2 – Complex Waves

LMSC208 –Music Acoustics

LMSC 208
Music Acoustics
2 – Complex Waves

2.1
 2 – Complex Waves
LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Complex Waves
Objectives:
• Work with graphs, tables and formulas.
• Understand the Sinusoidal Signal and the Simple 
Harmonic Motion (SHM) concept.
• Understand the concept of Standing Waves and 
its relation with the Harmonic Series.
• See Complex Waves as a combination of simple 
sinusoidal signals harmonically related: Fourier 
Analysis and Synthesis.
• Timbre, consonance and dissonance (roughness).
• Understand the whys of several Tuning Systems. 2.2
 2 – Complex Waves
LMSC208 –Music Acoustics

Complex Waves
II. Complex Waves
A. Functional relations
1. Tables
2. Formulas
3. Graphs
B. Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
1. Equilibrium
2. Restoring force
3. Inertia
C. Complex waves
1. Fourier synthesis
2. Fourier analysis
3. Harmonic series
4. Timbre and instrument recognition
5. Introduction to Tuning Systems
2.3
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
URLs for Topic 2 – Complex Waves
• http://faberacoustical.com/
Mac software for sound analysis

• http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/
waves & vibrations demos

• http://in.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/atmi02/hs/
the harmonics series in notation & sound

• http://www.sonicvisualiser.org/index.html
software. Powerful 
and free software for analyzing sounds
2.4
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
URLs for Topic 2 – Continued
• http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/mechanics/
clips of simple harmonic motion

• http://roventskij.net/software/soundgraph/
a graphing calculator that plays the sound

• http://hyperphysics.phy‐astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/trawvcon.html
good flowchart describing waves

• http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/raven/RavenOverview.html
Raven Lite is a free sound analysis developed for 
analyzing bird sounds but useful for all sounds.

2.5
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
• Let’s do a basic review of Math Functions
• A Functional Relations explains how one 
variable is related to another. 
• Information can be displayed in the following 
ways:

1. Table
2. Formula
3. Graph

2.6
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
1. Tables: you look up one value to determine 
what another value is

Fig. 1. Weather Data 2.7
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
1. Tables: More “old” tables

Logarithms tables

Student Grade
Anton X1
Amanda X2
Caitlin Y1
Nicole Y2 Sin tables
Kourtney Z1
2.8
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
2. Formulas – can help us understand the nature of 
the relationship. It is a mathematical expression 
that relates variables.
• The formula for the length of day from the
preceding slide of weather data would be:
2
𝐿 12 ∗ 1 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑁 · 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐷 𝐶
𝜋

• Sometimes is better to use simples

“approximations” like y=x2, even if this
approximation is only valid for a specific range of
the data.
2.9
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
2. Formulas – More known formulas...
𝑣 𝐹 𝑚 𝑎
𝑦 𝑡 A sin 360 · 𝑓 · 𝑡 ∅ λ 𝑃
𝑓 𝐴 𝐴
1 𝑇 𝑃 𝑃
𝑓 𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑝𝑙 20 log 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
2𝐿 𝜇 𝑃 2 10

And more complex ones (don’t worry if you do not know them):

2.10
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
3. Graphs – are often elegant and, as they say, “a
picture is worth a thousand words”. You see the
relationship between the variables

Fig. 2. This shows the length of days for several cities.

2.11
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
3. Graphs – other graphs we have seen
𝑦 𝑡 A sin 360 · 𝑓 · 𝑡 ∅

 at 20ºC; c=342 m/s

frequency of a string of 50cm and tension T
18 1600

16
1400
𝑣
14
λ
12 𝑓 1200

frequancy (Hz)
10
1000
 (m)

8
800

6
1 𝑇
600
𝑓
4 2𝐿 𝜇
400
2

0 200
2
10
3
10
4
10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
frequency (Hz)
Tension T (N)
2.12
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Functional Relations
• Oscilloscope traces and FFT (Fast Fourier transform) analysis
programs show FUNCTIONAL relationships among the
quantities time, energy, and frequency.

Fig. 3. Old Analog Oscilloscope Display

Fig. 5. Computer FFT Spectrum 
Analyzer – My aaaaah

Fig. 4. Computer Digital Oscilloscope – My aaaaah
2.13
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• As commented in topic I, the natural behavior of most
musical vibrations sources (pitch based) are related with
the Simple Harmonic Motion.
• It includes string, woods, metals, and any other
instrument with a detectable pitch.

• We will use this web resource for in this topic:

http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/SpringMassEnergy.htm

It has an interesting demonstration of Simple Harmonic 
Motion (SHM) and Pendulums

2.14
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• The SHM is always related with the sine function we
have already seen. That’s the basic oscillation and
appears in any pitch‐based instrument.
• We can see it with a mass and a spring (and the slinky):

Talk about:
• Equilibrium point
• Restoring force
• Inertia

time

• And in a vibrating string:

2.15
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• The sine function is mathematically defined using a
circumference of radius c=1, and depends on the value of
the angle α. Basic trigonometry:

𝑎
sin ∝
𝑐

cos ∝ sin ∝‐90 °)

𝑎
tan ∝
𝑏

Fig. 6. Sine Function 2.16
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• It we evolve α with time (we move point B through the
circumference at a fixed velocity) we can plot the sine
function:

Time instantnts 1      2    3 …

2.17
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• Let’s animate it:

• This example is in radians, not in degrees.

• Remember, 360 ° =2π radians. 2.18
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• Other explanation (from Musimathics, G. Loy):

2.19
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• Go now to 
http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/SpringMassEnergy.htm

• And http://hyperphysics.phy‐astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/soucon.html#soucon :

Fig. 7. Simple Harmonic Motion
2.20
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
But...
• Most sounds don’t sound like a sine wave (that’s good,
sines are boring waves…)
• We have triangle, square, and other waves that are
different than sine waves, like the ones created by any
instrument.
• These move air differently than a sine wave, and we hear it
different too.
• How do we understand these new waves?
• It is related with
– Standing waves: how their are created in most instruments
– Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier, the mathematic that explained
these questions
2.21
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Standing Waves
• In most musical instruments we have standing waves. They
maintain during a long time without modifying its
oscillation frequency.
• We will see it first with a string:
 If we have a string or rope with one of
the extremes fixed, and the other no,
when we propagate a wave, what
happens is that the wave returns with
the same sign.
 But, if both extremes are fixed, like all
the instruments with strings, the return
wave returns with the opposite wave.
 If we continue to generating new waves,
the forward and backward waves are
combined by superposition.
2.22
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Standing Waves
• If the length of the string is half the wavelength of the
wave we propagate, then we have a standing wave. It
seems that the wave is not propagating any more.
• This is what happens when we hit a string. All the
frequencies whose wavelengths are not related with the
length of the string L by a natural number, will be reflected
at the extremes and they will be attenuated very fast
because they create destructive interferences. This will
generate the transient.
• BUT, the frequencies whose wavelengths are related with
the length of the string L by a natural number, will tend to
continue oscillating due to they create stationary waves.
THIS ARE THE MODES OF THE STRING.
• Do you remember the Modes of the room we found
earlier? 2.23
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Standing Waves
• These are possible standing waves on a string of length L.
λ/L
N
Shape                                                Frequency
N We have:
A • Nodes: where the string do 
N A N not move.
N
• Antinodes: where the string 
N N has its maximum of motion.

What are these frequencies?

• What normally happens is 
that we have all together!!!
• A combination of frequency 
related sines of different 
amplitudes. Pitch.
• That’s why we do not have 
pure sine signals!!!
2.24
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Standing Waves
• A similar behavior is obtained
with air in pipes (wind Pressure variations

instruments). More details on

the Hartmann recommended
book and at
• http://hyperphysics.phy‐
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/rescon.html#c1
Displacement variations
• These are the modes of the
pipes

2.25
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Standing Waves
• With membranes, these is much more complex and
funny.
• It depends on very complex mathematical equations and
functions (Bessel functions), and the shape and
properties of the membrane.

2.26
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Standing Waves
• These complex patterns of nodes and antinodes are
called Chladni patterns.
• They are very important in percussion instruments and in
the design of the resonance chambers of instruments like
guitars and violins.
• See this:
– http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/SHM.htm
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvJAgrUBF4w
– http://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/chladni.html

2.27
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
In 1822, the French mathematician and
physic Jean Baptist Joseph Fourier (1768‐
1830) came forth with a mathematical proof
demonstrating that any waveform or signal,
no matter how complex, could be reduced
to an infinite set of sine wave components.
If the particular case of periodic waveforms signals, like
the ones produced by most musical instruments (periodic
or quasi‐periodic), this decomposition is simpler:
Any periodic waveform could be expressed as the
combination of a sine of the fundamental frequency f0,
and sine signals of multiples of f0 : 2 f0, 3f0 , 4f0 … of
different amplitudes and phases, that are the harmonics
or partials. Fourier Series. 2.28
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
Fourier developed all the mathematics that relate the time
domain and the frequency domain (in 1882 without
computers!!!)
Mathematically, any periodic signal f(t) with frequency
could be represented as the combination of sinusoidal
signals of f0, 2 f0, 3f0 , 4f0 …

Just for curiosity, it is:

Or:

2.29
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics Fourier
For example, a sawtooth or a square waveform could be
expressed as the addition of the fundamental frequency
and the harmonics. Go to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series

The more harmonics, the more similitude with the original

signal. The phase of the components define the shape of
the waveform. As we will see, humans are nearly
insensible to the phase.
If the signal is no periodic (like noise and impulsive
sounds), then it can be decomposed as an infinite number
of frequencies that are not harmonically related. This is
the Fourier Transform. Play with harmonics: link 2.30
 2 – Complex Waves
LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
The process of doing this decomposition of any
complex waveform signal in an infinite set of sines
with different amplitudes, phases, and frequencies is
called Fourier Analysis.

Adding these sinusoids together again will reproduce

exactly the original waveform. This inverse process is
the Fourier Synthesis.

How does it sound?

2.31
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
First, a complex sound built up form the fundamental
frequency of 100 Hz:

And second, a sawtooth of 440 Hz signal adding

iteratively more harmonics:

f0 +f1 +f2 +f3 +f4 +f5 +f6

2.32
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• Fourier analysis can be implemented on modern
personal computers using a computationally
intensive algorithm known as the Fast‐Fourier
Transform (FFT).
• FFT algorithms can run on today’s fast personal
computers in real‐time, opening up myriad
possibilities for application in the music industry as
demonstrated by FFT algorithm’s use in MP3 and
other compression techniques like AAC.
• FFT is the most mathematical algorithm
implemented ever. Its use goes beyond the audio:
communications, radar, image, medicine, etc…
2.33
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• The use of the FFT allow us to have a view of the music
signal directly in the frequency domain, like notes. We
can see easily the frequency content of any signal, just
with our computer or Smartphone.
• A plot of the frequency or phase of a waveform
against amplitude is called a spectrum.
• For a pure sinusoidal tone this is just a single line. An
amplitude spectrum of a complex waveform shows the
amplitude of each frequency component or sinusoid.
• Let’s play with a spectrum analyzer software like
AudioXplorer, or other, or even, an App.
• Look for an spectrum analyzer audio‐unit or VST to use
it with AudioMulch or any other host program.
2.34
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier

Fig. 8. FFT of a 1kHz Square Wave 2.35
 2 – Complex Waves
LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• Any periodic signal shows a pattern of repetition in the
time waveform which corresponds to the primary rate
of vibration of the signal, known as the fundamental
frequency. This corresponds to the lowest major
frequency component in the signal.
• A vibration source like the vocal cords produce what
are called harmonics which are oscillations at multiples
of the fundamental frequency. For example, a 100Hz
source vibration will give rise to harmonics at 200Hz,
300Hz, 400Hz, etc. In the spectrum of such a signal,
the harmonics show up as spikes at these frequencies.
Spectral distance.

2.36
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• The fundamental frequency can be measured from a
instruments waveform seen via an oscilloscope by
looking for the period of oscillation of the signal
around the zero axis.
• Estimates can also be made from the spectrum since it
shows a large peak at this frequency and at each
multiple due to the harmonics.
• Measurements can be made of the frequency of the
major peak, and better, from the distance between
harmonic peaks, the spectral distance.
• Be careful when using an spectrum graph with a
logarithmic frequency axis.

2.37
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• Non‐periodic sounds like noise or transients, have a
different spectrum, where it is not possible to identify
the fundamental frequency and harmonics.
• They use to have an spectrum full of frequency
components.
fo 2fo 3fo ∙∙∙

fo

Periodic sound Non‐periodic sound

2.38
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• Even if the spectrum has clear identifiable frequency
components, but they are not harmonically related, then
the periodicity of the signal is lost.
• Example: Signals with three components (100, 200, 300),
and (100, 215, 300).
Signal with components of 100, 200 and 300 Hz
2

0 100 200 300

-1

-2 freq (Hz)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Signal with components of 100, 215 and 300 Hz

2

0 100 215 300

-1

-2 freq (Hz)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
time (s)

2.39
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• Another interesting measurement derived from the
spectrum is the Spectrogram or Sonogram.
• It represents the evolution of the spectrum of the
analyzed signal in time. The amplitude of the
frequencies is normally show as a color range.
• The spectrum is the “photograph” of the actual
frequency content, and the spectrogram, its evolution.
Time (s)

Frequency (Hz) 2.40
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier
• Play with your voice and different sounds with the
spectrogram.
• Say aaaaaah changing the pitch, make noise, etc.
• Download an App for your mobile or computer and
and enjoy!!!
Time (s)

Frequency (Hz)

2.41
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Fourier and Sound Review
Play a little bit with this web that sees
What is the Sound?, signals and
harmonics:
https://pudding.cool/2018/02/waveforms/

And later, see this fantastic animation

that explains how a loudspeaker works:
https://animagraffs.com/loudspeaker/

Google musiclab:
https://musiclab.chromeexperiments.com/

2.42
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
The Path to Timbre
•We have seen and studied the main behavior of the
vibrations of the instruments and the harmonics
created by them, that we can study in detail observing
the spectrum.
•But still we can find differences between instruments
playing the same note, even with the same kind of
instruments (two different violins, i.e.), or voices.
•These differences are described and defined in what we
call timbre.
•Timbre describes the particularities of each instrument
or voice and goes beyond the harmonic content. As we
will see, it depends also on the resonances of the body
of the instrument, the temporal envelope of each
partial (harmonic), the variation in time of the partial
frequencies, … 2.43
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
The Path to Timbre
•In the 1970’s John Grey, James A. Moorer, and J. C.
Risset were some of the first musicians/scientists to use
computers to analyze tones produced by acoustic
instruments.
•Using computers they were able to isolate the
individual partials of a variety of acoustic instrument
tones and show how each partial's amplitude
progressed independently through time.
•Fig. 9 displays an analysis of a trumpet tone produced
by Grey and Moorer.

2.44
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
The Path to Timbre

Fig. 9. The amplitude progressions of the partials of a trumpet tone.

2.45
 2 – Complex Waves
LMSC208 – Music Acoustics The Path to Timbre
• The graph in Fig. 9 is 3‐dimensional. The three dimensions are: 1)
time, read left‐to‐right, 2) amplitude, read down‐to‐up, and 3)
partial (harmonic) number, read back‐to‐front. This type of
diagram is called a spectral diagram because it unveils the
frequency components of the acoustical sound source.
• Recall that when light is passed through a prism, the individual
frequency component (colors) of white light are unveiled because
they travel at different speeds through the glass medium.
Similarly, Fig. 9 shows the first twelve partials of a trumpet tone.
The first 0.5 seconds of the trumpet tone are displayed.
• The lower partials rise first with the lowest tone components and
the loudest ones, and the last to decay.
• A trumpet tone can be expressed, and hence synthesized, as a set
harmonic partials (or perhaps more accurately, nearly‐harmonic
partials).
• There are differences in the time envelope of the partials, its
evolution, and also the small frequency variations they suffer. 2.46
 2 – Complex Waves
LMSC208 – Music Acoustics The Path to Timbre

Fig. 10. Amplitude Envelope of first 20 Harmonics of a Trumpet

2.47
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
White Noise 
• For processes of testing and equalizing rooms and auditoriums, audio
loudspeaker systems and analyze audio electronics, it is convenient to
have broadband noise signals, signals with “all frequencies”.
• Typically, white noise or pink noise is used. White noise is noise
whose amplitude is constant throughout the audible frequency range.
It has the same energy per hertz.
• It is fairly easy to produce white noise ‐ it is often produced by a
random noise generator in which all frequencies are equally probable.
This behavior is inside some electronic components or could be
created by an algorithm in a computer.
• Its sound is similar to the sound of steam escaping from an
overheated radiator. The ear is aware of a lot of high frequency sound
in white noise since the ear is more sensitive to high frequencies.
• Since each successive octave of frequency will have twice as many Hz
in its range, the power in white noise will increase by a factor of two
for each octave band. Twice the power corresponds to a 3 decibel
increase, so white noise is said to increase +3 dB per octave in power. 2.48
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Pink Noise
• For processes of testing and equalizing rooms and auditoriums, audio
loudspeaker systems and analyze audio electronics, it is convenient to
have broadband noise signals, signals with “all frequencies”.
• Whereas white noise is defined as sound with equal power per Hz in
frequency, pink noise is filtered to give equal power per octave or
equal power per 1/3 octave. Since the number of Hz in each
successive octave increases by two, this means the power of pink
noise per Hz of bandwidth decreases by a factor of two or 3 dB per
octave.
• Since pink noise has relatively more bass than white noise, it sounds
more like the roar of a waterfall than like the higher hissing sound of
white noise.
• If we analyze the spectrum of the music in long term, it has a mean
spectrum more related with pink noise that with white noise.
• Pink noise is often the choice for equalizing auditoriums. Real‐time
analyzers can be set up so that they display a straight horizontal line
when they receive pink noise.
• Some experiments with noise…
2.49
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
Noise
• Long term spectrum of white and pink noises, using a logarithmic
smoothing function.

Pink Noise

2.50
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
The Harmonic Series
• A path to understanding musical intervals, scales, 
tuning and timbre.
• Topic VI “Tuning Systems and How They Affected 
Our Music” will cover these topics in more detail.

• Go to:
http://in.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/atmi02/hs/
for more information.

2.52
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
The Harmonic Series
• When musicians use the term overtone series,
they are generally referring to a set of frequency
components that appear above a musical tone.
• The related term harmonic series is a more
precisely defined concept with applications in
both music and mathematics.
• Musicians sometimes use these terms
interchangeably, the term harmonic series
specifically refers to a series of numbers related
by whole‐number ratios.
• For example, the series of frequencies 1000,
2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, etc., given in Hertz
(Hz.), is a harmonic series; so is the series 500,
1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, etc. 2.53
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
The Harmonic Series
• Notice that the difference in frequency between
adjacent members of both series is constant, that
is to say, the harmonics are equally‐spaced.
• The lowest frequency component of such a series
is called the fundamental.
• For example, the fundamental of the first series is
1000 Hz, and the fundamental of the second series
is 500 Hz.
• The other (higher) frequency components are
called overtones, harmonics or partials. NOTE: the
fundamental IS the first harmonic.

2.54
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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics
The Harmonic Series
• overtone “One of the frequency components of a sound
other than that of lowest frequency. Usually overtones
are numbered consecutively in ascending order of
frequency; they need not be harmonic.”
Murray Campbell, The New Grove Dictionary of Music
• A compact way to express this type of series is to use
frequency‐multiple notation. For example, 1000, 2000,
3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, etc. and 500, 1000, 1500, 2000,
2500, 3000, etc., may both be expressed as:

f0, 2 f0, 3 f0, 4 f0, 5 f0, 6 f0, etc.

where f0 is the fundamental frequency, and the whole

numbers to the left of each f0 indicates the respective
frequency multiplier (1000 and 500 respectively).
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The Harmonic Series
A harmonic series may also be 
expressed using musical staff 
notation as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9. The first 20 partials of a harmonic series for the fundamental

pitch C2 (ca. 65.4 Hz.) expressed in traditional musical staff notation
with frequency multiples indicated between the staves.
The ‐ and + symbols indicate that the notated pitch is significantly
lower or higher, respectively, than the same pitch on a modern piano.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_series_(music)

Let’s hear now the harmonic series. Any comment?

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This traditional way of notating the harmonic series is obviously
less precise at conveying frequency information than the
frequency‐multiple notation shown above in (9). However, it does
provide a convenient way for musicians to memorize the
harmonic series as a kind‐of chord/scale of nature. Once
memorized it may easily be transposed to any fundamental pitch.
For example, Fig. 10 shows a similar diagram for the first 20
partials of a harmonic series on A1 (ca. 55 Hz.).

Fig. 10. The first 20 partials of a harmonic series

for the fundamental pitch A1 (ca. 55 Hz.) with
their frequency values.
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The Harmonic Series
• In Fig. 10, the frequency of each partial has also been
specified. (The frequency of each partial may be calculated
by multiplying the fundamental frequency, in this case 55
Hz., by the partial number indicated between the staves.)
• A simple explanation for why such a pattern of harmonics
(overtones) appears above the pitch we actually perceive
may be found in the physical model of a plucked string, as
seen before.
• We explored this model and the relationship between
string length and music interval in order to gain a deeper
understanding of why this pattern occurs in nature, and
understand why string and wind instruments create
harmonic series.

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The Harmonic Series
String Length and Musical Interval

1 𝑇
𝑓
2𝐿 𝜇

Fig. 11. shows an illustration of a monochord that 
appeared in Hindemith's book.

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• A monochord is a simple instrument used by theorists since the Middle

Ages to investigate the relationship between string length and pitch.
• A monochord has three main components: 1) a string fixed at both
ends, 2) a moveable bridge, and 3) a resonating body.
• When plucked, the monochord's string vibrates at a rate directly
proportional to its length. (The string’s density and tension must also
be taken into account, but we assume they are fixed)
• However, it has been demonstrated experimentally that this is not the
only mode of vibration of the string. In addition, a string
simultaneously vibrates over fractional divisions of its length (1/2, 1/3,
1/4, 1/5, 1/6, etc.; Fig. 12) producing a series of harmonics (overtones)
whose frequencies are inversely proportional (2x, 3x, 4x, 5x, 6x, etc.,
where x is the fundamental frequency of the string).
• Theoretically, an infinite number of these multiple modes of vibration
exist, each mode producing its own harmonic. As one ascends the
series, the amplitude, or loudness of each harmonic tends to diminish,
so the higher modes produce harmonics that are usually too soft for us
to hear.
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Fig. 12. The first four simultaneous modes of vibration of a string 
whose length is L.  (See Pg. 74 in Olson text.)

• Research by music psychologists has shown that the ear/brain system tends to fuse
harmonically related frequency components into a single sensation we call pitch. Up
to the sixth overtone affects the pitch.
• Rather than perceiving the many individual harmonics of a musical tone, we
ordinarily perceive an identifiable tone color, or timbre, whose pitch is associated
with the fundamental of the harmonic series being experienced. And this is
good!!!!!
• Some instruments have some degree of in‐harmonicity, so the overtones are not a
pure multiple of the fundamental. This is related with changes of the propagation
velocity of the wave with frequency… but this is out of the scope of this course. 2.61
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“...pitch is the intersubjective correlate of frequency.”

Robert Morris, Composition with Pitch‐Classes
• Pitch has been defined as “that auditory attribute of sound according to
which sounds can be ordered on a scale from low to high” (ANSI 1999).

• It should be noted that a series of frequency components that are nearly

harmonically related, such these, also produces a sensation of pitch.

f0, 2.01 f0, 3.05 f0, 3.99 f0, 4.98 f0, 6.02 f0, etc.

• The process by which the brain tends to fuse individual pure tone, or
sinusoidal, components together to form a single pitch sensation are
called fusion.
• A stunning fact uncovered by music psychologists doing research on
fusion in the 1920’s was that the omission of the fundamental
frequency from a series of harmonically related components does not
change our sensation of pitch. Fusion is but one example of the link
that exists between the harmonic series and our perception the timbre
of a particular instrument. We will explore the issue of timbre further.2.62
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The Path to Just Intervals
• The discovery of a numerical relationship between string length
and musical interval is commonly attributed to the Greek
philosopher and theorist Pythagoras (c. 550 BCE).
• Returning to the plucked string model discussed in the previous
section, we say that the pitch produced by a string of length L/2
sounds an octave higher than the pitch produced by a string of
length L. (Again, please keep in mind that for two different
strings, both strings must have the same density and tension for
this to be the case.) This relationship between string length and
musical interval provides musicians with a precise way to express
the size of a musical interval.

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The Path to Just Intervals
• For example, let’s divide a string into two equal parts, a string
length division ratio of 1:2. When we pluck each 1:2 division, or
string segment, a pitch related by an octave (i.e., the interval
whose frequency is 2:1) will sound.
• Say we divide a string into three equal parts and pluck each of
those segments. Each segment will produce a pitch three times
that of the original or a perfect twelfth higher (i.e., the interval
whose frequency ratio is 3:1). Fig. 13 shows another diagram
from Hindemith’s The Craft of My Musical Composition. It was
designed to illustrate three basic string divisions (1:1, 1:2, and
1:3) and the pitches that will be produced when each segment is
plucked.

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Fig. 13. String length division diagram from Hindemith’s 
The Craft of My Musical Composition. 
• String length ratios and interval frequency ratios are usually expressed
in their simplest form, and may alternatively be written using a
division symbol ‘/’ in place of the ratio ‘:’ symbol. For example, the
interval whose frequency ratio is 6:4, would normally be simplified to
3:2, which may also be written 3/2. Finally, it should be stated that
string lengths and interval frequency ratios exhibit a reciprocal
relationship, that is, the top and bottom numbers involved in the
fractions switch places. (From: The Harmonic Series: A path to understanding
musical intervals, scales, tuning and timbre. by Reginald Bain) 2.65
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• Because of their association with the intervals found in a harmonic series,

intervals such as 2:1, 3:1, 3:2, 4:3, 5:3 are often called natural intervals.
• What is more, Fig. 9 can be used to look up which natural interval
frequency ratio corresponds to which traditional tonal interval name
(major third, minor third, perfect fifth, etc.), providing a convenient
reference for musicians.
• For example, let's look up the natural interval frequency ratio for a
perfect fifth. To do this, search Fig. 9 from left‐to‐right, looking for the
first perfect fifth you encounter between any two members of the series.
Notice that a perfect fifth is formed by the second and third members of
the series. Consequently, the natural interval frequency ratio for the
perfect fifth can be expressed as 3:2.

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• Confirm this finding by searching for another perfect fifth higher up the
series. Verify that the perfect fifth you find can be simplified to the
ratio 3:2.
• The frequency‐multiple numbers between the staves in Fig. 9 can be
used to determine the interval frequency ratio for any natural interval.
• Since the term natural interval frequency ratio is quite a mouthful,
composers and theorists more commonly refer to such intervals as just
intervals.
• To gain a deeper understanding of the correspondence between
traditional tonal interval names and just interval ratios, use Fig. 9 now
to look up the traditional tonal intervals listed in Fig. 14.

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The Harmonic Series
a perfect fifth  3:2 f minor sixth 8:5
b perfect fourth 4:3 g minor seventh 9:5
c major sixth 5:3 h major second 9:8
d major third 5:4 i major seventh 15:8
e minor third  6:5 j minor second 16:15

Fig. 14. Common traditional tonal interval names and ratios.

• You will find these intervals to be equivalent to the ratios shown at

the left.
• If we calculate the numbers of the ratios, they are:
a=1.5; b=1,33; c=1,66; d=1,25; e=1,2; f=1,6; g=1,8; h=1,125: i=1,875; j=1,066

• We can compare with the ratios of the actual equal‐tempered scale:

a>1,498; b>1,334; c>1,682; d>1,26; e>1,189; 
f>1,587; g>1,782; h>1,122; i>1,888 j>1,0595 
• Do you find differences?
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The Harmonic Series
• Notice how all of the numbers involved in the ratios
shown in Fig. 14 are either a multiple of 2, or a multiple of
a prime number not greater than 5.
• As such, these ratios are said to be members of a just 5‐
limit tuning system. In his book Genesis of a Music (1949),
composer Harry Partch assigned names to these and many
other just intervals found in the lower reaches of the
harmonic series.
• As you can see, it is definitely worth one’s time to
memorize the harmonic series on a fundamental of C2 up
to the sixteenth partial as shown in Fig. 9. Once
memorized on C2, this pattern may easily be transposed
to any other fundamental pitch.

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On the horns of dilemma
“On the whole of the historical period of
instrumental music, Western music has based itself
upon an acoustical lie. In our time this lie‐‐that the
normal musical ear hears twelve equal intervals
within the span of an octave‐‐has led to the
impoverishment of pitch usage in our music.”
Ben Johnston, Program Notes for his Fourth String
Quartet

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The Path to Scales and Tuning Systems
• Imagine a melody that employs only octave‐related pitches. How
boring. Clearly, the ear perceives the octave to be a very large
intervallic distance.
• Other, smaller intervals are obviously required if we are to achieve a
greater degree of melodic expressiveness. Many cultures, including
our own, have gone so far as to assume that pitches related by a 2:1
frequency ratio should be considered equivalent.
• This important musical principle, known as octave equivalence, lies at
the very foundation of tuning theory.
• But exactly how does one go about dividing up the octave to create a
scale?
• As it turns out, this is a rather complex question, so we will attempt
here to present only the most basic principles. Our goal will be to
provide you with some insight into the relationship that exists
between the harmonic series and the seven‐tone diatonic scale,
perhaps the most important scale in Western music. 2.71
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The Harmonic Series
The Path to Scales and Tuning Systems
• The word scale was derived from the Greek word, skala,
meaning steps.
• The process of creating a scale may conveniently be thought of
as dividing the octave (or other basic interval such as 3:1) into
discrete steps.
• The size of each step is chosen to achieve a specific musical
goal. Sometimes the goal is melodic in nature, other times it is
harmonic, or perhaps it is some other musical goal established
by a composer or instrument maker.
• The important thing to remember is that the size of the
intervals that make up a given scale may be determined in a
variety of ways. For example, the diatonic scale has been tuned
in a variety of ways throughout history.

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The Harmonic Series
The Path to Scales and Tuning Systems
• During the Middle Ages (c476‐1453) a Pythagorean tuning, a
tuning derived from a series of six 3:2 fifths, was an accepted
“standard” for tuning the seven tones of a diatonic scale.
• In the Renaissance (c1450‐1600), however, a just tuning derived
from the frequency relationships found in the first sixteen
partials of the harmonic series emerged to rival Pythagorean
tuning.
• Soon afterward a mean‐tone temperament and a variety of
other competing temperaments like Werkmeister and twelve‐
tone equal temperament were proposed. Each of these tuning
systems offers its own set of benefits, as well as introduces new
musical problems, so it is up to musicians to decide which
system works best for a particular music.

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The Path to Scales and Tuning Systems
*J. Murray Barbor in his book Tuning and Temperament: A Historical
Survey (1953), divides all tuning systems into two general categories:
• Tunings ‐ scale tones are derived from the harmonic series (i.e.,
whole‐number ratios)
• Temperaments ‐ scale tones are derived by making adjustments to
a tuning in order to achieve a desired musical result
Our currently accepted standard for tuning fixed‐pitch instruments,
twelve‐tone equal temperament (12TET), emerged as a competitor in
the early eighteenth century. (It should probably be mentioned here
that an equal division of the tone was suggested as early as the Greek
philosopher/theorist Aristoxenus, b. c375‐360 BCE.)
Twelve‐tone equal temperament was introduced as a solution to the
problem that certain intervals did not remain the same size after
modulation. Perhaps the best way to learn more about tuning theory
is to do the math for yourself, performing the calculations necessary to
derive a 7‐tone diatonic and 12‐tone chromatic scale in a given tuning
system. (From: The Harmonic Series: A path to understanding musical intervals, scales,
tuning and timbre. by Reginald Bain) 2.74
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The Path to Scales and Tuning Systems
• Historically our Western music developed through
the following tuning systems:

 Pythagorean tuning ‐ a tuning based on the line

of fifths
 Just tuning ‐ a tuning based on the intervals
found in the lower part of the harmonic series
 Mean‐tone temperament ‐ a temperament
derived by making an adjustment to a just tuning
 Twelve‐tone equal temperament (12TET) ‐ an
accepted standard for tuning fixed‐pitched
instruments (such as the piano)
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The Harmonic Series
On recognizable diatonic tunings:
“The structure of recognizable diatonic tunings is
basically an array of intricate interconnections...
which are the very foundation of what is perceived
as tonal harmonic motion, are shaped by the short‐
term span of human memory, the tolerance range
of the human ear, and the peculiar manner in which
intervals are perceived.”
Easley Blackwood, The Structure of Recognizable Diatonic Tunings

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LMSC208 – Music Acoustics

The Path to Consonance and Dissonance
• The nineteenth‐century physicist Herman von Helmholtz proposed a
theory of consonance and dissonance based on the harmonic series,
beating, and what he termed roughness.
• When two pure tones are very close in frequency (e.g., 440 and 442
Hz.) we perceive a regular variation in loudness, or amplitude, of the
complex tone they combine to produce called beats. This is used by
musicians every day in the tuning of their instruments.
• Though perhaps a gross oversimplification of the actual physical
model, it is convenient to think of all musical tones as consisting of a
series of harmonically related pure tone components above the
fundamental pitch we perceive.
• Additionally, recall that these pure tone components diminish
significantly in loudness as one ascends the harmonic series.
Furthermore, recent studies by music psychologists suggest that only
the first six pure tone components contribute significantly to our
classification of intervals as either consonant or dissonant (Campbell and
Greated 1980).
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The Path to Consonance and Dissonance
• Though Helmholtz’s theory is now considered to be too simplistic
from the point of view of modern physics and music psychology, it is
still worthy of our study because it provides a means of
understanding the relationship between the harmonic series and
the common “harmonious intervals”.
• Since the time of Pythagoras, many cultures have noted that
frequency ratios involving relatively small integers such as 1:1, 2:1,
3:2, 4:3, 5:3, 5:4, and 6:5 produce the common harmonious, stable
or consonant intervals in music.
• Helmholtz proposed that the degree of dissonance produced by an
interval is related to the degree of roughness produced by partials
of the two fundamental tones that make up the interval.
• The term roughness was a quality Helmholtz associated with the
number of semitone and whole‐tone conflicts among the partials of
the two fundamental tones.
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The Path to Consonance and Dissonance
• It should be stated, however, that the term roughness has
an entirely different meaning in modern
acoustics/psychoacoustics (See Beats, Critical Band, and
Roughness for more information).
• Fig. 15 shows the partial conflicts for nine common
intervals:

Fig. 15. Helmholtz degree of dissonance diagram after 
Campbell and Greated 1987.
Explanation is on next slide.
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The Path to Consonance and Dissonance
• Fundamental tones are notated in the bass clef staff. The
first six partials of each fundamental tone are shown in
the treble clef staff using smaller noteheads.
• Semitone conflicts between partials are indicated using a
solid line.
• Whole‐tone conflicts are indicated using a dotted line.
• It was assumed by Helmholtz that a semitone conflict was
perceived to be more dissonant than a whole‐tone
conflict.
• For each interval shown in Fig. 15, compare the number
of semitone and whole‐tone conflicts that occur between
partials.
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The Path to Consonance and Dissonance
• You will find that the interval 16:15 seems to produce the
most roughness, followed by 9:8, 8:5, and so on.
• It should also be mentioned that modern music psychologists
make a distinction between sensory consonance / dissonance
and musical consonance / dissonance, and have also
demonstrated that factors such as register and dynamic level
play a large role in how we actually perceive the relative
consonance or dissonance of musical intervals.
• Though there is much more to the principle of consonance
and dissonance in music, Helmholtz’s degree of dissonance
theory nonetheless provides us with some insight into the
harmonic series’s role in our perception of musical intervals.
• Before we leave Fig. 15., use Helmholtz’s degree of
dissonance model to rank the nine intervals shown from most
consonant to most dissonant. Did you come up with a
different order than the order shown in Fig. 15? 2.81
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The Harmonic Series
References
• Barbour, J. Murray. Tuning and Temperament: A Historical Survey. East 
Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1967. 
• Campbell, Murray and Clive Greated. The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics. 
New York: Schirmer, 1987, pp. 84‐86 and 165‐167.
• Chowning, John. “Perceptual Fusion and Auditory Perspective.” In Cook, 
Perry, Music Cognition and Computerized Sound. Cambridge, MA: MIT 
Press, 1999, pp. 261‐275. 
• Cowell, Henry.  New Musical Resources. Cambridge: Cambridge 
University Press, 1996. 
• Hindemith, Paul. The Craft of Musical Composition, Book 1: Theory, 
Fourth Edition. New York: Schott, 1970.
• Johnston, Ben. “Program Notes for Fourth String Quartet, University of 
Wisconson, Milwaukee, April 28. 1974.” In Cope, David, New Directions 
in Music, Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 2001, p. 70.
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References ‐ continued
• Moorer, J. A. and Grey, J.M. “Lexicon of Analyzed Tones (Part 3: 
The Trumpet).” Computer Music Journal, 1(3), 1977, pp. 12‐29.
• Morris, Robert. Composition with Pitch‐Classes. New Haven: Yale 
University Press, 1987.
• Partch, Harry. Genesis of a Music, Second Edition. New York: Da 
Capo Press, 1974, pp. 68‐69.
• The New Grove Dictionary of Music –
http://www.grovemusic.com.
• Go to: http://www.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/atmi02/hs/ for more 
information.

2.83
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LMSC208 –Music Acoustics Conclusions
• The sinusoidal signal is the basic element of any oscillation
and pitched sounds (amplitude, frequency, phase, velocity…)
• The Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a good example to
understand the sinusoidal signals.
• Standing Waves are the responsible of creating the Harmonic
Series in our instruments.
• Complex Waves can be seen as a combination of simple
sinusoidal signals harmonically related.
• Fourier Analysis and Synthesis is a powerful tool to analyze
and synthetize complex sounds.
• Timbre is a combination of effects that allows us to distinguish
different instruments or voices playing the same note.
• With the Harmonic Series analysis, we can identify reason to
classify the consonance and dissonance of different musical
intervals, using the concept of Roughness, and the reason of
some of the tuning systems employed. 2.84