CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
EMBEDDED SYSTEM
An embedded system is a special-purpose system in which the computer is completely
encapsulated by or dedicated to the device or system it controls. Unlike a general-purpose
computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system performs one or a few predefined
tasks, usually with very specific requirements. Since the system is dedicated to specific tasks,
design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems
are often mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Personal digital assistants (PDAs) or handheld computers are generally considered

embedded devices because of the nature of their hardware design, even though they are more
expandable in software terms. This line of definition continues to blur as devices expand. With
the introduction of the OQO Model 2 with the Windows XP operating system and ports such as a
USB port both features usually belong to "general purpose computers", the line of nomenclature
blurs even more.

Fig 1.1 Embedded system

Embedded systems play, major role in electronics varies from portable devices to large
stationary installations like digital watches and MP3 players, traffic lights, factory controllers, or
the systems controlling nuclear power plants.
In terms of complexity embedded systems can range from very simple with a single
microcontroller chip, to very complex with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted
inside a large chassis or enclosure.

EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 Avionics, such as inertial guidance systems, flight control hardware/software and other
integrated systems in aircraft and missiles

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  Cellular telephones and telephone switches
 Engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles
 Home automation products, such as thermostats, air conditioners, sprinklers, and security
monitoring systems
 Handheld calculators
 Handheld computers
 Household appliances, including microwave ovens, washing machines, television sets,
DVD players and recorders
 Medical equipment
 Personal digital assistant
 Videogame consoles
 Computer peripherals such as routers and printers.
 Industrial controllers for remote machine operation.

HISTORY AND FUTURE

One of the very first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo guidance
computer enveloped 1965 by Charles stark draper at the mitt instrumentation laboratory. At the
project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo
project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size
and weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the automatics d-17 guidance
computer for the minuteman missile, released in 1961. When the minuteman ii went into
production in 1966, the d-17 was replaced with a new computer that was the first high-volume
use of integrated circuits.
Since these early applications in the 1960s, embedded systems have come down in price
and there has been a dramatic rise in processing power and functionality. An
early microprocessor for example, the Intel 4004 (released in 1971), was designed
for calculators and other small systems but still required external memory and support chips. In
1978 National Engineering Manufacturers Association released a "standard" for programmable
microcontrollers, including almost any computer-based controllers, such as single board
computers, numerical, and event-based controllers.
As the cost of microprocessors and microcontrollers fell it became feasible to replace
expensive knob-based analog components such as potentiometers and variable capacitors with
up/down buttons or knobs read out by a microprocessor even in consumer products. By the early
1980s, memory, input and output system components had been integrated into the same chip as
the processor forming a microcontroller. Microcontrollers find applications where a general-
purpose computer would be too costly.

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 A comparatively low-cost microcontroller may be programmed to fulfill the same role as
a large number of separate components. Although in this context an embedded system is usually
more complex than a traditional solution, most of the complexity is contained within the
microcontroller itself. Very few additional components may be needed and most of the design
effort is in the software. Software prototype and test can be quicker compared with the design
and construction of a new circuit not using an embedded processor.

REAL-TIME SYSTEMS

Real-time systems are computer systems that monitor, respond to, or control an external
environment. This environment is connected to the computer system through sensors, actuators,
and other input-output interfaces. It may consist of physical or biological objects of any form and
structure. Often humans are part of the connected external world, but a wide range of other
natural and artificial objects, as well as animals, are also possible.

The computer system must meet various timing and other constraints that are imposed on
it by the real-time behavior of the external world to which it is interfaced. Hence comes the
name real time. Another name for many of these systems is reactive systems, because their
primary purpose is to respond to or react to signals from their environment. A real-time computer
system may be a component of a larger system in which it is embedded; reasonably, such a
computer component is called an embedded system.

Applications and examples of real-time systems are ubiquitous and proliferating,

appearing as part of our commercial, government, military, medical, educational, and cultural
infrastructures. Included are

vehicle systems for automobiles, subways, aircraft, railways, and ships.

traffic control for highways, airspace, railway tracks, and shipping lanes.
process control for power plants, chemical plants, and consumer products such as soft
drinks and beer.
medical systems for radiation therapy, patient monitoring, and defibrillation.
military uses such as firing weapons, tracking, and command and control.
manufacturing systems with robots.
telephone, radio, and satellite communications.
computer games.
multimedia systems that provide text, graphic, audio, and video interfaces.
household systems for monitoring and controlling appliances.

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EMBEDDED SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS

Embedded systems have different applications. A few select applications of embedded

systems are smart cards, telecommunications, satellites, missiles, digital consumer electronics,
computer networking, etc.

Embedded Systems in Automobiles

Motor Control System

Cruise Control System
Engine or Body Safety
Robotics in Assembly Line
Car Entertainment
Car multimedia
Mobile and E-Com Access

Embedded systems in Telecommunications

Mobile computing
Networking
Wireless Communications

Embedded Systems in Smart Cards

Banking
Telephone
Security Systems

Embedded Systems in Missiles and Satellites

Defense
Aerospace
Communication

Embedded Systems in Computer Networking & Peripherals

Networking Systems
Image Processing
Printers
Networks Cards

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 Monitors and Displays

Embedded Systems in Digital Consumer Electronics

DVDs
Set top Boxes
High Definition TVs
Digital Cameras

This is about embedded systems basics with its applications. We all know that embedded
systems are incredibly fabulous systems that play an essential role in many devices, industrial
instrumentation, equipments and appliances irrespective of circuit complexity. Considering the
huge significance of embedded systems, this embedded systems article deserves readers’
feedback, queries, suggestions and comments. Therefore, readers can post their comments below.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

In this article, we will discuss embedded systems architecture and basic building blocks
of embedded systems. After reading this article you will have basic ideas of embedded systems
architecture. As the name suggests, embedded approach something that is connected to some
other aspect. An embedded gadget can be the notion of as a laptop hardware device having
software program embedded in it. An embedded gadget may be an impartial system or it may be
part of a huge system. An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor primarily
based gadget that’s designed to perform a particular task. for instance, a fire alarm is an
embedded system; it’ll sense most effective smoke.

Fig 1.2 Embedded system.

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COMPONENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE
An embedded system has 3 components:
It has the hardware.
It has software program.
 It has an actual real time operating system (RTOS) that supervises the utility software and
offer a mechanism to let the processor run a process as in step with scheduling by means
of following a plan to manipulate the latencies. RTOS defines the manner the system
works. Its units the rules throughout the execution of application software. A small-scale
embedded device won’t have RTOS.
So, we will define an embedded gadget as a microcontroller based totally,
software pushed, dependable, real-time managed device.

THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM MODEL

An expansion of embedded systems architectural structures is used to introduce technical
concepts and fundamentals of an embedded device. the emerging architectural equipment (i.e.,
reference models) had been used as the inspiration for these architectural systems at the best
degree, the primary architectural tool used to introduce the important factors located inside an
embedded device layout is what I can consult with as the embedded systems model.

Fig 1.3 system model

what the embedded systems architecture model shows is that all embedded systems proportion
one similarity at the very best degree; that is, all of them have a minimum one layer (hardware)
or all layers (hardware, device software and alertness software) into which all additives fall. The
hardware layer consists of all the important physical components placed on an embedded board,
whereas the system and alertness software layers incorporate all of the software program placed
on and being processed by the embedded gadget. this reference model is basically a layered
(modular) illustration of an embedded systems structure from which a modular architectural
structure can be derived. whilst the concept of layering is not unique to embedded gadget design
(architectures are relevant to all pc structures, and an embedded system is a form of pc system),
it is a useful tool in visualizing the possible mixtures of masses, if not hundreds, of hardware and
software additives that can be utilized in designing an embedded device.

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BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

The below diagram shows the basic structure of the embedded systems architecture.

Fig 1.4 Basic Structure

SENSOR
It measures the quantities that are physical and converts it to an electrical signal which may be
read by an observer or through any electronic tool like an A-D converter. A sensor shops the
measured amount to the memory.

A-D CONVERTER
An analog-to-digital converter that is used converts the analog signal sent by using the sensor
right into a digital signal.
PROCESSOR
Processors process the records to degree the output and keep it to the memory.

D-A CONVERTER
A virtual-to-analog converter converts the virtual records fed by using the processor to analog
information.

ACTUATOR
An actuator compares the output given by means of the D-A converter to the actual (anticipated)
output saved in it and stores the authorized output.

1.8 IMPORTANT OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

This article makes use of an architectural structures engineering method to embedded
systems due to the fact it’s far one of the maximum powerful gear that can be used to

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 recognize an embedded structures layout or to clear up demanding situations faced while
designing a new device. What makes the architectural technique so effective is its capacity to
informally and quick speak a layout to a spread of people with or without technical
backgrounds, even acting as a basis in planning the assignment or certainly designing a
device. Because it truly outlines the requirements of the system, an architecture can act as a
solid basis for studying and testing the quality of a device and its performance below various
situations. Eventually, the diverse systems of an architecture can then be leveraged for
designing destiny merchandise with comparable traits, as a result allowing design
understanding to be reused, and leading to a decrease of destiny design and development
charges.
By the use of the architectural technique in this article, I’m hoping to relay to the
reader that defining and expertise the architecture of an embedded gadget is an important
aspect of precise gadget design. This is due to the fact, similarly to the benefits listed above.
Each embedded gadget has an architecture, whether or not it’s miles or isn’t
documented, because every embedded system consists of interacting elements (whether or
not hard- ware or software program). An architecture by way of definition is a fixed of
representations of these factors and their relationships. In place of having a faulty and
steeply-priced architecture forced on you through no longer taking the time to define an
structure earlier than beginning improvement, take control of the design via defining the
architecture first.
Because an embedded architecture captures diverse views, which can be
representations of the system, it is a beneficial device in understanding all of the major
factors, why every aspect is there, and why the factors behave the way they do. None of the
factors within an embedded device works in a vacuum. Each detail inside a device interacts
with some different detail in a few fashions. Without know-how the “whys” at the back of an
element’s provided functionality, overall performance, and so forth, it would be difficult to
determine how the gadget could behave underneath a spread of instances in the real global.

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

This project describes the design of a simple, low-cost controller-based patient health
monitoring system. heart rate of the subject is measured from the thumb finger using infrared red
device sensors and the rate is then averaged as message. The blood pressure will also be
monitored and displayed on LCD interfaced.
A switch array is arranged to set the age of a patient and then that patient will be asked to
inhale near the tube arranged so that to check the lungs condition. a temperature sensor has been
used to test the patient temperature. in this project we are monitoring few things those are heart
rate, blood pressure, temperature and lungs condition of a patient.
This project uses regulated 3.3v, 500ma power supply, 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator ids used for voltage regulation. bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac
output of secondary 230/12v step down transformer.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, a promising trend in healthcare is to move routine medical checks and other
health care services from hospital to the home environment. with those patients gets health care
more easily especially in case of emergencies. moreover, hospitals can reduce their burden by
shifting the possible and easy task to the home environment. one major advantage is in reduction
of expenditure. Patients could avoid the fees charged by the hospitals each time they go to visit
doctor. therefore, it is urgent that in the near future a trending technology need to be
implemented in health industry to develop advanced health care techniques and technologies and
use them for the easy monitoring of patients from anywhere else. patient monitoring Include
checking the physical conditioned of the patient and their medication details. If the right
medicines are taken at right time there are less chances that the condition of a patient getting
worse. especially for elderly people taking medication at the right time is a great challenge.
There are chances that they could forget it at times. so poor medication adherence is a major
problem for the population and medicine providers. The concept of the internet of things first
became popular in 1999. If all objects and people in daily life were equipped with identifiers,
computers could manage and invent them.

The internet of things (IOT) is the network of physical objects- devices, vehicles,
buildings and other items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network
connectivity – that enables these objects to collect and exchange data. the internet of things
allows objects to be sensed and controlled remotely across existing network infrastructure,
creating opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based
systems, and resulting in improved efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit. when IOT is
augmented with sensors.

Actuators, the technology becomes an instance of the more general class of cyber-physical
systems, which also encompasses technologies such as smart grids, smart homes, intelligent
transportation and smart cities. each thing is uniquely identifiable through its embedded
computing system but is able to interoperate within existing internet infrastructure. Experts
estimate that IOT will consist of almost 50 billion objects by 2020.

EXISTING SYSTEM
People often forget to take their medicines at the right time in this busy world especially
elderly people. Medicine box has three compartments. A led is attached with each compartment.

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when it is time to take medicine led from the right compartment glows. If wrong compartment is
opened then the buzzer will get activated. A wi-fi shield is attached to the Arduino board which
automatically updates these details to the hospital webpage. the Med box could be integrated
with sensors. A temperature sensor is integrated here with the box, it reads patients temperature
value and notifies if it goes beyond a limit.

POWER
SUPPLY

ARDUINO
UNO

WI-FI
SHIELD LED

Fig 2.1 Block diagram of existing system

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 CHAPTER 3

HARDWARE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

BLOCK DIAGRAM

LCD

Temperature Pulse
sensor Sensor
ARDUINO UNO

IR Respiro
Sensor meter

Fig 3.1 block diagram

Step Step StepV Step Step Step

Bridge Filter
down Rectifier Regulator
circuit
T/F
Conventional power supply

Fig 3.2 power supply

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BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is a reference to the source of electrical power. A device or system that
supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often
to mechanical once, and rarely to others.

The term “power supply” is sometimes restricted to those devices that devices that
convert some other form of energy into electricity (such as solar power and fuel cells and
generators). A more accurate term for devices that convert one from of electric power into
another form (such as transformers and linear regulators) is power converter. The most common
conversion is form AC to DC.

AQ regulated power supply or stabilized power supply is one of the includes circuitry to
tightly control the output voltage and/or current to a specific value. The specific value is closely
maintained despite variations in the load presented to the power supply’s output, or any
reasonable voltage variation at the power supply’s input.

Rectifier Filter Regulator (7805)

Fig 3.3 Power supply block diagram

The micro controller and other devices get power supply from AC to DC adapter through
voltage regulator. The adapter output voltage will be 12V DC non-regulated. The 7805/7812
voltage regulators are used to convert 12V to 5VDC.

RECTIFIER
A rectifieris an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current. Physically,
rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks of
copper and selenium oxide plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other
silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical
switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's
whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or "crystal detector".

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 Fig 3.4 Rectifier circuit

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power
supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in
roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As
noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is
used to detect presence of a flame.
Depending on the type of alternating current supply and the arrangement of the rectifier circuit,
the output voltage may require additional smoothing to produce a uniform steady voltage. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment,
require a steady constant DC voltage (as would be produced by a battery).In these applications
the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter, which may be a capacitor, choke, or
set of capacitors, chokes and resistors, possibly followed by a voltage regulator to produce a
steady voltage.

Fig 3.5 Bridge Rectifier

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 Fig 3.6 Bridge Rectifier Characteristics

FILTER
A filter is a device or process that removes some unwanted components or features from
a signal. Filtering is a class of signal processing, the defining feature of filters being the complete
or partial suppression of some aspect of the signal. Most often, this means removing
some frequencies or frequency bands. However, filters do not exclusively act in the frequency
domain; especially in the field of image processing many other targets for filtering exist.
Correlations can be removed for certain frequency components and not for others without having
to act in the frequency domain. Filters are widely used in electronics and telecommunication,
in radio, television, audio recording, radar, control systems, music synthesis, image processing,
and computer graphics.

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REGULATOR
In automatic control, a regulator is a device which has the function of maintaining a
designated characteristic. It performs the activity of managing or maintaining a range of values
in a machine. The measurable property of a device is managed closely by specified conditions or
an advance set value; or it can be a variable according to a predetermined arrangement scheme. It
can be used generally to connote any set of various controls or devices for regulating or
controlling items or objects.

SENSOR

A sensor is a device, module, or subsystem whose purpose is to detect events or changes

in its environment and send the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor.
A sensor is always used with other electronics.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile
sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides innumerable applications
of which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-
use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of
temperature, pressure or flow measurement, for example into MARG sensors. Moreover, analog
sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Applications
include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and
many other aspects of our day-to-day life.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the input
quantity being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm
when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx
assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a
room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid
heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured;
making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.
Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic
scale as micro sensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a micro sensor reaches a
significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.

THERMISTOR

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature, more so

than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are
widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors (negative temperature coefficient
or NTC type typically), self-resetting over current protectors, and self-regulating heating
elements (positive temperature coefficient or PTC type typically).

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 Fig 3.7 Thermistor

Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:

 With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is commonly used
as a temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush current limiter.
 With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises. PTC thermistors are
commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used to protect against over
current conditions, as resettable fuses.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The thermistors are in
the form of beads, rods and discs but RTDs are in different shapes and sizes. The temperature
response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors
typically achieve a greater precision within a limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to
130 °C.
TYPES
1. LM34
2. LM35
1.LM34

The LM34 series devices are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output
voltage is linearly proportional to the Fahrenheit temperature. The LM34device is rated to
operate over a −50°F to 300°F temperature range, while the LM34C is rated for a −40°F to
230°F range (0°F with improved accuracy).

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FEATURES

Calibrated Directly in Degrees Fahrenheit

 Linear 10.0 mV/°F Scale Factor
 1.0°F Accuracy Assured (at 77°F)
 Rated for Full −50° to 300°F Range
Suitable for Remote Applications
Low Cost Due to Wafer-Level Trimming
Operates From 5 to 30 Volts
 Less Than 90-µA Current Drain
 Low Self-Heating, 0.18°F in Still Air
 Nonlinearity Only ±0.5°F Typical
 Low-Impedance Output, 0.4 Ω for 1-mA Load

KEY SPECIFICATIONS

Power requirements :5 to 30 VDC

Communication: Interface Analog
 Dimensions: 0.02×0.56×0.164 in (5.2×14.2×4.2mm)
 Operating temp range: -50 to +300 ͦ F (-46 to +149 ͦ C)

LM35

The LM35 is one kind of commonly used temperature sensor that can be used to measure
temperature with an electrical o/p comparative to the temperature (in °C). It can measure
temperature more correctly compare with a thermistor. This sensor generates a high output
voltage than thermocouples and may not need that the output voltage is amplified. The LM35 has
an output voltage that is proportional to the Celsius temperature.

The scale factor is .01V/°C. The LM35 does not need any exterior calibration and maintains an
exactness of +/-0.4°C at room temperature and +/ -0.8°Cover a range of 0°C to +100°C.One more
significant characteristic of this sensor is that it draws just 60 microamps from its supply and
acquires a low self-heating capacity. The LM35 temperature sensor available in many different
packages like T0-46 metal can transistor-like package, TO-92 plastic transistor-like package, 8-
lead surface mount SO-8 small outline package.

The amount produced by IC2 amplifies in an amount to the temperature by 10 mV per degree.
This unstable voltage is supply to a comparator IC 741. OP Amplifier is the most generally used
electronic devices today. The IC 741 op-amp is one sort of differential amplifier. We have used
IC741 as a non-inverting amplifier which means pin-3 is the input and the output is not inverted.

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This LM35 temperature sensor circuit amplifies the difference between its input terminals. The
advantages of temperature sensor include It has no effect on the medium, more accurate, It has
an easily conditioned output and It responds instantly.

TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Temperature is the most often-measured environmental quantity. This might be expected
since most physical, electronic, chemical, mechanical, and biological systems are affected by
temperature. Certain chemical reactions, biological process, and even electronic circuits perform
best within limited temperature ranges. Temperature is one of the most commonly measured
variables and it is therefore not surprising that there are many ways of sensing it.

Fig 3.8 Temperature sensor

FEATURES OF LM35 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Calibrated directly in Degree Celsius (Centigrade)

 Linear at 10.0 mV/°C scale factor
 0.5°C accuracy guarantee-able (at a25°C)
 Rated for full -55°C to a 150°C range
Suitable for remote applications
Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
Operates from 4 to 30 volts
Less than 60 mA current drain
 Low self-heating, 0.08°C instill air
 Non-linearity only 0.25°C typical
 Low impedance output, 0.1Ωfor 1 mA load

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 Fig 3.9 Basic centigrade temperature sensor

Fig 3.10 Full-Range centigrade

MICROCONTROLLER
This section forms the control unit of the whole project. This section basically consists of a
Microcontroller with its associated circuitry like crystal with capacitors, reset circuitry, pull up
resistors (if needed) and so on. The Microcontroller forms the heart of the project because it
controls the devices being interfaced and communicates with the devices according to the
program being written.

INFRA-RED SENSOR(IR)
IR Sensors work by using a specific light sensor to detect a select light wavelength in the
Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. By using an LED which produces light at the same wavelength as what

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the sensor is looking for, you can look at the received light. When an object is close to the sensor,
the light from the led bounce off the object and into the light sensor. This results in a large jump
in the intensity, which we already know can be detected using a threshold. R sensors work by
using a specific light sensor to detect a select light wavelength in the Infra-Red spectrum. By
using an LED which produce light at the same wavelength as what the sensor is looking for, you
can look at the intensity of the received light. When an object is close to the sensor, the light
from the LED bounces off the object and into the light sensor. This results in a large jump in the
intensity, which we already kwon can be detected using a threshold.

PULSE SENSOR
The basic heartbeat sensor consists of a light emitting diode and a detector like a light detecting
resistor or a photodiode. The heart beat pulses causes a variation in the flow of blood to different
regions of the body. When a tissue is illuminated with the light source, i.e. light emitted by the
led, it either reflects (a finger tissue) or transmits the light (earlobe). Some of the light is
absorbed by the blood and the transmitted or the reflected light is received by the light detector.
The amount of light absorbed depends on the blood volume in that tissue. The detector output is
in form of electrical signal and is proportional to the heart beat rate.

LCD

A liquid crystal display or LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It is combination of two
states of matter, the solid and the liquid. LCD uses a liquid crystal to produce a visible image.
Liquid crystal displays are super-thin technology display screen that are generally used in laptop
computer screen, TVs, cell phones and portable video games. LCD’s technologies allow displays
to be much thinner when compared to cathode ray tube (CRT) technology.
Liquid crystal display is composed of several layers which
include two polarized panel filters and electrodes. LCD technology is used for displaying the
image in notebook or some other electronic devices like mini computers. Light is projected from
a lens on a layer of liquid crystal. This combination of colored light with the grayscale image of
the crystal (formed as electric current flows through the crystal) forms the colored image. This
image is then displayed on the screen.

RESPIROMETER
A respirometer is a device used to measure the rate of respiration[1] of a living
organism by measuring its rate of exchange of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide. They allow
investigation into how factors such as age, or chemicals affect the rate of respiration.
Respirometers are designed to measure respiration either on the level of a whole animal or plant
or on the cellular level. These fields are covered by whole animal and cellular (or
mitochondrial) respirometry, respectively.

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 A simple whole plant respirometer designed to measure oxygen uptake or
CO2 release consists of a sealed container with the living specimen together with a substance to
absorb the carbon dioxide given off during respiration, such as soda lime pellets or cotton wads
soaked with potassium hydroxide. The oxygen uptake is detected by manometry. Typically, a U-
tube manometer is used, which directly shows the pressure difference between the container and
the atmosphere. As an organism takes up O2, it generates a proportionate quantity of
CO2 (see respiratory quotient), but all the CO2 is absorbed by the soda lime. Therefore, all of the
drop of pressure in the chamber can be attributed to the drop of O2 partial pressure in the
container. The rate of change gives a direct and reasonably accurate reading for the organism's
rate of respiration.

LIGHT DETECTING RESISITOR

Light detecting resistor (LDR) module most sensitive to environmental light intensity is
generally used to detect the ambient brightness and light intensity. Module light conditions or
light intensity reach the set threshold, Digital Output port output high, when the external
ambient light intensity exceeds a set threshold, the module Digital output low.

Digital output directly connected to the micro controller (MCU), and detect high or low TTL,
thereby detecting ambient light intensity changes. Digital output module can directly drive
the relay module, which can be composed of a photoelectric switch. Analog output module
can be connected through the Analog to Digital converter, you can get a more accurate light
intensity value

SPECIFICATIONS
• Operating Voltage: 3.3V to 5V DC
• Operating Current: 15milli amps
• LEDs indicating output and power
• LM393 based design
• Output Digital - 0V to 5V, Adjustable trigger level from preset
• Output Analog - 0V to 5V based on light falling on the LDR
• PCB Size: 3.2cm x 1.4cm

PIN CONFIGURATION
• Input Voltage: DC 3.3V to 5V
• Output: Analog and Digital
• Sensitivity adjustable

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LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The Light emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. In 1962, Nick
Holonyak has come up with an idea of light emitting diode, and he was working for the general
electric company. The LED is a special type of diode and they have similar electrical
characteristics of a PN junction diode. Hence the LED allows the flow of current in the forward
direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction. The LED occupies the small area which
is less than the 1 mm2. The applications of LEDs used to make various electrical and electronic
projects. In this article, we will discuss the working principle of the LED and its applications.

The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made
up of a special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it is
called as a light emitting diode.

Fig 3.11 Light Emitting Diode

WORKING OF LED
The light emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode is forward biased, then the
electrons & holes are moving fast across the junction and they are combining constantly,
removing one another out. Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type
silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes the complete atom & more
stable and it gives the little burst of energy in the form of a tiny packet or photon of light.

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 Fig 3.12 Working of LED

The above diagram shows how the light emitting diode works and the step by step process of the
diagram.
• From the diagram, we can observe that the N-type silicon is in red color and it contains the
electrons, they are indicated by the black circles.
• The P- type silicon is in the blue color and it contains holes, they are indicated by the
white circles.
• The power supply across the p-n junction makes the diode forward biased and pushing the
electrons from n-type to p-type. Pushing the holes in the opposite direction.
• Electron and holes at the junction are combined.
• The photons are given off as the electrons and holes are recombined.

APPLICATIONS OF LED
There are many applications of the LED and some of them are explained below.

 LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries

 The light emitting diodes are used in the motorcycles and cars

 These are used in the mobile phones to display the message

 At the traffic light signals led’s are used.

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 CHAPTER-4

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
ARDUINO UNO
The Arduino UNO is an open-source microcontroller board based on the Microchip At
mega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino. The board is equipped with sets of digital
and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields)
and other circuits. The board has 14 Digital pins, 6 Analog pins, and programmable with
the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment) via a type B USB cable. It can be
powered by a USB cable or by an external 9volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7
and 20 volts. It is also similar to the Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design
is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on
the Arduino website.
Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also available. "Uno"
means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the release of Arduino Software (IDE) 1.0. The
Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino Software (IDE) were the reference versions of Arduino,
now evolved to newer releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino boards,
and the reference model for the Arduino platform. The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes
preprogrammed with a bootloader that allows uploading new code to it without the use of an
external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500 protocol. The Uno
also differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip.
Instead, it uses the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter.

 1 Background
 2Technical specifications
 3Pins
o 3.1General Pin functions
o 3.2Special Pin Functions
 4Communication
o 4.1Automatic (Software) Reset
 5See also
 6References
 7External links

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 Fig 4.1 Production board

The Arduino project started at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII) in Ivrea, Italy. At that
time, the students used a Stamp microcontroller at a cost of $100, a considerable expense for
many students. In 2003 Hernando Barraging created the development platform wiring as a
Master's thesis project at IDII, under the supervision of Massimo Banzi and Casey Reas, who are
known for work on the Processing language. The project goal was to create simple, low-cost
tools for creating digital projects by non-engineers.
The Wiring platform consisted of a printed circuit board (PCB) with an ATmega168
microcontroller, an IDE based on Processing and library functions to easily program the
microcontroller. In 2003, Massimo Banzi, with David Mellis, another IDII student, and David
Cuartielles, added support for the cheaper ATmega8 microcontroller to Wiring. But instead of
continuing the work on Wiring, they forked the project and renamed it Arduino.
Early Arduino boards used the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip and an ATmega168.[8] The Uno
differed from all preceding boards by featuring the ATmega328P microcontroller and an
ATmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Microcontroller: Microchip ATmega328P

Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
Input Voltage: 7 to 20 Volts
Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins: 6
DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
Flash Memory: 32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by boot loader
SRAM: 2 KB
EEPROM: 1 KB
Clock Speed: 16 MHz
Length: 68.6 mm

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 Width: 53.4 mm
Weight: 25 g

Fig 4.2 Arduino UNO

GENERAL PIN FUNCTIONS

LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the
LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuine board when it's using an external power
source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source).
You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it
through this pin.
5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector (5V), or
the VIN pin of the board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage the board.
3.3V: A 3.3volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
GND: Ground pins.

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 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuine board provides the voltage reference with which
the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage
and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs to work
with the 5V or 3.3V.
RESET: Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.

SPECIAL PIN FUNCTIONS

Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 Analog pins on the Uno can be us
In this chapter, we will learn about the different components on the Arduino board. We will
study the Arduino UNO board because it is the most popular board in the Arduino board family.
In addition, it is the best board to get started with electronics and coding.
Some boards look a bit different from the one given below, but most Arduinos have majority of
these components in common.

Fig 4.3 Arduino board

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PIN -1

POWER USB
Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your computer. All you need to do
is connect the USB cable to the USB connection.

PIN-2

POWER (BARREL JACK)

Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by connecting it to the
Barrel Jack.

PIN-3

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino board and
stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

PIN-4

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino calculate
time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed on top of the Arduino
crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is 16,000,000 Hertz or 16MHz.

PIN-5 & 17

ARDUINO RESET

You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You can reset the
UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the board. Second, you can
connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin labeled RESET (5).

PIN-6,7,8 & 9
 3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt.
 5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt.
 Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt and 5volt.

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  GND (8) (Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which can be
used to ground your circuit.
 Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external power
source, like AC mains power supply.

PIN-10

ANALOG PINS

The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can read the
signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature sensor and convert it into a
digital value that can be read by the microprocessor.

PIN-11

MAIN MICROCONTROLLER
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the brain of your
board. The main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different from board to board.
The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You must know what IC your board
has before loading up a new program from the Arduino IDE. This information is available on the
top of the IC. For more details about the IC construction and functions, you can refer to the data
sheet.

PIN-12

ICSP PIN

Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting of MOSI,
MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI (Serial Peripheral
Interface), which could be considered as an "expansion" of the output. Actually, you are slaving
the output device to the master of the SPI bus.

PIN-13

POWER LED INDICATOR

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to indicate that your
board is powered up correctly. If this light does not turn on, then there is something wrong with
the connection.

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PIN-14
TX AND RX LEDS
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They appear in two
places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate the pins
responsible for serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX led flashes with
different speed while sending the serial data. The speed of flashing depends on the baud rate
used by the board. RX flashes during the receiving process.

PIN-15
Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to work as input digital pins to read logic
values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules like LEDs, relays, etc. The
pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM.

PIN-16
AREF
AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an external reference voltage
(between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.

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SOFTWARE EXPLANATION

Fig 4.2 Open the file

Fig 4.3 Open the blind without delay and upload

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 F

Fig 4.4 Open the tools and select the board

Fig 4.5 Select the serial port

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 Fig 4.6 Upload the port

Fig 4.7 Program executed

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CODE:

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 CHAPTER 6
WORKING

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 CHAPTER-7
RESULT

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 CHAPTER 8
ADVANTAGES

DIS ADVANTAGES

APPLICATION

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 CONCLUSION

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 FUTUTRE SCOPE

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 REFERENCE

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