromandel), in early medieval times, was situated
to the north-east of the territory of the Pandyas, between the Pennar and the Velar rivers. We have some idea of the
political history of the Cholas from the Sangam texts.
Their chief centre of political power lay at Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade. It seems that in the mid-second
century BC, a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly fifty years. A clearer
history of the Cholas begins in the second century ad with their famous king Karikala. He founded Puhar and
constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri river.
This was built with the labour of 12,000 slaves who were brought as captives from Sri Lanka. Puhar is coterminous
with Kaveripattanam, the Chola capital. It was a great centre of trade and commerce, and excavations show that it
had a large dock. One of the principal sources of the wealth of the Cholas was trade in cotton cloth. They
maintained an efficient navy.
Under Karikala’s successors Chola power rapidly declined. Their capital, Kaveripattanam, was overwhelmed and
destroyed. Their two neighbouring powers, the Cheras and the Pandyas, expanded at the cost of Cholas. What
remained of the Chola power was almost wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas from the north.
From the fourth to the ninth century, the Cholas played only a marginal part in south Indian history. The Chera or
the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas. It included the narrow strip of land
between the sea and the mountains, and covered portions of both Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
In the early centuries of the Christian era, the Chera state was as important as the states of the Cholas and Pandyas,
and owed its position to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments at Muziris, coterminous with
Cranganore in the Chera state, to protect their interests. It is said that they also built there a temple of Augustus.
The history of the Cheras is a continuing battle with the Cholas and Pandyas. Although the Cheras killed the father
of the Chola king Karikala, the Chera king also lost his life. Later, the two kingdoms temporarily became friends
and concluded a matrimonial alliance. The Chera king next allied himself with the Pandya rulers against the Cholas,
but the Cholas defeated the allies, and it is said that as the Chera king was wounded in the back, he felt shamed and
committed suicide.
According to the Chera poets, their greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera. He routed his rivals and
established his cousin securely on the throne. It is said that he invaded the north and crossed the Ganges. All this
however seems an exaggeration. After the second century, Chera power declined, and we know nothing of its
history until the eighth century. The principal interest of the political history of these three kingdoms lies in the
continuing wars they fought with one another and also with Sri Lanka. Although these states were weakened by the
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wars, they greatly profited from their natural resources and foreign trade. They grew spices, especially pepper,
which was in great demand in the Western world.
Their elephants supplied ivory, which was highly valued in the West. The sea yielded pearls and their mines
produced precious stones, and both these were exported to the West in substantial quantities. In addition, they
produced muslin and silk. We hear of cotton cloth as thin as the slough of a snake. The early Tamil poems also
mention the weaving of complex patterns on silk. Uraiyur was noted for its cotton trade. In ancient times, the
Tamils traded with the Greek or Hellenistic kingdom of Egypt and Arabia, on the one hand, and with the Malay
Archipelago and China, on the other.
As a result of trade, the words in Greek for rice, ginger, cinnamon, and several other articles were derived from
Tamil. When Egypt became a Roman province and the monsoon was discovered at about the beginning of first
century ad, this trade received great impetus. Thus, for the first two and a half centuries, the southern kingdoms
conducted a lucrative trade with the Romans. With the decline of this trade, these kingdoms began to decay.
The Purse and the Sword:
Trade, local and long-distance, constituted a very important source of royal revenue. We know how the customs
officers functioned in Puhar. Transit duties were also collected from merchants who moved from place to place with
their goods.
For the safety of merchants and prevention of smuggling, soldiers maintained constant vigil along the road. The
spoils of war further added to the royal income. However, the real foundation of war and polity lay in the regular
income from agriculture. The share of the agricultural produce claimed and collected by the king is not specified.
The tip of the peninsula and the adjacent regions were extremely fertile.
The land produced paddy, ragi, and sugarcane. It was said of the Kaveri delta that the space in which an elephant
could lie down produced enough to feed seven persons. In addition, the Tamil region produced grains, fruit, pepper,
and turmeric. It seems that the king had a share in all this produce. Apparently, out of the taxes collected from the
peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary army.
It consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Elephants played an important role in war.
Horses were imported into the Pandyan kingdom by sea. The nobles and princes or the captains of the army rode
elephants, and the commanders used chariots. The footmen and horsemen wore leather sandals to protect their feet.
Rise of Social Classes:
Income from trade, war booty, and agricultural produce enabled the king to maintain groups of professional
warriors and also to pay the bards and priests who were largely brahmanas. The brahmanas first appear in the Tamil
land in the Sangam age. An ideal king was one who never hurt the brahmanas. Many brahmanas functioned as
poets, and in this role they were generously rewarded by the king. Karikala is said to have given one poet 1,600,000
gold pieces, but this seems to be an exaggeration. Besides gold, the poets or bards also received cash, land, chariots,
horses, and even elephants. The Tamil brahmanas partook of meat and wine.
The kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varnas in the Sangam texts. The warrior class was an important
element in the polity and society. The captains of the army were invested with the title of enadi at a formal
ceremony. However, we have no clear idea about the vaishyas. Civil and military offices were held under both the
Cholas and Pandyas by vellalas or rich peasants.
The ruling class was called arasar; and its members had marriage relations with the vellalas, who formed the fourth
caste. They held the bulk of the land and thus constituted the cultivating class, divided into the rich and the poor.
The rich did not plough the land themselves but employed labourers to undertake this. Agricultural operations were
generally the task of members of the lowest class (kadaisiyar), whose status appears to have differed little from that
of slave.
Some artisans were not differentiated from agricultural labourers. The pariyars were agricultural labourers who also
worked with animal skins and used them as mats. Several outcastes and forest tribes suffered from extreme poverty
and lived from hand to mouth. We notice sharp social inequalities in the Sangam age.
The rich lived in houses of brick and mortar, and the poor in huts and humbler dwellings. In the cities rich
merchants lived in the upper storey of their houses. It is not however clear whether rites and religion were used to
maintain social inequalities. We notice the emergence of the brahmanas and the ruling caste, but the acute caste
distinctions of later times did not exist in the early Sangam age.
Beginnings of Brahmanism:
The state and society that were formed in the Tamil state in the early centuries of the Christian era developed under
the impact of Brahmanism. However, brahmanical influence was confined to a small part of the Tamil territory and
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only to the upper levels of the Tamil society in that area. The kings performed Vedic sacrifices; the brahmanas, who
were the followers of the Vedas, conducted disputations. However, the chief local god worshipped by the people of
the hilly region was Murugan, who came to be called Subramaniya in early medieval times.
The worship of Vishnu is also mentioned, although it may have been a later practice. The megalithic practice of
providing for the dead continued, paddy being offered to the dead. Cremation was introduced, but inhumation
followed in the megalithic phase was not abandoned.
Literary Development
Sangam literature
The Tamil literary tradition is independent of the classical Sanskritic literary tradition of India. It represents a
parallel linguistic tradition in relation to Sanskrit. However, the development of the Tamil language and literature
was never a process in isolation.
Even the earliest stratum of the Tamil literature contains influences of Sanskrit. The heroic poems put there Sangam
works contain traces of Aryan culture. By Aryan culture we mean Vedic ideas and institutions in this context. The
tradition of Vedic rituals is well attested by the poems. Some of the bards like Gautamanar, Paranar and Kapilar
were Brahmanas. Gautamanar is mentioned to have effeciated many velvi (Yajna or Vedic sacrifice) for his patron
Celkezu Kuttuvan, Cera chief. Epic and puranic ideas are also seen in the Tamil heroic poems. While praising the
patron chiefs, the poets refer to the farmer's participation in the Mahabharata battle. Many puranic deities are
equated to their Tamil Counterparts. Mayon (the black god) well known in the poems as the Tamil counterpart of
Krishna is one example. But these influences never undermined what was typical of the Tamil literary tradition.
This original aspect of the Tamil language and literature does not owe to Sanskrit for its origin. But its growth and
development toward linguistic and literary perfection certainly owes to the influences of Aryan culture. The heroic
poems and other works of the Sangam tradition testify the widespread literary culture of early Tamizakam. They
also indicate the linguistic maturity achieved by the Tamils by the 3rd century.
Social Evolution from Sangam Texts:
“Not only does ancient Tamil literature furnish an accurate picture of widely disparate classes, it
also describes the social condition of Tamil country as it was” Discuss (15) (2015)
The accurate picture of the complex socio-cultural milieu of Peninsular India is presented in
the early Sangam literature. Delineate. (15) (2017)
Both these types of texts suggest several stages of social evolution. The narrative texts are considered works of
heroic poetry in which heroes are glorified and perpetual wars and cattle raids are frequently mentioned. They show
that the early Tamil people were primarily pastoral. Traces of early megalithic life appear in the Sangam texts.
The earliest megalithic people seem to be primarily pastoralists, hunters, and fishermen, though they also produced
rice. Hoes and sickles occur at many sites in peninsular India but not ploughshares. Other iron objects include
wedges, flat celts, arrowheads, long swords and lances, spikes and spearheads, horse-bits, and the like. These tools
were meant primarily for war and hunting.
This has some parallels in the Sangam texts which speak of perpetual war and cattle raids. The texts suggest that
war booty was an important source of livelihood. They also state that when a hero dies he is reduced to a piece of
stone. This reminds us of the circles of stone that were raised over the graves of the megalithic people.
This may have led to the later practice of raising hero stones called virarkal in honour of the heroes who had died
fighting for kine and other things. It is likely that the earliest phase of social evolution reflected in the Sangam
works relates to the early megalithic stage.
The narrative Sangam texts give some idea of the state formation in which the army consisted of groups of
warriors, and the taxation system and judiciary arose in a rudimentary form. The texts also tell us about trade,
merchants, craftsmen, and farmers. They speak of several towns such as Kanchi, .Korkai, Madurai, Puhar, and
Uraiyur. Of them, Puhar or Kaveripattanam was the most important. The Sangam references to towns and economic
activities are corroborated by Greek and Roman accounts, and by the excavation of the Sangam sites.
Many of the Sangam texts, including the didactic ones, were written by the brahmana scholars of Prakrit or
Sanskrit. The didactic texts cover the early centuries of the Christian era and prescribe a code of conduct not only
for the king and his court but also for the various social groups and occupations. These categories could have been

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possible only after the fourth century when brahmanas rose in number under the Pallavas. The texts also refer to
grants of villages, and also to the descent of kings from the solar and lunar dynasties.
Besides the Sangam texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar and poetics. Another
important Tamil text deals with philosophy and wise maxims, and is called Tirukkural. In addition, we have the
twin Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. The two were composed around the sixth century.
The first is considered to be the brightest gem of early Tamil literature. It deals with a love story in which a
dignitary called Kovalan prefers a courtesan called Madhavi of Kaveripattanam to his wedded wife Kannagi from a
noble family. The author apparently seems to be a Jaina and tries to locate the scenes of the story in all the
kingdoms of the Tamil state. The other epic, Manimekalai, was written by a grain merchant of Madurai.
It deals with the adventures of the daughter born of the union of Kovalan and Madhavi. However, this epic is of
greater religious than literary interest. It is claimed in the prologues to the two epics that the authors were friends
and contemporaries of the Chera king Senguttuvan, who ruled in the second century ad. Though the epics cannot be
dated so early, they throw light on the social and economic life of the Tamils up to about the sixth century.
The art of writing was doubtless known to the Tamils before the beginning of the Christian era. Twelve find-spots
of Ashokan inscriptions in Brahmi script appear in the south, three in Andhra, and nine in Karnataka. Over seventy-
five short inscriptions in the Brahmi script dating to about two centuries later have been found in natural caves,
mainly in the Madurai region.
They provide the specimens of the earliest form of Tamil mixed with Prakrit words. They relate to the second-first
centuries BC when the Jaina and Buddhist missionaries came to this area. Inscribed potsherds have been found at
several places during recent excavations, these inscriptions provide examples of the Tamil language at the
beginning of the Christian era. It is because of the practice of writing that considerable Sangam literature was
produced in the early centuries of the Christian era, although it was finally compiled by ad 600.
THE RISE OF THE GUPTAS

The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known, and have naturally given rise to various
speculations. Names ending in Gupta, such as Sivagupta which occurs in a Satavahana inscription, are sometimes
taken to suggest their ancestry. But these suggestions are rather far-fetched. Different scholars also place the
original home of the Guptas differently: Some would place it in north Bengal, some in Magadha in Bihar and some
in U.P. on the basis of the following arguments it may, at the moment, be suggested that the original core of the
Gupta territory lay in eastern U.P.: Allahabad pillar inscription, the earliest inscription recording the achievements
of an early Gupta ruler, Samudragupta, comes from this region.
The nature of the coin-hoards of the Guptas, found in this region, suggests this The description of early Gupta
territories in the Puranas may point to this. It is possible that in the closing decades of the 3rd century A.D. the
Guptas were subordinates of a branch of the later Kushanas ruling in north-western India. However, literary and
archaeological sources indicate that they became independent in the second decade of the fourth century A.D.
Inscriptions tell us that Srigupta was the first king and Ghatotkacha was the next to follow him.
Chandragupta-I was the first independent king with the title Maharajadhiraja. After declaring his independence in
Magadha, he with the help of a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis, enlarged his kingdom. We know about
this alliance from a special category of coins. These coins have Chandragupta and his queen Kumaradevi engraved
on the obverse and a seated goddess on the reverse with a legend Lichchhavayah (i.e. the Lichchhavis). These coins
were made of gold, and this fact in addition to the fact that the Guptas followed the weight system of Kushana gold
coins suggests that the Guptas had been in contact with the Kushana territories.
There are no concrete evidences to determine the boundaries of his kingdom.
But it is assumed that it covered parts of Bihar, U.P. and Bengal.
Chandragupta-I is said to have also started a new era from 319-320 A.D. It is not clear from any records that he
started this era. which came to be known as Gupta Samvat or Gupta era, but since Chandragupta-I is mentioned as a
Maharajadhiraja he is credited with the founding of the era. It was during the times of his son Samudragupta that
the kingdom grew into an empire.
Samudragupta
Polity and administration,
Describe the expansion of the Gupta empire under Samudragupta (60) (2006)

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An inscription engraved (at a later date) on the Asokan pillar at Allahabad (known as Prayagaprasasti) gives us
information about Samudragupta's accession and conquests. Harisena, an important official of the state, had
composed 33 lines which were engraved on the pillar. The inscription mentions that Maharajadhiraja
Chandragupta-I in a highly emotional tone declared his son Samudragupta as his successor. This caused joy among
the courtiers and heart-burning among those of equal birth. It can be presumed that other princes might have put
forward their contending claims which were put to rest by this declaration.
Further, the discovery of some gold coins bearing the name of Kacha has generated a controversy relating to this.
The controversy has arisen because:
i ) in many respects Kacha's coins arc similar to the coins of Samudragupta,
ii) the name of Kacha does not appear in the official lists of Gupta rulers, as they are available in the Gupta
inscriptions.
Various interpretations have been given in this regard:
According to one interpretation Samudragupta's brothers revolted against him and placed Kacha, the eldest brother,
on the throne. However he died in the war of succession.
Another view mentions that these coins were issued by Samudragupta in the memory of his brother.
A third view mentions Kacha as the initial name of Samudragupta and the later name was adopted only after the
conquest of south.
There is no solution to the controversy as each view has arguments in favour or against. We could only say that
since the number of Kacha coins found so far is somewhat limited his hold over the throne would have been for a
very short duration. Also that Samudragupta, inspite of Chandragupta's abdication, did face problems in relation to
accession to the throne but ultimately he emerged victorious.
Expansion and Consolidation

For the expansion and consolidation of the Gupta power Samudragupta adopted an aggressive policy of conquests.
This initiated a process which culminated in the formation of the Gupta empire. However, we have to take note here
of the fact that in certain regions particularly in the South--he let the kings, whom he had defeated, rule over their
regions.
Of course, they accepted his suzerainty and paid tributes. Such a policy adopted in relation to the far-flung areas
might have paid dividends in solving problems of communication and effective control, hence bringing about
stability for the time being. Let us briefly discuss the aggressive campaigns taken by Samudragupta in various
regions. We may mention again that we come to know about all the campaigns of Samudragupta only from one
record, the Prayagaprasasti of Harishena.
1) Campaigns in Aryavarta:
Some historians are of the view that Samudragupta carried his victorious campaign of Aryavarta at one time.
However, some other historians, assuming that the Prayagaprasasti mentions the conquests of Samudragupta in a
chronological order, have opined that there were two campaigns in north India. This is because the prasasti first
mentions three Aryavarta kings, then it goes on to mention his southern campaign and again mentions nine
Aryavarta kings. It appears that taking advantage of the war of succession, which Samudragupta had to face, certain
rulers attempted to establish their dominance. It might be in this context that Samudragupta defeated Achyuta,
Nagasena and Kota-Kulaja. There are no details regarding these conquests or regarding the identity of the specific
regions over which they ruled. However, historians have identified Achyuta as ruling over Ahichchatra, Nagasena
over Gwalior area and Kota-Kulaja or ruler of the Kota family in east Punjab and Delhi. Though differences
continue to prevail over these identifications it is clear that Samudragupta, after defeating them, established firm
control not only over the Ganga Valley but also over some adjacent regions.
2) Campaign in South:
The Prayagaprasasti mentions twelve rulers from dakshinapatha or south India who were defeated by
Samudragupta.
However, again there are differences among historians as to the specific identifications of these kings and their
kingdoms. The Prayagaprasasti says that Samudragupta showed favour to be Dakshinapatha kings by first capturing
them (grahana) and then releasing them (moksha). He pursued a completely different policy with regard to the
kings of Aryavarta or north India. He not only defeated them but also annexed their territories which became
integrated into the Gupta empire. The north Indian kings defeated by Samudragupta were: Rudradwa, Matila,

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Nagadatta, Chandravarma, Ganapatinaga, Nagasena, Archyuta, Nandi, Balavarmna and others. It is impossible to
identify all of them.
but it is certain that they were ruling in different parts of northern India. Some of them were obviously Naga rulers
who had been powerful in several regions before the Guptas. Rulers like Chandravarma who ruled in West Bengal
represented new ruling families. The Prasasti further says that Samudragupta reduced all states in the forest regions
to the position of servants. In another category are mentioned the frontier kingdoms like Samatata (in southeast
Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Nepala (Nepal) and others and the republican states of the Malavas, Yaudheyas,
Madrakas, Abhiras, etc. They paid him tributes of all kinds, carried out his orders and paid him homage. Rulers of
another category of states acknowledged his sovereignty in a different way. They pleased him by "self-surrender,
offering (their own) daughters in marriage, and a request for the administration of their own districts and
provinces". This means that they remained independent but their independence had to be approved by
Samudragupta. In this category were included the foreign rulers of north-western India like the later Kushanas and
the Saka chief and residents of different island countries including Simhala or Sri Lanka.
Many of the claims made by Harishena, the composer of Prayagaprasasti, are highly exaggerated but many of the
claims are also genuine. The military foundations of the Gupta Empire were laid by Samudragupta; his successors
built upon these foundations.
SCHOLAR, POET AND MUSICIAN :

According to Allahabad Prasasti's exaggerated picture, Samudragupta was man of many sided genius, who put to
shame the preceptor of the lord Gods and Tumburu and Narad and others by his sharp and polished intellect and
musical accomplishment. His title of Kaviraj (King of poets) is justified by various poetical compositions.
Unfortunately none of these compositions have survived.
The presence of the two celebrated literary personalities like Harisen and Vasubandhu definitely proves that he was
a great patron of men of letters.
Harisena's commemoration of Samudragupta's knowledge and proficiency in song and music is curiously
confirmed and corroborated by the existence of a few rare gold coins depicting him comfortably seated on a high-
backed couch engaged in playing the Veena (tyre or lute) : the scene is obviously from his private life.
Statesman and Administrator :
Samudragupta displayed greater foresight in his conquests and in the administration and consolidation of his
empire. A practical statesman as he was he adopted different policies of different regions. "His treatment of the nine
kings of the north India was drastic, they were 'forcibly rooted up' and their territories were incorporated in the
dominions of the victor, but he made no attempt to effect the permanent annexation of the twelve southern States;
he only exacted a temporary submission from the defeated chiefs, and then withdrew after having despoiled the rich
treasures of the south; the policy of Dharm-Vijaya which Samudragupta followed in respect of the kings of south
India is symbolic of his statesmanship, and was based on the needs and situations prevailing at that time. It was not
an easy task to control effectively the far off regions from Pataliputra particularly when the means of transport and
communication were too meager. The later history of India bears testimony to this fact. To the distant tribal states of
the Punjab Eastern Rajputana and Malwa he granted autonomy treating them as buffer Kingdoms against the
foreign rulers like sakas and Kushans.
That Samudragupta was an efficient administrator is clear from the very fact that he not only established a vast
empire but also left it as legacy to his successors well-knit and well-organised. The Allahabad Pillar Prasasti makes
the mention of officials known as 'Mahadandnayaka' 'Kumaramatya' and 'Sandhivigrahika' and that his
administration was severe and tyrannical and that Samudragupta was very firm towards sinners but generous
towards righteous people.
Vedic religion and philanthrophy :
Samudragupta was the up-holder of Brahmanical religion. Because of his services to the cause of religion the
Allahabad inscription mentions the qualifying title of 'Dharma-prachir Bandhu' for him. But he was not intolerant
of other creeds. His patronage to Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and the acceptance of the request of the king of
Ceylon to build a monastery of Bodh Gaya amply prove that the respected other religions.
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His Asvamedha types of coins with other coins bearing the figures of Lakshmi and Ganga together with her 'vahas'
makara (crocodile) testify his faith in Brahmanical religions.
Samudragupta had imbibed the true spirit of religion and for that reason, he has been described as 'Anukampavan'
(full of compassion) in the Allahabad inscription. He has been described "as the giver of many hundreds of
thousands of cows"
Personal Appearance, despite the small of the coins and the limitations of reproducing the real image by striking the
die, can be judged from his figures on the coins 'tall in stature and of good physique he has strong muscular arms
and a fully developed chest.
From the above description it is clear that Samudragupta was endowed with no ordinary powers - Physical,
intellectual and spiritual.
About 380 AD Samudragupta was succeeded by one of his son who was selected as the most worthy of the crown.
This ruler is known as Chandragupta-II. Later he took the additional title of Vikramaditya, which was associated by
tradition with the Raja of Ujjain who was known for defeating the sakas and founding the Vikram era.
Chandragupta II
The Gupta inscriptions mention Chandragupta-II as Samudragupta's successor. But on the basis of literary sources,
some copper coins and inscriptions it is suggested that the successor was Samudragupta's other son Ramagupta.
Visakhadatta's drama Devi Chandraguptam mentions that Chandragupta-II killed his elder brother Ramagupta. He
did this because Ramagupta was facing defeat at the hands of the Sakas and in order to save the kingdom, he had
agreed to surrender his wife to the Saka king. Chandragupta protested, and went to the Saka camp in the disguise of
the queen Dhruvadevi. He was successful against the Saka king but as a result of the subsequent hostility with his
brother he killed him and married his wife Dhruvadevi. Certain other texts like the Harsacharita, Kavyamimansa,
etc. also refer to this episode. Some copper coins bearing the name Ramagupta have also been found and
inscriptions on the pedestals of some Jaina images found at Vidisa, bear the name Maharaja Ramgupta. Similarly,
Dhruvadevi is described as mother of Govindagupta (Chandragupta's son) in a Vaisali seal. We can say that
Chandragupta ascended the throne at a time when there were problems emerging again and he had to lead military
campaigns to establish Gupta supremacy once again. He entered into matrimonial alliances with the Nagas by
marrying princess Kuberanaga whose daughter Prabhavati was later on married to Rudrasena-II of the Vakataka
family. Though there is no record like the Prayagaprasasti to describe the events of his reign we do get
information about Chandragupta's campaigns and successes from certain inscriptions, literary sources and coins: He
defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha-III and annexed his kingdom. This brought an end to Saka Kshatrapa rule in
western India and added the regions of Gujarat, Kathiawad and west Malwa to the Gupta empire. The details of
Chandragupta-II's campaigns against the Sakas are not known. His matrimonial alliances with the Vakatakas and
the Nagas must have been of tremendous significances in his preparations for the campaigns. Two inscriptions at
the Udayagiri caves near Sanchi and one inscription at Sanchi, all referring to Chandragupta II and to his
subordinate rulers and military officials, also suggest that he was present in eastern Malwa for some time preparing
for the campaigns. One inscription describes him as "desirous of conquering the whole earth". That his conquest of
the territories of the Sakas was complete is proved beyond doubt because:
We no longer find any Saka coins minted after this period, although Saka coins were being minted without a break
for almost four hundred years previously.
The Guptas, from the time of Chandragupta, started minting Saka-type silver coins-for this region. They only added
their own distinct symbols on these coins; otherwise, the coins were like Saka coins in circulation till then. This
definitely shows that the Saka areas came within the control of Chandragupta-II.
The success of Chandragupta-II against the Sakas seems to have developed later on into the tradition of Sakari
Vikramaditya, that is, of 'Vikramaditya, who was an enemy of the Sakas'.
'King Chandra' whose exploits have been mentioned in the Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription, which is located in the
Qutab-Minar complex in Delhi is identified by many scholars with Chandragupta-I. According to this inscription
Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bactria). Some scholars
identify Chandragupta-II with the hero of Kalidasa's work Raghuvamasa because Raghu's exploits appear
comparable with those of Chandragupta.
The Mehrauli inscription also mentions Chandragupta's victory over enemies from Vanga (Bengal).
On the basis of these evidences it can be suggested that Chandragupta-II was able to extend the frontiers of the
Gupta empire to western, north-western and eastern India.
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An important incident which took place during this period was the visit of Fa-Hien, a Chinese pilgrim, who came to
India in search of Buddhist texts. In his memoirs he has given a vivid description of the places he visited and
certain social and administrative aspects related to them. However, he does not mention the name of the King in his
accounts. But he speaks highly of the King of Madhya-desa, the region which was directly ruled by the Gupta
monarch in this period, under whom the people were prosperous and happy. Chandragupta-II is also known for his
patronage to men of letters and he ruled till about 415-16 A.D.
KUMARAGUPTA-I
Chandragupta-II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta. We get information about him from certain inscriptions
and coins.
For example:
The earliest known inscription of his period is from Bilsad (Etah district) which is dated 415 A.D. (Gupta Era 96).
The Karamdanda (Fyzabad) inscription of Kumaragupta's minister (436 A.D.) mentions his fame having spread to
the four oceans.
A stone inscription from Mandsor (436 A.D.) mentions Kumaragupta as reigning over the whole earth.
The Damodarpur Copper Plate inscriptions (433 A.D. and 447 A.D.) refer to him as Maharajadhiraja and show that
he himself appointed the governor (Uparika) of Pundravardhana bhukti (or province) being the biggest
administrative division in the empire.
The last known date of Kumaragupta is from a silver coin dated 455 A.D. (Gupta Era 136).
The wide area over which his inscriptions are distributed indicates that he ruled over Magadha and Bengal in the
east and Gujarat in the west. It has been suggested that towards the last year of his reign the Gupta empire faced
foreign invasion which was checked by the efforts of his son Skandagupta. He maintained cordial relationship with
the Vakatakas which had been established through matrimonial alliances earlier.
SKANDAGUPTA
Skandagupta, who succeeded Kumaragupta-I. was perhaps the last powerful Gupta monarch. To consolidate his
position he had to fight the Pushyamitras, and the country faced Huna invasion from across the frontiers in the
northwest. However, Skandagupta was successful in throwing the Huns back. It appears that these wars adversely
affected the economy of the empire, and the gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to that. In comparison to
the gold coins of the earlier rulers the types of gold coins minted by Skandagupta were limited.
In addition to following the earlier system of weights, he introduced a new, heavier weight system for gold coins
but generally his coins had less gold in them than earlier coins.
Moreover, he appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in western India.
However, the Junagadh inscription of his reign tells us about the public works undertaken during his times. The
Sudarsana lake (originally built during the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains and in the early part of his
rule his governor Pamadatta got it repaired. This indicates that the state undertook the task of public works. The last
known date of Skandagupta is 467 A.D. from his silver coins.
Gupta Rulers after Skandagupta
It is not very clear in what order the successors of Skandagupta ruled. Skandagupta himself may not have been the
rightful heir to the throne and therefore he had to fight other contenders to the throne. This may be the reason why a
seal inscription traces a line of Gupta rulers after Skandagupta from Kumaragupta-I and his son Purugupta and not
Skandagupta. Secondly, it is probable that the division of the Gupta empire into many parts already began towards
the close of Skandagupta's reign. Thus an inscription from western Malwa, recorded in the last year of Skandagupta
does not refer to him but to some other rulers beginning with Chandragupta-II.
Some of the successors of Skandagupta, mentioned in inscriptions, were: Budhagupta, Vainyagupta, Bhanagupta,
Narasimhagupta Baladitya, Kumaragupta-II and Vismigupta. It is unlikely that all of them ruled over a vast empire,
as Chandragupta-II and Kumaragupta-I had done in an earlier period. The Guptas continued to rule till about 550
A.D. but by then their power had already become very insignificant.
DISINTEGRATION OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE

Some of the factors that contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta empire.
I ) Huna Invasions
From the time of Kumaragupta-I the north-west borders had been threatened by the Hunas a Central Asian tribe
which was successfully moving in different directions and was establishing pockets of rule in northwestern.
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northern and western India. But their attacks were repulsed during that period. However, towards the end of the
fifth century A.D. the Huna chief Tormana was able to establish his authority over large parts of western India and
in central India. Mihirakula, his son, further extended the dominions. Thus, the Huna attacks caused a major blow
to the Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions of the empire.
2) Administrative Weaknesses
The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of local chiefs or kings once
they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts were made to impose a strict and effective control over these
regions. Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy within the Gupta
empire these local chiefs would reestablish their independent authority. This created a problem for almost
every Gupta King who had to reinforce his authority. The constant military campaigns were a strain on the state
treasury. Towards the end of the fifth century A.D. and beginning of sixth century A.D. taking advantage of the
weak Gupta emperors, many regional powers re-asserted their authority, and in due course declared their
independence.
Besides these, there were many other reasons which contributed to the decline of Guptas.
For example, it has been argued that the Guptas issued landgrants to the Brahamana donees and in this process
surrendered the revenue and administrative rights in favour of the donees. Further, it is believed that the Samanta
system in which the Samantas or minor rulers, who ruled as subordinates to the central authority, started to
consolidate itself in the Gupta period. This is also believed to be the reason why Gupta administrative structure
became so loose. There is diversity of opinion as to how the system originated and regarding the details of the
system, but the presence of many Samantas within the empire does show that they wielded power almost
independently of the Gupta authority.
There is no doubt that divisions within the imperial family, concentration of power in the hands of local chiefs or
governors, loose administrative structure of the empire etc. contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta
empire.
ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE GUPTAS

What are the salient features of the administrative system of the Guptas? (60) (2005)
Gupta kings did not interfere in the administration of those regions where the kings had accepted their suzerainty.
However, this does not mean that the Guptas were ruling only through their feudatories. They had an elaborate
administrative system which was in operation in areas which were directly controlled by them.
King
The King remained the central figure of administration. However, there was a considerable change in the character
of monarchy. We find that the Gupta monarchs adopted high sounding titles like: Paramabhattaraka, Parama-
daivata, Chakravarti, Paramesvara, etc. For example, the Allahabad Prasasti of Samudragupta describes him as
"equal to the gods: Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna (Sea-God), Indra and Antaka (Vama), who had no antagonist of
equal power in the world ...." Like the King who has been given a divine status in the Smriti scriptures, the Gupta
monarchs too came to be considered a divinity on earth.
However, in the spirit of Smriti literature and that of Kalidasa we find Skandagupta in his Bhitari Pillar inscription
eulogized as a person who "subdued the earth and became merciful to the conquered people, but he became neither
proud nor arrogant though his glory was increasing day by day." His father, Kumaragupta, "followed the true path
of religion". Such references to the monarchy indicate that inspite of the supreme powers that vested in the King he
was expected to follow a righteous path, and had certain duties:
It was the King's duty to decide the policy of the state during war and peace. For instance, Samudragupta was
prudent enough to reinstate the monarchs of dukshinupurhu in their original kingdoms.
It was considered a prime duty of the monarch to protect his countrymen from any invasion.
The King was to lead the army in case of war. This is demonstrated through the campaigns of Samudragupta and
Chandragupta-II.
The King was also expected to support the Brahmanas, Sramanas and all others who needed his protection.
He was also supposed to venerate the learned and religious people and give them every possible help.
As the supreme judge he looked after administration of justice according to religious percepts and existing customs.
It was the duty of the King to appoint his central and provincial officers.

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The Prayagaprasasti as well as the Apratigha type coins of Kumaragupta-I point to the appointment of successor to
the throne by the reigning King.
An important political development of this period was the continuity of various kings in their regions once they had
accepted the suzerainty of the Gupta King. And the Gupta King would not interfere with the administration of such
regions.
Council of Ministers and Other Officials

The Gupta inscriptions are not very clear about the hierarchy of ministers. However, there is no doubt that the King
used to take counsel of his ministers and issue written instructions to officials on all important matters.
The minister's office was perhaps hereditary. For example, the Udayagiri inscription of the time of Chandragupta-II
informs us that Virasena Saba, the minister for war and peace, was holding this office by inheritance. Though the
supreme judicial powers were vested in the King, he was assisted by the Mahanandanayaka (Chief Justice). In the
provinces this work was entrusted to the Uparikas and in districts to the Vishayapatis. In villages, the headman and
the village elders used to decide the petty cases. The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien states that capital punishment was
not given at all.
There were some other high officials. For example, the Mahapratihara was the chief of the palace guards, the
Pratihara regulated ceremonies and granted the necessary permits for admission to the royal presence. There existed
an espionage system as in the earlier period.
The landgrant inscriptions often mention Dutakas who were associated with the task of implementing gifts when
gifts of land were made to brahmanas and others.
Army
The Guptas must have had a big army organisation. At the time of war the King led his army but ordinarily there
was a minister called 'Sandhi-Vigrahika' (Minister in charge of peace and war) who was helped by a group of high
officials. The official title Mahabaladhikrita occurs in many inscriptions. Officials like Pilupati (head of elephants),
Asvapati (head of horses), Narapati (head of footsoldiers) possibly worked under him. The army was paid in cash
and its needs were well looked after by an officer-in-charge of stores called Ranabhandagarika. Amongst other
duties this officer was to look after the supply of offensive and defensive weapons such as battle-axes, bows and
arrows, spear pikes, swords, lances, javelins, etc.
Revenue Administration
Critically evaluate the theory and practice of land revenue system in ancient India. (20) (2016)
Land revenue was the main source of the state's income besides the fines. In Samudragupta's time we hear of an
officer Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita. His duty was to enter numerous matters in the accounts
registers, recover royal dues from the sureties of servants, to check embezzlement and recover fines for loss due to
neglect or fraud.
Another prominent high official was Pustapala (record-keeper). It was his duty to make enquiries before recording
any transaction. The Gupta kings maintained a regular department for the proper survey and measurement of land
as well as for the collection of land revenue. Kamandaka in the Nitisara suggests that a King should take special
care of his treasury, for the life of the state depends solely on it.
Both Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti state that one-sixth of the produce should be claimed as the royal
revenue. Besides this there was the Uparikara which was levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to
another. The organization of traders had to pay a certain commercial tax (Sulka), the non-payment of which resulted
in cancellation of the right to trade and a fine amounting to eight times of the original Sulka.
The King had a right to forced labour (Visthi), Bali and many other types of contributions. The King's income from
royal lands and forests was considered as his personal income. Besides this, the King's treasury had a right to
treasure troves (treasures in the forms of coin-hoards, jewels or other valuable objects, discovered from below the
earth accidentally), digging of mines and manufacture of salt.
Provinces, Districts and Villages
The whole empire was divided into Desas, or Rashtras, or Bhuktis. The inscriptions provide us with the names of
certain Bhuktis. In Bengal we hear of Pundravardhara Bhukti which corresponded to north Bengal. Tira-bhukti
corresponded to north Bihar. The Bhuktis were governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the King. In areas like
western Malwa we find local rulers like Bandhuvarman ruling as subordinate to Kumaragupta-I but Parnadana was
appointed a governor in Saurashtra by Skandagupta.
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The Province or Bhukti was again divided into districts or Vishayas under an official called Ayuktaka and in other
cases a Vistiyapati.Hi4 appointment was made by the provincial governor. Gupta inscriptions from Bengal show
that the office (Adhikarana) of the district head associated with itself representation from major local communities:
the Nagarasresthi (head of city merchants). Sarthavaha (Caravan-leader). Prathama-Kulika (head of the artisan
community and Prathama Kayastha (head of the Kayastha community). Besides them, were the Pustapalas-officials
whose work was to manage and keep records. The lowest unit of administration was the village. In villages where
there was a headman called Gramapati or Gramadhayaksha.
However, the Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units higher than the village. In
some cases we find references to Astakuladhikarana. Different categories of villages mentioned as Gramikas,
Kutumbis and Mahattaras sent representatives to these offices which on various occasions functioned above the
level of the village.
Besides agriculturists, there were certain other groups in the villages who followed such professions as carpentry,
spinning and weaving, pot-making, oil extraction, gold smithery, and husbandry. All these groups must have
constituted local institutions or bodies which looked after the affairs of the village. The village disputes were also
settled by these (bodies) with the help of Grama-vriddhas or village elders.
ECONOMY
Economic conditions,
On the basis of contemporary sources, assess the nature of banking and usuary in ancient India (15)(2013)
Agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the society produced and that the major part of the revenue
of the state also came from agriculture. This of course does not mean that agriculture was the only occupation of the
people or that people lived only in villages. There were other occupations like commerce
and production of crafts which had become specialized occupations and in which different social groups were
engaged. This also means that, as in earlier periods, people lived in forests, in agrarian tracts. in towns and in cities,
but certain changes had started taking place in the pattern of economic production and consequently in relations
between different social groups.
Agriculture
Let us begin with the pattern of agricultural production. The concern of the society with agricultural production is
clear from the way various aspects associated with agricultural operations are mentioned in the sources of the Gupta
period. Various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions; land under cultivation was usually called Kshetra.
Lands not under cultivation were variously called as Khila, Aprahata, etc., and inscriptions give the impression that
uncultivated land was being regularly brought under cultivation.
Classification of land according to soil, fertility and the use to which it was put was not unknown. Different land
measures were known in different regions, although one cannot be certain what exact measure was denoted by a
term. In some areas Nivartana was the term used for a measure of land whereas in the inscriptions of Bengal terms
like Kulyavapa and Dronavapa are used. It is not possible to classify the regions precisely according to the Crops
grown, but all the major categories of crops--cereals like barley, wheat and paddy, different varieties of pulses,
grams and vegetables as well as cash crops like cotton and sugarcane were known long before the Gupta period and
continued to be cultivated. Of course. you should not assume that crops like maize or vegetables like potatoes or
tomatoes were known to the farmers of the Gupta period.
The concern of the society with agricultural production is also reflected in the importance given to irrigation.
Sudarsana reservoir (Tadaga) in Saurashtra in Gujarat, originally built in the Maurya period, this reservoir was
thoroughly repaired when it was extensively damaged in the time of Mahakshatrapa Rudradaman (middle of the
second century A.D.). It was again severely damaged in the time of Skandagupta. Parnadatta, his newly appointed
governor of Saurashtra and Parnadatta's son Chakrapalita, undertook the repair of the reservoir this time. Another
method for irrigation was to draw water from wells and supply the water to the fields through carefully prepared
channels. A mechanism. possibly known before the Gupta period, was to tie a number of pots to a chain: the chain
with the pots reached down to the water of the hull, and by making the chain and the pots rotate, it was ensured that
the pots would continuously fill with water and empty it. This mechanism was known as ghati-yantra as ghati was
the name used for a pot. This type of mechanism also came to be known as araghatta. In the Harshacharita of
Banabhatta, which was of course written in the seventh century A.D.
there is a very charming description of how cultivated fields, producing crops like sugarcane, were being irrigated
with the help of ghati-yantra. In regions like Bengal, rainwater was collected in ponds and other types of reservoirs;
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in peninsular India, tank irrigation became gradually the norm. There were thus different systems of irrigation and
the role of the state was only marginal in providing irrigation facilities to fanners. The farmers of course depended
mainly on rainfall and the importance of rainfall is underlined not only in the Arthasastra of Kautilya but also in the
texts written in the Gupta period.
The sources of the Gupta period suggest that certain important changes were taking place in the agrarian society.
The inscriptions from Bengal refer to sale of land by district-level administration to individuals who bought them
by paying cash and made gifts of purchased land to brahmanas who were expected to perform vedic sacrifices or to
Buddhist or Jaina religious establishments. But land was not only purchased and gifted; the practice of gifting
land to religious donees had become quite common by now. Even otherwise, remuneration for serving rulers in
different capacities was received in the form of land by officials of different categories. Of course, all this was not
absolutely new. But by now the number of ruling families had vastly increased and thus the number of persons who
received land but did not cultivate themselves went on increasing. The virtues of giving land were highly praised
and those who took away gifted land were threatened with many evil consequences.
All this led to the appearance, in society, of a class of people who enjoyed superior rights over land and by virtue of
these rights and by belonging to higher varnas had high economic and social status. Of course, landrights did not
belong only to those who received land. The Gupta inscriptions refer to different types of village residents like
Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras who must have been village landholders, and their participation
in land transactions indicates that they too were important members of rural society.
Compared with the recipients of land from the rulers and the influential categories of landowners in villages. the
condition of ordinary cultivators may be considered to have been rather bad. It is believed by some historians that
because of the practice of land grants, the peasant population as a whole were reduced to a very low position in
society. This is not entirely true. It was the ordinary cultivators, known by various terms such as Krishibala,
Karshaka or Kinass who had low economic and social status. Among the actual cultivators there were those who
filled the lands of others and received only a share of the produce.
There were also slaves who worked on the fields of their masters. Even domestic female slaves were cruelly
exploited, and a text like the Kamasutra, which was probably written in the Gupta period tells us how much
hardship they had to go through at the hands of their masters.
There were other reasons why the condition of the ordinary cultivators declined considerably. One was that in many
areas the appearance of small kingdoms of new rulers and their official and, sections of people who did not take
part in agriculture created great inequalities in society and imposed great burden on actual tillers of the soil. The
number of taxes imposed by the state on the producers also increased in this period. Further, the practice of
imposing vishti or unpaid labour was also in vogue, although we do not know for certain how much essential it was
for agricultural production. All in all, the condition of the ordinary cultivators seems to have become worse than in
the earlier periods.
Crafts Production and Trade
Crafts production covered a very wide range of items. There were items of ordinary domestic use like earthen pots,
items of furniture, baskets, metal tools for domestic use and so on; simultaneously a wide variety of luxury items
including jewellery made of gold, silver and precious stones; objects made of ivory; fine clothes of cotton and silk
and other costly items had to be made available to the affluent sections of people. Some of these items were made
available through trade; others were manufactured locally. These sources also give us interesting hints regarding the
status of different categories of craftsmen. For example, different varieties of silk cloth, called Kshauma and
Pattavastra are mentioned in the texts of this period. An inscription of fifth century from Mandasor in western
Malwa refers to a guild of silk-weavers who had migrated from south Gujarat and had settled in the Malwa region.
Texts like Amarakosha and Brihat Samhita which are generally dated to this period, list many items, give their
Sanskrit names and also mention different categories of craftsmen who manufactured them.
However, for an idea of the quantity and variety of objects manufactured in this period one has to go through
reports of what have been found at various archaeological sites. Many important sites like Taxila, Ahichchhatra,
Mathura, Rajghat, Kausambi and Pataliputra in the Ganges Valley and other sites in other geographical regions
have yielded many craft products like earthen wares, terracotta’s, beads made of different stones, objects of glass,
items made of metals, etc. It seems that in comparison with crafts production in the preceding Saka Kushana period,
crafts production in the Gupta period suffered some setback. It has, however, not yet been possible to make a very
satisfactory comparative study between these two periods from this angle.

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All items were not available at all places; the movement of items for trade from one place to another, therefore,
continued as in the earlier periods. Commercial activities continued in the Gupta period are evident. Like their
Kushana predecessors the Gupta rulers too minted coins of different types, and the gold coins of the Gupta rulers
show excellent qualities of craftsmanship. The Guptas also issued coins in copper, silver and lead. These coins were
obviously used for purposes of commercial exchange and in some regions of the Gupta empire at least, the
merchants held a high position in society. For example, two types of representatives of merchants-the Nagarasresthi
and the Sarthavaha-were associated with the administration of the district headquarters in north Bengal. The seals
of the Gupta period, found at Vaisali in north Bihar, suggest that the merchants constituted an important section of
the population of the city of Vaisali. Literary texts of the period too show that in cities like Pataliputra and Ujjayini
commercial activities were carried on briskly and people from different countries were present in them. Merchants
were important communities also in these cities.
There were organizations which facilitated the functioning of both craftsmen and traders. The ancient term which
was generally used for these organizations was Sreni, and the State was expected to provide the guilds protection
and to respect their customs and norms.
Similarly, members of the Sreni were also expected to follow the norms of the organization; otherwise, they were
liable to punishment. The term Sreni is often interpreted as guild but there are different interpretations of the term
and in terms of many details, we are still not quite sure what the Srenis were really like.
Although Crafts production and commercial activities were brisk in the Gupta period, there are two points we
should especially remember:
I) There were many types of craftsmen and they were not all identical either in wealth or in social status. For
example, there was vast difference between a goldsmith and his family with a shop in a city like Ujayini and a
family of basketmakers in a village. This is reflected to some extent in the Dharmasastras written by the brahmanas
in this period. The Dharmasastras assign different ranks to different groups of craftsmen, although in their scheme
the craftsmen and artisans held a status lower than that of the brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaisyas. The
Dharmasastras also suggest that each group of craftsmen formed a jati or caste. For example, the Kumbhakaras or
potters formed one caste, the Suvarnakaras or goldsmiths formed another caste and so on. Although the system of
caste was not really so simple, generally the trend among craftsmen was that persons following one craft formed a
jati or a caste.
II) Crafts production and commercial activities perhaps started declining from the Gupta period onward in most
regions and according to some historians, this resulted in the decline of towns and cities and in greater dependence
of society of agricultural production.
GUPTA LITERATURE
Literature
Our knowledge of the development of Sanskrit literature in the early centuries A.D. is based on writings from the
Gupta period. However, tradition associates the work of Ashvaghosha and out-standing writer and play Wright, one
of the founders of Buddhist Sanskrit literature and a major philosopher- with the reign of Kanishaka (the early
second century AD).
Many of his works remain unknown, but fragments of the following poems in Sanskrit have been preserved:
Buddhacharita ("A life of the Buddha") Saundarananda (Sundari and Nanda) and the drama Sariputraprakarana. (A
drama dealing with Sariputra's conversion to Buddhism). In ancient India these works of Ashvaghosha had enjoyed
wide popularity and the Chinese pilgrim I-tsing who visited India in the seventh century wrote that the "poem" so
gladdened the heart of the reader that he never tired of repeating it over and over again.
Although the Buddhacharita and the Sariputraprakarana treated only Buddhist themes and propagated the teaching
of the Buddha they possessed artistic qualities. Ashvaghosha adheres to the epic tradition and his characters lives
are filled with drama and rich emotional experience.
In his plays Ashvaghosha lays the foundation of ancient Indian drama which was to come into its own in the works
of such writers as Bhasa, Kalidasa and Shudraka. Thirteen plays are attribute to Bhasa but it is as yet difficult to
establish which of these early were written by this remarkable dramatist. Bhasa also made use of the epic tradition,
although his plays were constructed strictly according to the laws of classical drama. Some modern scholars
maintain, and with ample justification, that a number of the plays attributed to Bhasa are the most ancient models of
Indian tragedy. This was, there is no doubt a bold innovation on the part of Bhasa who thus defined established

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artistic canon. This trend in ancient Indian drama was developed by the Shudraka, author of the play Mrichhakatiak
(The title Clay Cart), which tells of the ardent love of an impoverished merchant for a courtsan.
Possibly the greatest in ancient Indian literature is the work of Kalidasa, (late fourth-early fifth century), poet and
dramatist, whose writings represent an illustrious page in the history of world culture. Translations of Kalidasa's
works penetrated to the West at the end of the eighteenth century and were well received.
There is good reason to believe that Kalidasa was native of Mandasor in Malwa. It is, therefore, argued that he was
brought up in close touch with the court of Ujjain, an active center of commercial and economic activity in western
India. Kalidasa's early descriptive poems, the Ritussamhara and the Meghaduta probably belong to the reign of
Chandragupta-II, and his dramas to that of Kumaragupta.
It appears that Kalidasa was a prolific writer but as year scholars have only discovered three plays : Shankuntala,
Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi (Urvashi won by Valour), the poem Meghaduta (the Cloud Messenger) and two
epic poems : the Kumarasambhava (the Birth of Kumara) and Raghuvansha (Raghu's Line)
The core of all Kalidasa writings is man and his emotions, his wordly concerns, his joys and sorrows, His work
represents a significant step forward in comparison with the writings of Ashavaghosha who depicted in idealized
image of the Buddha and his faithful disciples. Many of Kalidasa's heroes are kings: the poet not only extolled their
exploits, but he also condemned their ignoble deeds. Some of Kalidasa's works bear witness to the growth of the
epic poem, the so-called mahakavya. Both in his plays and poems Nature and Man's emotions are distinguished by
their lyric quality and humanism. Without swerving from earlier traditions Kalidasa stood out as an innovator in
many respects.
Also, the very fact that tragic themes do not figure with the exception of Mrichcha Katika by Shudrak shows that
the higher strata of society primarily sought entertainment.
In ancient India considerable advances were also made by the theater. In the Gupta age special treatises concerning
dramatic art started to appear, which provided detailed expositions of the aims of the theater and theatrical
entertainments, the various genres used in the theatre etc.
When ancient Indian plays first made their way to Europe, many scholars wrote that the Indian theatre owed its
roots to ancient Greece. However it has since emerged beyond doubt that the theatre in India came into being quite
independently. More over Indian theatrical tradition goes further back than that of ancient Greece and is much
richer as far as theory is concerned.
In the Gupta age the earliest of the Puranas were compiled. These collections of legends about gods, kings and
heroes that embody the mythological and cosmological ideas of ancient Indians were compiled over a very long
period and subjected to far-reaching editing and modification.
Some of the Dharmashastras such as the Laws of Yajnavalkya (third century AD) or the laws of Narada (fourth and
fifth centuries AD) also date from the early centuries AD. Worthy of note among the landmarks of Sankrit literature
is the Panchatantra (third and fourth centuries AD) a collection of tales and parables which is very popular both in
India and beyond its borders. In the early Middle Ages translations of this work appeared in Pehlevi, Syrian and
Arabic. In the Middle East the collection was known as all the influence of the Panchatantra on both Eastern and
Western literature was considerable.
It was also in the Gupta period that the first works of literature from Southern India written in Tamil appeared. One
of the most famous these early works in Tamil was the Kural a collection of parables. The compilation of which is
traditional ascribed to a representative of the farmers' caste, Triuvalluvar .The Kumar was undoubtedly based on
material derived from folklore and already in ancient times won enormous popularity. In the fourth and fifth
centuries A.D. Collections of Lyrical poems in Tamil also appeared. The literature of other south Indian appear later
in the early Middle Ages.
In the end it may be noted that both Sanskrit poetry and prose were greatly encouraged through royal patronage.
However it was literature of the elites since Sanskrit was known only to them but not to the people. The Sanskrit
plays of this period show that the characters of high social status speak Sanskrit: whereas those of lower status and
women speak Prakrit. This particular feature throws light on the status of Sanskrit and Prakrit in society.
GUPTA ART
Art and architecture
“The changes in the field of art from the Kushan period to early medieval period are mere reflection of changing
outlook.” Comment. (20) (2016)
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Discuss the experimentations with art and architecture during the Gupta-Vakataka period. (15) (2018)
The glorious of the Gupta age proper (C. 350-650) have been made permanent through the visible creations of its
art. Different forms of art, e.g. sculpture painting and terra-cotta attained a maturity balance and naturalness of
expression that have for ever remained unexcelled. Some of our most beautiful monuments representing the very
acme of India's artistic achievement among which the immortal Ajanta murals take precedence constitute the
cultural heritage of the Gupta period.
It is contended that during the Gupta period the proto-type of Hindu temple came into existence. It is rather
unfortunate that many of the temples were destroyed by the iconoclasm of Muslims in the first few centuries of the
second millennia. Whatever that remains of the Gupta temples the practice of keeping the principal image in the
Garbha-griha (womb-house) began from this period. The structure itself was enclosed by a courtyard which in the
later period housed a complex of shrines. Also it is from the Gupta period that temples came to be largely built in
stone leading to the evolution of the monumental style in Hindu architecture.
This practice of free standing temples was not taken up by the Buddhists. They continued to excavate hills. Some of
their caves ore richly adorned with paintings like those of Ajanta. In the field of art the Gupta age witnessed
classical levels in music. Architecture, sculpture and painting. The Gupta sculptures exhibit a gracious dignity never
to be repeated again in Indian sculpture. Plain robes flowing over the bodies appear as though they are transparent.
Transparent drapery is used not to reveal the charms of the flesh but to conceal them. If the schools of Bharhut,
Sanchi and Mathura are marked by a sensual earthiness and that of Amravati by vital excited movement the Gupta
sculpture suggests serenity and certitude.
It is however in the field of sculpture that classical heights were reached in the Gupta period. The Buddha images at
Sarnath reflect serenity and contentment mirroring the religious atmosphere of the age. This practice of carving
images was picked up by Hinduism also. Since Hinduism created the image as a symbol the image are not
representational just like those of Buddhism. The Hindu gods of the Gupta period were primarily incarnations of
Vishnu.
The Gupta sculptural style probably grew out of the Kushan style that survived at Mathura. In early fifty century a
distinctive icon was created. It is represented by a red sand-stone figure of a standing Buddha with an immense
decorated hallow. The tension which activated earlier tranquility, a spiritual other worldliness which is the hallmark
of the Gupta Buddhist.
According to authorities the Mathura style was refined and perfected at Sarnath. A great number of Buddhist
sculptures were unearthed here. One unique group is known as the 'wet Buddhas' because the sculptures look as if
they have been immersed in water. The Mathuran string fold motif is omitted and the sheer muslin Sanghati appears
to cling to the body and reveal its basic form.
A great example of Gupta sculpture created at Sarnath is that of the seated Buddha preaching the Law, carved of
Chunar sandstone. This piece harmonises refined simplicity and Indian love of decoration. This particular image
influenced India and also had a significant and lasting effect on brahminical art. In this sculpture the Buddha is
seated as a yogi on a throne and performs the Dharma Chakra mudra.
From the end of the fifth century on first under the on-slaught of the Huns and later with the advent of Islam, many
of the products of the Gupta art, both Buddhist and Hindu were destroyed.
A remarkable piece of Gupta metal-casting found at Sultanganj in Bihar is nearly feet high. Another metal figure
but of a smaller size in bronze was found in U.P.
A group of small ivory images of Buddhas and Bodhisattavas founding the Kashmir area are prime examples of late
Gupta art from about the eighth century.
Now for brahminical art. Even during the Kushan period sculptures of Hindu subjects such as the Sun God Surya
and of Vishnu were produced at Mathura and elsewhere. During the Gupta period an major group of brahminical
sculptures appeared dealing with the various aspects of Vishnu. In the Udaigiri rock-cut shrine near Bhopal Vishnu
is presented as the cosmic boar Varaha. The figures of Yakshi were also culled in the Udaigiri shrine. They now
appear as river deities. This transformation can be clearly seen in a figure from the doorway of a Gupta temple at
Besnagar nearby. It appears to represent the sacred river Ganga. The goddess stands in the classic tribhanga.
Paramount among Hindu sculptures of the Gupta period are the reliefs on the exterior walls of the ruins of the
Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh near Jhansi. Vishnu is shown asleep on the coils of the giant multi-headed serpant
Ananta. Brahma is depicted separately seated on a lotus blossom. In the upper reaches of the relief deities including
Indra and Shiva are represented. At the base of this sculptural relief there is a panel depicting events from the epic
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poem the Ramayana.
Also it is interesting to note that the earliest surviving examples of painting in Ajanta Caves belong to the Gupta
period. In Cave 1 we see Gupta architecture wrought from solid stone. This cave is also a virtual museum of
Buddhist art. From every part of the cave we see paintings depicting the rich and complex Buddhist world of the
late fifth century. The subject matter of the paintings is the various lives and incarnations of the Buddha as told in
the Jataka tales. The Bodhisattava Padmapani in the tribhanga pose of sculpture holds a blue lotus. This figure
expresses remote calm. The absence of shadows suggests an unworldly light. This light is present in all the
paintings of Ajanta and is partly the result of the techniques used by the artists.
Another elegant Bodhisattava figure in Cave in is shown surrounded by his queen and ladies of the court. It
recreates an episode from the Jataka story. In cave 19 we have a fully developed Chaitya façade to Gupta style. It
has over-abundance of Buddha images.
Coinage of the Guptas,

Give an account of the use of gold coins by commoners in the Gupta Period. (30)(2009)
The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of ancient India. This may not be true in the economic field because
several towns in north India declined during this period.
But the Guptas possessed a large amount of gold and they issued a large number of gold coins. An important feudal
development that surfaced under the Guptas was the grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to priest and
administrators.
The practice became a regular affair. Religious functionaries were granted land, free of tax for ever and they were
authorized to collect taxes which could have gone to emperor. It was the beginning of feudalism. Whether state
officials were paid by grants of land in Gupta times is not clear. Abundance of gold coins would suggest that higher
officials continued to be paid in cash. The gold coins issued by Guptas were called dinars. Regular in size and
weight, they appear in many types and sub types. But these gold coins were not as pure as Kushan ones. It shows
that gold coins may not be used by commoners. These coins served to pay the officers in the army and
administration but also to meet the needs of the sale and purchase of land.
After the conquest of Gujarat, the Guptas issued a good number of silver coins mainly for local exchange. With the
decline of trade and commerce due to feudal set up brought out by land grants. It has been mentioned by several
historians that common people were using cowry for exchange.
Regarding the beginning of the feudalism some school of thoughts are of view that the socio economic relation
during Gupata period can be said to be the sign of beginning of feudalism. Hence they are of view that common
people were also using gold coins issued by almost each of the Gupta kings.
GENERAL ESTIMATE
The characteristic features of Gupta art are refinement or elegance simplicity of expression and dominant spiritual
purpose. An ensemble of these characteristics give Gupta art an individuality. In the first place this art is marked by
refinement and restraint which are the signs of a highly developed cultural taste and aesthetic enjoyment. The artist
no longer relies on volume to give an impression of grandiose but focuses his attention on elegance with is not lost
in the exuberance of ornaments. The keynote of his art is balance and freedom from the dead weight of
conventions. The dictum is at once apparent if we compare the standing life-size figure of the Gupta Buddha of
Yasadinna with the colossal standing Bodhisttava in the Sarnath Museum both from Mathura and in red sand stone.
Another characteristic of Gupta art is the concept of beauty for which we have a very appropriate term rupam used
by Kalidasa. The men and women in this art-loving age applied themselves to the worship of beautiful form in
many ways. But aesthetic culture did not weaken the strong structure and stamina of life or bedim its supreme
objective of yielding to the riotous worship of the senses. Art was worshipped in order to deepen the consciousness
of the soul and awaken it to a new sense of spiritual joy and nobility. Kalidasa the supreme genius and poet of this
age has expressed this attitude of life devoted to beauty in a sentence addressed to Paravati the goddess of personal
Charm by her consort Siva: 'O fair damsel the popular saying that beauty does not lead to sin is full of
unexceptional truth'. The path of virtue is the path of beauty- this appears to be the guiding impulse of life in the
Gupta age. To create lovely forms and harness them to the needs of higher life - this was the golden harmony that
made Gupta art a thing of such perpetual and in-exhaustible attraction.

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SHORTCOMINGS :
(1) All was not well with the Gupta economic prosperity. After the Huna Invasions, trading activity with north-west
came to a stop. Also goods from the Gangetic region could not be easily carried to the Western coast. This was one
of the causes of the shift of trade towards South-East Asia.
(2) The administration of the Guptas was not as successful as that of the Mauryas. Autonomy granted to provinces,
districts and villages. The local officials formed into cliques and very often offices became hereditary. Corruption
was known. Officials were expected to be treated with rice, curd and flowers - the last time perhaps, had its own
implications.
(3) Although Sanskrit drama attained great heights, some of the writings of the day show that they were only for a
select few of society. Good number of legal codes were prepared like that of Yajnavalka, Narada, Barihaspati and
Katyayan. The social system became very rigid.
(4) In matters of religion also decadent features started appearing. New cults emerged worshipping female deities.
This became the nucleus for a number of magical rites which later came to be known as Tantricism.
(5) It was in the social field the institutionalization of difference between the castes had begun. In the dramatic
writings of the day, the characters belonging to the upper state of society speak Sanksrit while those of the lower
strata and women speak Prakrit. The status of women declined because of the practice of early marriages. And most
of the legal codes of the day reiterate the Brahmin view-point in all matters including the status of women. The lot
of Shudras which was downgraded in the Maurya period was legalized. And the institution of untouchability was
fully established.
Throw light on the condition of common man in the Gupta period (60) (2007)
Besides, economic prosperity and intellectual progress were other important features of the Gupta Age which
brought about progress in science, art, religion and literature and every field of life. On the basis of their
achievements the Gupta Age is regarded as the ‘Golden Age’ of Ancient India. But the condition of the common
man was indifferent to these developments. For the upper classes all period in the history have been golden, for the
mass none.
Decentralization of administration was caused by increasing grants of land and villages with fiscal and
administrative immunities to priests and temples. It also led to the oppression of the peasants and other inhabitants
of the gifted village who were asked to obey their mew master and carry out their orders.
These land grants paved the way for feudal development in India. The position of the peasants was also undermined
from the Gupta period onwards on account of the imposition of forced labour-visthi and several new levies and
taxes. Earlier only a few classes were of subjects and came to include all kind of work.
The guilds of artisans and merchants had begun to lose their importance due to the decline of trade under the
Guptas. India’s foreign trade during this period seems to have been seriously affected by the introduction of silk
worms in to the Byzantine Empire from China and later by the expansion of the Arabs under the banner of Islam.
Commercial decline is also indicated by the paucity of coins. This languishing trade explains the decline of urban
centers at least in the Gangetic plains, which formed heartland of the Gupta Empire.
The position of Shudras improved in this period. They were now permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas. They
could also worship a new god called Krishna. They were also allowed to perform certain domestic rites which
naturally brought fee to the priests. All this can be attributed to a change in the economic condition of Shudras.
From the seventh century onwards they were mainly represented as agriculturists; in the earlier period they always
appeared as servants, slaves and agricultural labourers working for the three higher Varnas.
But during this period the untouchables increased in number, especially the Chandalas. The Chandala appeared in
the society as early as the fifth century BC. By the 5th century AD their number had become so enormous and their
disabilities so glaring that it attracted the attention of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien. He informs us that the Chandalas
lived outside the village and dealt in meat and flesh. Whenever they entered the town the upper caste people kept
themselves at a distance from them because the road was supposed to have been polluted by them.
There came to pronounced Varna distinctions in various spheres of life, even in the case of owning a house. Varna
distinctions were also observed in legal matters like the law of inheritance etc. The Shudras seemed to be
particularly hostile to the existing social order. The Anushasan Parva of the Mahabharata represents them as
destroyer of the king.

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All this as well as some passages from legal texts suggest a kind of conflict between the rulers and the Shudras. The
ruling class often used religion for maintaining the social orders loosed of Varna.
In the Gupta period, like the Shudras, women were also allowed to listen to the Epics and the Puranas and advised
to worship Krishna. But women of higher order did not have access to independent source of livelihood in pre-
Gupta and Gupta times. The fact that women of two lower Varnas were free to earn their livelihood gave them
considerable freedom, which was decided to women of the upper Varnas.
It was argued that the Vaishya and Shudra women take to agricultural operations and domestic services and hence
they were outside the control of their husbands. In contrast, by Gupta times members of the higher orders came to
acquire more and more land which made them more polygamous and more property-minded.
In a patriarchal set-up they began to treat women as items of property, so much so that a woman was expected to
follow her husband to the next world. However some post Gupta law books held that a women can remarry if her
husband is dead, destroyed, impotent, has became a renounce or has been excommunicated.
The main reason for the subordination of women belonging to upper Varnas was their complete dependence on men
for their livelihood. They lacked properly rights except for Stridhana. Katyayana, a law give of 6th century, holds
that she could sell and mortgage her immovable property along with her stridhana. This clearly implies that women
received shared in landed property according to this law giver, but generally a daughter was not allowed to inherit
landed4 property in the patriarchal communities of India.
In short, the upper classes were happy and prosperous and lived in comfort and ease, as can be judged from the
contemporary art and literature. But this could have been hardly true of the common people.
SOCIETY
According to the scheme of society conceived by the brahmanas, society was divided into four varnas (Brahmana,
Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra), with each varna performing the set of functions prescribed for it and enjoying
whatever rights were given to it. This was the ideal social order and the state was expected to preserve it. This
means that when even a small state emerged in some comer of the country, the King of that state was expected to
recognize this as the ideal social order. The Brahmanas came to exert considerable influence on the kings from the
Gupta period and this is quite clear from the way they received land from the kings and others. The kings, officials
and others gave land not only to Individual brahmanas but also some times incited big groups of brahmanas to
come and settle in remote areas. Thus, the number of brahmana settlements variously called Brahmadiyas,
Agraharas and so on started increasing and they started spreading, among other things, the idea of a varna-divided
social order.
However, varna order was an ideal order and there were many groups in society whose varna identity could never
be determined. Secondly, it was assumed that the varnas would perform their rituals; in reality, they may not have
done so. They suggested that various jatis or groups originated through varna-samkara or inter-marriages between
various varnas.
The families of the pre-Gupta period, of Greek of Scythian origin, were given the semi-kshatriya status (vratya
Kshatriaya) because they could not be considered to be of pure Kshatriaya origin: similarly, fictitious origins
were thought of for tribal groups who came to he absorbed into the Brahmanical society.
The Dharmasastras also speak of apadharma or conduct to be followed during periods of distress. This means
that the varnas take to professions and duties not assigned to them when they found it necessary to do so. In matters
of profession also the Dharmasastras thus recognized that the real society was different from their ideal society.
These changes of course originated much before the Gupta period, but with the spread of the Brahmanas to
different parts of India, the so its structure came to be very complex. The new society had to absort many social
groups thus. the actual social structure came to vary from region to region, although certain ideas were common to
them:
The Brahmanas came to he recognized as the purest and therefore the highest varna. Since they were associated
with Sanskritic learning and performed priestly functions. They came to be closely connected with royal power.
Even when the rulers were supporters of Buddhism, Jainism or a particular religious sect, they continued to
patronize brahmanas, particularly those of high learning. This remained one of the major reasons for the economic
prosperity and prestige of the brahmanas.
Ideally. although there were four varnas. these were various groups who were kept out of this scheme. They were
the antyajas or untouchables. They were considered impure; even their touch was considered impure and their
physical presence in areas where higher varnas lived and moved was not allowed. The Chandalas, the Charmakaras
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and similar groups were considered impure and outcastes. Thus, in the Brahmanical order of society the condition
of a number of social groups remained miserable throughout.
Position of women,
Assess the status of women in India from c.4th century BC to AD 6th century. (60) (2005)
What light do early inscriptions and literature throw on the status of women in politico-socio-economic spheres?
(60) (2010)
Social norms for women in the Dharmasastra and Arthasashtra tradition where framed in accordance with the
Varnashrama tradition. Evaluate critically (20)(2013)
The status of women in India began to decline from Post Vedic period onwards. The rights of women decreased to
minimum level and their responsibilities and obligations increased to the maximum level.
Prior to 4th century B.C. the birth of a daughter became charmless. The sacrament of Upanayana was stopped for
women and they could not enchant vedic hynms. Moreover, the age of marriage for girls reduced in comparison to
preceding ages. Consequently, imparting formal education to girls became a difficult job.
Twelve years for a virgin and sixteen years for a youth were suitable for marriage ceremony. The wife occupied an
honoured place and participated with her husband in religious ceremonies. Monogamy was the general rule, though
polygamy prevailed among the rich and the ruling class. Polyandry and the custom of Sati were unknown and were
legally banned.
The women of the period under review had the right of re-marriage but they did not enjoy the liberty. They did not
have the right to go outside the house and could do nothing without the permission of their husbands. Kautilya also
speaks of the system of Niyoga in which an issueless widow had the rights to produce a child through making
intercourse with the relative of her husband. A man could re-marry to produce a son because women were made for
this purpose. However, the system of Niyoga was rejected by the writers of Puranas and Smritis and after 5th
century it stopped.
Law-givers unanimously advocated early marriage, some of them preferred even the practice of pre-puberty
marriage. Celibacy was to be strictly observed by widows. The practice of Sati or self-immolation at the funeral
pyre of the husband gained approval of the jurists. But it was confined to upper classes only. The first evidence of
Sati, dated A.D. 510, is found at Eran in Madhya Pradesh.
They did not have the right to go outside the house and could do nothing without the permission of their husbands;
Kautilya writes that a woman could knock at the door of justice against the torture and exploitation of her husband.
The murder of a woman was legally prohibited and unapproved.
Women were denied any right to property except for Stridhana in the form of jewellery and garments. They
themselves came to be regarded as property which could be given or ‘loaned to anybody. Their everlasting
protection was argued forcefully. The social philosophy demanding increasing subjection of woman to man was a
natural development in a patriarchal society based on private property.
The references to such women are also available in several sources that did not lead a family life and held the lives
of Ganikas or prostitutes. They were meant for the amusement of the king and the ruling class. The courtesan was
not looked down upon. She was a normal feature of city life. Kalidasa refers to the amorous sports of young
gallants with harlots of Vidisha.
According to the Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadutta prostitutes crowded the streets of the capital on festive occasions.
The Dharmashastra writers, no doubt, displayed an unkindly attitude to public women. Kalidasa speaks of girls kept
at the Mahakala temple at Ujjain. The earliest evidence of temple prostitution, however, is found in a cave inscrip-
tion at Ramgarh, 160 miles South of Benaras, carved perhaps not long after Ashoka.
References to woman teachers, philosophers and doctors are available in early Indian literature. But they are few
women were also employed as spies by the state because according to Kautilya, they could prove more useful as
spies than even men. Megasthenes and other Greek writers also confirm it.
Women soldiers were also appointed in the palace. Megasthenes writes that women study, philosophy with some of
them (Sarmanes), but they too abstain from sexual intercourse. Ashokan inscriptions evidence that his daughter
Sanghamitra went to Ceylon as a nun for the propagation of Buddhism.
From Greek accounts we come to know that women could intervene in state affairs if so necessary. For example,
Naganika and Balashri worked as regents in favour of their child kings and performed several Vedic rituals. Dhruv

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Devi and Prabhavati played important parts in Vakataka-Gupta politics. The wives of Satavahana officers and feuds
also adopted administrative titles like their husbands. Some of those titles were Mahasenapalli, Mahatalvari,
Dwarpalika etc.
The motherly names of kings also evidence the better condition of women in the Satavahana period. Various
women sculptures have been found from Satavahana regions which show that they could wor ship Buddha statues,
participate in meetings and welcome guests as well. This notices that the women of the Satavahana period were
well educated, though not as a whole, and were not confined at homes only.
Woman in Gupta period

The position of woman or higher varnas was low. Although we hear of' personalities like the Vakataka queen
Prabhavatigupta who wielded considerable power, not all women were so privileged. The brahmana texts set down
norms which women were expected to follow. Women were expected in the family, to function mainly as an ideal
wife and ideal mother. In many Brahmana texts, women were even considered, for various reasons, to be of the
same category as the Sudras. It is significant that although brahmananas were given landgrants regularly. we do not
come across evidence of land being given to Brahmana women.
Another aspect of social life was that there existed great difference between the ways of life of the rich city-
dwellers and people living in villages. The ideal city-dweller was the nagaraka, i.e. the urbanite who, because of
his affluence, lived a life of pleasure and refined culture. There are interesting descriptions of this way of life not
only in Vatsyayana's Kamasutra but also in other literary texts of the,period. Of course. it would he wrong to
presume that all classes of people who lived in cities could afford this way of life.
Examine the information of Fahien about the political, religious, social and economic condition of India. Make a
comparative study of his account with that of Yuan Chwang. (60) (2003)
Fahien was a Chinese monk who travelled India during the age of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya. He travelled
during C 399-414. His travelogues give a fine impression about Chandra Gupta’s empire.
The various aspects of his empire, i.e. political, religious, social and economic, were clearly reflected in his
writings.
Yuan Chwang was another Chinese who visited India during C 360-644 during the reign of King Harshavardhan.
Like Fahien, he was also a Buddhist and came to India to explore more about Buddhist texts and places related to
Buddhism and to acquire authentic Buddhist scriptures.
Fahien noted the peacefulness of India, the rarity of serious crime, and the mildness of the administration. He stated
that it was possible to travel from one end to another in the country without molestation, and without passports. In
his remarks on social custom he stated that all respectable persons were vegetarians, meat eating being confined to
low castes and untouchables. He found Buddhism still flourishing, but theistic Hinduism was very widespread.
Yuan Chwang was also aware of the four classes and had mentioned many mixed classes, no doubt accepting the
orthodox view of the time that these sprang from the intermarriage of the four, but he shows no clear knowledge of
the existence of caste in its modern form. Yuan Chwang had mentioned both about vegetarian and non vegetarian.
Fahien’s record shows that in place of the old sacrificial Brahminism, Hinduism has appeared. But in the best days
of the Gupta Empire Indian culture reached a perfection which it was never to attain again. Humanitarian ideas,
probably encouraged by Buddhism, were effective in Gupta period in moderating the fierce punishments of earlier
days.
Fahien stated that the death penalty was not imposed in north India, but most crime was punished by fines and only
serious revolt by the amputation of one hand. Executions were rare. Yuan Chwang, 200 years later, reported that
prisoners were not executed under Harsha, but were left to rot in dungeons. Punishments were rather mild as
compared to the later times.

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According to Fahien, the Shudras were kept outside the town and entered the town by making a noise with a stick.
They were butchers, hunters, and fishermen. Yuan Chwang had also described this. Fahien states that the income of
the government was mainly based on the revenue taxes which were one-sixth of the total production.
Government officials were given fixed income and there was no contribution from the people. Donation was
prevalent in those times. Fahien had made special note of free hospitals maintained by the donations of pious
citizens. Yuan Chwang had also reported that Nalanda was supported by the revenues of an enormous estate of one
hundred villages, and by the alms of many patrons, including the great Harsha himself; it provided free training for
no less than 10,000 students, who had a large staff to wait on them.
Fahien was enamored by Patliputra and the huge palace of Ashoka. According to Yuan Chwang, Patliputra was not
a main city of north India and its place was taken by Knnauj. Yuan Chwang had mentioned about the social and
economic conditions. As stated earlier, he reported about varna.system and marriage. Fahien had not described all
this. But both of them had stated that the economy was based on agriculture.
He had given a detailed description of the Buddhist pilgrimages. According to him, the Buddhist religion was
divided into Mahayana and Heenayana. He saw twenty Buddha vihars in Mathura. But in Kapilavastu, Gaya and
Kushinagar the condition was deteriorating which indicated the weakening of Buddhism. In the description of
Fahien, it is not clear whether Brahmin religion was prevalent in the country or not. He visited two vihars near the
stupa of an Ashoka in Patliputra- in one of them the Mahayana monks resided and in the other the Heenyana
monks.
The ruler of Madhya Pradesh was a worshipper of Vishnu; according to him mutual relation was cordial and
peaceful among the Hindus and the Buddhists. This indicates the religious tolerance of the society. Yuan Chwang
had also described the religious conditions of India at that time. The Buddhist religion was clearly declining.
Despite of this, hundreds of monks resided in the country.
Fahien had mentioned about the Jainism also. But there is no mention of the Jain religion in Yuan Chwang’s texts.
Fahien had also mentioned about Shaiv and Vaishnav religion. Fahien, in comparison to Yuan Chwang, had not
been so observant and informative with regard to social, economic and political conditions of the society. Yuan
Chwang had completely described the period of king Harshavardhana.
THE PUSHYABHUTIS OF THANESHWAR AND KANAUJ

Vardhanas
A variety of sources inform us about the rise of the family of Pushyabhutis which first ruled from Thaneshwar in
Haryana and later from Kanauj in Uttar Pradesh. These sources include the text Harshacharita of Banabhatta,
accounts of Hiuen-tsang and some inscriptions and coins etc. Banabhatta informs us that the founder king of this
dynasty at Thaneshwar was Pushyabhuti and that the family was known as Pushyabhuti vamsa. However, the
inscriptions of Harsha make no reference to him. The Banskhera and Madhuvan plates and royal seals mention five
earlier rulers among whom the first three are given the title of Maharaja. This may indicate that they were not
sovereign monarchs. The fourth king Prabhakarvardhana has been described as a Maharajadhiraja which makes
us infer that he was an independent monarch and had established matrimonial relations with the Maukharis by
marrying his daughter Rajyasri with Grahavarman.
Thaneshwar, during this time (about 604 A.D.) was threatened by the Hunas from the western side. Banabhatta has
described Prabhakarvardhana as "a lion to the Huna deer". According to him an army under Rajyavardhana was
sent to defeat the Hunas but due to the sudden illness of his father he had to come back. With Prabhakarvardhana's
death the family had to face troubled times for a while. The Malava king killed Grahavarman and took, Rajyasri
prisoner. It appears that the Malava and the Gauda kings entered into alliance and even Thaneshwar was threatened.
Rajyavardhana defeated the Malavas but was killed through treachery by Sasanka, the Gauda king. Now it was
Harsha's responsibility to seek revenge and in due course he was able to establish a strong empire.
HARSHAVARDHANA
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Harsha ascended the throne of Thaneshwar around 606 A.D. and immediately marched against the Gaudas. He also
entered into an alliance with Bhaskarvarman-the king of Pragjyaotisha (Assam) as both had a common enemy in
Sasanka, the king of Gauda (Bengal). We have no information whether Harsha entered into battle with Sasanka but
he was able to save his sister Rajyasri and the kingdoms of Thaneshwar and Kanauj were combined with Harsha
now ruling from Kanauj. In fact Hiuen-tsang's account mentions him and his predecessors as rulers of Kanauj. Both
Bana and Hiuen-tsang refer to Harsha's vow of defeating other kings. Subsequently, he fought the rulers of Valabhi
and Gurjaras in the west; Chalukyas in the Deccan; and Magadha and Gauda in the east:
The Maitrakas of Valabhi had emerged as a strong power in the Saurasen region of Gujarat. Valabhi is generally
identified with Wala, 18 miles from Bhavnagar in Kathiawar. We find the names of five Valabhi kings who were
contemporaries of Harsha. Hiuen-tsang has mentioned the Valabhi king Dhruvasena II Baladitya as Harsha's son-in-
law who also attended the religious assembly called by Harsha at Prayaga. This indicates that Harsha's hostilities
with Valabhis ended through a matrimonial alliance. However, through the inscriptions of Gurjara kings we know
that their king Dadda II, had supported the Valabhis. The Valabhis remained a strong power during the reign of
Harsha.
From Bana's account we know that the Gurjaras were hostile to the Vardhanas. A family of Gurjara rulers was
ruling at Nandipur in the Broach region of Gujarat in this period. This might have continued during the period of
Harsha. It appears that the Gurjaras accepted the suzerainty of Chalukyas of Badami in Karnataka as a safeguard
against Harsha, for the Aihole inscription mentions Lata, Malava and Gurjara as feudatories of Pulakasin II, the
Chalukya ruler.
An eulogy or prasasti of Pulakasin II, placed on a temple wall at Aihole, also mentions Pulakesin's military success
against Harshavardhana.
Hiuen-tsang's account mentions that inspite of his victories over many kingdoms he was not able to defeat
Pulakasin II, the Chalukya ruler of Badami in Karnataka. We have no details of the battle and where it was fought
but this is clear that Harsha could not achieve success against Pulakesin II.
Harsha was successful in his eastern campaigns. A Chinese account mentions him as the king of Magadha in 641
A.D., we have already mentioned his alliance with Bhaskaravarman the king of Assam and it is possible that they
jointly conducted campaigns in Bengal and other parts of eastern India.
Harsha had diplomatic relations with the Chinese for his contemporary T'ang emperor sent three embassies to his
court. The last of these, under Wang-hiuen-tse, arrived in India in 647 A.D. when Harsha was no longer alive.
Harsha himself had sent a brahmana envoy to China in 64 1 A.D. Harsha ruled for a period of 41 years and is said
to have died about 647 A.D. The administrative set-up under Harsha was in some ways a continuation of the system
prevalent under the Guptas. Hiuen-tsang mentions that Harsha used to take up tours throughout his kingdom. The
king remained the supreme authority, assisted by his ministers and other officials of different categories.
For example, the Madhuban copper plate mentions the names of various officials like uparika (provincial
governor), Senapati (Army chief), Dutaka (informer), etc. However, his inscriptions, Bana's Harshacharita and
Hiuen-tsang's account leave no doubt that the stability of the administration and of the empire had come to depend
much on the support of allies and feudatories (samantas and mahasamantas). The officials, it appears, were not paid
salaries in cash. Instead, they were given land as payment for their services. The law and order situation seems to
have slackened during this period as Hiuen-tsang himself had to face plunder by dacoits.
The Banskhera, Nalanda and Sonepat Inscriptions of Harsha describe him as a worshipper of Siva. However, later
on he became a Buddhist and convened a conference at Kanauj. Here the doctrines of Mahayana were propagated
with utmost precision. This assembly, according to Hiuen-tsang, was attended by eighteen kings and three thousand
monks and continued for eighteen days. Another such event during Harsha's reign was the Quinquennial
distribution ceremony at Prayaga. Harsha performed five such ceremonies in his last thirty years. He used to
distribute all the treasures accumulated during the last five years in these ceremonies.
Learning and education got royal patronage during this period. Nalanda university had more than ten thousand
students. Harsha had given hundred villages in donation to this University.
HARSHAVARDHANA AND HIS TIMES
The age of Harsha was a turbulent one. Yet, the general life of people was a prosperous one.
In estimating the social life of people during the Harsha, We have to keep in view the administration of Harsha, for
the social life of a people anywhere in olden days, to some extent was influenced by its administrative system.
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Hiuen-Tsang attributes commendable administrative vigilance to Harsha - made tours of inspection throughout his
kingdom, and promoted benevolent activities like construction and maintenance of roads, sarais, hospitals, etc.
Hiuen-Tsang states as the government is generous official’s requirements are few. Families are not registered and
individuals are not subject to forced labour contributions the king's tenants pay one-sixth of the products as the
rent."
But talking of justice, cruel punishment continued. Trial by or deal was common. For offences against social
morality, disloyal and inferior conduct, the punishment was to cut off the nose, ear, hand, foot or to banish the
offender to another country or into wilderness. Hiuen-Tsnag maintains that as the government was honestly
administrated and the people lived on good terms the criminal classes was small. But Chinese pilgrim about whom
special care may have been taken by the government was robbed of his belongings, although he records that
according to the laws of the land severe punishments were inflicted for crime. Robbery was considered to be a
second treason for which the right hand of the robber was amputated. But it seems that under the influence of
Buddhism the severity of punishment was mitigated, and criminals were imprisoned for life.
Talking of political life, in most cases kingship was hereditary although at times a king was nominated by his
predecessor or elected by people or nobles.
Nandivarman Pallava was raised to the throne by the mula prakritis. At Thaneshwar the crown was offered to
Harsha by a council of nobles headed by Bhandi. Secondly the tradition that the welfare of king depends on the
welfare of people was still believed in. Fa-Hien, Hiue-Tsang and Suleiman record that rulers did their best to live up
to this ancient maxim. Fourthly quite a number of important rulers loved learning and patronized the arts. Harsha,
Mahendra varman, Amoghavarsha I, Bhoja of Dhar, Somesware III of Kalyan and Ballala Sena of Bengal were
writers of no mean repute. Fifthly, the king was all important even though has was assisted by Ministers. Manu's
recommendation of council of seven or eight ministers was normally followed Sixthly the chief source of revenue
was land-one-sixth of its produce. A few other taxes were imposed on ports, ferries, etc. Apart from taxation,
returns from royal lands, mines etc. and tributes from vassals filled royal coffers. Finally, kingdoms were divided
into smaller units for the convenience of administration. And royal armies mostly relied on elephants, infantry and
cavalry. From the features delineated above, one can easily deduce that the political structure of the day did
impinge upon the lives of people.
Relating to social life, Hiuen-Tsang metions four chief castes and also innumerable sub-castes. But Bana mentions
that castes mixed freely. Bana even makes mention of his two brothers born of Shudras. The Chinese traveler,
Hiuen-Tsang, refers to prohibition, widow-remarriage and the custom of sati. Yet, women were not regarded as
inferior to men. Some of the royal ladies were skilled in music and dancing. Rajyasri sat along with Harsha and
listened to the discourses on Buddhism. Interestingly, Hiuen-Tsang notes the absence of tailors and shoe-makers;
the simplicity of brahmins and kshatriyas; the luxuries of king's nobels and rich men; honesty and morality of the
people because of the fear of retribution in life to come: and, suicide of very old men of people afflicted with
incurable diseases in the Ganges. Another interesting point mentioned by him is the etiquette of lifting the turban as
a mark of greeting is social gatherings. Regarding the temperament of people, the travelers note that they were
hasty and indecisive but moral. The people were not deceitful by nature and valued their pledges and promises. The
country was prosperous. Vegetables and minerals were abundant. Fish and mutton were consumed occasionally.
Onions and garlic were not much used.
The brahmins and kshatriyas are reported to have led a simple life, but the nobles and priests led a luxurious life.
Hiuen-Tsang calls the Shudras agriculturists, which is significant. In the earlier texts they are represented as serving
the three higher varnas. The Chinese pilgrim takes note of untouchables such as scavengers, executioners, etc. They
lived outside the villages and consumed garlic and onion. The untouchables announced their entry into the town by
shouting loudly so that people might keep away from them.
Coming to the cultural life of people, we cannot ignore the contribution of Harsha to it. Probably Harsh wrote the
three dramas Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda in Sanskrit. The Chinese traveler, I-Tsing recorded that
Harsh versified the story of Jimutavahana in Nagananda and extremely fond of literature. It is contended that the
Banskhera and Madhuban copper-plate inscriptions were probably composed by Harsha himself. The other works
attributed to him are the two Sanskrit stotras in praise of the Buddha and a work on grammer. Besides Harsha, Bana
was the Chief poet who wrote Kadambari and is also supposed to have written the 'Parvati-parinay' and the
Chandiskata, A writer Mayura was a master of erotic poetry. A other literary figure was Matanga Divakara.
Apart from royal court, the sylvan ashramas were the centers of intellectual activity. Bana records a detailed
account of the ashrama of the Buddhist saga Divakaramitra in the Vindhyas. Hiuen-Tsang credits the people of the
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middle country with clearness and correctness of speech. According to him children were taught the five subjects of
grammer, mechanical arts, medicine, logic and philosophy from the seventh year onwards. He was all praise for the
great scholars of the day. Among educational centers the most famous was the Nalanda university. It attained
international repute. It was patronized by Kumaragupta I, and also by Harsha. The famous teachers of the university
were Dignaga, Dharmapala and Shilabhara. The teacher, Dharmapala, originally belonged to the city of Kanchi and
wrote books on Buddhist logic and metaphysics. It was during the time of Shilabhadra that Hiuen-Tsang visited
Nalanda. Even though the university was a Mahayana institution, brahminical subjects like the Vadas were included
in the curriculum. Those who sought admission in the university were examined by the keepers of the gate. It is
said that not more than 20 per cent of candidates could pass this examination of the gate-keepers. There was no fee
for education.
Boarding lodging and clothing were free. The university derived its revenues from the villages granted to it by
royalty. During the time of Hiuen-Tsang there were about 10,000 student and women were also included in it. I-
Tsing says that the discipline was strict at Nalanda. Sanskrit was the medium of instruction. The method of teaching
was primarily tutorial even though there were some lectures. Time was regulated by a water-clock. I-Tsing says that
there were eight halls and 300 rooms in this university. It possessed an observatory and a laboratory also.
With regard to art, the Gupta style was continued. Hiuen-Tsang refers to a copper statute of the Buddha. The brick
temple of Laxmana at Surpur is one of the most beautiful in India, unsurpassed in the richness and refinement of its
ornaments.
Talking of religion, it was a remarkable era. In the Gupta period brahminism re-asserted itself. The reading of the
Gita was popular with intelligentsia. The leader of Hindu reformation Sankara, in the 8th century, commented on
the Gita. By the time of Alberuni it was so popular that Alberuni quotes the text of the Gita.
Nevertheless, Hinduism, of the Gupta age witnessed a set-back some developed the doctrine of mimansa. The
doctrine was quite ancient but it became popular with prabhakara at the end of the sixth century. Another great
exponent of it was Kumarila in the 7th century. 'The Mimamsa lives in a world of self-revealed Vedas and is
concerned only with correct performance of the rites as laid down". This doctrine was poles apart from popular
puranic religion of people. Also, it contradicts the idea of a popular personal deity which is to be realized either
through bhakti or yoga. Luckily this barren ritualism was attacked by Sankara in the 8th century. Here we must also
note that Buddhism was on the decline. Hiuen-Tsang notes the decay of Buddhism even though he was not
conscious of it. But Buddhism gained popularity in Kanara, in certain parts of UP and in Bengal.
Thus, there is nothing unique about the life of people during the age of Harsha. The creative urge witnessed in the
Gupta period continued. Yet, as the future was to prove, the quiet greatness of this age was only as afterglow.
POLITICAL CONDITION OF NORTH INDIA IN POST-HARSHA PERIOD

Post-Gupta Kingdoms in North India
The empire built up by Harshavardhana had a very loose structure; after his death even this structure collapsed.
The events immediately following the death of Harsha have been described at Some length by Wang-Hiuen-tse who
had been deputed as an ambassador by the Chinese emperor. But as he reached the borders of India, the news of
Harsha's death reached him. He tells us that Arjuna (Ti-no-fo-ti) sent an army to check the entry of the Chinese
ambassador. Somehow Wang-Hiuen-tse escaped and came back to fight Arjuna with an army of one thousand from
Tibet and seven thousand from Nepal. Arjuna and his army were defeated and captured.
Later the queen of Arjuna continued the fight but was defeated. Wang took Arjuna to China and presented him to
his King. However, the authenticity of this account is doubted by certain scholars.
Palas, Senas, Rashtrakutas,

Did the triangular conflict between the Rashtrakutas, Gurjara Pratiharas and Palas create a political
vacuum in northern India which facilitated the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni? (60) (2001)
By the middle of the 10th century India witnessed the decay of three of the most powerful states which had
dominated east, north and central India during the two preceding centuries.
These were the Pala Empire with its capital at Mongyr, the Gurjara Pratihara Empire with its capital at Kanauj and
the Rashtrakuta Empire with its capital at Manyakhet.

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The Pala Empire was founded by the elected ruler Gopal in 750. He was succeeded by his son Dharmapala who
raised the pala Kingdom to greatness. Soon after his accession Dharmapala was involved in a struggle with the two
main powers the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. The Pratihara ruler Vastaraja defeated Dharmapala in a battle
which took place in the Gangetic Doab. But before Vastraja could reap the fruits of victory, he was defeated by the
Rashtrakuta king Dhruva. Thereafter Dhruva defeated Dharmapala and a little later left for the Deccan.
Despite these reverses, Dharmapala gained more than what he had anticipated. With the defeat of the Pratihara
power and the retreat of the Rashtrakutas, Dharmapala could dream of building up a mighty empire. Dharmapala
installed Chakrayudha on the throne of Kanauj. But it was soon challenged by his Pratihara adversary, Nagabhatta
II, who conquered Kanauj and drove away Dharmapla’s protege Chakrayudha.
Struggle for supremacy between the two rivals became inevitable; The Pratihara ruler advanced up to Mongyr and
defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. But Dharmapala was rescued by the timely intervention of the Rashtrakuta
king Govinda III to whom he might have appealed for aid. The power of the palas is attested, to by an Arab
merchant Sulaiman who visited India in the middle of the 9th Century. He says that the pala ruler was at war with
his neighbours, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more numerous than his adversaries.
The object of political ambition at that time was to conquer and hold the city of Kanauj, which had become a
symbol of imperial power perhaps owing to its connection with Harsha and with Yashovarman, who maintained this
status for the city. It became a bone of contention between these three powers and much of their military activity of
these powers was directed towards its conquest.
Control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture.
In addition, the palas and the Pratiharas clashed with each other for the control of the area extending from Benaras
to south Bihar which again had rich resources and well developed traditions. The Pratiharas clashed with the
Rashtrakutas also. Gujarat and Malwa was the bone of contention between them.
The Gurjara Pratihara Empire extended from the foothills of the Himalyas to Ujjain in the south and from Gujarat
in the west to Mongyr in the east. Bhoja, the real founder of the Gurjara Pratihara Empire, tried to extend his sway
in the east, but he was defeated and checkmated by the Pala ruler, Devapala.
He then turned towards central India and the Deccan and Gujarat. This led to the revival of the struggle with the
Rashtrakutas. In a battle on the bank of the Narmada, Bhoja was able to retain his control over considerable parts of
Malwa, and some parts of Gujarat.
Between 915 and 918 the Rashtrakuta king Indra III attacked Kanauj and devastated the city. This weekend the
Pratihara Empire, and probably passed into the hands of the Rashtrakutas, for al Masudi says that the Pratihara
Empire had no access to the sea. The loss of Gujarat, which was hub of the overseas trade and main outlet for north
Indian goods to the west Asian countries, was another blow to the pratiharas. Another Rashtrakut ruler, Krishna III,
invaded north India in about 963 and defeated the Pratihara ruler. This was followed by the rapid dissolution of the
Pratihara Empire.
The rivalry between them was self destroying. This was to exhaust all three of them leaving the field open to their
feudatories, which resulted in the founding of small regional kingdoms all over Northen India. Al Masudi, who
visited Kanauj in the early tenth century, wrote that the king of Kanauj kept a large army and was surrounded by
smaller kings always ready to go to war.
A hundred years later the Pratiharas were no longer a power in northern India. The Turkish army sacked kanauj in
1018 and this virtually ended the Pratihara rule. In the western Deccan, the Rashtrakutas as had been supplanted by
later Chalukyas.

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The almost simultaneous decline of the three rival powers, the Pratiharas, palas and Rashtrakutas, was most
surprising. Their strength was closely matched and depended on large well organized armies. Sources of revenue to
maintain this army were similar and excessive pressure on these sources was found to produce the same result.
The continued conflict over the possession of Kanauj diverted attention from their feudatories, who succeeded in
making themselves independent. The subordination of feudatories and invasion from the north -west and the south
destroyed what little had remained of political unity of northern India.
On the periphery of what had been the three major kingdoms, there had arisen a number of small states. The most
prominent among them were the Chauhans of Sakambari, the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chalukyas of Gujarat.
These in turn had many feudatories which sometimes helped their overlords but more often aspired to become
independent.
POLITICAL SITUATION IN SOUTH INDIA

The Sangam period in Tamilnadu and Kerala drew to a close about the end of the third century A.D. The history of
this area from the fourth to the mid-sixth century A.D. is very obscure. The early history of the Pallavas belongs to
this period. We have their copper-plate charters that were issued from Kanchi. Pallava rule was traditionally
associated with the Kanchi region (Palar river valley) or Tondaimandalam (tondai is Tamil for Pallava). But it
seems that during this period the Kanchi region was not under their effective control as they had been pushed north
by mountainous tribes called Kalabhras In fact, from the end of the Sangam period to the mid-sixth century A.D.,
Tamilnadu and Kerala were dominated by the Kalabhras. We do not know much about them, but it has been
inferred from the scanty evidence that they were against brahmanical institutions and favourably disposed towards
Buddhism and Jainism, that they put an end to the rule of the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas of the Sangam
age, and that they were non-agricultural hill tribes who caused great havoc among settled agricultural population.
The Kalabhra threat seems to have extended to the borders of the Chalukyas kingdom which emerged in north
Karnataka for they too claim to have defeated them. This period is known as the 'Kalabhra Interregnum'.
THE RISE OF THE CHALUKYAS, THE PALLAVAS AND THE PANDYAS

From the mid-sixth century A.D. the political scene in the Deccan and south India was dominated by the activities
of three powers: the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and the Pandyas of Madura.
The Chalukyas
Chalukyas of Badami;
Give an account of the rise of the Chalukyas of Vatapi and their struggle with other rulers. write a note on their
patronage of arts. (60) (2004)
The Chalukyas became a sovereign power with Pulakesin-I. He laid the foundations of his kingdom by making the
hill near Badami in the Bijapur district of Karnataka into a strong, fortress in 543-44 A.D. and performed a horse
sacrifice. His successors overthrew the Kadambas and annexed their kingdom gradually, and also subjugated the
Mauryas of Konkan (the coastal strip of Maharashtra). With the expeditions of Pulakesin-II the Chalukyas became
the Paramount power in the Deccan as the Western Gangas and the Alupas in the south and the Latas, Malavas and
Gurjaras in the north offered their submission to him. The army of Pulakesin-II checked the forces of
Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada.
Pulakesin-II also defeated the Vishnukundins of Andhra delta. But he was not satisfied with demanding just offers
of submission as the Krishna-Godavari delta with almost one million acres of rich arable land was too valuable a
possession. So about 621 A.D. he sent his younger brother Vishnuvardhana to consolidate the conquest and take
over the area. In 631 A.D. Vishnuvardhana was allowed to from his own kingdom. Thus, began the line of the
Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas, who remained in control of the area for more than five hundred years.
The origin of Chalukyas (early/western/Badami/Vatapi) is controversial. Bilhana, the author of Vikramanka-

devacharita, the court poet of Vikramaditya VI, and the later Chalukya inscriptions, lay claim to Ayodhya as their
ancestral home. Some regard them as related to the Gurjaras. Whatever might be their origin, by the mid 6th
century A.D., Pulakesin I carved out a small area around Vatapi or Badami. He performed an asvamedha ceremony.
His successor was kirtivarman who conquered both konkan and north Kerala. Many other conquests are attributed
to him but the claim cannot be substantiated. His successor was Mangalesa who conquered the Kadambas and the
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Gangas. He was killed and succeeded by his nephew, Pulakesin. The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin Ii deals with
the history of this dynasty.
The Chalukya power reached its zenith under Pulakesin II (609 to 642 A.D.). To begin with, he subjugated his
rebellious feudatories and neighbours. He Captured the capital of the Kadambas; overawed the Ganges of Mysore;
and subdued the Mauravas of North Konkan. The latas of Gujarat, the Malavas, and the Gurjars also submitted to
him. King harsha was defeated by him. Another victim was the Pallava king, Mahendra varman. The Cholas, the
Keralas and the Pandyas submitted to him. He occupied Pistapura and installed his Brother, Kubja-Vishnuvardhana,
as his representative. But in 642 A.D. the Pallava king, Narasimha Varman, stormed Vatapi and probably killed
Pulakesin II, this was followed by a period of confusion from 642 to 655 A.D.
Pulkesin II maintained friendly relations with Khusru II, the king of Persia. The reception given to the Persian
Mission is depicted in one of the Ajanta cave paintings. Hieun-Tsang visited his kingdom. He describe it as rich and
fertile. "The inhabitants were proud-spirited and war-like, grateful for favour and revengeful for wrongs, self-
sacrificing towards suppliants in distress and sanguinary to death with any who treated them insultingly." About
Pulkesin II, the traveler observes, "His plans and undertakings are widespread and his munificent actions are felt
over a great distance.
After his death, the Chalukya dynasty was in an eclipse, His son Vikramadiya I (655 to 680 A.D.) plundered the
Pallava capital, Kanchi. Vikramaditya's successors, Vinayaditya and Vijayditya, were powerful rulers. During the
reign of Vikramaditya II the Pallavas were once more defeated. Probably, he drove back the Arab intrusion into
southern Gujarat. His son, Kirti, Varman II, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dantidurga, in 753 A.D. and
with him the history of the dynasty to an end.
Regarding their achievements, the first was their maritime power. It is said that Pulkasin, with a hundred ships,
attacked and captured the capital of a hostile state. The central government of Chalukyas exercised a paternalistic
control over village administration. This is unlike the administrative practices of south India. The Chalukyas
recieved a limited income from land. Added to this, the earnings from trade were not considerable. Much of what
the State earned was spent on army. The standing army was supplemented and cavalry. Often, army officers were
sued in civil administration, whenever an emergency arose.
Regarding religion, the Chalukya kings were Hindu brahmins but they respected other faiths too. The Chinese
traveler noticed more than one hundred Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism was on the decline although Hieun-Tsang
opined that it was popular. Jainism enjoyed royal patronage. Buddhism gradually gave way to Jainism and
Brahmanism. Sacrifices were given great importance and many treaties were written on them. The king himself
performed a number of sacrifices including Asvamedha and Vajpeya. Despite this stress on the orthodox form of
Hindu religion, the Puranic version grew popular. It was this popularity that gave momentum to the building of
temples in honour of Vishnu. Shiva and other gods.
Regarding architecture, the Chalukyas perfected the art of stone-building stone finally joined without mortar. Under
the auspices of the Chalukyas, the Buddhists and the brahmins built cave temples. The cave frescoes began earlier
but the finest specimens of them belonged to the Chalukya are of the 5th and 6th centuries. The murals depict both
religious and secular themes. In the first monastic hall of the Ajanta one mural depict the reception given to a
Persian embassy by Pulakesin II. The temples of Chalukyas belong to the Deccan style. His tradition began earlier
in the rock-cut temples of Elephanta. The Aihole and Badami temples of the Chalukyas represent the Deccan style.
This style reached its culmination in the Kailash temple of Ellora a Rashtrakuta achievement.
The cave temples of the Chalukyas were the counter-parts of Buddhists save temples as borne out by the Vishnu
temple at Badami. Apart from this feature, the Chalukyan temples were stone-built-stone finely joined without
mortar like the temple of Shiva at Meguti. This temple has a prasasti on Pulakesin composed by Ravikriti. Out of
all their temples, the best reserved is the Vishnu temple at Aihole. It bears an inscription of Vikramaditya II and is
built on the lines of the Buddhists Chitya-hall. One more temple is the famous Virupakasha temple at Pattadakal.
This temple has a pillared mandapam or meeting place for people. The roof is supported by sixteen monolithic
pillars with sculptured bracket capitals.
The Chalukyas erected a large number of temples at Aihole. This particular style was followed in the close by
towns and Badami and Pattadakal. Aihole had 70 temples, whereas, Pattadakal had 10 temples. In the latter are
found the famous temples of Papanatha and Virupakasha. The walls of the temples are adorned with beautiful
sculptures representing scenes of Ramayana.
After the eight century land grants were made to these temples, a common feature of temple maintenance in South
India. The evidence relating to this aspect is recorded on the walls of the temples. Also the Jaina followers erected
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some temples in Karnataka during the days of the Chalukays.
The Chalukya temples were an evolution of the gupta shrine. However, at the apex of their glory, the Chalukyan
temples bear evidence to both the northern and Dravidian styles of architecture. The examples of this development
are the rock-cut temples in Elephanta. The Kalidashnatha temple built during the days of Rashtrakutas is an
example of transition from rock-cut to the free-standing style.
Sanksrit was the language of the day. Vernaculars also came to be developed. An inscription of the seventh century
mentions Kannada as the local language, and Sanskrit the language of the elite.
Thus, even though the delineation of the political history of the Chalukays is quite dull, their importance consists in
their having continued the traditions of India. Thus, even though the history of India appears to be a Jig-saw puzzle,
there is a pattern underlying it.
Kailasa temple built at Ellora marks the cultivation of rock-cut architecture in India. Elucidate. (15)
(2015)
The construction of the temple is often attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (r. 756-773 CE). The Kailasa
Temple is notable for its vertical excavation—carvers started at the top of the original rock, and excavated
downward. The traditional methods were rigidly followed by the master architect which could not have been
achieved by excavating from the front.
Architecture
The temple shows traces of Pallava style. According to Hermann Kulke, the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (r. 733–
744 CE) took some Pallava artists back to his kingdom after defeating the Pallavas. The temples constructed by
these artists influenced the Kailasa temple constructed at a later date.
The entrance to the temple courtyard features a low gopuram. Most of the deities at the left of the entrance
are Shaivaite (followers of Lord Shiva) while on the right hand side the deities are Vaishnavaites (followers of Lord
Vishnu). A two-storeyed gateway opens to reveal a U-shaped courtyard. The dimensions of the courtyard are 82 m x
46 m at the base. The courtyard is edged by a columned arcade three stories high. The arcades are punctuated by
huge sculpted panels, and alcoves containing enormous sculptures of a variety of deities. Originally flying bridges
of stone connected these galleries to central temple structures, but these have fallen.
Within the courtyard, there is a central shrine dedicated to Shiva, and an image of his mount Nandi (the sacred
bull). The central shrine housing the lingam features a flat-roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, and
a Dravidian shikhara. The shrine – complete with pillars, windows, inner and outer rooms, gathering halls, and an
enormous stone lingam at its heart – is carved with niches, plasters, windows as well as images of deities, mithunas
(erotic male and female figures) and other figures. As is traditional in Shiva temples, Nandi sits on a porch in front
of the central temple. The Nandi mandapa and main Shiva temple are each about 7 metres high, and built on two
storeys. The lower stories of the Nandi Mandapa are both solid structures, decorated with elaborate illustrative
carvings. The base of the temple has been carved to suggest that elephants are holding the structure aloft. A rock
bridge connects the Nandi Mandapa to the porch of the temple.
There are five detached shrines in the temple premises; three of these are dedicated to the river
goddesses: Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati.
There are two Dhwajasthambha (pillars with flagstaff) in the courtyard. A notable sculpture is that of
the Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa.
The Pallavas
Pallavas
The rise of the Pallavas began with Simhavishnu about the middle of tile sixth century A.D. He put an end to the
Kalabhra Interregnum in Tandaimandalam (Kanchi Region), and extended his kingdom southward up to the Kaveri
delta. He was succeeded by Mahendravarman-I, who annexed territories in the north up to the river Krishna. The
Pallava kings also secured submission from the neighbouring chieftains and kings, and thus reached the zone of
influence of the Chalukyas of Badami, and of the Pandyas. Even the Pandyas had to accept their overlordship
briefly. Thus by the middle of the seventh century A.D. the Pallavas had set up a powerful regional kingdom in
south India. Their power began to weaken from the mid-eighth century when the Chalukyas were being replaced by
the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. By the early tenth century A.D. the Pallava rule came to an end when Aparajita was
defeated by Aditya Chola-I.
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POLITICAL HISTORY of PALLAVAS
The first important ruler was Siva Skandavarman who performed an Aswamedha and other Vedic sacrifices. His
capital was Kanchi. Samudragupta forced the pallava king, Vishnugopa, to acknowledge the Gupta suzerainty. And
the story of the Pallavas in the 5th and 6th centuries is very sketchy.
By end of the sixth century the Pallavas re-emerged on the scene. Simhavishnu (575 to 600 A.D.) captured the
territory of the Cholas and humbled the pride of his neighbours including Ceylon. He was of a vaishnava faith as
borne out by the magnificent reliefs representing Simhavishnu and two of his consorts in the Varsha cave at
Mamallpuram.
With Mahendravarman I, the son and successor of Simhavishnu, began the titanic tripartite struggle with the
Chalukyas of Vatapi and the Cholas. The Chalukya king, Pulakesin II, captured Kanchi. Pulakesin II won the
pitched battle fought at Pullalur, fifteen miles north of Kanchi.
However, Narsimhavarman I, the son and successor of Mahendravarman I, defeated pulskesin II in many battles
and probably killed Pulakesin himself. He also defeated the Cholas, the Cheras and the pandyas. He even sent two
naval expeditions to Ceylon and placed his protégé on the throne of Ceylon. Narasimhavarman I was a great builder
too. Mamallapuram was embellished during his time. Hiuen-Tsang visited his kingdom. He states that the soil was
fertile and produced abundance of grain; flowers and fruits were many precious gems and other luxury articles were
known; and the people were courageous and greatly attached to learning, honesty and truth.
Narasimhavarman II. He too, fought with the Chalukyas. He was succeeded by Paramesvaravarman I in whose
reign Vikramadhitya I of the Chalukyas, in alliance with the Pandyas, renewed the hostilities. He probably captured
the city of Kanchi. Later, Paramesvarvarman I defeated Vikramadhity II. The Pallava records claim that the
Chalukya attack was hurled back.
Yet, as we know, the Chalukyas once again swept through the Pallava dominions under the captainship of
Vikramaditya II in the 8th century, A.D. Nandivarman was defeated and Kanchi was captured. By then, the Pallavas
faced a serious challenge from the rising dynasties of the south. The Pandyas advanced along the banks of Kanchi.
The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya Chola who defeated Aparajita Pallava and took possession of his
kingdom towards the end of the 9th century A.D.
The Chalukya victory over the Pallavas in 740 A.D. was the beginning of the end of the Pallavas supremacy. The
Cholas, in alliance with the Pandyas, defeated the Pallavas by the close of the 9th century. Very soon even the
Chalukyas collapses but the Pallavas: chiefs continued to exist till the end of the 13th century. After the 17th
century. All traces of the Pallavas as a distinct community of clan disappeared; but the Kallar, Palli and Vellala
castes trace their origin from them.
PALLAVA SOCIETY
The Pallavas political history covering four centuries is tortuous and complex but their contribution to society is
significant in two ways - completion of Aryanisation of southern India, and consummation of traditional or
indigenous art.
The Aryanisation of south India as completed during the period of the Pallavas. Their grants show that the Aryan
structure of society has gained firm hold on the south by the sixth century. Grants to brahmins are specifically
mentioned which show that the north Indian Dharma Sastras had acquired authority in the Pallava kingdom.
Sanskrit had established its sway. The university of Kanchi played to doubt a great part in India, and we know from
Hiuen-Tsang that it was the greatest center of education in the south. Vatsyayana, the logician, the author of Nyaya
Bhashya who lived in the fourth century. A.D, seems to have been Pandit of Kanchi. Dignag, the famous Buddhist
dialectian is also said to have had his training in the southern capital. In the fifth century we have epigraphic record
of Mayurrasarman of the Kadamba family going for higher studies to Kanchi. In fact it can legitimately be claimed
that Kanchi of the Pallavas was the great center from which the Sanksritisation of the south as well as the Indian
colonies in the far-east proceeded.
Pallavas were orthodox Hindus and they patronized the great reformation of the medival ages. Most of the kings are
brahminical Hindus devoted to the worship of Shiva. Mahendravarman was the first, who about the middle of his
reign, adopted the worship of Siva and he was influenced by the famous saints of the age. He showed reverence to
other Hindu gods also. But, he was intolerant of Jainism and destroyed some Jain monastries. Some Vaishnava and
Saiva saints lived during his time. In general, the Pallavas were tolerant to other sects. Buddhism and Jainism lost
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their appeal. Indeed Hiuen-Tsang saw at Kanchi one hundred Buddhist monastries and 10,000 priests belonging to
the Mahayana school but this has to be taken with a pinch of salt.
In general, the vedic tradition was super imposed on the local traditions, As brahmins were custodians of Vedic
tradition, they automatically enjoyed privileges. The Vedic tradition, a little later, received stimulus because of
Sankarcharya. The Temples were the focal points. The out-castes were not permitted to enter the precincts of the
temple.
Even then, Tamil saints of the 6th and 7th centuries, who were the progenitors of the bhakti movement, mostly
belonged to the lower castes. The hymns and sermons of the nayanaras (Shaivism) and the alvars (vaishnavism)
continued the tradition. Amongst the Shaiva saints the important were Appar (supposed to have converted
Mahendravarman) Sambandar, Manikkawasagar, and Sundarar. The most ………………………….. about them
was the presence of women, Saints, such as Andal. This Bhakti cult was derived from the ideas in the Upanishads
and also from the heterodox doctrines. Dr. Thapar opines that the concepts of compassionate God was a resultant of
the impact of Buddhist ideas particularly the bodhisattva concept, although the chirstians in malabar might have
provided a new perception of religion. What the bhakti movement contributed was great. The religious hymns and
music as popularized by Tamil saints were sung during temple rituals. Dancing was also included. From the Pallava
period onwards dancers were maintained by all the prosperous temples.
Regarding education, in the early days, education was imparted by Jains and Buddhists. The Jaina institutions were
located at Madurai and Kanchi. Soon brahminical institutions superseded them. Ghatkias or Hindu colleges were
attached to the temples. They were primarily Brahmin institutions are mostly confined themselves to advanced
studies. And in the 8th century the maths also became popular, which was an ominous institutions because of its
being a rest-house, a feeding center and an education center. In all these colleges Sanskrit was the medium of
instruction which was also the official language. Kanchi, the capital, was a great centre of Sanskrit learning. The
scientific works of Varahmihira and the poetry of Kalidasa and Bhairvi were-known in the Pallava country. And
Parameshvaravarman I granted the Kurran copper-plate that was made for the recitation of the Mahabharata in a
mandapa at the village of Kurram, near Conjeevaram.
By the beginning of the 7th century the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pandyas of Madurai
emerged as the three major states. By the time the political rule of these dynasties came to an end, an event known
as the revolt of the Kalabharas took place. The Pallavas, the Kadambas (North Canara in Karnataka) and the
Chalukyas of Badami along with along with a large number of their contemporaries were the protage of vedic
sacrifices. Logically, the brahmins emerged as an important segment of society but at the expense of the peasantry.
Possibly, this predominance was oppressive leading to the revolt of the kalabhars in the 6th century. A.D. It is also
said that they overthrew in numerable kings and established their hold in Tamilnadu. They ended the Brahmadeya
rights earlier granted to brahmins in numerous villages. It is also said that the Kalabhras patronized Buddhism. In
the end, the revolt of the kalabhras could be ended only by the Joint efforts of the Pandyas, the Pallavas and the
Chalukays.
PALLAVA ADMINISTRATION
Polity and Administration
Kingship was attributed to define origin. The kings claimed their descent from the God Brahma. It has hereditary.
Yet, on one occasion a king was elected. Most of the kings were accomplished scholars. Mahendravarman I wrote
the famous burlesque, Masttavilasa Prahsana. Many of the vaishnava alvars and shaiva nayanars flourished during
their rule.
The kings adopted high-sounding titles like maharajadhiraja, dharma-maharajadhiraja (great king of kings ruling in
accordance with the dharma), agnistomavajpeya, asvamedha-yaji (he who has performed the agnithtoma-vajapeya
and asvamedha sacrifices) They were assisted by ministers. History shows that the ministerial council played a
great part in the state policy in the later period.
A hierarchy of officials in provincial administration, the governor of a province was assisted by district officers,
who in turn worked in collaboration with autonomous local bodies. In local administration the meeting of
assembles were frequent, and the administration the meeting of assemblies were frequent, and the assemblies were
of many varieties and of many levels. Often special meetings were held. As the village level the assembly was the
sabha which looked after almost all the matters of the village, along with endowments, irrigation, crime,
maintaining census and other necessary records, Courts at villages level dealt with minor criminal cases. The
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judicial courts of the town and districts were presided over by government officials, climaxing with the king as the
supreme arbiter of justice. The sabha worked in close association with the urar, and informal gathering of the entire
village. Above this unit was a district administration. Finally, the head man of the villages was the link between the
village assembly and the official administration.
Theoretically the king owned the land. The status of a village depended on the prevalent land tenure. The fist
variety was the village with inter-caste population where in the people paid taxes to the king. The second was the
brahmadeya village in which the entire land was donated to a single Brahmin or a group of brahmins. A variation of
this village was the agrahars grant which, was an entire village settlement of brahmins. Both these forms were
exempt from royal taxes. In the devadana village the revenue was donated to a temple, and the temple authorities in
turn provided employment for the villagers in the temple whenever possible. In the Pallava period the first two
categories of villages were in vogue.
Apart from these major points relating to land there was a special category of land, the eripatti or tank land. The
revenue from such a land was sent apart for the maintenance of the village tank. The tank itself was built by the
efforts of the entire village. All shared the water stored in the tank. Very many inscriptions of the Pallavas refer to
the up-keep of tanks.
There are two Points about taxes. The land revenue varied from one-sixth to one tenth of the produce of the land.
This was paid to the State. The local taxes that were collected in a village were spent for the needs of the village. As
land revenue was necessarily small, the State revenue was supplemented by additional taxes on draught cattle,
marriage-parties, potters, makers of clarified butter, textile manufacturers, washermen and weavers. The major
source of revenue was from land, since the revenue from mercantile activity was not fully exploited.
Regarding expenditure, most to the revenue want for the maintenance of army. The king preferred a standing army
instead of feudal levis. The army primarily consisting of food soldiers and cavalry along with a sprinkling of
elephants. Indeed the Pallavas developed a navy although the mercantile activity was not great. Two dockyards
were built at Mahablipuram and Nagabatnam. This pioneering effort of the Pallavas reached its climax during the
days of cholas. The navy served a double purpose. It was meant for defence and also assisted the maritime trade
with south-east Asia, particularly with the three kingdoms of Kambuja (Cambodia) Champa (Annam) and
Shrivijaya (Malayan peninsula and Sumatra).
PALLAVA ART
Analyse the vibrant cultural activities in peninsular India during 550-750 CE. Compare and contrast it
with the situation in contemporary North India. (30) (2012)
Why is Mamallapuram famous? (10) (2015)
Four distinct stages of architecture can be gleaned from the Pallava temples. The first is the Mahendra style. The
influence of the cave style of architecture is to be seen in an ancient pillar engraved in the Ekambaranatha
(Kanchipuram) temple. The second is the Mamalla style. The seven Pagodas are small temples, each of which is
hewn out of a single rock boulder. They lie near Mahabalipura Mahabalipuram, founded by Narasimhavarman.
These monolithic temples are complete with all the details of an ordinary temples and stand as an underlying
testimony to the superb quality of the Pallava art. The third is the Rajasimha style. The most famous temple of this
style is the kailasha style. The most famous temple of this style is the Kailasha temple of Kanchi. It has a pyramidal
tower, a flat-roofed mandapam and a series of cells surround it resembling rathas. This style is a very elaborate one
foreshadowing the ornate Chola architecture. The fourth is the Aparajita style. This is more ornate resembling the
Chola architecture. A few temples built in the style are found at Dalavanur. The note worthy feature of some shrines
is that they are adorned by beautiful life-like images of Pallava kings and their queens. All told they are unique in
the history of temple architecture.
Pallava sculpture owed more to the Buddhist tradition. On the whole it is more monumental and linear in form, thus
avoiding the typical ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The free standing temples at Aihole and Badami in the
Deccan and the Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram in the Tamil country, provided a better background for sculpture
than the rock-cut temples. And the Pallava sculpture was monumental and linear in form resembling the Gupta
sculpture. Although the basic form was derived from the older tradition, the end result clearly reflected its local
genius.
Now for literature it has been recently proved that Bharavi and Dandin lived in the Pallava court. Bharavi's
Kiratarjuniyam and Dandin's Dashakumaracharita were the two masterpieces. One of Dandin's poems was written
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with such skill that when read normally it gives the story of the Ramayana; and when read in reverse, the study of
Mahabharata. Dandin was the author of a standard work on poetics. Till the eight century Pallava influence was
predominant in Cambodia. Saivism was the official form of worship. And the Pallava type of sikhara is to be found
in the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam. This dissemination of Hindu culture proves that it was dynamic till
1,000 A.D. in southern India.
Thus, the Pallavas rendered invaluable service to the country both within and without as they were one of the torch
bearers of Hindu civilization to south-east Asia. Far more singular is their contribution to architecture-transforming
the architecture and sculpture from wood to stone.
Kadamba Dynasty
The Kadambas
There were several regional states during the Gupta Period. Kadamba Dynasty (345 - 525 CE) was a primeval
majestic dynasty of Karnataka that ruled from Vaijayanti or Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. The
decline of the Satavahana power in the Deccan was followed by the rule of many lesser dynasties like the Chutus,
the Abhiras and the Ikshvakus during the third century A.D. the Karnataka area, however emerged out of this
political confusion in the following century, when the Kadambas of Banavasi rose to prominence. The dynasty later
continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five
hundred years, during which time they branched into Goa, Hanagal, and Chandavar. Mauryas, Satavahanas and
Chutus were the pre Kadamba rulers where the ruling families were not natives of the region. Kadamba dynasty is
important because it was the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada at an administrative level. Kadambas kept
paying nominal allegiance to other major power brokers of Deccan like Yadavas and Hoysalas of Dorasamudra and
thus maintained their independence. Four different families of Kadambas ruled in southern India which was
Kadambas of Hangal, Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Belur and Kadambas of Banvasi.
Kadamba dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 AD. The Kadamba kings called themselves
Dharmamaharajas and an absolute autonomy was formed by the Kadambas. Kangavarma the successor of
Mayurasharma was defeated by Vakataka Prithvisena who had to fight the Vakataka might to protect Kuntala.
Kakusthavarma who was the most ferocious and powerful ruler of the kingdom. He maintained marital relations
with even the imperial Guptas of the north, according to the Talagunda inscription. One of his daughters was
married to Kumara Gupta's son Skanda Gupta. His other daughter was married to a Vakataka king Narendrasena.
The great poet Kalidasa had visited his court. After Kakusthavarma only Ravivarma who came to the throne in 485
was able to build upon the kingdom. His rule was marked by a series of clashes within the family, and also against
the Pallavas and the Gangas. He is also credited with a victory against the Vakatakas, which extended his Kingdom
as far north as the river Narmada. The crux of their kingdom essentially consisted of most of Karnataka, Goa and
southern areas of present day Maharashtra. After his death, the kingdom went into decline due to family feuds.
The successors of Mayurasharma took to the name "varma" to indicate their Kshatriya status. Prakrit had the status
of an official language under the early Kadamba rulers. But by the time of Kakusthavarma, Sanskrit came to be
increasingly adopted. Kannada too was assuming greater importance by the 5th century A.D. as evidenced by the
Halmidi inscription.
The Pandyas
Pandyas
The Pandyas come to light with king Kadungon towards the close of the sixth century A.D. when he suppressed the
Kalabhras. The Pandyas ruled in the southernmost districts of Tamilnadu, with the Vaigai river basis as the
heartland of the kingdom. They constantly tried to extend their sway over the Kaveri delta in the north and Cera
country (Kerala) in the southwest.
Other Powers
The Gangas continued to rule in Gangavadi in south Karnataka. Besides, there were several other small kingdoms
and chieftaincies in the Deccan and south India at this time, such as the Nolambas, the Banas, the Silaharas, etc.
Unlike in northern India there are no continuous stretches of river valleys and plains here. The major river valleys
such as the Raichur Doab (between the Tungabhadra and the Krishna), the Krishna-Godavari delta, the lower
Kaveri valley and the Vaigai valley are separated from each other by rugged mountainous territories. Moreover,
there were vast expanses of forests that divided cultivated zones. All this encouraged political fragmentation and
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allowed small political units to survive in, isolated pockets of habitation. The above-mentioned important river
valleys could and did support greater kingdoms such as the Chalukyas of Badami (Raichur Doab), the Pallavas
(Palar river valley), and so on. But it was a difficult task for any one of the regional kingdoms to extend its sway
over the rest, much more difficult than in the case of northern India. This comes out very clearly in the following
account of the mutual conflicts of the Chalukyas, the Pallavas and the Pandyas.
CONFLICTS BETWEEN DIFFERENT POWERS

The political history of this period is marked by frequent wars between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas,
and between Pandyas and the Pallavas. Hostilities began with the raid of Chalukyas Pulakesin- II, who defeated
Mahendravarman and occupied the northern part of Pallava kingdom. In another campaign he vanquished the
Banas (the 'feudatories' of the pallavas in Rayalseema) and once again threatened Kanchi. But he was badly
defeated in several battles by Narasimhavarman-I, who had succeeded Mahendravarman.
Narasimhavarman then attacked the Chalukyas, captured Badami and probably killed Pulakesin- II. The situation
was saved by the latter's son Vikramaditya-I. He drove out the Pallavas, formed an alliance with the Pandyas, and
repeatedly raided into Pallava territory.
The reign of one of his successors, Vikramaditya-II is especially marked in this connection, for he is said to have
overrun and looted Kanchi three times.
Without going into the details of particular wars and battles, we may note that the Pallavas had to engage in battles
with the Pandyas too.
It is remarkable that in these conflicts it was always the Pallavas who were the target of attack. This was not just
because they were situated between the Chalukyas and the Pandyas, but mainly because they were the most
prosperous of all. It is significant that it was always the Chalukyas who attacked the Pallavas and that the Pallavas
concerned themselves mainly with driving them back into their territory. The only exception was the raid of
Narasimhavarman-I into Chalukyan kingdom and his occupation of its capital. But this was a retaliatory move, and
was made only once in the entire history of the conflict. Another time Pallava Paramesvaravarman-I launched an
expedition into Chalukyan kingdom as a diversionary move. Paramesvaravarman wanted to get rid of the
Chalukyan forces occupying his kingdom by diverting their attention.
The same is true of the Pandyas, who fought repeatedly with the Pallavas for the control of the Kaveri delta. The
Sangam literature as well as the account of Hiuen-tsang suggests that the Vaigai river valley-the core of Pandyan
kingdom-was relatively poor agriculturally.
The Pandya must have realised that if they wanted to be rich and powerful, they would have to control the rich
Kaveri delta. They seemed to have fought the Pallavas with this purpose in mind, and by the early ninth century
A.D. they eventually came to control this area.
Local Associations
A characteristic feature of south Indian polity, especially Pallavas, was the importance of local corporate units in
most important aspects of the lives of people. There were innumerable local groups and associations based on caste,
craft, profession or religious persuasion. Thus there were associations of handicraftsmen like the weavers, oil
pressers etc., of merchants like the Nanadesis, the Manigramam and the Five Hundred of Ayyavole, of students, of
ascetics, of temple priests, etc. In addition, there were three important territorial assemblies: ur, sabha and nagaram.
Ur was a non-brahmanical village assembly, Sabha was a village assembly consisting only of brahmanas, and
nagaram was an assembly where merchantile interests predominated (nagaram had some agricultural interests too,
however). The members of an assembly used to meet annually while the day-to-day tasks were looked after by a
smaller executive body. Each group functioned autonomously in accordance with its own constitution based on
custom and usage, and took care of the problems of its members at the local level. In matters affecting people of
more than one assembly or association, decision was taken by mutual deliberation.
Local administration through the corporate units greatly lightened the burden of the government. It not only gave a
chance to population to air its grievances and problems, but also fixed responsibility on the people themselves for
redressing the grievances and solving the problems. This strengthened the basis of the state by minimising
opposition to it as the people could not hold the government responsible for these matters.
That is why we do not find the Pallava kings trying to encroach upon the functioning of the local autonomous
corporate groups. But they did seek to strengthen their own base by bringing in brahmanas and creating privileged
brahmana settlements by making landgrants to brahmanas, either directly (called brahmadaya or in the name of a
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temple (called devadana). These brahmana settlements were created all over the core areas of the Pallava kingdom.
The 'core areas' were the most prosperous areas based on irrigated rice cultivation, on the prosperity of which the
strength of the Pallavas depended. As we have seen, the village assembly of brahmanas was called sabha or
mahasabha. During the late Pallava period the sabha developed the system of governance through committees. This
is known as the committee or variyam system. It became a hallmark of self-government in brahmana settlements in
south India. The sabha managed a number of tasks mostly through these committees-maintenance of tanks and
roads, management of charitable donations and of temple affairs, and regulation of irrigation rights.
In the Deccan, the role of local associations and assemblies was less conspicuous. In place of corporate institutions
it was the local notables called mahajanas who took part in local administration in villages and towns in Chalukya
times. In villages the mahajanas had a leader called gamunda (headman). These notables did not enjoy the same
kind of autonomy as was the case with south Indian assemblies, but were closely supervised by state officials.
Brahmana settlements, however, were to be found all over the Deccan as well as in South India. We do not know
precisely how the brahmanas in the Deccan managed their collective affairs. But since they were all a creation of
kings and chiefs they must have looked after the interests of the government in the locality.
THE ARAB CONQUEST

Arab conquest of Sind
The establishment of Arab rule in Sind in 712 A.D. was preceded by a number of efforts to penetrate India. The first
military expedition was sent to Thane near Bombay in 637. More were sent in the coming years against Broach and
Dabol. The view that the Arabs indeed were not interested in territorial acquisition till the ruler of Sind in 700 A.D.
provoked them, is not accepted by the book 'A Comprehensive History of India'. This book relies on the authority
of baladhuri, who is regarded as the most reliable authority on the subject. According to the book, the Arabs made
systematic inroads on the three kingdoms of Kabul, Zabul and Sind. Very often the first two were united in resisting
the aggression of the Arabs. Baladhuri says that after 650 A.D. the Arabs entered India. One more expedition was
sent by the Caliphate of Ali to conquer Kabul but was frustrated. Another attempt was made in 698 A.D., which was
still less successful. The weakness of the Arabs was undoubtedly due to internal troubles and weakness of the
Caliphate during the last days of Umayyids, but after the establishment of powerful Abbasid Caliphate the earlier
designs were repeated. Kabul was conquered but again escaped from the control of the Caliphate. Zebul was
conquered only in 870 A.D.
Although both Kabul and Zabul succumbed to Islam the heroic resistance they offered checked the spread of Islam
into the Subcontinent. Fe countries in the world, that too small principalities like these, have defied the arms of
Islam so bravely and for so long 2000 years.
Good number of details are found regarding the history of Sind in the 7th Century A.D. in Chachnama, a Persian
translation of an old Arabic history of the conquest of Sind by the Arabs. An expedition of the Arabs was sent
against Debal some time before 643 A.D. Baladhuri speaks of Muslim victory but Chachnama says that the
Muslims were defeated. The conquest of Sind was abandoned for some time. When then new Calipha Uthman
attempted to conquer, he too left it after a setback. During the days of Caliphate of Ali, a well-equipped Muslim
Army came along the land route, According to Baladhuri, the Muslims were put to rout. After this, a series of
expeditions were sent to conquer an outpost of Sind, which all ended in failure.
The Arabs resumed their aggression against Sind only after 705 A.D. An Arab ship fell in the hands of pirates near
Debal. A Muslim governor demanded their release and also the arrest of the pirates. It appears, Dahir refused to
oblige. As a matter of fact, the governor for Iraq was appointed for both the areas of Hindi and Sind. For long time
the Arabs chafed at their failure to conquer Sind. Thus, the governor Hajja merely seized the policy as a pretext to
defeat and conquer Sind.
After making elaborate preparation, Mohammad-Bin-Kasim, the son-in-law of Hajjaj, was sent with a well
equipped army. He advanced to Makran and laid siege to Debal in 711 A.D. The capital was captured then,
Muhammad advanced along the Indus to conquer the whole area. It appears that very often trachery led to the Arab
conquest of Sind Muhammad advanced against Multan and succeeded in capturing it. According to Chachanama,
Muhammad himself advanced to the frontier of Kashmir.
The triumph and career of Muhammad was suddenly cut short by political changes at home. Since the new Caliph
was the sworn enemy of Hajjaj. Muhammad was taken prisoner, insulted and tortured to death.
This development made Jaisimha, the son of Dahir, to re-occupy Brahmanabad. The Caliph sent an army to subdue
the rebels. They even parleyed with Jaisimha. Junaid, the Governor of Sind, defeated Jaisimha and took him
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prisoner. Thus ended the dynasty of Dahir and the independence of Sind.
The comparatively easy conquest of Muhammad, son of Kasim, should not make us forget the long resistance
offered by Sind to the Arabs.
Later, Junaid sent several expeditions to the interior of India. They were signally defeated by the Pratihara king
Nagabhatta -I, Pulakesin, the Chalukya chief of Gujarat, and probably also by Yasovarman. These defeats forced
the Arabs to confine themselves to Sind. The Arabs lost control of Sind during the last years of Umayyids. The
Abbasid Caliphs once again started to re-establish their power in Sind. A claim was made. The Arabs once again
conquered Multan and Kashmir but the evidence shows that Lalitadiya thrice defeated the Arabs. It was sometime
between 800 and 830 A.D. that the Arabs fully re-conquered the lost areas. It was during this period that the Arabs
forces probably advanced as far as Chittor but the resistance offered by Indian kings probably forced them to
retreat.
After the collapse of the Abbasid power, Sind became virtually independent and was divided into two independent
states. Neither of them could become powerful.
SIGNIFICANCE:
It is no longer believed that the Arab conquest of Sind was a mere episode in the history of India. What this event
reveals is the Sea change that cave over Hindu Civilisation by 1000 A.D. A few Muslim traders earlier settled in the
Malabar region. But the might of Islam was experienced in Sind. This challenge was met by rulers of the day. It is
now well-known that the political ambitions of the successors of Muhammad-bin-Kasim were checkmated by
Lalitaditya, Bhoja and a few other rulers. This particular resistance bears testimony to the political consciousness of
the day. It is this consciousness that was totally absent in India when Mahumud of Ghazni raided the country and
soon he was followed by Ghori who succeeded in establishing Islamic rule in India. It is surprising to note that
when the Sahi's checkmated the Arab penetration in the north-west and rulers within India contained the penetration
of Arabs in Sind, no concerted efforts were made by Indian rulers after 1000 A.D. to defeat the invaders except for
the first battle of Tarain to some extent. Instead, we hear that Hinduism retreated into its own shell, a fact sharply
revealed by the observations of Alberuni.
Apart from this significance, the Arab rule in Sind led to interaction between two cultures. It is held by some
historians that Sind was the birth-place of later-day Sufism which in turn occasioned the emergence of the famous
bhakti cult in the middle ages.
Apart from this consequence, the Arab conquest of sind also led to the transmission of Indian culture-Panchtantra
and scientific lore of ancient India like the digital system and knowledge of medicine. It is to be kept in mind that
after the collapse of the Roman empire intellectuals began to gather in Baghbad, meaning city of god in Sanskrit.
The intellectual speculations that the city facilitated by the interaction of Greek and Roman heritage with that of the
Indian lay at the base of the Renaissance movement in Europe in the 16th century. "We know definitely from
Masudind Ibn Hauqal that Arab settlers lived side by side with their Hindu fellow-citizens for many years on terms
of amity and peace, and Amir Khusrav mentions that the Arab astronomer Abu Mashar come to Benaras and studied
astronomy there for ten years.
Finally, the significance of the Arab conquest of Sind lies in the tolerance that was shown to Hinduism by Islam.
Although jaziya was collected, the Arab governors chose to leave Hindu religious practices untouched. What India
witnessed after the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni was not Islamic influence as pioneered by the Arabs but central-
Asian culture of the Turkish, nomad who carried the banner of Islam. In other words, what the history of Arabs in
Sind conveys is the fact that persecution of other religious was not the avowed doctrine of Islam.
EXPLAINING THE ECONOMIC CHANGES

Trade and commerce
To what extent 'monetary anemia' afflicted the erstwhile commercial economy during the early medieval period?
(30)(2010)
According to the assessment of some historians the crucial element in the chain of developments was the system of
landgrants. Landgrants grew in number in the Gupta and especially post-Gupta times and became widespread
throughout the country. Landgrants were made to brahmanas and religious establishments like temples and
monasteries on a large scale by kings, chief members of the royal family and their feudatories. Earlier the

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Satavahanas in the Deccan had given away only revenue rights. From the fifth century onwards not only were the
revenues of the donated lands transferred to the donee but the mines and minerals in the said area also transferred.
The donated land, village or villages were exempted from the interference of soldiers and royal officials. Finally,
kings and princes made over to the brahmana donees even the right to punish all offences against family, private
property and person, with the privilege to enjoy the fines thus received.
The frequency of grants to different categories of officials for their services to the state was much less than the
religious grants. Contemporary Dharmasastra literature recommended the grant of land or of revenues there from
to state officials, in lieu of their salary. However, the actual evidence for such non-religious grants are not many in
the period under discussion.
Their numbers increased in subsequent times, i.e. 9-10th centuries. These grants were accompanied by concessions
and rights similar to those mentioned in the religious grants to brahmanas, temples and monasteries.
Among other things, landgrants also had a bearing on the question of land rights, the socioeconomic conditions of
the peasantry, the right to free enterprise of craftsmen and traders in the donated towns and the emergence of a
relatively closed economy. The residents of donated villages and towns were asked to comply with the order of the
beneficiary, besides making over the various kinds of payments. Two forged charters of the 7th century, ascribed
to Samudragupta, prohibit tax-paying peasants and artisans from leaving their own villages and settling in tax-free
villages. The practice of transferring peasants along with the land, to the advantage of the donee. began in Central
India, Orissa and Gujarat in the sixth century and was fairly common in several parts of India around the eighth
century. Moreover, artisans and merchants too were tied down to their habitations to serve the local clientele and
masters. In the Deccan and South India artisans were made over to the temples and monasteries. Hiuen Tsan also
provides evidence for such donations. The condition of the merchants was in no way better. A few charters of the
6th-8th centuries from the western Deccan refer to restrictions under which merchants were required to function.
The attachment of peasants, artisans and merchants to their respective settlements and restrictions on their
movements created an atmosphere of which the emergence of a closed economy was the natural result.
DECLINE OF TRADE
One of the conspicuous economic changes in the Gupta and post-Gupta period was the decline of trade. both
internal and external. Indian foreign trade registered a peak during the post-Mauryan period, when India traded with
the Roman Empire. Central Asia and South-East Asia. However commercial decline set in during the Gupta period,
and it became more pronounced by the middle of the sixth century A.D. The inflow of Roman coins into India
stopped after the early centuries of the Christian era. Other evidences suggesting contact with the western world are
also absent. Further, the Roman empire itself broke up at a later date.
The emergence of the Arabs and the Persians as competitors in trade did not augur well for Indian merchants.
Some Byzantine coins ranging up to the sixth century, have been found in Andhra and Karnataka. But numerically
they cannot be compared to the rich hoards of the early Roman coins. Silk and spices were important items in the
Indo-Byzantine trade. The Byzantium, however, learnt the art of growing silk worms in the middle of the sixth
century A.D. Consequently the silk trade was badly affected. The migration of silk weavers from Gujarat and their
taking to other vocations acquires meaning in this context. Gupta ties with Central Asia were also weak. Whatever
little remained of the contacts with Central Asia and Western Asia were completely wiped off by the Huna
invasions.
It is said that the coastal towns of India carried on some trade with countries of South-East Asia and China.
However, this interaction does not appear to have been of any intense kind. There is evidence for the spread of
many cultural influences from India to South-East Asia in early historical and early medieval times but there is no
evidence of pottery, coins or other objects of this kind on either side to suggest robust commercial interactions.
Earlier, India had carried on trade in beads and some other items with some areas of South-East Asia, but after the
fourth century A.D. there is no evidence for such trade. Not much can be made out of the Indian delegations to
China. The number of such missions registered a declining trend from the sixth century onwards. Besides, the
reported Chinese coins and celadon ware from Tamil Nadu are placed in the ninth century or later, and prior to that
we have no other material remains to suggest any kind of Indo-Chinese trade.
Decline of trade was just not limited to foreign trade. Long distance internal trade too suffered owing to the
weakening of links between coastal towns and the interior towns and further between towns and villages. The decay
of towns and shrinkage in urban commodity production and the decline of trade were related problems. The decline
of the status of traders and merchants in society during this period also indicates the falling fortunes of trade and

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commerce. The rise of numerous self-sufficient units dominated by landed beneficiaries also had adverse effect on
trade. In fact, the Kathasaritasagara, a later work, suggests that traders moved through forests to avoid the
multiple payment of duties. Sea voyages and long-distance travels were taboo. Such attitudes surely did not
promote the cause of trade.
This, however, is not to deny that trade in basic necessities such as salt, iron artefacts etc. continued.
These essential commodities are not available everywhere. Moreover, some long-distance trade went on in
prestigious. expensive luxury goods such as precious stones, ivory and horses. There was a demand for such
commodities among the aristocracy, chiefs and kings. It thus seems that for quite a few centuries large-scale,
organised trade was replaced by itinerant petty traders, pedlars and trickle trade.
PAUCITY OF COINS
Decline of commerce is demonstrated by the paucity of coins in the post-Gupta period. Gold coins which were so
abundant during the periods of the Kushanas and of the Guptas went out of circulation after the sixth century. The
absence of silver and copper coins also attracts attention. It may be mentioned that the percentage of gold in the
Gupta gold coins was constantly falling and that the gold content of the later Gupta coins was only half of that of
the Kushana coins. Further, in terms of quantity the coinage of the Gupta period does not compare well with those
of the early Christian centuries. The epigraphic references to coins during this period do not amount to much in the
absence of actual finds. The coins of Harshavardhana are too meagre and the Rastrakutas and the Palas who came
to power in the Deccan and Bengal respectively, in the eighth century, issued no coins. Metallic currency was
absent in most parts of northern India, Bengal, Orissa, Central India and the Deccan.
What was true of these regions also holds good for South India. Various studies also indicate the almost total
absence of coin moulds and commercial seals in the said period. However, in contrast to the general situation in
most parts of the country, the Punjab region and north western part of the subcontinent has yielded numerous coins
up to 1000 A.D. Besides, coin finds have also been reported from Kashmir.
It has been argued by some historians that earlier coins served the purpose of currency in later period and rendered
the issue of fresh coins unnecessary. However, the period under discussion was characterised by unprecedented
agrarian expansion and this alone would have normally necessitated more metallic money. Further, coins were an
expression of sovereignty. Unless the compulsions were serious enough no ruler would have willingly forgone the
privilege of minting coins in his own name. The decline of trade and the grant of land to high functionaries in lieu
of money payments did away with the need for coins.
Moreover, there is evidence for barter and the use of cowries as a medium of exchange in daily transactions.
DECLINE OF TOWNS
Decline in trade, paucity of coins and absence of coin moulds and commercial seals indicate economic decline and
fall in demand for finished products. Towns which were active centres of craft production in the post-Mauryan
period experienced decay and desertion. The pre-Kushana and Kushana towns in northern India and those
associated with the Satavahanas in the Deccan began to decay from the middle of the third or the fourth century.
What was true of northern India, Malwa and the Deccan was equally true of southern India. Actually, urban decline
took place in two phases. The first coincided with the rise of the Guptas. During this period sites such as Sanghol,
Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Mathura, Sonkh, Sravasti, Kausambi, Khairadih, Chirand, Tamluk, etc., in the Upper and
Middle Gangetic plains experienced decline. Early prosperous centres such as Ujjain, Nagar, Pauni, Ter,
Bhokardan, Nasik, Paithan etc., spread over Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra witnessed
similar trends. Arikarnedu in Tamil Nadu and the Satavahana urban centres in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka were
no exception to this phenomenon. The habitational deposits of the fourth-sixth centuries at all such sites are thinner
compared to those of the earlier centuries and yield poorer and lesser material remains. The Gupta layers at many
sites exhibit the reuse of raw materials, like bricks, from earlier deposits. The spatial spread of urban centres and
the available civil amenities were nowhere near what it was earlier during the Kushana period. Numerically, very
few sites like Pataliputra, Vaishali, Varanasi and Bhita survived the first phase of decay. These towns were in the
heartland of the Gupta state and that possibly accounts for their survival. The second phase of urban decay set in
after the sixth century and these centres ceased to be towns thereafter.
In a situation of general decline of crafts and commodity manufacture, the making of stone beads, manufacture of
shell objects and of ivory and glass objects registered overall collapse.
These objects are very scantily found in post-fifth century habitational deposits. Post-Gupta pottery likewise shows
no artistic skill and is largely of ordinary variety.
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The decline of towns and cities is reflected in contemporary literature and inscriptions as well. Up to the sixth
century inscriptions and seals refer to the importance of artisans, craftsmen and merchants in the life of the towns.
Inscriptions from Bengal suggest that they played an important role in urban administration. However, after the
sixth century such information is not forthcoming. The change in the meaning of certain terms in the post-
Gupta times also indicates the changing conditions. For example, the term Sreni which stood for guilds came also
to mean caste and the term nigama came to mean villages.
Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita, a work belonging to the first half of the sixth century, speaks of the decline of
crafts, towns and trade. The decline of Buddhist towns in northern India is attested by the account of Hiuen Tsang
who visited India during the time of Harshavardhana. Unlike the robust urban life so vividly depicted in Vatsayana's
Kamasutra, post-Gupta literature such as the Kuttanimatam of Damodaragupta (7 th century) is concerned with life
in the countryside.
All settlements, however, were not rural. In the post-Gupta period non-agriculturist settlements appeared as seats of
administration, military garrisons and religious or pilgrimage centres. Military camps are referred to as skandhavara
in inscriptions of the fifth-eighth centuries. There .is evidence to suggest that certain towns continued to survive as
a result of their conversion to centres of pilgrimage. All these non-agriculturist settlements, variously known as
pura, pattana, nagara and rajadhani, were centres of consumption and not production.
AGRARIAN EXPANSION
The epigraphic evidence that we have for the Gupta and post-Gupta time suggests agrarian growth and rural
expansion on an unprecedented scale. The patronage extended by kings, princes and chiefs to agriculture,
improvement in irrigational facilities, increasing knowledge of agricultural sciences etc. were some of the causative
factors which strengthened rural economy.
Decline of towns may have led to the migration of a number of skilled artisans into the countryside. Some of them
even changed their vocations. The dispersal of technical skill along with artisans and craftsmen into the countryside
stimulated agrarian growth.
Landgrants in tribal frontiers brought virgin land under cultivation. About fifty ruling powers were in existence in
the fifth to the seventh centuries, in the Deccan and Central India. They were spread over Maharashtra, eastern
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra, Orissa and Bengal. The various new ruling dynasties In this region issued their own
landgrants which indicate the existence of officials, armymen etc. in their kingdoms. Each of these states depended
on revenues from land and agriculture. In fact, in post-Gupta times agriculture constituted the basis of the state.
Thus, the rise of states in such areas in which states were absent earlier presupposes agrarian expansion and the
spread of village economy.
Numerous villages with Sanskritic and non-Sanskritic names came up in this period. Contemporary literature
presents, a vivid account of village life and reflect the richness of rural settlements. The Skanda Purana mentions
numerous villages region-wise. Similarly, texts belonging to a later period deal with the establishment and spread of
rural settlements in western and southern India. The landgrant charters themselves record innumerable village
names in post-Gupta times. These Include names of older settlements. However, new ones too emerged on a large
scale. We come across village names not only when such villages were donated but also when other villages were
mentioned as boundaries of donated villages.
Advances in Agricultural Knowledge and Technology
The increasing concern with agriculture can be seen in the detailed instructions regarding agriculture in the Brihat
Samhita, Agni Purana, Vishnudharmottara Purana and Krishiparasara. The importance of manure for crop
cultivation is clearly laid down in the Harshacharita. It is mentioned that cowdung and refuge were used for
manuring the fields.
The Harshacharita also speaks about different types of cultivation - plough cultivation, spade cultivation and slash
and bum cultivation. The attention paid to agriculture by rulers and landed beneficiaries can also be seen in the
detailed descriptions of the plough and the improvement in irrigation techniques. The popularity and wide
prevalence of the land measure called hala during this period underlines the significance of the plough. The
Kashyapiyakrisisukti, a text whose core is placed in the eighth-ninth centuries, deals with all aspects of agriculture
at length. From the last centuries of the first millennium A .D. onwards we have texts which suggest different
methods for the treatment of plant and animal diseases.
The Harshacharita speaks of some irrigation facilities in the region around western Uttar Pradesh. It mentions such
devices for irrigation as the Udghataghati and the ghatiyantra. Inscriptions from Bengal mention rivers, rivulets and
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channels in the context of rural settlements and their boundaries and we also come across the expression
devamatrika (watered by rain) suggesting the dependence of agriculture on rains and rivers.
In South India tanks and reservoirs were built to irrigate the fields. In some cases they were the major landmarks in
the countryside; this goes to suggest their importance. During the rule of the Pallavas in South India there were
elected committees (eri-variyams) in the villages to look after the construction and maintenance of tanks and
reservoirs. Several Pallava rulers are credited with the construction of such irrigational facilities. By the tenth
century araghattas or irrigational wells were in vogue in rural south eastern Marwar in Rajasthan. It may be
assumed that they had come into use at an earlier date.
Crops and Plants

Varieties of cereals, including rice, wheat and lentil; legumes, vegetables and fruits are mentioned in the
Amarakosha which is dated to the Gupta period. People possessed the knowledge of fruit grafting as is evident from
the Brihat Samhita. Hieun Tsang mentions varieties of rice, mustard, ginger, numerous vegetables and fruits. The
Harshacharita similarly provides a good account of crops and plants. We come across references to different types
of rice, sugarcane, mustard, sesame, cotton, wheat, barley and pulses. Various kinds of spices such as turmeric,
clove, black pepper and ginger were also grown. Vegetables such as gourd, pumpkin, cucumber, beans, garlic etc.
were produced. Among fruits one may mention coconut, arecanut, jackfruit, oranges, mahua and mango. Betel leaf
was also grown. Some of these plants and fruits are also recorded in the inscriptions of the period. Bana's
Harshacharita had a wide geographical canvass and in addition to the Upper and Middle Gangetic plains it included
descriptive details about Assam, Bengal and Central India.
Therefore, we come across references to bamboos, cotton plants, loads of flax and hemp bundles in Central India,
and cane, bamboo and silk in the context of eastern India. In the Pallava and Chalukya territories roughly spread
over Tamil Nadu, the Western Deccan and parts of Karnataka rice, millets, gingerly and sugarcane were cultivated.
The fruits that were grown included plantain, jackfruit, mango and coconut. Unmistakably, the number and
variety of crops, fruits and vegetables are striking. The presence of brahmanas and artisans in rural settlements, land
reclamation, certain changes in technology and the expansion of irrigational facilities stimulated the proliferation of
crops and plants. The consequence of all these developments was unprecedented growth of rural economy.
RURAL SETTLEMENTS
The above mentioned developments took place in rural settlements in early medieval India. Grama was the usual
term for villages. However, all rural settlements were not of the same kind. We come across other terms denoting
different types of rural settlements. Palli normally meant a tribal village. The expression Pataka stood for a part of a
village. It was a kind of a hamlet with a name of its own but actually formed a part of a larger village. The rise in
the number of Patakas within the same village boundary evidently suggested the extention of agriculture.
Settlements of herdsmen were called ghosas. However, it may be remembered that these terms representing
different types of settlements were not always unchangeable categories. With the spread of agriculture and
brahmanical culture tribal hamlets too changed in character.
Further, owing to the convergence of several factors some villages could become meeting points for a group of
rural settlements and develop into larger settlements. In fact, from circa A.D. 900 onwards some settlements thus
developed into urban centres. It may be mentioned that the names of the settlements did not always reflect such
changes. Even after a village settlement had grown in size and changed in character earlier village names continued
to be in use. Villages could also be divided on the basis of their Sanskritic and non-Sanskritic names. While the
non-Sanskritic names may suggest the gradual transformation of tribal hamlets to agricultural villages the
Sanskritic names reflect the spread of Brahmanic culture and ideology.
Generally, a village comprised the habitat (vastu), cultivated land (Ksetra) and uncultivated land. The last category
included pasture land (gochara) woods and forest. The issue of village boundaries, however, is problematic
because the Changes in Economy could not have always been well defined. Settlements, as we know by now,
could always grow and expand. At times village boundaries could coincide with natural boundaries like rivers
and/or hills. But in instances where settlements were contiguous the spatial limits of a village could be specified by
referring to the adjoining villages. A large number of copperplate charters of the post-Gupta period while recording
landgrants describe various types of land which include cultivated, uncultivated, high, low, water-logged, marshy,
grassy and forest land. The productivity of the soil and the quality of the land seem to have been on the basis of

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such elaborate description of the types. Such elaborate descriptions of various types of land also suggest growing
importance of agriculture and animal husbandry.
Villages donated to brahmanas came to be known as brahmadeyas and agraharas. Villages which were donated to
and inhabited by brahmanas were brahmadeyas. Agrahara villages, although they were inhabited by brahmanas,
were associated with nonbrahmanas as well. The proprietory right of such villages, however, belonged to the
brahmanas only. In South India such villages were also known as mangalams. Both types of brahmanic settlements
in south India can be distinguished from the non-brahmanic ordinary villages at the level of administrative and
social organization. While the sabha represented the brahmanic settlements, the ur represented the ordinary village
settlement. It is difficult to work out the ratio between the two types of settlements for any part of the country.
Ordinary villages, as we know by now, were being frequently donated to brahmanas.
Nevertheless, it may be said that the donated villages formed only a part of the total number of rural settlements.
NEW PATTERN OF AGRARIAN RELATIONS

What were the privileges granted to the donees in land-grant charters of early India? How far
were these charters responsible for integration or disintegration socio-political milieu? (20)(2014)
Obligations of the Peasant

Landgrant charters bestowed the beneficiary with superior rights over and above those of the inhabitants in the
donated village/villages. The donee was entitled to collect all kinds of taxes. He could collect regular and irregular
taxes and fixed and unfixed payments. The list of taxes in the inscriptions end with the expression adi meaning et
cetera which could be used to the advantage of the landlord, when necessary. The donees enjoyed these exceptional
advantages in addition to such regular taxes as bhaga, bhoga, kara, uparikara, hiranya, udranga, halikakara, etc. In
fact, the peasantry in early medieval India was subjected to an ever increasing tax/rent burden. The Vakataka grants
list fourteen types of dues. The Pallava records specify eighteen to twenty two of them. By the turn of the first
millennium A.D. the number of taxes increased enormously.
The superior rights of the beneficiary in land are clear in the charters belonging to northern Maharashtra, Konkan,
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat in the Gupta and post-Gupta times. The donees were empowered with the right to
evict the peasantry at will and to replace them with new peasants. From the seventh century onwards grants give
away water resources, trees, bushes and pastures to the donee. The trend accelerated after the tenth century. The
transfer of these resources to the donee not only affected the peasantry of the donated villages adversely
but also strengthened the power of the donees. Forced labour is referred to in the Skanda Purana. Inscriptions too
suggest that by the fifth-sixth centuries vishti was a well entrenched practice in western, central and southern India.
In addition, the clause appeared in the landgrant charters asking the peasants to carry out the orders of the donee. In
regions such as Chamba, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern India the condition of the peasants clearly
suffered a decline.
Feudal Land Tenure
Yajnavalkya and Brihaspati, authors of Smriti works, mention four grades of land rights in the same piece of land.
According to them holders of rights of different grades were: the Mahipati (the king), Kshetrasvamin (the master of
the land), Karshaka (cultivator) and the sub-tenant. Landgrants led to hierarchical rights over land and sub-
infeudation. The practice gave rise to a hierarchy of landlords, which lived off the surplus produced by the actual
cultivators. The religious establishments in eastern India and the south with their enormous donations in land, cash,
livestock etc. emerged as landed magnates at Ramagiri in Orissa and at Nalanda in Bihar were recipients of large
scale land donations. The Nalanda monastery enjoyed the gift of 200 villages. Moreover, land and villages were
given away to the temples in south India during the reign of the Pallavas. The Chola records, in the succeeding
period, more frequently refer to such devadana (literally 'given to gods') gifts of land. From the Pallava period
onwards temple servants were remunerated through assignments of land. The implications are obvious. Religious
establishments became landed beneficiaries and in turn they gave plots of land to their dependants such as petty
officials, artisans, musicians, attendants etc. Such assignments could be subleased to the actual tiller of the soil.
Likewise, temple land was leased out to tenants for cultivation. Grants of land to temples from the Pallava period
onwards resulted in the growth of a complex system of land tenure. Intensification of the process, especially from
the eighth century onwards, created a class of peasantry which was overburdened with taxes and which was
subsistent to a class of dominant landlords with superior rights in land.

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Growth of Closed Economy
Early medieval Indian economy experienced the rise and growth of a number of rival settlements which were not
linked to exchange networks and long-distance trade.
Although the exchange networks did not entirely collapse, the transfer of settlements to various categories of
donees had created a congenial atmosphere for the emergence of self-sustaining, closed units of production and
consumption. Local needs came to be met locally.
The movement of soldiers for wars, pilgrims to religious centres and brahmanas for the acquisition and enjoyment
of landgrants were possibly the only forms of spatial mobility. The Dhamasastras restricted the movement of the
brahmanas. In order to keep their Vedic and domestic fires burning they were not expected to travel long distances.
Sea voyages were prohibited. Similarly, marriages in neighbouring areas were preferred. All this fostered strong
local identities. The growing sense of localism and the self-sufficiency of the villages is reflected in expressions
such as gramadharama, gramacara, and sthanacara all referring to village or local practices in contemporary
Puranic literature.
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL HIERARCHY AND THE VARNAS
Landgrants and the emerging landed intermediaries, wielding economic power and political authority, modified the
varna divided society. The new social groups did not fit in with the four fold varna system. The unequal
distribution of landed property created social ranks which cut across social status based on varna considerations.
The samantas and the ruling landed aristocracy, irrespective of their social origins (varna/ritual ranks), emerged
with a distinctive character. The brahmana landlords constituted a section of this class. They gave up their priestly
function and diverted their attention to the management of land and people. Such groups of brahmanas had more in
common with the ruling elite than with those who performed only priestly functions. In later times, titles such as
thakur, raut etc. were conferred on them.
The inclusion of the foreign ethnic groups and indigenous tribal chieftains in the kshatriya varna, as part of the
ruling aristocracy, and the acculturated tribes in the Sudra varna not only swelled their ranks but also transformed
the varna divided society. Moreover, the earlier distinction between dvija (twice born) and Sudra began to be
modified in the period.
Land came to acquire a special significance. Landed property or how much land one possessed emerged as the basis
for differences in social status. This was not confined to any particular varna.
In other words, one's position in society did not simply depend on the varna to which one belonged. His social rank
came to be connected with his position as a landholder, among different categories of landholders. These tendencies
began in this period and got accentuated in the ninth-tenth centuries. From the ninth-tenth centuries, the Kayasthas,
traders and members of the rich dominant peasantry were also conferred titles such as ranaka, nayaka and so on.
They constituted a part of the upper section of the society and ruling landed elite.
Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita takes cognizance of these changes. It tries to reconcile social ranks based on birth.
Subsequently, many medieval texts on architecture also reflected this concern.
The Gupta and post-Gupta times were characterized by the emergence and spread of new jatis (castes). The increase
In the number of new castes affected the brahmanas, the kshatriyas, the kayasthas and the sudras. The number of
mixed castes and of the untouchable castes increased perceptibly. The transformation of craft guilds into castes as a
result of the decline of trade and of urban centres and the localised hereditary character of the crafts helped the
process of the formation of new jatis. The Vishnudharmottara Purana, a work of the eighth century, mentions that
thousands of mixed castes were produced as a result of the union of Vaisya women with men of lower castes. This
is in sharp contrast to the social situation in the early Christian centuries when the number of
mixed castes, as mentioned by Manu, was just sixty one. The acculturation and incorporation of tribes and
backward peoples as sudra castes significantly added to the number of new castes. In addition, one may mention the
untouchables who had diverse origins.
Varnasamkara
Varnasamkara meant the inter-mixing and/or union of varnas/castes, normally not socially approved, leading to the
emergence of mixed castes, which symbolised social disorder. With the substantial increase in the number of new
castes greater rigidity was introduced into the caste system and inter-caste marriages came to be viewed with
disfavour. Earlier, anuloma marriages or marriages between a bridegroom from upper caste and a bride from
a lower caste, were sanctioned. It was the pratiloma marriage (the reverse of anuloma) which was censured.
However, increasingly anuloma marriages too were not favoured.

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Changes in Society
Society: the status of the Brahman and the new social order
“The copious references to the preservation of Varnashrrama system by the kings eulogized in inscriptions are mere
reflection of the Smriti tradition”. Discuss. (15) (2016)
GROWTH OF THE KAYASTHAS

The scribe or the kayastha community was a product of the socio-economic forces of the times. Landgrants
involved the transfer of land revenues and land to brahmanas, religious establishments and officials. This and other
complex administrative functions created the need for a body of scribes and record keepers who were employed to
draft assignment of land and keep details of land transfer, including various items of revenue. The Gupta period
witnessed the beginning of fragmentation of land. There were laws of partition and rural boundary disputes, which
constitute a part of the Dharmasastras. The maintenance of proper records of individual plots was very much
necessary for settling such disputes. The existence of different types of rights in the same plot or village(s) made the
land system quite complex. Therefore, land records had to be maintained with all necessary details. This
difficult job was carried out by a class of writers who were known variously as kayastha, karana, karanika,
pustapala, chitragupta, aksapatalika etc. The kayasthas were only one group of the community of scribes. However,
gradually the scribes and record keepers as a community came to be known as kayasthas. Initially, the educated
members from the upper varnas were called upon to work as kayasthas. In course of time the scribes recruited from
various varnas began to limit their social interaction to members of their profession and started practising
community endogamy and family exogamy. That completed the process of caste formation among the Kayasthas
(endogamy and commensality are the two basic traits of the caste system. For meaning of these terms see key
words.) The earliest reference to them dates back to the early centuries. From about A.D. 900 onwards they
emerged as a powerful, assertive group occupying high offices in many states.
THE UNTOUCHABLES
The 'impure' castes or the untouchables had assumed a definite shape by the early Christian centuries. Nevertheless,
they were numerically small. From around the 3rd century A. D. onwards the practice of untouchability appears to
have intensified and the number of untouchables registered a rise. Katyayana, a Dharmasastra writer of the Gupta
period, was the first to use the expression asprusya in the sense of untouchables. Several new castes were included
in the category of the untouchables in the Gupta and post-Gupta times. Not only hunters and some groups of
artisans became untouchables but backward agriculturists were also condemned to that status. By the turn of the
first millennium A. D. hunters, fishermen, butchers, executioners and scavengers appear as untouchables. Kalidasa,
Varahamihira, Fa-hien, Bana and others have given a vivid account of the social disabilities imposed on them. The
Chandalas were only one section of the untouchables, although the lowest in the social. ladder. Interestingly, a
caste hierarchy emerged among the untouchables as well. Contemporary literature describes them in very
disparaging terms. Greed, impurity, untruth, theft, passion etc. are said to be their characteristic features.
It is difficult to explain the phenomenal growth in the number of untouchables during this period and later.
However, brahmanical and Buddhist sources suggest that most untouchable castes were originally backward tribes.
It has been argued that their backwardness and resistance to the process of acculturation and brahmanization may
have prevented them from being absorbed within the society and pushed them to the position of untouchables. They
may have been dispossessed of their lands and made to settle outside the villages. The contempt for the backward
people, at times in inhospitable tracts, on the part of the brahmanas and ruling elite and on occasions the former's
opposition to the brahmanical order, thus, appear to explain the numerical growth of the untouchables and the
practice of untouchability. In this context of the growing demand for labour the presence of the untouchables as a
depressed, dispossessed group of people was an enormous advantage to all other sections of rural society. The
untouchables did not normally hold land, settled outside the villages and could not become peasants. They were
condemned to menial jobs during slack periods of the year and were available for work during peak periods of
agricultural activity. The untouchables thus provided labour which the society required but were socially
condemned and segregated.
CRAFT AND CASTES

During this period several groups of artisans and craftsmen lost their earlier status and many even came to be
regarded as untouchables. To some extent this may have resulted from the decline of urban centres where craftsmen

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were in great demand. Craft guilds became transformed into castes and this transformation effectively sums up the
changes in the nature and organization of craft production. Various castes such as the svarnakara (goldsmith),
malakara (garland maker), chitrakara (painter), napita (barber), etc. emerged out of the numerous crafts
(practised by different groups). Some categories of artisans were rendered untouchables. Weavers, dyers, tailors,
barbers, shoemakers, ironsmiths, washermen and others were reduced to the position of untouchables by the turn of
the millennium. Many of them like the weaver, for example, occupied a high social position during the Gupta
period.
Thus, during the period under discussion, many groups of artisans steadily lost their position.
DECLINE OF THE VAISYAS AND RISE IN THE SOCIAL STATUS OF THE SUDRAS
The Dharmasastras and similar literature suggest that a major change was taking place in the social structure within
the framework of the four varnas. A sizable section of the sudras were rising in social and economic status after
their association with agriculture, and sections of the vaisyas, particularly those at the lower end, were descending
to the level of the sudras. Thus, there was a change in the relative positions of the two lower varnas.
The sudras were no longer slaves and servants; they emerged as tenants, share-croppers and cultivators. Urban
decline too forced many sudra artisans to take to cultivation. Some lawbooks and the seventh century Chinese
traveller Hiuen Tsang mention agriculture as the duty of the sudras. The sudra is described as the giver of grain
(annada) in the Skanda Purana.
During the heyday of Indian foreign trade in the post-Mauryan times the vaisyas got identified with urban
occupations and towns. In a predominantly agrarian setting of the post- Gupta period, the vaisya traders and
merchants suffered economic loss and social degradation. Many of them crowded into agriculture to earn their
living. According to evidence of texts, the lower strata of the vaisyas who were free peasant landholders till the
Gupta period were increasingly reduced to a state of dependence and subjection. The distinction between the
vaisyas and the sudras got blurred as the differences in their occupations and standards of living faded away.
Therefore, in writing of the later period, for example in the writings of Al baruni, both of them were bracketed
together.
SPREAD AND TRANSFORMATION OF THE IDEA OF VARNA HIERARCHY

The Vama system was also modified in course of its spread outside Gangetic northern India. The four-fold varna
system did not prevail in eastern India in the Deccan and central India and the far South. The four-fold varna
scheme had historical roots in northern India where it had evolved and got entrenched over time. When the idea of
varna divided society spread into other regions, there was a marked difference in its essential details. The
brahmanas spread to other parts of the country as a result of the landgrants from the fifth-sixth centuries. They
conferred brahmana status on local priestly groups. The aboriginal tribes in the new areas were acculturated and
integrated to the caste-peasant base of brahmanic society.
Although a few brahmanas and the brahmanic idea of varna had moved into the south earlier, brahmanic
settlements called agraharas came into existence in Pallava and post- Pallava periods in South India.
Brahmanization is evident in the evolution of educational institutions in the Pallava kingdom. From the 5th-6th
centuries onwards brahmanas started migrating in different directions. During the 5th-7th centuries they also spread
to the Deccan, central India, Orissa, Bengal and Assam. The influence of brahmanic culture in these regions
is evident from the gifts of land to them and their eminent position.
The transformation of tribes into peasants within a complex social structure and considering them as belonging to
sudra category were two major social processes in early medieval India. The kshatriya varna on the other hand, did
not really take deep roots outside northern India. However, many ruling families in newly formed states claimed
kshatriya status and also tried to prove that they had descended from the Suryavansa (solar line) and Chandravansa
(Lunar line). Further, the vaisya varna did not emerge in these regions because by the time Brahmanism advanced
to the Deccan, central India, eastern India and the South the distinction between vaisyas and sudras had got blurred.
Thus, outside the Gangetic regions, the two broad social categories were those of the brahmanas and the sudras.
The kshatriyas never crystallized into a permanent, tangible community and the vaisya status was claimed
occasionally for brief periods, especially during times of economic prosperity and flourishing trade and commerce.
However, there were numerous occupational castes whose ranks kept swelling with the passage of time.
POSITION OF WOMEN
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Condition of women
The impression that one gets about women's position in society during this period is that of progressive decline. The
law-books provide for the marriage of women at an early age, pre-puberty marriage being preferred. Formal
education was denied to them. Women and property came to be bracketed together with adverse consequences for
women's status. 'hey were generally denied property rights. However, in the case of widows there was some
improvement in proprietary rights. It may be pointed out that the provision for stridhana (which literally means:
wealth of women) actually did not amount to much, for it did not extend beyond rights to personal jewels,
ornaments and gifts. The joint references to women and sudras in contemporary literature such as the
Brihatsamhita amply demonstrates the plight of women. They were debarred from various sacrifices and
ceremonies. The practice of Sati (or self-immolation by wife on the funeral pyre of her dead husband) gained social
acceptance during this period. The earliest references to sati date to the later-Gupta period and the times of
Harsavardhana. The change of women's gotra upon marriage can be dated to the period after the fifth century A.D.
This constituted an important development because it marked the curtailment of their rights in their parental home
and symbolised the final triumph of the patriarchal system of male-dominated society.
LORDS AND PEASANTS
It has already been pointed out that in the agrarian system of this period, there were different grades of landlords, as
distinguished from the peasants. Terms such as bhogi, bhokta, bhogapati, mahabhogi, brihadbhogi, etc. were
used for the landed beneficiaries. The upper crust of landlords included such dignitaries as ranaka, raja, samanta,
mahasamanta, mandalesvara and so on. The king similarly had many high sounding titles, connoting his lordship
and ownership of land. The various terms by which the lord of the land were known clearly suggest their superior
status as enjoyers of landed estates. There is nothing in the terms to suggest that they were associated with actual
cultivation. Here one may recall the various types of privileges and exemptions that they enjoyed. The landgrant
charters authorised the donees to punish people guilty of the ten offences (dasaparadha), including those against
family, private property and person.
They could also try civil cases. Such authority besides their economic dominance helped the big landholders in
effectively exploiting the peasants.
The peasantry itself was not a homogeneous community. They were known by various names such as karshaka,
krishivala, kinasa, kshetrajivi, halika, ardhasiri, ardhika, kuturnbi and bhurnikarshaka among others. What
is common to these expressions is that they seem to have nothing to do with control over land. However, they
refer to different categories of tillers of the soil - dependent peasants, share-croppers, field labourers etc. -none of
whom were in absolute, independent control over their holdings.
The peasant was not the master of the fruits of his labour. Substantial parts of it were placed at the disposal of the
landlords. In addition, he had to render forced labour for production as well as the construction of forts, temples and
grandiose structures for the beneficiaries. Interestingly, the number of forts and their importance grew noticeably in
the second half of the first millennium A.D. Forts and large structures created the necessary atmosphere of awe
and respect for the military strength of the lords, and thus ensured the servility of the peasants.
The period from the fourth to the seventh century witnessed the spread of the practice of forced labour Vishti. In
the Konkan, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Malwa, cultivators along with artisans were employed for forced labour. The
religious beneficiaries in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and parts of Karnataka came to enjoy the right to
forced labour. In the sixth-seventh centuries, village headmen and petty officials came to exact forced labour for
their personal gains. However, the earliest definite evidence for the employment of forced labour in agriculture is
provided by the Bhagavata Purana, which is placed around the eighth century. By this time forced labour had
become an all India phenomenon. In the pronounced agrarian economy of the post-Gupta period characterised by
localism, the extent and importance of forced labour naturally grew.
PROLIFERATION OF CASTES
Some features of the caste system during this period have already been mentioned. It was pointed out that one
important development which took place during this period was that the number of castes or jatis increased
substantially. This development affected even the brahmanas, the kshatriyas (and later the Rajputs), the sudras and
the untouchables as well. The existing varnas were split into many castes and many tribes which became
transformed into castes were included in them. Differences within the varnas intensified as brahmanical society
expanded. Hierarchy emerged within each varna because of the acculturation and incorporation of various groups of
people and communities at varying levels of cultural growth. Unequal access to economic and political power also
helped the crystallization of caste distinctions during this period. While a number of castes came to be incorporated
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within each varna, there are also examples of earlier cohesive communities breaking up into many varnas,
jatis/castes. The Abhira tribe provides a good example as it fragmented into Abhira brahmanas, Abhira kshamyas
and Abhira sudras.
The Brahmanas
The number of castes which emerged among the brahmanas was considerable. Brahmanas who "commercialised"
their priestly services, those who came in contact with the aboriginals or those who could not entirely avoid
physical labour stood degraded in the eyes of the srotriya agrahara brahmanas, who did not engage in manual
labour. The migration of brahmanas to various regions for the enjoyment of landgrants also accelerated the process
of caste and sub-caste formation within the varna. The immigrant brahmanas retained their identity on
considerations of place of origin, the type of ritual they practised, the branch of Vedic learning they followed and so
on. Their family identities provided another basis for differentiation. Many tribes when transformed into castes
continued to have their tribal priests and their recognition as degraded brahmanas further swelled the ranks of the
brahmanas. Once the idea of varna was accepted there was no great problem in the recognition and acceptance of
the local priests as brahmanas. Brahmanas who stood close to political power and held high state offices were a
different section. Their eminent position held by such brahmanas led to the formation of different ranks within the
brahmana varna. The same process was true also of the kayasthas.
The Kshatriyas
Among the kshatriyas, proliferation of caste was caused by the emergence of new ruling houses from among the
local tribes and the incorporation of foreign ethnic groups, wielding political power, into the mainstream of society.
Among the foreign ethnic groups, the Bactrian Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Hunas etc. were accommodated in the
varna system as second class kshatriyas. The norm that the kshatriyas alone could rule forced new ruling houses to
seek kshatriyahood through brahmanical support so as to win popular acceptance and legitimacy for their rule. The
kshatriya castes multiplied from the fifth-sixth centuries when many tribal chiefs were transformed into
"Hinduised" rajas through the approval of the brahmanas whom they patronized and the performance of Vedic
sacrifices. Many ruling dynasties in the post-Gupta period emerged from humble origins and subsequently
graduated to kshatriya status. The Pallavas and Chalukyas of peninsular India, Palas of Bengal and Bihar and many
sub-regional dynasties in Orissa had tribal origins. In the subsequent centuries most Rajputs emerged from a tribal
and/or pastoral base. The heterogeneous origins of the ruling dynasties and their desire for social acceptance
explains the proliferation of castes in the kshatriya community.
The Sudras
Endogamous groups coming from various communities and regions vastly expanded the base of the sudra varna.
Petty peasant castes, rich peasants. share-croppers and artisanal castes, with unequal access to economic power
were included in the sudra varna in Gupta and post- Gupta times. Thus, sudra varna included widely disparate
groups and came to comprise the largest number of castes. Numerous mixed castes, both "pure" and "impure",
appeared in the regular movement of brahmanas acculturated and peasantised tribal communities in remote regions
and thus helped the spread of brahmanic culture. Tribes became castes as a consequence of their gradual
transformation as peasants and these peasant groups were incorporated into the brahmanic society as sudras. This
considerably added to the number and variety of sudra castes. However, as noted above, the chiefs and other
leading families among tribes in such cases were assimilated in the higher castes of kshatriyas or similar castes like
Rajputs and brahmanas.
The transformation of guilds into castes and the emergence of various categories of untouchables added to the ever
increasing number of castes. During the ninth-tenth centuries and later, the process of caste and sub-caste formation
accelerated immensely. A modem work mentions that today there are about five thousand castes in India, with
around three hundred castes, on an average, in each linguistic state. The beginnings of the formation of many of
these regional castes would certainly go back to the post-Gupta times.
Themes in Early Indian Cultural History:

Languages and texts,
Sanskrit
Sanskrit is a remote cousin of all the language of Europe excepting the Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish and basqe.
Around 2000 B.C. an ancestral group of dialects arose among the tribesmen of South Russia. With Panini (probably
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4th century B.C.) the Sanskrit language reached its classical form. It developed a little thence forward except in its
vocabulary. The grammar of Panini, Asthadhyayi, pre-supposes the work of may earlier grammarians. Latter
grammars are mostly commentaries on Panini, the chief being Mahabashya by Patanjali (second century B.C.) and
the Banaras-commentary of Jayaditya and Vamana (seventh century A.D.).
It was from the time of Panini onwards that the language began to be called Samskarta, perfected or refined, as
opposed to Prakras (natural), the popular dialects which had grown over time. In all probability, Panini based his
work on the languages as it was spoken in the north west. Beginning as the lingua franca of the priestly class, it
gradually became that of the governing class also. The first important dynasty to use Sanskrit was that of the Sakas
of Ujjain and the inscriptions of Rudradaman at Girnar. Otherwise, the Maurya and the other important dynasty till
the Guptas used Prakrit for their official pronouncements.
The Language of the Rig Veda was already archaic when the hymns were composed and the ordinary Aryan spoke a
simpler tongue, more closely akin to classical Sanskrit. By the time of the Buddha the masses were speaking
languages which were much simpler than Sanskrit. These were the prakrits. The ordinary speech of Ancient India
has been preserved for us largely through the unorthodox religions. Most inscriptions of pre-Gupta time are in
Prakrit. The women and humbler characters of the Sanskrit drama are made to speak in formalized prakrit of
various dialects. A few of secular literary works were composed in Prakrit.
Classical Sanksrit increasing became the language of brahmins and the learned few. Its use was restricted to certain
occasions such as issuing of proclamations and during the performance of Vedic ceremonies. In the towns and
villages a popular form of Sanksrit, known as Prakrit, came into the existence. There were a great number of local
variations. The chief western variety was called Shuraseni and the eastern variety, Magadhi, Pali was another
popular language based on Sanksrit. It, too, was used in the same religions as Prakrit. The Buddha, to reach more
people, taught in Magadhi.
Speaking of literature, the four Vedas and the Brahmins and Upnishadas have some literary qualities. Some hymns
of the Rig Veda and some parts of the early Upnishadas have some merit. Otherwise, they are mostly dry and
monotonous.
In the 1028 hymns of the Rig Veda there is a great variety of styled and merit. The hymns contain many repetitions
and the majority of them have the sameness of outlook. A number of hymns show deployment feeling for nature, as
for example, the hymns to Ushas. A few vedic hymns are primarily secular, as for example the Gamester's Lament.
Very little of literary quality is there in the later Vedic literature the Atherva veda mostly a monotonous collection
contains a few poems of great merit. The prose Brahmanas, though written in simple and straight forward language
have little literary merit.
Thus the earliest Indian literature is to be found in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata consisting
of 90,00 stanzas, is probably the longest single poem in the world's literature. Ignoring the interpolations, the style
of the Mahabharata is direct and vivid though consisting of repeated clinches and stock epithets, typical of epic
literature everywhere. The chief characters are delineated in a very simple outline but with an individuality which
makes them real persons.
The other epic Ramayana also contains interpolations but they are much briefer and are mostly didactic. The main
body of the poem gives the impression of being the work of one author whose style was based on that of the other
epic to show some kinship to that of classical Sanskrit poetry. The style of the Ramayana is less rugged than that of
the Mahabharata. It is a work of greater art and it contains many dramatic passages and beautiful descriptive
writing.
The earliest surviving Sanskrit poetry is that of the Buddhist writer Ashvaghosa who probably lived in the Its
century A.D. He composed the Buddha-Charitra in a comparatively simple classical style. The Girnar inscription of
Rudradaman, dated 150 A.D. is the earliest surviving example of Sanskrit prose.
The earliest surviving prose stories are a few narrative episodes in the Brahmanas followed by the pali Jatakas. It
was in the Gupta period that ornate Sanskrit prose was developed. The chief writers in this style were Dandin,
Subandhu and Bana.
Prakrit
Chronologically pali is the first Sanskrit language and various Prakrits appeared later. Even the meaning of the
word 'Pali' underwent changes. In the final stages the word "Pali" meant language of the texts of Theravada
Buddhism. The Tripitaka meaning three baskets are books which consist of the canons of the Theravada sect. One

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part of it deals with the monastic discipline. The second part lays down principles of Buddhism. And the last part
deals with various subjects like ethics psychology theories of knowledge and metaphysical problems.
Besides the canonical literature, there was also non-canonical literature in pali. In pali literature the earliest works
relate to the Jataka stories. The early poetry consisted of a few verses from the songs of the older monks and Nuns,
a collection of poems ascribed wrongly to the great disciples of the Buddha in the early days of the order. The style
of these is simpler then Sanskrit literature and suggests influence of popular song. The book milinda panha is the
most important one. Its subject matter is the dialogue between Milinda and monk Nagasena over some problems of
the Buddhist faith. This particular kind of canonical literature in pali was practised in Ceylon also. The classical
works Depavamsa and Mahavamsa, the two great chronicles of Ceylon and also some grammatical metrical and
lexicographical texts were written in pali.
Now for the word "Prakrit". It stands for all the middle Indo-Aryan speeches which belong to an era between
Sanskrit on the one hand and Aryan languages it has sectarian value since it was exclusively used as the speech of
the Hinayana Buddhism.
From the earliest times to the first century A.D. inscriptions were composed exclusively in Prakrit. Asoka left
behind 30 inscriptions in Prakrit. Even in literature prakrit came to be used particularly in plays. And prakrit itself
consists of different dialects. There were several other prakrits of lesser importance. By the time of the Guptas the
prakrits were standardized and had lost their local character. The vernaculars had already developed beyond them.
What panini did for Sanskrit others did for the Prakrits and they began to resemble more the languages actually
were based on the conventions of dramatic theory and they never represented popular life. Now did they reflect in
any way the linguistic conditions of society. Some plays are composed exclusively in Prakrit. The Karpuramanjari
(about 900 A.D.) Rajasekhara depicting love between man and woman is the most important work of this type.
Continuing the secular aspect of Prakrit language a number of stanzas were written both on love and maxims. The
most remarkable amongst such texts is the Gatha Saptasati of Hala one of the Satavahana rulers. This book consists
of 700 stanzas about love depicting the varied phases of South Indian rural life. The king probably ruled in the Ist
century A.D. The poems are notable for their conciseness and for their great economy of words and masterly use of
suggestions. Some poems contain simple and natural descriptions and references to the lives of peasants and the
lower class. More important is the fact that narrative literature and epic poems are fairly extensive in Prakrit. The
most noteworthy among them are the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya composed in Paisachi dialect and Setubandha of
Pravarasena.
Apart from secular literature prakrit was used for religious literature also like the Jaina canonical works. It was
during the 5th century A.D. that most of the Jaina canons were written down. In prakrit literature the Jaina writings
have very little literary the poetry of the Jainas is better than prose. Its poetry is written in lively vernacular style.
Furthermore it is to be stated here that scholars treated Apabhramas as a kind of Prakrit. It boasts of extensive
literature particularly narrative stories. The first writer to make use of it was Asvaghosa. The others who followed
the example were Bhasa (3rd century A.D.) and later Visakhadatta and kalidasa.
In the Apabhramsa the meter doha was adopted as powerful form of expression of religious and philosophical
thoughts. Both Jaina monks and contemporary writers of Tantrik Buddhism utilized this meter. Incidentally stray
poems dealing with morals maxims ethics religious discourses and legions were commonly written in Apabhramsa.
Among the Jains the voluminous texts on the life and activities of Jaina heroes were written in Apabhramsa. It may
be noted here in the end that Apabhramsa, Sanskrit and Prakrit had a great influence both on Gujarati and Hindi as
late as the 16th century.
Furthermore Prakrit is of linguistic importance since it is illustrative of the linguistic evolution from Prakrit to
Apabhramsa and finally to a new regional language. Apabhramsa meaning falling down was a corrupt form of
Prakrit dialect. It is believed to have originated in the north-west and traveled from that region along with the
migrant people who scattered and settled incentral and western India after the Huna invasions. The Prakrit as used
by Jains was greatly influenced by Apabhramsa. It is here that the link between the older and the new languages of
Maharashtri and Gujarati is evident.
Tamil
Tamil was the oldest spoken literary language of south India that is South of Nilgiris. Evidence as it is shows that
there was a body of literature in Tamil which has had unbroken development over 20 centuries the first period of
that literature is associated with the sangam era. Tamil tradition refers of three literary Academic (Sangams) which
met at Madurai. The first was attended by gods and legendary sages but all its works have perished. Of the second
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only one survives-Tolkappiyam the earliest surviving Tamil grammar. Munch of the literary writings of this period
have perished. Legendry and traditional accounts mention the loss of many texts on the occasion of a deluge.
Today's extant body of sangam literature is but a fraction of a vast literature.
The book Agattiyam presumed to be written by St. Agattiyar is present in small shreds of sutras here and there as
quoted by medieval commentators.
The second well-known work was Tolkappiyam. It was written by Tolkappiyar who was supposed to be a disciple
of Agattiyar along with eleven other scholars. It is a work on Tamil grammar literature tradition and sociology.
Tolkapiyam lays down grammatical rules governing the literary compositions. This book is the fountain of all
literary conventions in Tamil literature. All later changes and innovations occurred only under the sanction of
permissive clauses incorporated in due places in that work.
The poets of the third Sangam wrote Ettutogai (eight anthologies). These anthologies contain well over 2,00 poems
ascribed to more than 200 authors.
The other major collection of the Sangam works is the pattuppattu of Ten idyll. They are long poems.
After the period of the eight anthologies Tamil literature reveals the influence of Sanskrit. It also reveals Jaina
influence. The classical work revealing these features is Tiru Kurral sometimes called the Bible of Tamil land. It
consists of series of metrical proverbs and many aspects of life and religion.
And by the 6th century A.D. Aryan influence had penetrated the whole of Tamil land. Her kings and chiefs
worshipped and supported the gods of Hinduism Jainism and Buddhism. Tamil poets book to writing long poems
which they called by the Silappadikaram (the Jewelled anklet). A little later appeared Manimekali attributed to the
poet sattanar of Madurai. This book reveals Buddhist influence.
And the books Silappadikaram and Manimekalai belong to the early centuries of the Christian ere. They were
attributed to Ilango adigal and Sattanar. The former book has been referred to by king Gajabahu of Ceylon who
ruled in the second half of the second century A.D.
Manimekalai abounds in fine poetry and its dramatic element is handled with mastery. Also this book gives us
glimpses of the development of fine art in the sangam age.
Probably sattanar the author of Manimekalai was a Buddhist. A good deal of social and historical information is
found in this work just as in silappadikaram. Added to this book has a peculiar grace which makes it unique in the
books of Tamil literature.
And it is also held by scholars that in the age prior to the imperial pallavas many Tamil works were written like
kural. The chief quality of the Sangam works is their adherence to standards and literary conventions. Kural by
thirulluvar has been translated into many languages both Indian and foreign.
The end of the Sangam era may be said to herald the birth of a new Tamil literature. This new age witnessed
devotional poetry on Shiva and Vishnu. The age of the Sangam literature was religious but stranger to the Bhakti
cult. The writings of the Alvars and Nayar are in the later period were quite distinct. Both of them began
somewhere in the 5th or the 6th century A.D.
major stages in the evolution of art and architecture,

Discuss the major stages in the evolution of architecture during the ancient period. (60)(2006)
“The changes in the field of art from the Kushan period to early medieval period are mere reflection of changing
outlook.” Comment. (20) (2016)
Trace the origin and development of temple architecture in India with reference to regional styles and variations.
(20) (2017)
“Architecture is that great living creative sprit which from generation to generation, from age to age, proceeds
persists, creates, according to nature of man, and his circumstances as they change. That is really architecture.”…..
Frank Lloyd Wright. Architecture is the matrix of civilization. Each great cultural movement has made its particular
contribution to the art of building. The roots of Indian architecture reach deep down to the Harappan culture, the
Indus civilization (c. 3000-2000 B.C.) which was in a fairly matured state as early as 3000 B.C. The buildings of
the Indus Civilization were plain and merely functional without much more architectural ornamentation. The Indus
valley finds include some images supposed to be the objects of worships, but no trace of temple has hitherto been
discovered. Sir Mortimer Wheeler believes on fairly convincing grounds that a building in the HR region of
Mohenjo-Daro, with an imposing entrance and double stairway leading to a raised platform, was probably a temple.
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Though it is impossible to know when the worship of a deity embodied in a sculptured image. But mode of worship
was prevalent in the civilization of Indus valley. The earliest form of temple emerged from the huts in which human
being themselves lived, round huts with domical roofs called Kuta and rectangular huts with gable roofs, called
Sala, both made of bamboos. With the growth of civilization the system of kingship emerged and along with this
institution, the concept of palace architecture developed. The palace is called Prasada, hence very often; the temple
is called prasada or palace of God. The early Vedic literature (c. B.C. 1500 - 800) is also silent about temples or any
structure of a religious nature. But in the Vedic-age, some references of temples are found in the Rig-Veda but it is
not possible for us to ascertain with precision what their architectural forms were. However, architectural edifices
are variedly mentioned in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, Pali literature also dealt with the science of architecture,
the Vastu-vijja. The intervening period in the ancient Indian history between the Aryan conquest c 1500 B.C. and
the advent of the historical Buddha (566 B.C.–486 B.C.) does not give any architectural evidence on the existence
of temple. But it does not mean that there were no temples in India during this period. At that time, perishable and
less durable media such as bamboo, wood, kuchchi brick, cloth and clay only were used for constructions, so there
are no evidences available. Building permanent temples came into vogue only during the Mauryan period and
mainly due to the influence of the Buddhism but no temple of an image of God is referred to during the Mauryan
age. History also reveals the existence of palaces- as the one accounted by Megasthenes in 300 B.C. completely
made of brick and wood and not of stone. The rise of Buddhism, which owned much to the support of Mauryan
Emperor Ashoka (c 269-232 B.C.), found expressive in the construction of three kind of monuments- The Stupa, a
sepulchral monument, the Chaityagraha and the Vihara or monastery. These forms came to constitute the basic
architectural language of India.
Asoka issued the rock edicts, pillar-edicts and made caves carved out, but no temple was erected. However, during
this period some images of semi-divine beings like yakshas and yakshins supposed to be the village deities were
carved by the sculptors, which suggest the beginning of the image making or iconography. The first stone
architecture in India was rock-cut and executed by Buddhist monks. They were probably preceded as well as
accompanied by wooden structures which are destroyed over the time while stone endures. The earliest cave
temples include the Bhaja Caves, the Karla Caves, the Bedsa Caves, the Kanheri Caves and some of the Ajanta
Caves. Early Buddhist architecture was likely indirectly inspired by that of Egyptians. The Egyptians were probably
the first civilization in the world to construct stone architecture, they began with stone build pyramids in the 27th
century BCE (Djoser‟s Step Pyramid in the Saqqara) and contained with rock-cut tombs in the 16th century BCE
(Valley of the Kings in Luxor). There are two types of rock-cut architecture. The first type consists of nothing but
internal spaces comprising of vast chambers while other type is carved downwards into a rocky outcrop and creates
architectural volumes of a sculptural character. The caves of Elephanta and temples of Ellora are of the first type
and seven Pagodas or rathas sculpted out of the rock at Mamallapuram is the example of the second type and the
Kailasa Hindu phase of temple building evolved in the period of imperial Gupta from 4th to 6th centuries A.D.
Early in the 5th century, at Udayagiri near Vidisha and at Ramgarh in Madhya Pradesh, the Gupta rulers initiated
the creation of Brahminical or Hindu cave temples with sculpted panels. There is an overlap of nearly two hundred
years when both Hindu and Buddhist structures were built in India from roughly 500 to 700 and Hinduism emerged
triumphant over Buddhism and dominated all subsequent Indian architecture. After the serration of rock-cut Hindu
architecture was stone built. Till about the 6th century A.D., the style of temple architecture was similar both in
north as well as in the south. It was only after this date that each began to evolve in its own different direction. The
temple of northern India belong to the category called „Nagara‟, those of south India are called „Dravida‟ and
those belonging to middle region (Karnataka) and of mixed types (Nagara and Dravida) are called „Vesara. the
„Kamikagama‟ assigns the Nagara temples to the country from the Himalaya to Vindhya, Vesara from the Vindhya
to river Krishna and Dravida from the Krishna to Cape Comorian. These distinct architectural styles occurred in the
different parts of India, was result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities.
There is existence of some regional style in West Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas. There is always an
intimate relationship between religion and architecture.
Nagara Style
The history of northern style of temples begins with the Gupta and their successors from 5 th to 7th century and
advanced to early Chalukyas, 7th to 8th century, the Kalingas and Eastern Gangas, 8th to 13th century, the
Pratiharas and Chandellas, 8th to 11th century, the Maitrakas and the Solankies, 8th to13th century and Rajputana,
8th to 12th century. This Nagara style is most prominently seen in the Orissan temples and is widely distributed
over a great part of India. Having its centre in Madhyadesa temples were built in the Nagara style, from Himalaya
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in the north, to the east and west coasts of India and as far south as the river Tungabhadra. Madhyadesa was
bounded by the river Saraswati in Kurukshetra, Allahabad, the Himalaya and the Vindhyas. James Ferguson prefers
the name Indo-Aryan to Nagara. The northern or Indo-Aryan style of architecture covers the whole area once
occupied by the Aryans, “Usually designated as Hindustan” to the north of the Tapti and Mahanadi rivers. What is
known as the Jain style of architecture in western India is a development or variety of this Indo-Aryan order and
was used by the Hindu and Jains alike all over Rajputana, Malwa and Gujarat.
The word “Nagara‟ is derived from Nagar which is a common name for the town and „Nagara‟ is an adjective
therefore it implies something pertaining to Sri Nagara or Pataliputra, the ancient Metropolis of India. Braht
Samhita says that temples, conforming to the prescriptions should be built according to the towns. Nagara may also
be derived from “Naga‟. The Vastupurasa has the shape of “Naga‟ and the Vastunaga who is Shesa or Ananta,
encircles every site. Architecture is the art and science of deigning and erecting building and other physical
structure. The Nagara style temple architecture reveals two distinct features. One of the distinctions is in planning
and other one is in elevation. The characteristics temple plan of the northern India which was developed in the 5th
century contained the basic compartments grabha-gariha surrounded by an ambulatory path, an outer portico with
columns in front and a flat roof of stone. This was the classical of golden period when the art and architecture
received strong encouragement. But temples built during this period were simple i.e. temples at Sanchi, Tigawa and
Deogarh. The development of shikhara started at the temple of Deogarh in Madhya Pradesh. The temples
constructed in the 8th century had smaller shrine and shikhara become the crowing feature of the temple. The
addition of mandapa to the temple started during this period itself. Later on rectangular wall around the temple and
addition of subsidiary shrines at each corner was also took place in the same period. Earlier to this period, the
temple such as Teli-Ka Mandir, Gwalior and Vaital Deul, Bhubaneswar has only main sanctuary with neither the
mandapa nor the portico. Gupta temples had also none. The temple complex of the Chalukya of Badami marks an
important phase in the evolution of temple architecture in India. It reveals numerous experiments in stylistic
variation.
Here, perhaps was the origin of the classical trichotomous classification of Indian temples into Nagara, Dravida and
Vesara. It is said that the word Nagara actually mean squares, Vesara circular and Dravida polygonal (6 to 8 sided).
The buildings of Nagara style are quadrangular from base to the top, those of the Dravida are octagonal from the
neck to top and those of Vesara style are round from the neck to top. The Nagara style are characterised by a
beehive shaped tower, called shikhara made up of layer upon layer of architectural element such as kapota and
gavakshas, all toped by a larger round cushionlike element called an amalaka. Nagara style temple developed over a
time and one once established it went on changing its style and pattern. The temples of this style can be categorized
in the following types-
1. Latina
Early Nagara temples dating from 5th century onward were of Latina mode. Gupta shrine such as those at Sanchi
and Tigawa were originally flat roofed or may have superstructures which have since been lost. But it was during
the 7th century, the fully developed Latina form appeared with its curved spire with rising to a ribbed amalaka and
pot-finial (kalasa). The Latina, curvilinear in outline the type most usually found above the sanctuary. The Latina
shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding towards the top and provided with
projections that extend from the base and wall of the temple. The surface of shikhara is covered with vine like
tracery composed of diminutive chandrasalas. Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a neck on which rests a
large grooved disk (amalasaraka) and above it sits a pot with a crowing finial. Each storey is indicated by miniature
amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top. So the basic option for a Latina temple concern the
number of segments or projections in the wall and usually corresponding in shikhara and number of bhumis (levels)
in the shikhara marked by the corner pavilions. This style covers a wide area from Nalanda (Bihar) to Alampur
(Andhra Pradesh) and Pattadakal (Karnataka). Main temple of this type are temples at Deogarh, Stupa at Nalanda,
temples in Madhya Pradesh at Amrol, Bateshara, Gwalior, Nareshara, Terali and at Roda, Shamlaji, Modhera in
Gujarat and Galaganatha temple at Pattadkal in Karnataka etc.
2. Phamasana
In Phamasana temple, the shikhara is rectilinear in outline and capped by a bell-shaped member and this form more
usually found above the mandapa. Certain regions favoured Nagara versions of Phamasana between the 6th and 8th
centuries including Karnataka under the early Chalukyas, at Aihole and the Himalayan foothills, at Jogeshvara. It
was the principal shrine type in Saurashta during the 7th century, in both its multi-tier and its pent roof (the sloping
tier) forms. Mahadeva temple, Bileshvara is an example of Phamasana shrine with aedicule at corners.
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3. Valbhi
Valabhi shrine are rectangular, entered through one of the long side and were normally dedicated to goddesses. The
term „Valabhi‟ is probably derived from Vala, a curved rafter, like the ones combined in a Valabh or chassis of the
kind that would have supported the tunnel or barrel roof, single or with side-aisles, covering the sort of timber
framed structure represented in masonry by this mode. The horseshoe arch form, the hooped gables to the roof ends
and dormers, commonly known as the gavaksha (cow-eye) was the inseparable part of this kind of architecture. The
Valabhi denotes a pitched roofhaving a ridge. Its slopes are on its four sides- it is a hipped roof or on two sides only.
On the ridge three Amalasarkas are placed. Attie rooms (grabha) or dormer window (Chandrasala) are on either side
of the ridge. The Valabhi Prasada is rectangular on plan, its length being thrice its width, with a barrel roofed
superstructure running at right angle to the direction of entry to the garbha-gariha. The temple of this group have
each one Mekhala, the number of their doors depends upon their length. There are many small chambers (grabha)
in its valabhi. Nava-Devi temple in Yagesvar, The Vaital Deul in Bhubaneswar, Teli-ka-mandir in Gwalior are
examples of this form. During the 8th century, the Valabhi concept was extrapolated into complex networks of
gavakshas, extending downwards through a proliferation of overlapping motifs rather than through the addition and
more readily applicable to niche pediments (udgamas) and to eave-dormers than to full-size valabhi gables, such
pattern has a stepped outline and sequences of such gables are created, projecting one from another, as in the earlier
detelescoping Valabhi temples, through much transform. Valabhi is also the form of the antefix or shukha-nasa of
the Nagara modes and these forms contained to play its part with changes till the end of 9th century, when it ceased
to be used for whole temples, at least in central and western India.
4. Shikhari
The composite shekhari mode was the most important form of Nagara temples from the 10th century onwards in
central and western India. The shikhari consists of the central latina spires with one or more rows of half spires
added on either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the base and corners. The whole mass of carved
masonry recalling a mountain with a cluster of subsidiary peaks. Before the emergence of the shekhari, there were
two related type which are „Anekandaka‟ and „proto-shekhari‟. These introduced the shekhari-topped pillar form
(kuta-stambhah). In the simple type-I of proto-shekhri, a Latina shikhara rises over four corner kuta-stambha with
valabhicrowned bhadras. The type-II is a downward extension of this with an extra tier, still with three projections
and the valabhi flowing down and apart into a wide porch-like bhadras. Sanderi Mata temple, Sander (Gujarat) is
the example of this type-II. Adam Hardy has described total five principal types. Type-III, appeared early in the
11th century, with five projections in the first-tier, a sequence of three urah-shringas unfurling on each face and the
number of kuta-stambha in each quadrant flowing down from one to three to five and with its stepped diamond
plan, bringing the corners into a line with adjacent projections. Someshvara temple, Kiradu (Rajasthan), Navalakha
temple, Sajakpur Gujarat) are the example of this type.
5. Bhumija
This form emerged in the 11th century long after the shekhari. Bhumija variety of northern India shikhara was
particularly popular in temples of western India, northern Deccan and Malwa regions. It comprises a central Latina
projection, tapering towards the top on all four faces. The quadrant so formed is decorated with miniature spires in
horizontal and vertical rows all the way to top. A Bhumija temple is known by the radiating, cascading chaus of
slender kuta-stambhas on every angle between its out-thrusting bhadras, with the kuta-stambhas fully exposed in
the first-tier and buried to their chests in the serried ranks above. The plan can be orthogonal or stellate.
Udayeshvara temple, Udaipur, Devi temple, Ramgarh (Rajasthan), Malavai temple, Alirapur (Madhya Pradesh),
Surya temple Jhalarpatan, Chnnekeshava temple, Belur (Karnataka) are the example of such type.
Dravida Style
Dravidian style of architecture emerged thousand of years ago in the southern part of the India being developed by
the Dravidian peoples. The temples of this style are located in the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Various dynasties and empires such as the Cholas, Chera, Pandyas, Pallavas,
Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Vijyanagara Empire amongst many other have made a substantial
contribution to this architecture. Pallavas were pioneers of south Indian architecture. The rock-cut temples dating
from 610 to 690 AD and structural temples built from 690 to 900 AD are the earliest examples of this style. The
Pallavas rulers lead the way of Dravidian style of temple architecture and they built the temples at Mahabalipuram.
They are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as rathas in Mahabalipuram. Kailasanatha temple
or Rajasimha in Kanchipuram is a fine example of Pallava style temple. Earliest developments in Dravida temple

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can also be traced in the Ravana Phadi cave, Aihole, the alpa vimana (mono-adecular shrine) and upper Shivalaya
Badami, the super structure build in early 7th century by early western Chalukyas- the Chalukyas of Vatapi.
The classical tradition of Dravida style was transmitted by the Pallava dynasty rulers to the Cholas (900-1150
A.D.). The Cholas had built several hundreds of temples. The temple of Koranganatha at Srinivasanlur which has
mandapa with attached sanctuary or vimana, is one of the earliest examples of Chola architecture. Gangaikonda
Cholapuram temple was constructed with 50 ft high shikhara. The Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjuvur with a
height of 60 m has been described as the most beautiful specimen of Tamil architecture and land mark in the
evolution of building art in southern India, by Percy Brown. During the Pandyas rule (c1100 – 1350 AD), the south
Indian temples were added with the lofty gateways „gopurams‟ at the entrance with the basic temple composition.
The gopurams made the temple elevation attractive and also provided the temples with an enclosure. The gopurams
evolved from a rectangular base with a pyramid crowned with a barrel vaulted form. The Sandara Pandya gopuram,
added to the temple of Jambukshevara (1250 A.D.) and gopuram of the great temple at Kumbakoman (c.1350 A.D.)
are the best examples of gopurams of Pandya times. The temple of Airavatesavara at Desuram was also constructed
during this region. The temple erected by the Hoysalyas (c.1100 – 1343 A.D.) has a distinctive style of architecture.
This Hoysalya architecture style is described as Karnataka Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida
and is considered an indifferent architectural tradition with many unique features. The Hoysala temples have
complicated plans which may be polygonal or star-shaped with numerous angled projections. The carved surfaces
are executed with remarkable precision, usually in Chlorite. The columns are surmounted by a vase-shaped
ornament. Pyramidal towers are used to make the temple look like a double or triple temple. The finest examples of
their architecture are the Chennakesava temple in Belur, Hoysalesvara temple in Halebidu and the Kesava temple in
Somanathapura. The Dravidian style concluded in a series of extended temple cities or townships. The finest
example of township is temples at Srirangam and Madurai with several concentric enclosures.
The Structural Components of Dravida Style Temple

A general south Indian or Dravida style temple, commonly called „Vimana style‟. Vimana means ship or boat, is
based upon Agamas and Shilpa and Vastu Shastra. This style of temple is usually made from stone. Its shape may
be rectangular, square, star-shaped or octagonal. These temples usually have gate pyramids, gopurams, which are
large towers over the entrance, a vimana, which is the tower over the sanctum and large pillared halls and corridors.
The sanctum or grabha-gariha contain the pitha where the main deity of the temple is sited. It is usually semi-dark
and has no sculptures, except the main deity. There is usually a pradakshina path around the deity. The sanctum is
topped by a pyramidal tower several storeys high called vimana or shikhara. It is crowned by a chakra in a lord
Vishnu temple and trident in a Lord Shiva temple. The inner sanctum is surrounded by subsidiary shrines, mandapa
and pillared corridors. Mandapa means any roofed, open or enclosed pavilion resting on pillars, standing
independently or connected to the sanctum and have one or more entrance porches. Like north Indian temple it
contains antarala, mahamandapa and mukhmandapa. The subsidiary shrines or altars contain other deities including
the consort of the main deity. Many south Indian temples have several halls, such as ranga-mandapa- a large
audience pavilion, Yajna hall- for occasional sacrifices, Nrittya hall- for dance recitals, Vahana-mandapa- place for
vehicles, Kalyana-mandapamarriage hall, Asthana-mandapa- were the processional deity is dressed,
Vasantamandapa- hall in the middle of the temple tank used for festival and Utsava-mandapahall for festival
occasions. These temples also have a treasury, a kitchen, store-room and dinning hall. In the early 7th century, there
exists the Alpavimana; the simplest possible Dravida vimana was a kind of primitive hut with just a base, a wall and
a roof. So this form of Dravida shrine has a walled sanctum supporting a single pavilion in the superstructure. Alpa
vimana are one-tier shrine but conceptually of two storeys- the real grand floor and an imaginary floor to the upper
pavilion. But during the 7th – 8 th century the simple alpa-vimana took the form of multi-aedicular vimana design,
variations on the alpa-vimana form used as the top tier (tala) or upper temple of more complex design, with kapota-
panjara aedicule with central projection and kutas on the prati platform, staggered shala aedicule and muilti-
aedicular. Vijayala-Cholishvara temple, Narttamalai (mid 9th century) and Agastishvara temple, Kilajur are
example of such type. Later on stellate vimana were constructed. Draupadi‟s ratha at Mahabalipuram is example of
simple Alpa-vimana. Arjuna ratha is an example of step pyramid structure decorated with miniature building.
Bhima ratha reproduces the chaiyta-model. The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram (c700 AD) resembles the rathas in
having stepped roof-storeys decorated with miniature building and culminating in monolithic octagonal domes.
Bring out the regional variations in the early South Indian Temple’s architectural styles. (60)(2009)
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The South Indian style of temple architecture is very distinct from that of the rest of India. It is convenient to
resolve the types of architecture into four periods corresponding to the principal kingdoms that ruled in southern
India down the centuries i.e. the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and the Vijayanagara rulers.
According to the plan four sided, polygonal or curvilinear the southern Vimanas are classified in the southern Silpa
and Agama texts as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. The earliest examples of temples in the Dravidan style belong to
the Pallava period. The temple architecture of the Pallavas is divided into two groups: rock-cut Pallava Rathas and
structural. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram.
These temples are further divided into: excavated pillared halls or mandapas and monolithic shrines known as
rathas. The Chela art is a continuation of that of Pallava times. The Cholas had built several hundreds of temples,
the earlier examples of which were modest in size while the later ones were huge and large with the Vimanas or
gopuras dominating the landscape.
The temple of Koranganatha at Srinivasanalur in the Trichinopoly district, of Tamilnadu built during the reign of
Parantaka I (907-949 AD) is one of the earliest examples of the Chola architecture. The temple consists of a pillared
hall or mandapa with an attached sanctuary or vimana.
The Gangaikondacholapuram Temple, with height of the shikhara is 50 feet, while the cornice of the mandapa
measures 16 feet from the ground. The Pandyas (1100-1350 AD), although were not among the great building
dynasties, built several gopurams or monumental entrances to the existing temples.
The earliest examples of gopurams appear during the Pandyan period in the 12th and 13th centuries. A typical
gopuram consists of a building oblong in plan, rising up into a tapering tower often over 45.72 metres in height, and
entered by a rectangular doorway in the centre of its long side. The Sundara Pandya gopuram, added to the temple
of Jambukesvara around 1250 AD and the gopuram of the great temple at Kumbakoman are the best examples of
the gopurams of the Pandyan times.
Temples erected by the Hoysala kings have a distinctive style of architecture. The Hoysala temples have
complicated plans, which may be polygonal or star-shaped with numerous angled projections. The carved surfaces
are executed with remarkable precision, usually in chlorite.
The’columns is lathe-turned or multi-faceted. Each temple is supported by a low- pyramidal tower, which is often
surmounted by a vase- shaped ornament. On many occasions many such pyramidal towers are used, making the
temple look like a double or triple temple. Temples from the Hoysala period can be seen at Belur, Halebid and
Sringeri in Karnataka. By the 16th century almost all of southern India was part of the Vijayanagar Empire.
The Vijayanagar rulers were great patrons of art and architecture. Scholars on the Vijayanagar style of art have
observed that this art inherited aspects from three main regional styles of the art of South India, viz., the Dravidian
style of the Cholas and Pandyas, the style of the Chalukya-Hoysala tradition and the Indo- Islamic art of the Bijapur
region.
The Vijaynagar rulers built strong fortresses, gorgeous palaces and beautiful temples. The Vijayanagar temple
architecture has some special features. The characteristic Hampi feature of this period is the development of the
temple complex: concentric series of rectangular enclosure walls with the gopuras (towered gateways) in the middle
of each side. The construction of several mandapas, the
Kalyana mandapa being the most conspicuous among them was a notable feature of the period. The temples also
had the Devi Shrine to keep the replicas of the consort of the deity. Another noteworthy feature of the temples is the
absence of mortar in their construction. The Vijayanagar tradition shows a distinct scheme of decoration in terms of
architectural space.
Vesara Style
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Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temple. It is combination of the “Nagara‟ and “Dravida‟
styles. Etymologically, the term “Vesara‟ has been given three explanations. Firstly, it is deemed to be a corrupt
form of the Sanskrit word „mishra‟ meaning mixed denoting a mixture of two styles. Secondly, it means a “mule‟
which again is a hybrid of two animals- an issue of heterogeneous parents. Such temples in plan, it is Dravida and
in the shape of its details, it is Nagara. It denotes a mixed style. Thirdly, Vesara is believed to have been derived
from Sanskrit word “Vishra‟ meaning an area to talk a long walk. The quarters of Buddhist and Jain monks who
left urban area to live in cave temples were called viharas.
In the early Chalukya period hybrids are found mainly in the middle phase. Two examples of this phase are
Jambulingesvara, Badami, Durga temple, Aihole. These early temples show a great deal of Buddhist influence. This
trend was started by the Chalukyas of Badami (500 – 753 A.D.), refined by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750 –
983 A.D.) in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani (983 – 1150 A.D.) in Lakkundi, Dambal, Gadag etc. and epitomized by
the Hoysala Empire (1000 – 1330 A.D.).29 Many temples in central Indian and Deccan have used the vesara style
with regional modifications. The old temple of Papanath (680 A.D.) at Pattadakal shows a curious combination of
styles. The body of the temple is Dravidian but the shikharas is a curious approximation to the form of the early
northern Hindu or Indo-Aryan order, while in details the temple show a strong banning of Dravidian. Vesara
probably refers to temples typical from 11th century in Karnataka and elsewhere in the Deccan. Temples built from
11th to 13th century were basically Dravida, do have Nagara like aspects. A temple such as the Kashivishveshvara,
Lakkundi, of later Chalukyas, in its west vimana, centers on a prominent shekhari niche and displays Nagara forms
in its intermediate projections and other many features of Dravidian, but it not fully hybrid. It essentially Karnata
Dravida rather then mixed. The Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura are the examples of this style.
The surface in these Hoysala temple are carved in high relief with detailed repeating patterns of miniature shrine
models, distinguishing them also from contemporary temples in other parts of India. The temples of Sirmour,
Baijnath, Baroli and Amarkantak are also the examples of this Vesara style.
SCINECE & TECHNOLOGY
Major philosophical thinkers and schools, ideas in Science and Mathematics.

Examine the proficiency of the ancient Indians in various crafts, science and mathematics. (60) (2002)
Knowledge of science and technology, however, got linked with religion and social relations. Relying primarily on
pragmatism some intellectuals in India acquired intuitive awareness of scientific temper. In view of absence of
experiment, some insights became ridiculous.
Knowledge of science was known from very ancient times, although science, as we know today, was not known in
India till modern times. The archaeological remains of the Indus Valley reveal knowledge of applied sciences.
Scientific techniques were used in irrigation, Metallurgy, making of fired bricks and pottery, and simple reckoning
and measurement of areas and volumes.
In contrast more is known about Aryan achievements in the field of astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Chinese
records indicate knowledge of a dozen books of Indian origin. Brahmagupta's Sidhanta as well as Charaka's and
Susrata's Samhitas were translated into Arabic in the 9th or 10th centuries A.D.
In ancient Indian mathematics was known by the general name of ganita, which included arithmatics, geometry,
algebra, astronomy and astrology. It was Aryabhata, who gave a new direction to trigonometry. The decimal system
too was an innovation of India.
By the third century B.C. mathematics, astronomy and medicine began to develop separately. In the field of
mathematics ancient Indians made three distinct contributions, the notation system, the decimal system and the use
of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence of the use of decimal system belongs to the fifth century A.D. Before these
numerals appeared in the West they had been used in India for centuries. They are found in the inscriptions of
Ashoka in the third century B.C.
Indians were the first to use the decimal system. The famous mathematics Aryabhata. (A.D. 476-500) was
acquainted with it. The Chinese learnt this system from the Buddhist missionaries, and the western world borrowed
it from the Arabs when they came in contact with India. Zero was discovered by Indians in about the second
century B.C. From the very beginning Indian mathematicians considered zero as a separate numeral, and it was
used in this sense in arithmatics. In Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in A.D. 873. The Arabs learnt and
adopted it from India and spread it in Europe. So far as Algebra is concerned both Indians and Greeks contributed
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to it, but in Western Europe its knowledge was borrowed not from Greece but from the Arabs who had acquired it
from India.
In the second century B.C. Apastemba contributed to practical geometry for the construction of altars on which the
kings could offer sacrifices. It describes acute angle, obtuse angle, right angle etc. Aryabhata formulated the rule for
finding the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of trigonometry. The most famous work of his time is the
Suryasiddanta the like of which was not found in Contemporary ancient east.
During the Gupta period mathematics was developed to such an extent and more advanced than any other nation of
antiquity. Quite early India devised a rudimentary algebra which led to more calculations than were possible for the
Greeks and led to the study of number for its own sake. The earliest inscription regarding the data by a system of
nine digits and a zero is dated as 595 A.D. Evidently the system was known to mathematicians some centuries
before it was employed in inscriptions. Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta (7th century), Mahavira (9th
century) and Bhaskara (12th century) made several discoveries which were known to Europe only after
Renaissance. The understood the importance of positive and negative quantities, evolved sound system of
extracting squares and cube roots and could solve quadratic and certain types of indeterminate equations. Aryabhata
gave approximate value of pie. It was more accurate than that of the Greeks. Also some strides were made in
trigonometry, empirical geometry and calculus. Chiefly in astronomy the mathematical implications of zero and
infinity were fully realized unlike anywhere in the world.
Among the various branches of mathematics, Hindus gave astronomy the highest place of honour. Suryasidhanta is
the best know book on Hindu astronomy. The text was later modified two or three times between 500 A.D. and
1500 A.D. The system laid down in the book can even now be used to predict eclipse within an error of two or three
hours.
The most renowned scholars of astronomy were Aryabhata and Varhamihira. Aryabhata belonged to the fifth
century, and Varahamihira to the sixth. Aryabhata calculated the position of the planets according to the Babylonian
method. He discovered the cause of lunar and solar eclipses. The circumstances of the earth which he measured on
the basis of the speculation is considered to be correct even now. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the
earth rotates around it. The book of Aryabhata is the Aryabhatiya. Varhimihira's well-known work is called
Brihatsamhita which belongs to the sixth century A.D. Varhamihira stated that the moon rotates around the earth
and the earth rotates around the earth rotates around the sun. He utilized several Greek works to explain the
movement of the planets and some other astronomical problems. Although Greek knowledge influenced Indian
astronomy, there is no doubt that Indian pursued the subject further and made use of it in their observations of the
planets.
Aryabhata wrote a book when he was barely 23 years. Varahmihira of the sixth century wrote a summary of five
astronomical books current wrote a summary of five astronomical books current in his time. Brahamagupta of the
seventh century A.D. appreciated the value of observation and astronomy and his book was translated into Arabic.
One last great scientist was Bhaskara II. One of the chapters in the book Sidhanta Shiromani, dealing with
mathematics, is the well-known work of Lilavati.
Nevertheless, Indian views on the origin and evolution of the universe was matter of religion rather than of science.
The cosmic schemes of Hindus and Jains in fundamentals were the same. All postulated a flat earth although Indian
astronomers came to know that this was incorrect early in the Christian era. The idea of flat such remained for
religious purposes.
Regarding astronomy proper it was studied as a Vedanta. Its name was Jyotishya. A primitive kind of astronomy
was developed mainly for the purpose of settling the dates and times at which periodical sacrifices were to be
performed. Several Greek words gained momentum in sanskrit through knowledge of Greek astronomy. The sixth
century astronomer Varahamihira called one of his five astronomical systems as Romaka Sidhanta. It is only
western astronomy that introduced in Indian the sign of the Zodaic. The seven-day week, the hour, and several other
ideas. Later, Indian astronomers made some advances on the knowledge of the Greeks and passed on their
knowledge with that of mathematics via the Arabs to Europe. As early as seventh century, a Syrian astronomer
knew of the greatness of Indian astronomy and mathematics.
In the field of medicine, Aurveda was the contribution of India. Seven hundred hymns in the Vedas, particularly
Atharva Veda, refer to topics of Ayurveda. Indeed, the whole approach was not scientific. He earliest mention of
medicines is in the Atharva Veda. As in order ancient societies, the remedies recommended in it are replete with
magical charms and spells. Medicine could not develop along scientific lines. In post-Maurya time India witnessed
two famous scholars of the Ayurveda, Susruta and Charaka. In the Susrutasmhita Susruta describes methods of
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operating contract, stone disease and several other ailments. He mentions as many as 121 implements to be used for
operations. For the treatment of disease he lays special emphasis on diet. And cleanliness. Charaka wrote the
Charakasamhita in the second century A.D. It is like encyclopedia of Indian medicines. It describes various types of
fever. Leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis.
Possibly Charaka did not know that some of these are infections. His book contains the names of a large number of
plants and herbs which were to be used as medicine. The book is thus useful not only for study of ancient Indian
medicine but also for ancient Indian flora and chemistry. In subsequent centuries Indian medicines developed on the
lines laid down by Charaka. The Vedic hymns attribute various diseases to demons and spirits and the remedies for
hymns prescribing correctly the symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis, and connecting dropsy with heart diseases.
However, national medicine began to 800 B.C. Medicine became a regular subject of study at centers like Taxila
and Varanasi. The latter specialized in surgery. Susrutasmhita was compiled in the fourth century A.D. Charaka
compiled the teachings of two of his predecessors who served at Taxila. Charaka and Susruta's Samhitas reached as
far as Manchuria through translations in Tibetan and other Asian languages. In the eighth century A.D. these books
influenced European medicine as carried over by two Arabs. Charaka Samhita was published as late as 1550 in
Arabic. Despite these achievements, medicine did not make any remarkable strides, for absence of dissection led to
ignorance of anatomy and physiology.
Surgery of some kind was even during the Vedic period. It was only from the time of Susruta that surgery came to
occupy an important place in medicine. Surgical operations were performed like taking the foetus out of the womb.
Including caesarin, section, treatment of fistula removal of stone from bladder and plastic surgery for the nose.
Despite the developments as the above in medicine, ancient Indian doctors, in general had no knowledge of the
functions of brain, although they knew the importance of the spinal cord and the existence of nervous system. Once
again social taboos stood in the way of the growth of medical knowledge. It was a taboo to too touch dead bodies.
Despite the fact that the physicological knowledge of ancient Indians was very poor, Indians evolved empirical
surgery. They knew bone-setting, plastic surgery and surgeons in ancient India were experts is repairing noses, ears
and lips lost, or injured by mutilation.
The physician was a respectable member of society as the Vaidyas were ranked higher in the hierarchy. Even to this
day the rules of professional behaviour laid down in medical tests are almost the same as those of Hippocrates. Of
course, some statements at one place states that the Physicians should not betray the patients and should be always
of pleasant speech. In this context, he pleads that every day they must pray on rising and going to bed, since the
work of the welfare of the all beings specially cows.
Regarding physics, it was closely linked with religion and theology and it even differed from sect to sect. Almost all
religions believed that the universe consisted of elements like earth, air, water, and akasha (ether). Most schools
maintained that there were as many types of atoms as there were elements. Some Buddhists conceived atom as the
minutes object capable of occupying space but also as occupying the minutest possible duration of time coming into
being and vanishing almost in an instant only to be succeeded by another atom caused by the first. This somewhat
resembles the quantum theory of plank. The Vaisesika school believed a single atom to be a point in space
completely without magnitude. Further, most of the schools believed that atoms constitute molecules. However, the
Indian atomic theories were not based on experiment but intuitive logic. The great theologian Sankara strongly
argued against their existence.
Beyond this knowledge of atoms, physics in India did not develop much. However, in the science of acustics, India
made real discovers. Based on experience for this correct recitation on Vedas, the human era was highly trained for
the phonetic study - distinguished musical tones far closer than those of other ancient musical systems much earlier
than other civilization.
Regarding chemistry and metallurgy too, some progress was made in ancient times. The Harappans developed
metallurgy of copper and bronze about 2500 B.C. The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented grains and fruits, and
dyed scale production of copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was highly
esteemed in the ancient world and it was exported in large quantities. Tin and mercury were imported and worked.
And from the senventh century, alchemy was referred to in literature. The medical chemistry of ancient India did
succeed in producing many important alkalis, acids and metallic salts. It is claimed by Bashama that ancient Indians
ever discovered a form of gun powder. The coming of middle ages, Indian chemists, like their counterparts in the
rest of the world, became increasingly interested in a specific remedy for all diseases, the source of perpetual youth,
and even the surest means to salvation. Although they could not make precious metals, they could understand the
chemistry of metallic sets. The heights attained by Indians in metallurgy and engineering are borne out by the
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almost pure copper stature of Buddha found at Sultanganj and the famous iron Pillar at Mehrauli (Delhi which has
been able to withstand rain and weather for centuries without rusting).
LEARNING AND EDUCATION

Institution of temple and Mathas, Agraharas, education and literature
Assess the educational system in early India and identify important educational institutions of the
period. (30)(2012)
The highly esteemed Vedas have come to down to us. They existed for nearly 2000 years before they were known
in India. It was the knowledge of acustics that enabled ancient Indians to orally transmit the Vedas from generation
to generation. Institutional form of imparting learning came into existence in the early centuries of the Christian era.
The approach to learning was to study logic and epistemology.
The study of logic was followed by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, one of the most important topics of Indian
thoughts was pramana or means of reliable knowledge. The nyaya schools upheld four pramanas - perceptions of
are liable by analogy or comparison, word (Sabda), and pronunciation of a reliable authority such as the Vedas. The
Vedanta school added one more to it i.e. intuition.
It is probably while studying the process of inference that the schools of true logic arose. Ancient Indian postulated
syllogism though not as accurate as that of Aristotle. Yet, they recognize some of the major fallacies of logic like
reduction and absurdom, circular argument, infinite regression, dilemma, and ignoration.
In the field epistemology, Jains contributed the most for the Jains there was not only two possibilities of existence
and non-existence but seven more. Although the modern logicians might laugh at this pedantic system of
ontological and epistemological reality they concede that the world is more complex and subtle than we think it to
be.
Regarding institutional form of education the first was the guru-sishya system. According to sacred texts, the
training of the Brahmin pupil took place at the home of a Brahmin teacher. In some texts the guru is depicted as the
poor ascetic and it is the duty of the student to beg for his teacher. The first lesson that was taught to the student was
the performance of sandhya and also reciting of gayatri.
The family functioned as a domestic school, an asrama or a hermitage where the mental faculties of the pupils were
developed by the teacher's constant attention and personal instruction. Education, treated as a matter of individual
concern, did not admit of the method of mass production applicable in industry. The making of man was regarded
as an artistic and not a mechanical process. Indeed, the aim of education was the developing of the pupil's
personality, his innate and latent capacities. This view of education as a process of one's inner growth and self-
fulfillment evolved its own technique, its rules, methods and practices.
The thinking principle, manasa sakti was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. So the primary subject of
education was the mind itself. According to the ancient Indian theory of education, the training of the mind and the
process of thinking, are essential for the acquisition of knowledge. The chase counts more than the game. So the
pupil had mainly to educed himself and achieve his own mental growth. Education was reduced to the three simple
processes of Sravana, Manana and Niddhyaasana. Sravana was listening to the truths as they fell from the lips of
the teacher. Knowledge was technically called sruti or what was heard by the ear and not what was seen in writing.
The second process of knowledge called Manana implies that the pupil has to think out for himself the meaning of
the lessons imparted to him orally by his teacher so that they may be assimilate fully. The third step known as
Nidhyasana means complete comprehension by the pupil of the truth that is taught so that he may live the truth and
not merely explain it by word. Knowledge must result in realization.
The admission was made by the formal ceremony upanayana or initiation by which the pupil left the home of his
natural parents for that of the preceptor. In this new home he had a second birth and was called Dvija. Twice-born.
Besides these regular schools of instructions, there were special institutions for the promotion of advance study and
research. These are called in the Rig Veda as Brahmana-Sangha, Academies of learned most its discussions
hammered into shape the very language of the country, the refined language of Sanksrit (Samkrata) as the Vehicle
of highest thought. These Academics were called palisades, there is a reference to the Pancala parisad in the
Upnishads, in whose proceedings even kings participated, learning was also prompted by discussions at public
meetings which were a regular of rural life, and were addressed by wandering scholars known as Carakas, These
scholars toured the country to deliver public discourses and invite discussion.
What might count as earliest literary congress of the world was the congress of philosophers which was codification
of Brahmanical philosophy by discussing the subject under the direction of the master philosopher, Yajnavalkya. In
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these deliberations at the highest level, a lady- philosopher named Gargi was a prominent participant beside men
like Uddalaka Arni. Obviously, in those days women were admitted to the highest knowledge and did not suffer
from any education disabilities. There was equality between the sexes in the field of knowledge. The Rig Veda
mentions women Rais called Brahmanavadinis.
To begin with, in ancient India, the main subject was the Veda. The teacher would instruct handful of students
seated on ground. For many hours daily they would repeat verses after verses of the Vedas till they attain mastery of
at least one of them. To ensure correctness of memory, the hymns were taught in more than one way.
Soon the curricula was expanded. The limbs of the Veda or the six Vedangas were taught - the performance of
sacrifice, correct pronunciation, knowledge of prosody, etymology, grammer, and jyotisha or the science of
calendar. Also in the post-Vedic era, teachers often instructed their students in the six schools of Philoshophy.
The writers of smritis maintain that young women of upper class underwent this kind of training. This is a doubtful
contention. Princes and other leading Kshatriyas were trained in all the manifold sciences to make them fit for
government. Most boys of the lower orders learnt their trades from their fathers.
Some cities became renowned because of their teachers. Chief among them were - Varanasi, Taxila from the day of
Buddha and Kanchi in the beginning of the Christian era. Varanasi was famous for its religious teachers. Taxila was
known for its secular studies. Among the famous men connected with Taxila were Panini, the grammarian of the
fifth or fourth century B.C. : Kautilya, the Brahmin minister of Chandragupta Maurya and Charaka one of the two
leading authorities of Indian medical sciences. The institutions imparting vedic knowledge that exists even today.
There were also universities like Taxila and Ujjain for medicine and learning including mathematics and astronomy
respectively. In the south Kanchi became an important center of learning. Hiuen remarks that vallabhi was as great
as Nalanda and Vikramashila.
Although the smirits maintained that a small number of students study under a single teacher, university turned
towns came into existence like Varanasi, Taxila etc. At Varanasi there were 500 students and a number of teachers.
The whole establishment was maintained by charitable people Ideally, the teacher asked no fee, but the students
repaid his debt by their service to the teacher. A Jataka story tells of how a teacher of Taxila treated well the
students who paid him money while keeping other waiting. It is also interesting to note that in Taxila even married
people were admitted as students.
Out of all the Universities, Nalanda and imposed structures. Eight Colleges were built by different patterns
including one by the king of Sri Vijaya (Sumatra). One of the colleges was four storied high as stated by Hiuen-
Tsang. Every facility existed for studying various kinds of subjects in the University. There were three great
libraries as per Tibetan records.
Nalanda attracted students not only from different parts of India but also from Tibet and China. The standards of
examination were stiff, and only those who could pass the test prescribed by the dvarapandita or the scholar at the
gate were admitted to this university. Also, for being admitted to the university, candidates were required to be
familiar with old and new books.
Nalanda was one of the earliest examples of a residential cum-teaching institutions which housed thousands of
monks devoted to learning, philoshophy and meditation. Over 10,000 students including teachers lived and studied
at the university. They came from various parts of the world apart from India-Central Asia, China and Korea.
Though Nalanda was primarily a Buddhist university its curricula included Hindu scriptures, Philoshophy and
medicine as recorded by Hiuen-Tsang. Logic and exegetics were pre-eminent because these students were expected
to enter into dialogue with visiting doctors of all schools. This compulsion of public debate made both teachers and
students become familiar with all systems of thought in accurate summary.
The university had also succession of brilliant teachers. Dharmapala was a Tamil noble from Kanchi in the south.
Janamitra come from another country. Silabhadra, the saintly guru of Hiuen-Tsang, came from Assam and he was a
converted Brahmin. A great achievements of the University was that it was able to continuously rejuvenate
Buddhism in far off countries. Tibetan records mention a succession of learned monks who visited their country. It
is also said that Sudhakara Simha went to China and worked there on the translation of Buddhist texts.

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_____________________________________________________________Notes on History (Optional, Antient), UPSC

Antient & Medieval

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

i. A paleolithic and Mesolithic site ii. A Mesolithic site

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Nagarjunkonda / Vijyapuri (Nalgonda, AP. 2006. 2003)

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Following map sites is courtacy to Vivek Patil

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Literary sources: religious literature.

Foreign accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Geographical factors; hunting and gathering (Paleolithic)

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Beginning of agriculture (Neolithic)

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Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

The Chronology of Pre-Harappan and Harappan Cultures

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Indus Valley Civilization:

EMERGENCE OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

FROM VILLAGES TO TOWNS AND CITIES

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Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Art and architecture

Arts and Crafts

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

ESTABLISHMENT OF TRADING NETWORKS

Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

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Bhushan V. Deshmukh (bhushan2006@gmail.com,

Survival and significance