NIOS Psychology Senior Secondary Course Study Material Textbook For UPSC Civil Services PDF

Psychology: Understanding Self and Others MODULE - I
Foundations of Psychology
Notes
PSYCHOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING
SELF AND OTHERS
We often experience moods of anger and joy. We do have remarkable ability to

learn and memorize poems, stories and events. We often notice powerful effect of
leaders on the behaviour of followers. While interacting in groups we often
experience conflict and cooperation. At times some of us suffer from depression,
hyper-anxiety, etc. All of us remain curious to know about the causes of these
happenings and try to make sense in our own ways. Our understanding is often
based on beliefs and personal experiences which may not be true. The knowledge
gathered in this way cannot be used to formulate theories or to solve problems
faced by people in their lives. We need dependable and relatively accurate
understanding of the principles describing the working of human mind and behaviour.
Psychology is the subject that provides insights into various aspects of human
behaviour. In this lesson you will learn about the nature of psychology, activities of
psychologists and different branches of psychology.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
• explain the need for the study of psychology and nature of psychology;
• describe what psychologists do;
• state briefly the development of psychology as a discipline;
• state the relationship of psychology with other allied disciplines; and
• describe the changing face of psychology and different fields of psychology.
PSYCHOLOGY 3
MODULE - I Psychology: Understanding Self and Others
1.1 NEED FOR THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY

People hold a variety of expectations from the study of psychology. Many of them
are because of ignorance but some are also true. Psychology promises to help us
Notes in understanding how various mental functions operate and how people behave in
different conditions. Its principles and theories are used in many situations.
Psychology is relevant to solving teaching-learning problems in schools, problems
in socializing children at home, motivating people in organizations and helping people
to solve their emotional problems in personal lives. In addition, there are numerous
human phenomena which require psychological theories and techniques. Selection
of people for various jobs, assessing abilities and aptitudes of people, providing
training for developing skills, setting goals and motivating people to achieve them
and improving the style of life for better health are some of the very popular
applications of psychology. In brief, understanding the growth and development
of a person or functioning of a group are important areas of psychological
applications.
Thus it is clear that the study of psychology is needed to understand ourselves

better in terms of the potentialities that we possess and shaping them in desired
directions. Such an effort is also done at the level of groups and organizations
which represent human collectivities. In other words, a proper study and
understanding of psychology can help us understand ourselves and others better
and enhance the quality of life.
1.2 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY

How human beings receive information from environment and perceive
objects?
How people, learn and remember experiences?
How do people think, reason and solve problems?
How do they differ in various psychological characteristics like intelligence,
personality and interest?
How do people cope with various problems in life?
A moment’s reflection will make it clear that in all the above questions brain, mind
or mental activities and behaviour are involved. Any observable action is an outcome
of a coordination of brain, mind and behaviour. Brain has a physical structure
whereas mind is considered a functional correlate of brain. Psychology tries to
understand the laws and principles characterizing the linkages across them in a
scientific manner.
4 PSYCHOLOGY
In our everyday life we behave in different ways and use the term 'behaviour' to
refer to the verbal and physiological responses and actions.
Interest in psychological issues has a long past. However, attempts to formalize
the understanding of psychological phenomena in modern sense started only during
Notes
19th century. It was influenced by the developments in the disciplines of philosophy
as well as natural sciences. Today psychology is considered as a science as well
as a profession contributing to the improvement in quality of life. It focuses primarily
on the study of various aspects of mental and behavioural functioning. Psychologists
use scientific methods to understand the causes of behavioural phenomena and
develop principles and theories about them. They attempt to understand various
questions related to human behaviour.
In the course of its growth, in this century, psychology has expanded in many
directions and has encompassed almost all areas of human life. Thus we can say
that psychology is a scientific study of mind, brain and behaviour.
1.3 WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO?

Many of us carry the impression that psychologists can read the face of a person
and tell one’s mental make up, may cure people suffering from mental abnormalities,
can guess what is one’s future, and can change one’s mind instantaneously, like a
magician. As we will see later, there is no magic in the hands of psychologists. A
psychologist uses certain procedures and tools to collect information and tries to
draw inferences and conclusions about the probable causes of behaviour.
Psychologists share twin goals:
(1) understanding and explaining the complexities of behaviour, and

(2) contributing to the improvement of the quality of human life.
The academic psychologists pursuing basic research are interested in the first goal.
They try to test hypotheses about the diverse aspects of behaviour and mental
processes. They develop principles, laws and theories using various methods such
as observation and experimentation. They make efforts to describe, explain, predict
and control behavioural phenomena. In contrast, the second goal is addressed by
applied psychologists who are practitioners. They try to use psychological
knowledge in solving various human problems. They are engaged in activities like
counselling, therapy, personnel selection, career guidance, consultancy in
organizational behaviour (e.g., team building, decision making, leadership training),
consumer surveys, and psychological assessment and training in various skills (e.g.
communication, self presentation). Psychologists are now seen working not only
in academic institutions doing research and teaching but also in institutions like
hospitals, schools, industries, sports-complexes, military establishments, community
centres and so on.
PSYCHOLOGY 5
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

Choose the correct alternative:
Notes
1. Psychology is most appropriately defined as the:
a. Study of mind.
b. Scientific study of unconscious mental processes.
c. Science of brain, mind and behaviour.
d. Science of behaviour and knowledge.
2. Which one of the following is not used by psychologists?
a. interview
b. reading lines of one’s palm
c. experiment
d. observation
1.4 DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A

DISCIPLINE
Understanding human nature has proved to be a major concern of human beings
since time immemorial. The Indian thinkers had developed elaborate theories about
consciousness, self, mind, mental activities since Vedic and Upnishadic period.
The Indian thought systems like Vedant, Samkhya, Yoga, Buddhism, Jainism, Sufism,
etc. have generated voluminous literature relevant to psychological processes. Let
us know that the scholars and terchers in Ancient India like Charaka the famous
physician of first century AD, Vatsayan and Kautilya all provided the theoretical
foundations to apply the Psychological principles. But there is a need to understand
the concept in Indian context because social and cultural setting has its own influence
on the development of Psychology.
In the western world psychology took the shape of a scientific discipline towards
the end of 19th century. It is generally held that Wilhelm Wundt established the first
psychological laboratory at Leipzig University in Germany in 1879. He was a
pioneer and attracted a large number of students from different parts of the world
who started expanding the discipline. Gradually the study of psychology was
organized around certain schools of thought. The main schools are as follows:
6 PSYCHOLOGY
Structuralism : Developed by Edward Tichener , it focused on the study of

consciousness and its components, i.e., sensations, images and affects.
Functionalism : Developed by William James it focused on consciousness,
memory, learning and emotions as related to survival, growth and adaptation of Notes
living beings.
Behaviorism : Developed by J.B. Watson it focused on the objective study of
observable behaviour.
Gestalt : Developed by Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka and their mentor Max
Wertheimer this school focused on a holistic view and consciousness. Perception
was the main area of study.
Psychoanalysis : Developed by Sigmund Freud it gave importance to unconscious
processes, conflicts, anxiety and disorders.
The era of schools provided great opportunity for the diversification of psychology.
However, it was felt that none of them could explain psychological processes in
totality. As a result, there grew use of concepts from different schools of thought
and use of scientific method.
Recent movements include emphasis on information theory and computational
models which characterized cognitive revolution. The neural processes and role of
cultural processes in shaping psychological functions are now being studied
vigorously.
In modern India psychology started at Calcutta University in 1916. Dr. N. N.
Sengupta was the first Head of the Department. Sri Girindra Shekhar Bose
succeeded Dr. Sengupta. The Indian Psychological Association was founded in
1924 and Indian Journal of Psychology was started in 1925. The Lumbini Park
Mental Hospital at Calcutta was founded in 1940. Gradually psychology
departments were opened in various universities like Patna, Lucknow and Mysore.
During seventies psychology became more popular in various areas and institutions.
Its presence is widely felt in education, industry, health, defence and other related
domains of life.
1.5 MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

Unlike physical objects and animals, human beings are self-conscious and can,
therefore, subject themselves to their own study. This capacity to reflect about
oneself makes the study of human behaviour and related processes quite complex.
The complexity of studying human behaviour is further increased due to multiple
causes involved in it. For example, let us see the case of someone who complains
that a colleague of his/her is not working or performing upto the mark. This
behaviour can occur due to many factors independently or jointly. It may be due
PSYCHOLOGY 7
to lack of ability or lack of motivation or lack of supportive climate at the work

place or some problem at home. Any one of these factors or their combination
may result in poor performance. This is true for most of the behavioural phenomena.
Notes Thus, we find that while psychologists do use scientific methods they cannot operate
like physical or natural scientists. They have to take into account a large number of
factors while studying behaviour. They share the characteristics of physical as well
as social sciences.
However, the psychological predictions are complex and have certain limitations
because the subject understudy is human mind which itself is influenced by various
factors. Their accuracy is limited by the stimuli used, type of tools used,
environmental conditions and by the nature of psychological processes under study.
The dynamic nature of psychological processes make generalizations difficult. Such
generalizations are probablistic in nature. In other words they indicate that under
the given conditions the chance is that so and so event may take place.
While studying human behaviour we need to remember the following:
(i) Changes are observed in individuals due to maturation, learning and ageing.
(ii) Human behaviour at any moment is a joint function of the personal
characteristics and the properties of environment.
(iii) The measurement of psychological attributes (e.g., personality, intelligence,
interest, attitude) is usually indirect and based on inferences.
(iv) Many aspects of social behaviour are rule-governed and culture specific.
(v) Human behaviour is usually determined by multiple causes.
The analysis and understanding of psychological phenomena essentially implies
some model of human being. These models are rooted in certain cultural and
philosophical assumptions. This is one important reason why there exist many
approaches or perspectives to understand human behaviour.
Let us study more about these perspectives below:
Biological perspective : It considers human beings as nothing but a biological

structure. Treating behaviour in purely physical terms, it looks at the internal
physiological structures (e.g., brain, nervous system). Subscribing to a materialistic
view it asserts that all behaviour has a physiological basis. In this view the working
of nervous system and the role of genetic factors in shaping behaviour become
major concerns. It is held that all social and psychological processes are derived
from biological processes. This view prefers analysis of complex phenomenon in
terms of smaller units. It has revealed the mysteries of brain functioning. The studies
on effects of drugs on behaviour, consequences of electrical stimulation of various
8 PSYCHOLOGY
parts of brain, influence of meditation and altered states of consciousness have

shown interesting results.
Behavioural Perspective : This perspective stresses on the role of environmental

stimuli in determining the way people act. It argues that what we are is largely the Notes
result of past learning. Accordingly, the overt or observable behaviour becomes
the subject matter of psychology. This approach does not give importance to
consciousness and subjective mental states. In this tradition observable behaviour
and its relationship with environmental conditions is the main focus of study. Its
proponent W.J. Watson and exponent B.F. Skinner believed in the objective study
of behaviour. Behaviourism has many variants but all share common interest in
learning and use explanations based on observable events.
Psychodynamic Perspective : We are often unaware of the true reasons for our
actions. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psycho-analysis, is closely associated
with this view. Focusing on motivational questions about behaviour, this perspective
examines the role of internal processes. It believes that each behaviour has a
cause and that cause is to be found in the mind. It is held that much of our behaviour
is governed by the unconscious processes that lie outside the range of our
awareness. This view uses the observations of people suffering from mental
disorders and considers early childhood experiences as determinants of adult
behaviour. According to this view, human being is driven primarily by sexual and
aggressive instincts. The neo-Freudians like Horney, Erikson and Erich Fromm
have developed psycho-analysis in various forms. Similarly Jung and Adler
developed different traditions.
Cognitive Perspective: The main focus of this view is on how people know,
understand and think about the world. Much of our behaviour involves mental or
cognitive processes such as perceiving, remembering and thinking. They are as
important as environmental stimuli in understanding our behaviour. They mediate
between environmental stimuli and organism’s responses. They function in organized
and systematic way. As active organisms, we process information and act upon it.
Our cognitions determine the course of our behaviour. We observe the environment
and respond on the basis of its interpretation. Our thoughts are both causes as
well as results of our overt actions. This perspective has links with the emerging
fields of cognitive science and artificial intelligence.
Humanistic Perspective : Often termed as a third force, this perspective views
humans as basically good and responsible beings. It is also held that one’s behaviour
is not simply determined by either past experiences or the current circumstances.
People can make choices. The emphasis in on ‘free will’. The subjective experiences
and interpretations of the people are important in determining the course of their
actions. The theories must be useful not only for understanding people but also for
PSYCHOLOGY 9
understanding one’s own life. In this perspective, self-actualization and spirituality

play important role. It tries to see the pattern in life histories of the people. It
emphasizes the phenonmenal or experiential world of the people. Abraham Maslow
and Rogers were the chief proponents of this view.
Notes
Indian Perspective: The Indian thought system has discussed the problem of
human life from a broader perspective. A human being is embedded in relationship
with environment and divinity; and harmony of mind, body and soul is emphasized.
People are attracted to objects of desire unmindfully and that creates problems.
People are ignorant of their true nature. The difficulties in life are because we are
not aware of the potentialities and misidentify with physical objects. The remedy is
proposed in terms of various forms of Yoga like Bhakti, Gyan, Karma and Raj
yogas. In addition, there have been many other developments in all these systems
and other traditions.
1.6 RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGY WITH

OTHER DISCIPLINES
As a behavioural science, psychology is situated at the intersection of many subjects.
The psychological investigations share interest with different branches of biological
sciences, social sciences and humanities. All these knowledge areas are collectively
known as behavioural sciences. In recent years linkage of psychology with different
subjects has been recognized. Now multi-disciplinary and cross-disciplinary studies
are increasingly receiving greater attention. Let us see how psychology is related
to other disciplines.
Sociology: The social or collective aspect of human behaviour is a matter of

common concern for the students of sociology as well as psychology. However,
the levels and approaches of the two are different. Both the disciplines help us to
understand the influences of social context on human behaviour. Both analyze
social phenomena such as leadership, socialization etc. However, sociology is
molar and focuses on broader or macro units. It stresses on the study of groups
and communities, while psychology focuses more on individuals. It is interesting to
note that society comprises of individual. Hence both are inter-related. It also uses
experimental survey and observational methods for collecting information.
Anthropology: Anthropology tries to understand the evolution of mankind and

development of civilization. It also focuses on the characteristics and processes of
culture by detailed observation and recording the lives of people through participant
observation in different cultural groups. In contrast, psychology tries to establish
generalizations about human behaviour. These generalizations are often limited by
the culture in which research is conducted. In recent years the relationship between
10 PSYCHOLOGY
culture and psychology has become closer. The psychological studies which
respond to the needs of culture have shown that there are important differences
and similarities in the nature and expression of emotions, self concept, motives,
personality, norms, morality and child-rearing across different cultures.
Notes
Education: Education and psychology have a history of very long association.
The theory and practice of education is based on the principles and findings about
various psychological processes like learning, memory, motivation, personality
and intelligence. Also, effective class-room teaching and learning is possible only
when teachers are trained in the principles of human development. Children are
active learners who process information and act accordingly. A teacher, therefore,
is required to be skillful in the techniques of motivation and communication. Teachers
are often required to provide guidance and counseling to students and parents.
Similarly evaluation of students requires basic understanding of the principles and
procedures of psychological assessment.
Biology and Neuroscience: One of the main concerns of psychologists is to

understand the biological foundations of behaviour. Many breakthroughs in
understanding, controlling and modifying behaviour have come from the knowledge
of the functioning of brain and nervous system. Localization of brain functions,
nature and properties of nerve impulse, biological factors in arousal and motivation,
role of various parts of brain in determining psychological functioning constitute an
exciting area of enquiry.

A. Match the following statements:
(1) Biological perspective (a) human beings as positive force
(2) Behavioural perspective (b) behaviour involves mental
process
(3) Psychodynamic perspective (c) function of biological entity
(4) Cognitive perspective (d) harmony of mind, body
and spirit
(5) Humanistic perspective (e) unconscious aspect of mind
(6) Indian perspective (f) function of environmental
characteristics
B. State whether the following statements are True or False.
(i) Sociology and psychology help to understand the influence of social context
on human behaviour. True/False
PSYCHOLOGY 11
(ii) Anthropology studies the evolution of mankind and development of civilization.

True/False
(iii) Education and psychology are unrelated. True/False
Notes (iv) Human behaviour does not have any biological foundation. True/False
1.7 FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

In the course of its disciplinary journey, psychology has diversified and expanded
in many directions. Beginning with experimental and physiological psychology which
focus on the basic psychological processes, attention was shifted to the application
of psychology in different spheres of life. In the following paragraphs we shall
briefly study the different branches of psychology.
(a) Experimental and Cognitive Psychology: Traditionally experimental

psychology has been concerned with the study of psychological processes
such as sensation, perception, learning, memory, motivation, emotion, etc.
The goal is to understand the principles underlying these processes with the
help of experimental method. For a long time this area has dominated the
scene. With increasing information this field has diversified. The new field of
cognitive psychology happens to be the closest one to experimental psychology.
This field tries to explain processes involved in the perception, comprehension
and use of information for various purposes. Thus reasoning, problem solving,
attention and related processes are being analysed with sophisticated methods
and tools. This branch tries to understand the fundamental causes of behaviour.
(b) Physiological and Comparative Psychology: This field of inquiry is devoted
to the analysis of biological foundations of behaviour. It asserts that all behaviour
can be reduced to various physiological processes. For instance, activities in
cerebral cortex and hypothalamus are found to be systematically related to
thinking and motivation. The field of comparative psychology investigates the
dimensions and complexities of behaviour among animals like rats, pigeons
and monkeys and compares those across species.
(c) Developmental Psychology: This subfield of psychology deals with the
problem of changes in behaviour throughout the lifespan. These changes take
place in physical, motor, cognitive, personality, emotional, social and linguistic
domains. Study of these changes may be undertaken by following the same
person for a longer period. Alternatively, one may study people of different
age groups. The first approach is called longitudinal and the second is cross-
sectional. Important divisions of this branch include child psychology, adolescent
psychology, and psychology of adulthood and aging. The study of
12 PSYCHOLOGY
developmental psychopathology has great significance for rehabilitation of

children with disabilities and behaviour problems.
(d) Social Psychology: Interactions with other human beings are one of the most
significant aspects of our life. Social psychology tries to understand the influence Notes
of other individuals and groups on our behaviour. Perceiving other individuals,
forming attitudes, persuading others to change their views, prejudice,
interpersonal attraction, group decision, social motivation and leadership are
important themes in social psychology. More recently, great concern has been
shown for applications and a new specialization entitled applied social
psychology has emerged. Social psychology has particularly benefited by the
contributions from sociologists.
(e) Educational and School Psychology: As an applied field this branch of
psychology tries to help solve the problems of teaching and learning in classroom
setting. It helps the students and teachers both to deal more effectively with
the learning situations. Much of the work of educational psychologists is devoted
to the areas of curriculum planning, teacher-training and instruction-design.
Psychology of learning and motivation supplies the necessary theoretical
framework and empirical data regarding learning process, the principles of
learning, reinforcement, transfer of training, retention and forgetting. Educational
psychologists plan and suggest curriculum to a school board in the light of
student’s interest, abilities, and needs. The job of school psychologists is to
deal with more immediate problems in the school. The school psychologists
are particularly concerned with diagnosis of learning difficulties and their
remediation, and vocational and other forms of counseling.
(f) Counseling Psychology: A counseling psychologist deals with people who
have milder emotional and personal problems. She/he tries to enable an
individual to utilize his/her present resources most effectively in solving personal
problems. Thus a counseler’s task is to modify behaviour in areas like marital
life, delinquency, school maladjustment, dispute in work setting, etc. The
counselor systematically changes the behaviour through various procedures
including behaviour modification, modelling, sensitization and rational thinking.
(g) Clinical Psychology: The general image of a clinical psychologist is that of a
doctor who diagnoses psychological disorders and treats them using
psychotherapy. But s/he is not a doctor and should not be confused with a
psychiatrist who holds a medical degree. S/he uses various techniques to relieve
the symptoms and to help people understand the reasons of their problems. A
clinical psychologist strives at changing personality in order to enable a person
to cope with his/her situation in an adaptive manner. A clinical psychologist
mainly aims at the identification of negative or problematic aspects in
development and their alleviation. For example, a clinical psychologist, treating
PSYCHOLOGY 13
phobia, a kind of unreasonable fear behaviour, tries to remove reinforcements

that maintain the behaviour, and at the same time provide reinforcement in
order to promote learning of more rational and effective coping patterns in
people.
Notes (h) Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology: Psychologists working in this
area help industries and other organizations in personnel selection, training,
solving problems related to communication, productivity, and interpersonal
and intergroup relations. Various interventions for organizational development
(e.g., team building, development of communication skills, goal setting, job
design) are currently employed to improve the conditions of work setting and
enhancing the quality of products.
(i) Environmental Psychology: This is a relatively new field of psychology which
specializes in understanding the relationship between human beings and
environment. Environmental planning, environmental perception and attitude,
design of environments, environmental stressors (e.g., crowding, pollution,
disasters) and environmental attitudes are being studied. The goal is to save
the environment and improve its quality.
(j) Engineering Psychology: Human life in the modern world is dominated by
machines of various kinds. The human-machine interaction raises many
problems. Engineering psychology, also known as human factors engineering,
tries to specify the capacities and limitations of human-machine-environment
system so that the system can be operated safely and efficiently. Therefore,
the task of engineering psychologists is to help designing instruments and
machines and developing the layout of work setting. With the advent of
computers and innovations in the area of information technology, many new
methods are being used to solve the related problems.
(k) Health Psychology: It is an emerging branch of psychology which focuses
on understanding the factors that promote the status of health. In contemporary
life the number of health hazards (e.g., stresses, pollution in the environment,
frustration) is increasing. In order to cope with them successfully we need to
adopt patterns of health behaviour such as exercise, meditation, proper diet,
physical activity etc. Health psychology examines the role of these behaviours
in promotion of physical and mental health. It also tries to find ways to modify
inappropriate behaviours and prevention of illness.
1.8 CURRENT TRENDS : THE CHANGING FACE OF

PSYCHOLOGY
With increasing complexity in modern life psychology is required to play greater
role. It is clear from the description of various branches of psychology that its field
14 PSYCHOLOGY
encompasses a broad spectrum of issues faced by us. It’s goal is to further

knowledge in various domains and apply that knowledge in solving problems. In
such efforts psychology has grown in different directions. Some of the current
trends that are prominent in shaping this discipline are as follows:
Notes
1. Emphasis on Cultural Context
Psychologists are realizing the fact that psychological phenomena can be
understood in the specific cultural context in which they take place. The studies
in cross-cultural psychology and cultural psychology show that many of the
concepts (e.g., self, morality) and practices (e.g, socialization, life tasks) are
culturally specific. It is therefore necessary to understand these issues and
processes in their cultural context.
2. Breakthrough in Neurosciences
In recent years considerable knowledge has been gained about brain and
other parts of nervous system and biological functioning. This has helped in
not only understanding the nature of psychological processes but has provided
ways and means (e.g., drugs) to cure various diseases.
3. Multidisciplinary Concerns
Psychologists as well as other scientists are now convinced that human reality
is complex and one discipline cannot properly comprehend it. Hence
multidisciplinary efforts have started to understand the various aspects of human
life. In particular, the collaboration of linguists, anthropologists and cognitive
scientists is taking place in the study of issues related to language, personality,
emotion and values.

A. Choose the correct alternative:
1. Which of the following psychologists is most involved in the treatment of

psychological problems:
a. counseling psychologist
b. community psychologist
c. clinical psychologist
d. social psychologist
PSYCHOLOGY 15
2. Suppose you are writing an article on the factors that attract people to one
another and lead to friendship. It is likely that you will try to read books
written by a:
a. developmental psychologist
Notes
b. educational psychologist
c. social psychologist
d. community psychologist
3. You are attending a meeting/seminar of psychologists. You find that one talk is
on infant perceptual abilities, the second is on adult socialization, the third
deals with physical changes in the elderly. What is your guess about the
specialization of these psychologists?
a. Physiological
b. Cognitive
c. Social
d. Developmental
1.9 PSYCHOLOGY AS A CAREER

By now you must have got a fair idea of the various fields of psychology. Frankly,
nowadays, no area has been left untouched by psychology. Whether it is related
to society or the armed forces or educational setting, the need of a psychologist is
being felt by all. It is becoming a very popular subject rapidly. With a degree in
psychology, one can find various jobs such as -
a) PGT - Psychology.
b) Counsellor - freelancer/ school/ institution.
c) Examiner who conducts various tests.
d) Psychologist in an industrial setting.
e) Researcher.
f) Work in NGOs.
g) Lecturer.
h) Clinical Psychologist.
i) Child Psychologist.
16 PSYCHOLOGY
j) Health Psychologist.
k) School Psychologist.
l) Human Factors Psychologist.
Notes
All the jobs stated here demand at least a graduate degree with specialization in a
particualr field of psychology.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

• Psychology is a science which studies mental and behavioural functioning in a
systematic manner, using scientific methods.
• Psychologists describe, predict and control the processes like perception,
motivation, cognition, memory, learning, personality, and intelligence.
• As professionals, they apply psychological knowledge towards the solution
of problems in various settings including schools, industries, hospitals and
organizations.
• It is closely related to allied disciplines such as education, anthropology,
sociology, and biology.
• The study of psychological issues and problems has been characterized by
several perspectives including behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic,
humanistic, biological and Indian.
• The perspectives are rooted in varied philosophical assumptions, and describe
human nature in different ways.
• As a growing discipline, psychology is expanding across various branches
which specialize in providing psychological services in different walks of life.
• Developments in neurosciences, study of culture and collaboration with other
disciplines is shaping the development of psychology in important ways.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the nature of psychology.
2. Explain the psychodynamic perspective in psychology.
3. How is psychology related to education?
4. Discuss the fields of clinical psychology and industrial psychology.
PSYCHOLOGY 17
ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

1.1
Notes
(1) c
(2) b
1.2
(A) 1 - c, 2 -f, 3 - e, 4 - b,
5 - a, 6-d
(B) (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False
1.3
1. C
2. C
3. D
HINTS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Refer to section 1.2
18 PSYCHOLOGY
How Psychologists Study? MODULE - I
Notes
HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY?
In the previous lesson you have learnt about the nature of psychology, what
psychologists do, different branches of psychology, etc. Now you can well
understand the important place which psychology has acquired among various
disciplines. Today there is considerable interest among common people, policy
makers, students, professionals and businessmen and women in learning about
psychology as a discipline. As we know, psychology is the scientific study of
brain, mind and behaviour, and psychologists conduct their studies by using scientific
methods. In this lesson you will study about the various methods, techniques and
tools that psychologists use in their research and study.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the goals of psychological studies and research;
• explain basic and applied aspects of research;
• familiarize with different methods used by psychologists;
• explain the steps involved in conducting experiments;
• know the different tools used by psychologists; and
• understand the uses of statistical analysis in psychological studies.
PSYCHOLOGY 19
MODULE - I How Psychologists Study?
2.1 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES AND

RESEARCH
As a science, psychologists try to understand the nature and functioning of behaviour
Notes and experience. They try to answer questions regarding various psychological
processes like memory, thinking, learning, perception, intelligence etc. In doing so
the researcher or investigator adopts a scientific perspective. They make efforts to
develop knowledge of phenomena in such a manner that can fulfil the requirements
of science. Here, science refers to a method of systematic inquiry which is based
on unbiased observation. In this way scientific knowledge becomes available for
scrutiny by any person who wants to understand and verify the same. This is why
scientific knowledge is made available to all.
In everyday life our observations are often biased by our likings or dislikings. In
fact, we accept what others say and our casual impressions become part of our
personal understanding which may be wrong or right. In contrast, a scientist relies
only on the observations which are not influenced by personal preferences but are
free from such biases. Similarly, scientific knowledge is not anybody's personal
property. You must have heard about scientific journals. If you get a chance to go
through a journal you will find that the way a scientific study is conducted is fully
described or documented. In other words, the knowledge is public and open to
any one who wants to have access to it. The documentation of research is useful
for another purpose. Such a study can be replicated by any person who wants to
conduct the study himself or herself.
Finally, the scientific study is objective. It is supposed to be free from subjective

factors and it is seen, observed or experienced in the same way by each and
everyone who follows the given method.
Psychologists have accepted scientific method and try to generate knowledge

which stands well on the above mentioned criteria of science. As scientists they try
to achieve the following goals regarding the objective of their study.
1. Description: The first step towards gaining understanding is to obtain a proper

or systematic description of the phenomenon under study. It determines the
range and boundary of the phenomena.
2. Explanation: Explanation means statement of the factors which determine
the phenomenon under study. In other words, one may say that explanation
provides the factors which make something happen. Thus, when a psychologist
shows that practice leads to change in behaviour he or she is explaining learning.
3. Prediction: Once we are able to get the explanation of some phenomena we
are in a position to tell or predict what will happen under certain circumstances.
20 PSYCHOLOGY
The ability to make prediction is based on systematic analysis of the various

causal factors. The presence or absence of those factors can help one to tell
what will happen in future.
4. Control: The ability to predict provides the knowledge necessary to bring the Notes
change that is desirable. For instance, use of polio vaccine prevents the
occurrence of polio. Similarly practising yoga or relaxation can be used to
improve health and quality of life of the people. Thus knowledge can be used
to produce results desired by the user of knowledge. This, however, is possible
only when we have scientific knowledge.

1. Fill in the blanks
(a) Science is a method of __________ inquiry which is based on _______

observation.
(b) Science is public or which can be _________ with other person and it can be
_________.
(c) Scientific study is _________________.
2.2 BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH

To get indepth study of research, Psychology has considered mainly the basic and
applied research. Let us know more about basic and applied research. Any study
or research begins with a question or problem that we want to answer or solve.
Such problems are of various types. One broad way to classify these problems is
to put them in “basic” and “applied” categories. Basic research deals with developing
understanding, theory building and testing of a theory and applied research deals
with solving real life problems. It may be noted that the line demarcating these two
types of research is very thin. Also, there can be movement from theory to
application or from application to theory.
In practice, applied research involves development of technology to solve specific
problems that are faced in personal, familial, health, organizational and environmental
areas. In fact many new branches of psychology have emerged which are
predominantly applied in nature. This emphasis is so attractive that many universities
offer courses in applied psychology or its various specialized areas.
The distinction between basic and applied studies in psychology may be indicated
as follows. The basic research focuses on providing theoretical understanding. It
offers understanding in terms of principles and laws which are not confined to
PSYCHOLOGY 21
limited circumstances or persons. In contrast, applied research has a narrow goal

of solving a very specific problem. It is concrete in its orientation and confines
itself to a limited condition.
Notes Today psychological knowledge is growing in basic as well as applied directions

and there is mutual give and take between the two. The scope of psychology is
expanding in a big way to contribute to the enhancement of quality of life of the
people. For instance, developing an intervention program to help children with
learning disability or for people suffering from anxiety is applied research.
2.3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

In simple language an experiment may be defined as observation under conditions
which we can control and vary. Experimental method is generally preferred above
other methods, because of its ability to understand the causal factors. An experiment
is concerned about the study of relationship between changes in antecedent
conditions and the corresponding changes in the consequents. The experimental
method helps psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationship between these
two sets of conditions which are usually considered as variables. To understand it
let us take an example.
Suppose a teacher wants to know if recitation method will aid retention (of a
poem) than silent reading? She will proceed as follows:
Forming a Hypothesis: To answer a problem the teacher has a question or

problem in which effect of one thing (recitation method) on the other (retention)
has to be explored. On the basis of her previous knowledge and researches, the
experimenter (E) forms a hypothesis. In present case the teacher states a possible
answer to the problem. She may hypothesize that the recitation method is better
for retention of a poem. To verify the hypothesis she will undertake an experiment.
Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables: In order to understand

the experimental method, one must be familiar with the concept of variables.
“Variable is any measurable attribute of objects, things or beings”. Quantitatively
measured variables are age, intelligence, number of trials, sex, religion, caste etc.
The E is concerned with two main kinds of variables:
• independent variable (IV), and

• dependent variable (DV).
An independent variable is manipulated by the E (e.g. method of learning is the IV
in the present case) in order to understand its effect on some chosen aspect of
behaviour.
22 PSYCHOLOGY
Effects of IV are observed on the DV e.g. retention in the present example. In

other words, dependent variable is the consequent variable on which the effect is
to be observed.
While studying the effect of IV on DV the relationship is often influenced by a Notes

number of factors present in the environment. Such relevant variables need to be
controlled by the E. The E plans the experiment using two groups i.e., experimental
and control. The experimental group receives the treatment of IV and control
group performs in the absence of the IV. These two groups are supposed to be
similar in all respects except the treatment of IV.
Sampling of Participants: The next step is to decide the population to be selected

for the study and deciding on the method of selecting a sample. For example, if
one wants to take the students of 10th class for the experiment she can not possibly
go to all the schools. So she decides to take equal number of students of 10th class
of one school. A sample represents the whole population. One has to decide
which type of sampling method should be used. Random sampling is considered
to be the best method because in this way of sampling all members of population
have equal probability of selection.
Control of Extraneous Variables: There is a possibility that some other variables,

like age, gender, etc., may affect retention. All these variables have to be controlled.
In order to do so the E selects participants of similar intelligence, age and gender.
Experimenter may use a number of techniques to control the unwanted extraneous
variables. Some of them are as follows:
1. Matching: The participants are matched on their characteristics.

2. Elimination : An unwanted variable may be controlled by elimination (e.g.,
noise).
3. Constancy of conditions: If elimination is not possible, the condition may
be made constant for the entire duration of experiment.
Planning (designing) the Experiment: The E will select group of students, divide
them in half and give them same material (poem in this case) to memorize. One
group is instructed to read the material silently. This group is called the “control
group”. The other group recites the poem loudly for the same amount of time. This
group is the “experimental group”. Retention of both the groups will be compared.
Verifying the Hypothesis: If the experimenter finds a significant difference in the

amount retained by the two groups, she may infer that recitation method is better
for retention of poems. These findings will prove the hypothesis.
Limitation of Experimental Method: The experimental method is very powerful
PSYCHOLOGY 23
for gathering scientific data. But it also has limitations. The findings obtained from
this may not apply to natural situations. Sometimes an experiment might prove
unethical or dangerous. In some situations, experiment may interfere with behaviour
that is measured.
Notes

State whether following statements are True or False
(1) Experiment is observation under controlled condition. True/False

(2) Independent variable is not manipulated. True/False
(3) Experimental group receives the treatment of IV. True/False
(4) Control group may be different in its properties than experimental group.
True/False
2.4 NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Experimental method is the preferred method in psychology because it has greater
precision but many a times we face problems that cannot be subjected to
experimental manipulation. Behaviour of people in a crowd cannot be brought to
the laboratory, neither it can be understood why a child breaks things in the class
through experimental method. Such situations require different methods. Some of
these non-experimental methods are described below:
Observation: Observation is the starting point for all sciences. It is a study of

spontaneous occurrences, at the time they occur. But simply observing may not be
enough. One should know what one wants to observe. Otherwise a lot of data
may be missed. In psychological studies we use naturalistic as well as controlled
observation. Also, there is another kind of observation which is called participant
observation in which the observer observes by being a part of the group.
Introspection: To introspect means to look within. This is the oldest method in

psychology. It is a very important method to understand the feelings of pain,
happiness, fatigue etc. If some persons go to see a movie they may have liked the
movie which others may have disliked ; but they can understand the emotional
response of liking only by looking within. In introspection, attention is directed
inwards to find out what is happening at the experiential level. For example, you
meet a school mate after years, you greet him by shaking hands – an act of friendly
behaviour but inside you may not feel happy to meet him because he had bullied
you in the class.
24 PSYCHOLOGY
Survey: It is for the study of social problems such as incidence of alcoholism,

popularity of certain careers, causes of unsuccessful marriages. People cannot be
manipulated to observe these problems. Psychologists go into the field with
prepared list of questions and interview schedules to a group of people. They may
want to know how many people are buying a certain brand of tooth paste. The Notes
surveyor may sometimes face problems like refusal of people to answer, biased
answers, misleading answers etc. A carefully conducted survey provides information
about the trend in a particular area of concern.
Case History: ‘Case history’ is a detailed compilation of data about a single

individual. A psychologist may gather complete history, from infancy to present
period in order to understand a person’s behaviour. This method is often used to
study abnormal behaviour, behaviour of criminals, problem children or even to
study the developmental changes in personality. The focus is on the assets as well
as the weaknesses of the person concerned.
Correlational Research: It is used to find out the relationships between two

sets of factors/variables. We may use this method to find out the relationship of
intelligence with scholastic achievement, or religiosity with spiritual well-being,
language skills with examination performance etc. The strength of relationship can
be represented by a correlation coefficient, which ranges from – 1.00 to + 1.00.
A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable increases the
value of the other also increases. A negative correlation tells that as the value of
one variable increases, the value of other variable decreases. Correlational research
can not demonstrate cause-and-effect relationship. But it gives new insights about
the phenomena under study.

1. What is an independent variable?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. List the goals of psychology as a science?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
PSYCHOLOGY 25
2.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS

While undertaking studies psychologists use a variety of tools to collect relevant
data. These tools or instruments are of various kinds and are used for various
Notes purposes. Memory Drum and Tachistoscope are frequently used in studies of
memory and perception. Similarly EEG, ECG, PET, GSR, MRI, FMRI, etc. are
used in the study of neuro-psychological functioning. These electronic and electrical
gadgets help to make the presentation of stimuli and recording of responses. Tape
recorders and video recording are also used. Apart from these, there are paper-
pencil tests used to measures to access various psychological attributes. Let us
discuss basic various tools:
1. Questionnaires and Interview Schedules: In order to elecit information

from people psychologists and other social scientists use questionnaires which
are mailed or interview schedules which are presented by the researcher himself
or herself in person. The questions may be open ended or closed ended. The
open ended questions provide freedom to the respondent to answer the way
he/she likes but closed ended questions have fixed answers and the respondent
is required to choose out of the given responses. Preparation and use of these
tools is an art and demands proper training. Interviews are used in many settings
(e.g., clinical, personnel selection, research) and present a situation of social
interaction. A good interviewer encourages the respondent to open up and
share his or her views in clear terms.
2. Psychometric Tests: As a learner of psychology it is essential to be familiar
with intelligence tests, personality tests, aptitude tests, interest inventories and
many other similar psycholgical tools. They provide measurement of individual
differences. A test is a standardized measure of sample of behaviours and
attributes. These tests are used to determine the status of the person being
assessed on an attribute, relative to the community of people on which the test
has been standardized. In order to be useful the tests must have several features.
(see box 2.1)
Box 2.1: Characteristics of psychological tests
Reliability: It refers to the consistency of a test. In order to be

dependable a test must yield similar results on different occasions. Thus
if a person is found to be above average in intelligence today he or she
shall also show the same level of intelligence after 3 months. If the scores
are similar then we may say that the test is reliable. This is called retest-
reliability. There is another kind of reliability which is called internal
consistency which indicates the degree to which the different items of a
test are related to each other.
26 PSYCHOLOGY
Validity: A test is valid if it measures the same property for which it has
been prepared. Thus a test of intelligence is valid if it measures intelligence
(and not interest or personality). For this purpose we relate the scores
on the test with some external criteria.
Notes
Norms: Norms refer to the scores obtained by a group which works as
a reference point. We do not know the zero value of psychological
attributes. Therefore, absolute measurement is not possible. The score
of a test is meaningful in the context of scores obtained by other
persons. A psychological test score is a relative score. It is therefore
necessary to develop norms for tests. They help to interpret test scores.
Standardization: Standardization is mainly concerned with establishing

collectiveness of the tool in various conditions. This is carried out by
finding validity, reliability and objectivly of the tools. In other words
standardization also includes establishing ways and conditions for
administering the test (e.g., time, instruction, scoring, interpretation). It is
systematically done and described in the test manual. It helps to obtain
meaningful data.
3. Projective Tests/Techniques: This includes a variety of tasks which are

unstructured or ambiguous. The performance of a person on these tasks cannot
be used in any direct manner. The performance is viewed as projection of the
psychological attribute under consideration. In other words these tests provide
indirect assessment of the psychological property and the investigator interprets
the obvious behavioural expression or performance. Thus what a person says
or does is not accepted at its face value. The hidden meaning is more important
than what is apparent. Some of the famous projective tests include Rorschach
Ink Blot Test and Murray’s Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). In the
first test a person is shown a set of ink blots and is required to identify what the
blot represents or what are various objects that are seen. The responses
obtained from a person are used to discover his/her personality. This test is
frequently used in clinical setting. The TAT consists of a set of pictures and the
respondent is required to write about the pictures. These stories are then
interpreted to understand the personality of the person.
2.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION IN

PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES
Psychological studies are done with human beings. It is therefore necessary to
follow certain principles so that no harm is done to the participants. Some of the
accepted principles are as follows:
PSYCHOLOGY 27
1. Informed consent: The investigator can conduct a study on other persons

only after obtaining their prior permission to do so.
2. Confidentiality: The findings of research remain confidential and are not
disclosed with anybody.
Notes
3. Debriefing: If some kind of manipulation or deception has been done in the
study the researcher has the duty to clarify that to the participants after
completing the study.
4. Right to withdraw: The participants have a right to withdraw from the study
if they desire to do so.
5. Responsibility: The researcher has to bear the responsibility of any harm
done to the participants during the course of study.
Today it is a common practice to have Ethics Committees which examine ethical
aspects of research before it is undertaken by the researcher.
The use of tests in clinical setting is made for certifying people in terms of mental
disorders. It should be done with proper care and by trained persons only. It
should not be misused.
2.7 NEED OF STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Statistics is a branch of mathematics. It deals with collection, classification,
description and interpretation of quantitative data. In psychology, statistics is used
for:
• describing behaviour, and
• predicting behaviour.
When the statistics is used for describing behaviour, descriptive statistics is used.
When it is used for explaining behaviour, inferential statistcs is used.
Descriptive statistics are the numbers which are often used to describe a variable.
The major descriptive statistics are the measures of central tendency (mean, median
mode), measures of variation, and correlation.
Inferential statistics are used in experiments or investigations which are designed

to make generalization about population on the basis of a sample. There are many
inferential statistics. ‘t’ test is one of those.
Functions of Statistics
Statistics serve many purposes. Important ones are as follows:
(i) Data and information can be presented briefly and precisely.
28 PSYCHOLOGY
(ii) Results obtained are more accurate and objective.

(iii) Analysis of data is made more scientific.
(iv) General conclusions can be arrived at.
Notes
(v) Comparative studies are made possible.
(vi) Relationship between two or more variables can be investigated.
(vii)Prediction about behaviours can be made.
2.8 SOME BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

When a large set of data is collected, it is usually presented in a condensed form in
a frequency distribution table making it more meaningful and understandable.
Frequency distribution table is the primary stage of statistical analysis.
Frequency Distribution
Suppose you have given a test to the class of 25 students and obtain the following
scores:
10, 7, 6, 5, 5, ,6, 8, 9, 3, 6, 8, 7, 4
8, 9, , 5, 7, 4, 9, 6, 6, 11, 10, 8, 9, 8, 3
In the above distribution of scores the highest score is 11 and lowest score is 3.
Thus the entire group has scored in between these two limits. The above data can
be presented in the form of a Table where the scores and the frequency of their
occurrences are shown. The Table shows that maximum numbers of students are
in the score range of 6 – 8.
A tally mark (I) is used for one score and tallies are done in a duster of 5 scores.
The fifth tally mark cuts the first four tally with a slauting line (/). These clusters
helps us in counting large numbers.
Table 2.1: Ffrequency Distribution
Score Tally Total Score Tally Total Score Tally Total

3 II 2 6 IIII 5 9 IIII 4
4 II 2 7 III 3 10 II 2
5 III 3 8 IIII 5 11 I 1
PSYCHOLOGY 29
Methods which are used to summarize the characteristics of the data are
called measures of central tendency. These are the measures that depict the
tendency of the distribution of scores. Let us study about them.
(a) Mean: Mean is the most popular and important measure of central tendency.
Notes
It is also known as ‘arithmetic mean’. For psychological research, mean is very
useful because it provides the basis for calculating other statistics like standard
deviation and correlation and describes the summary characteristics of the variables
measured.
For instance, you must have noticed that whenever any Cricket Series is played
people stick to their T.V. sets. Very often in the second part of the match a caption
occurs on the TV screen as ‘Run Rate’ — Present and Run Rate — Expected.
The Run Rate is the average score per over.
The mean is the weighted average of all the raw scores. It is computed by
totalling all the raw scores and then dividing by the number of scores together. For
example if we have the 7 scores like: 10, 20, 20, 40, 50, 10, 10
The mean can be computed with this method:
N (Number of scores) = 7
160
10+20+20+40+50+10+10 = = 22.86
7
The mean (M) represented by (pronounced as “X bar”)
Individual score is denoted by “X”
Total number is denoted by “N”.
(b) Median: The median is the value that divides a group of scores into two equal
parts, one part comprising of all values greater and the other comprising of values
less than the median. Median is a positional average and is not affected by the
magnitude of scores. It is easy to understand and calculate.
Example: The median for the following scores is 25 :
12, 20, 23, 23, 25, 26, 28, 35, 40
There are four scores below 25 and four above scores above 25.
(c) Mode: The mode is that score which occurs maximum number of times
in a given series of scores. The word mode has been taken from French language
which means fashion, hence mode is the most frequent or ‘popular’ number. The
mode in the following scores is 20:
10, 15, 20, 20, 20, 35, 35
30 PSYCHOLOGY
It is easiest to calculate. Mode is frequently used in business, weather prediction,

fashion etc.
(d) Correlation: Correlation is a method of numerically showing how closely

related are any two sets of variables. In a large number of instances two Notes
variables always tend to fluctuate in the same or in the opposite direction. When it
is found that a relationship exists it is called “correlation”. When scores in one
variable change in the same direction as those in the other or in the inverse direction
— correlation (relationship) is said to exist.
The score through which the psychologists express the relationship between two
variables is called the coefficient of correlation. It is an index which indicates
the quality as well as quantity of relationship. With the variables three possible
relationships are possible — positive, negative and zero/no relationship.
Magnitude of correlation ranges between – 1.00 to + 1.00. The range of correlation,

coefficients can be interpreted in the following ways:
Co-efficient Relationship
.00 to + .20 negligible
+ .21 to + .40 low
+ .41 to + .60 moderate
+ .61 to + .80 high
+ .81 to + .99 very high
+ 1.00 perfect
This is a range of positive correlation. Similar range exists for negative correlation,
which means scores in one variable change with the other in inverse direction.

1. What are the measures of the central tendency?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
PSYCHOLOGY 31
2. What is correlation?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Notes
________________________________________________________
3. How is statistics helpful?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Inferential Statistics
When an experiment is specifically designed to measure the causal effects between

two or more variables, inferential statistics are used. The main purpose of inferential
statistics is to draw conclusion/results on the basis of treatment and interpretation
of data. There are many types of inferential statistics like ‘t’ test, F-test etc are
used for this purpose.
• The goals of psychological studies are: descreption, explanation, prediction

and control.
• Basic research is related to developing theories and applied research deals

with problem solving.
• Experiment helps to find the cause and effect relationship. It is observation

under controlled conditions.
• An experiment has various parts. It starts with a hypothesis which is the possible
explanation. Variables are measurable attributes of objects and people which
the experimenter observes, manipulates, and controls.
• There are various steps in the experimental method which have to be followed.
They are stating the problem, forming of hypotheses, sampling, design of the
study, material, controls, instructions, results and discussion, and generalization.
• Non-experimental techniques are used to obtain descriptions of behaviour.
32 PSYCHOLOGY
Some of the techniques are observation, surveys, case study, introspection,

correlation etc.
• The psychological tools include questionnaire and interview, psychometric test,
projective test/technique. Notes
• Statistics is used by the psychologists to judge the significance of research
results.It is of two types: descriptive and inferential. The descriptive statistics
deal with summarizing the data and inferential deal with drawing conclusions
about population on the basis of sample.
• Statistical methods which are used to summarize the characteristics of the
data are called measures of central tendency. Mean, median, mode and
correlation are frequently used descriptive statistics.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the goals of doing psychological studies?
2. What are the different steps in planning an experiment?
3. What are the tools used by psychologists in understanding human behaviour?

2.1
1. (a) systematic, unbiased (b) shared, replicted, (c) objective
2.2
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
2.3
1. A variable that has been manipulated by the experimenter to know its effect
on dependent variable
2. Descreption, Explanation, Prediction, Control
PSYCHOLOGY 33
2.4
1. Mean, median, mode
2. Correlation is a method of numerically showing the relations between two
Notes variables.
3. refer to section 2.8 to frame your answer.

34 PSYCHOLOGY
Biological and Cultural Shaping of Mind and Behaviour MODULE - I
Notes
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL

SHAPING OF MIND AND
BEHAVIOUR
We often wonder how do we behave in a wide variety of ways. Sometimes we

feel happy; sometimes sad. The equipment with which we are born – the brain,
nervous system and sensory – motor system is central to the functioning of organism.
Earlier, it was believed that there is some inner spirit in all of us that controls our
behaviour. Today, we know that our actions and bodily movements take place in
an environment and are jointly determined by the socio-cultural environment and
the nervous system. We are born in a culture which is already in existence. As a
result, the functioning of the system is often mediated by the socio-cultural
environment. In a way, our nervous system acts like an engine in the automobile
that controls every movement and speed of the vehicle. The socio-cultural context
provides opportunities to act in specific ways and, inturn, shapes the way we think
and act. Any analysis of human behaviour will remain incomplete without taking
into account the interplay of biological and cultural factors.
OBJECTIVES
• relate the connections between evolution, heredity and environment;
• describe the structure and functions of cell and neuron;
• describe the structure and functions of nervous system;
PSYCHOLOGY 35
MODULE - I Biological and Cultural Shaping of Mind and Behaviour
• describe specific areas of the brain and their related control of behaviour;
• describe endocrine glands and their functions; emphasizing secretions of gonads
and overy;
• explain transmission of hereditary characteristics;
Notes • describe the relationship between culture and gender role;
• understand the nature of socialization and acculturation processes focus on
behavior in terms of gender identity.
3.1 EVOLUTION, HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

If you look around yourself you will notice that you are surrounded by a variety of
organisms differing in form and behaviour. They include human beings, insects,
reptiles, birds, anthropoids, mammals and fish etc. The experts in biology believe
that the organisms existing today are outcomes of the process of evolution that has
taken place in the course of a long span of time spanning over several million
years. The idea of evolution was given by an English biologist named Charles
Darwin. The physical structure and pattern of behaviours found today is a
consequence of the evolutionary history. According to this view adaptation to
environment is central to the process of evolution. The traits and behaviours which
enable an organism to survive are retained and others are extinguished. It is known
as the process of natural selection.
Let us see what are the features that distinguish human beings from other species.
The first feature is called bipedalism. It indicates the ability to walk upright. The
second feature is enciphalization. This indicates increase in brain size and
proportion of specialized brain tissues. The third feature is development of language.
This ability is undoubtedly a key to effective communication and cultural achievement
of human beings.
Heredity refers to the genetic endowment that a human body inherits from her
parents. It is often known as biological blue print. A person’s genetic potential or
genetic code interacts with the environment to influence and shape the pattern of
behaviour. Environment includes the physical and social surrounding in which a
person lives, grows and conducts himself/ herself. The context of family, school
and community within which a person lives, interacts with the genetic characteristics
to determine the pattern of behaviour displayed by him or her. You will study more
about the genetic bases of behaviour in a subsequent section of this lesson.
3.2 THE CELL AS THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Have you seen a brick and then a building in the process of its construction? The
architect designs and the mason keeps brick by brick and the building comes into
36 PSYCHOLOGY
existence. In the same way, our body is also made up of cells. As the brick is
the smallest unit in a building so is a cell — the small unit in a human body. Each
living being whether it be a plant, animal or human being, is made up of these small
units, called cells. There are certain differences between the cells of different living
beings as well as the cells in the different parts of a living organism. All cells contain Notes
a fluid called cytoplasm and a nucleus, and are enclosed in a cell membrane.
Operations within the cells and the co-ordination among various cells make the life
possible. The life of all the living beings is, therefore, based upon the working of
the cells.
3.3 THE NEURON

The cells that compose the nervous system are known as neurons and glia. Only
the neurons or nerve cells transmit information (impulses) from one location to
another. Appreciating a sunset, enjoying the music, thinking of some loved one at
a distant place or solving a problem– all these acts reflect the co-ordinated actions
of thousands or millions of neurons. These nerve cells collect information from the
environment by means of receptors and then combine the information as well as
make the action possible. The neurons also store information and lead to behaviour.
Cell Nucleus
Terminal buttons
A
Axon (transmitting
end) Axon terminals
Cell body
Myelin sheath
C
Nerve impulse from Dendrites (receiving
adjacent neuron end)
Fig. 3.1: Cell and Structure of a Neuron
PSYCHOLOGY 37
Neurons make up half of the volume of the brain. Glial cells constitute the other
half of the nervous system. Neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) are of
various shapes and sizes, but most neurons may have features in common. There
are three main structures of a neuron. They are the cell body (soma), the dendrites,
Notes and the axons. A brief description of these structures is as follows.
(1) The soma, or the cell body, is the largest part of the neuron. It regulates and
controls the metabolism and maintenance of the entire cell. The soma also
receives impulses from other neurons. The cell body contains the nucleus that
manufactures the chemicals used to transmit signals.
(2) The dendrites are the branches that extend from the cell body and spread
out in complex ways. The neurons receive much of their input through dendrites
via synaptic connection from other neurons. The cell sending information
releases a chemical that influences the activity of the receiving cell. Information
passes from synaptic terminal to the dendrites or cell body, but does not go
the other way.
(3) The axon is a long fibre that leads away from the cell body. The axons send
signals to the dendrites, other neurons or to muscles and glands. The axons
make neural pathways in the (CNS). The axons are insulated by myelin sheath.
Myelin sheath is made up of glial cells.
The Nerve Impulse
An information is carried through a series of electrical impulses that travel from

one neuron to another. These are called nerve impulses. They are sent to the
specific areas of the brain where sensations take place. The axons or nerve fibres
do not carry sensations like pain or cold. The sensations occur only when the
information reaches the brain.
Synapse
The regions where impulses cross from one neuron to the other are called synapses.
The synapses are thus junctions between the neurons. Through the gap at synapse
(synaptic cleft) signals are transmitted from one neuron to another. The sending
side of synapse is axon terminal where as the receiving side of synapses is the tips
of the branching dendrites. The chemical substances that facilitate the transmission
of the signals are called neurotransmitters.
3.4 TYPES OF NEURON

Depending upon the function, the two major types of neurons are receptor and
motor neurons. Receptor neurons bring information into the nervous system. Such
38 PSYCHOLOGY
information is brought through senses. The

motor neurons carry out the orders of brain
for muscular movements such as chewing,
walking, writing and so on which are under our
conscious control. The reflex actions are Notes
mediated by the spinal cord. Breathing and eye
blinking are involuntary action. These
involuntary actions are controlled by motor
neurons. Fig. 3.2: Reflex Activity
Try this yourself

You can initiate an eyeblink reflex in a friend. For that you need
orange peels. Hold the peel at about five or six inches from his/
her eye and squeeze it into the eye. Your friend will exhibit an
in -voluntary reflexive blink of the eye.

1. What are the features that distinguish human beings from other species?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Describe the main parts of the structure of a neuron.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. State whether the following statements are True or False:
(i) Only the neurons transmit information from one location to another.
True/False
(ii) Nerve cells collect information from environment by means of receptors.
True/False
(iii) Neurons do not store information. True/False
4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
(i) Neurons make up ____________ of the volume of the brain.
(ii) A cell has three parts. They are ______________, ___________and
____________ .
PSYCHOLOGY 39
3.5 NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is made up of billions of neurons. It is responsible for receiving,
processing and sending of information. All the functions of the body are controlled
Notes by the nervous system. It has two parts i.e. central and peripheral.
The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The
spinal cord is the narrow column that starts at the base of the back and extends up
through the neck and the base of the skull. The brain is surrounded by a protective
skull. The CNS is responsible for sending nerve impulses and receiving the sensory
information.
The Peripheral Nervous System

consists of the group of neurons
which transmit information
between the CNS and the rest
of the body. It is responsible for
carrying nerve impulses to and
from the body. The peripheral
nervous system is further divided
into two parts:
• Somatic system, and

• Autonomic system Fig. 3.3: Nervous system
The nerves in the somatic system connect the brain and spinal cord with voluntary
muscles of the body. This system senses and acts upon the external world. It
consists of both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons transmit incoming
signals to the CNS. These signals originate in the receptor cells, and are located in
the sense organs such as eyes and ears. Motor neurons, whose cell bodies lie
inside the spinal cord, transmit outgoing signals from the spinal cord. The somatic
nervous system controls the skeletal muscles that help the movement of the body.
The neurons in the autonomic nervous system control the involuntary actions in
the body such as those performed by heart, stomach and liver. The autonomic
nervous system is composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
The sympathetic nervous system dominates in emergency situations. This system
controls our emotions. It responds by increasing blood sugar level, heart rate, and
blood pressure and slows the process of digestion. These changes enable us to
cope with stressful situations. The parasympathetic nervous system dominates the
activities in relaxed situations. However, the two systems work together in many
situations and make adaptation possible.
40 PSYCHOLOGY
Notes
Fig. 3.4: The Autonomic Nervous System
3.6 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. You have learned that the
neurons in spinal cord can produce reflex action. Also, it acts as a relay station. It
sends information from sensory neurons in the body to the brain and takes motor
commands back to the muscles. The severe injury to the spinal cord usually results
in loss of sensation and paralysis at levels below the points of injury. It has two
major components, namely Gray matter and White matter.
The Gray Matter found near the center of the spinal cord processes the information
and the White Matter found in the outer layers, which contains axons, transmits
information to and from the brain.
If tea is brought to you in steel glass and you suddenly try to pick it up, do
you realize how hot your fingers feel?
In this case, the heat receptors in our skin are stimulated and fire nerve impulses.
The incoming information from the receptors in our hand travels through neurons
to our spinal cord where it enters the gray matter in the center of the cord. It
travels through the white matter to our brain. The brain analyzes the sensory
PSYCHOLOGY 41
information and initiates a voluntary movement leading to response such as dropping

the glass.
The Brain
Notes
If you would like to get a feel of the physical structure of the brain you might try
this. Stand infront of the mirror and draw an imaginary line across the front of your
face running from left ear through both your eyebrows to your right ear. The bulk
of your brain is located above this line.
The brain is the primary part of the CNS, occupying the cranial cavity. It is
surrounded by the skull for protection. The brain weighs an average of three pounds
(about 1.4 kilograms) comprising about 97% of the entire CNS. The brain is
connected to the upper end of the spinal cord and has three structures: the
cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem leading to the spinal cord. The
brain stem is also divided into the medulla oblongata, the midbrain, and the
pons.
Motor control area
Sensory Projection area
Broca area (speech)
Prenetal lobe (body
sensations)
Visual cortex
Occipital lobe (vision)
Wemickes area (language)

Frontal lobe
planning, Cerebruum (movement
monitoring, Temporal lobe coordination)
emotional behaviour (hearing)
gaining sensory Spinal cord
information
Fig. 3.5: Diagram of human brain
Do you know?
Our brain appears something like a walnut.

Our brain contains at least 15 billion nerve cells (neurons).
The cortex has the “decision making center” that influences what we
do feel and think?
The major psychological function of our brain is to process information.
42 PSYCHOLOGY
(a) Cerebral Cortex
The uppermost layer of the brain is called cerebral cortex (see Figure 3.5). The
brain is divided into two halves: the left hemisphere and right hemisphere. They
resemble the halves of a walnut. It is interesting to note that each hemisphere Notes
processes information about the opposite side of the body. For example, when
you write with your right-hand, the motor information enabling your right hand to
move comes from your left hemisphere. The cortex consists of a thick layer of
densely packed neurons. It has large area to be fitted into the skull cavity and
therefore it has a large number of turns and twists. The turns and twists make the
structures like hills and valleys, which are called gyri (singular gyrus) and sulci
(singular sulcus).
The brain has two basic functions: cognitive functions ( learning, memory, thinking,
etc.) and the regulation of physiology of the body.
(b) The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes: frontal, occipital, parietal and
temporal. Various centres in these lobes are respobsible for the awareness of
environment and responses to the changes in the environment.
The visual information is received by the primary visual cortex located in the occipital
lobe. Any damage or disorder to eye, optic pathway or to the visual cortex results
in visual disorders. Similarly, the auditory information is received by the primary
auditory cortex located in the temporal lobes. Any damage of our ears, auditory
pathways, and to the auditory cortex results into hearing problem. The information
from body senses is received by the somatosensory cortex that is located in the
parietal lobe.
The right and left cerebral hemispheres of cortex receive sensory information,
and control the muscular action of the opposite side of the body. The two
hemispheres play crucial role in higher mental functions including language,
processing and integration of sensory information, planning, decision making, and
reasoning.

(A) State whether the following statements are True or False:
(1) The central nervous system consists of brain and the spinal cord.
True/False
(2) The spinal cord has three components. True/False
PSYCHOLOGY 43
(3) The brain is surrounded by the skull for protection.

True/False
(4) The lower most layer of the brain is called the cerebral cortex.
True/False
Notes
(B) Fill the blanks with appropriate words:
(1) The two major divisions of the nervous system are _______________
and ______________.
(2) Each hemisphere of brain process information about the ___________
side of the body
(3) The CNS consists of the ____________ and _____________.
(4) The peripheral nervous system carries the ___________ to and from
the body.
(5) The somatic system controls the ____________________ that help the
_____________ of body.
Do you know?
Brain Research Techniques : Imaging through the living brain
Several techniques are used to know the functioning of our brain.
These techniques are also used to find out if there is any thing
wrong in the working of the brain. Some of the commonly used
techinques in the living brain system are as follows:
CAT scan: In Computerised Axial Tomography a weak x-ray
beam is rotated about the person’s head to produce image. A
computer then plots the image on a display. The CAT scan
differentiates and localises the extent and site of brain tumours,
blood clots, and areas of cerebral damage.
PET scan: In Position Emission Tomography a radio active
glucose related substance is injected into the blood supply of the
brain. The images of the brain are obtained by the consumption
of the glucose in the brain. The motion picture in PET scan is
generated by the computer.
NMRI: In Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging technique, the
brain is placed in an intense magnetic field. The changes in the
magnetic properties of the cells are then recorded. From these
recorded properties again the image is generated.
44 PSYCHOLOGY
3.7 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

You must have heard about some diseases caused by high or low level of hormones
in the body. For example, diabetes is caused by the low level of a hormone called
insulin. Similarly, the level of another hormone, thyroxin controls our behaviour. Notes
Hormones are chemicals secreted directly into our blood streams. The hormones
are secreted by endocrine glands. This system is a collection of ductless glands
that controls various body functions. The endocrine glands secrete chemicals that
send signals by releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream. The endocrine
glands and their major functions are shown in the Box. The location of these
glands is shown in the Figure 3.6. Some of the major glands are as follows:
Pituitary
Thyroid
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Fig. 3.6: Endocrine glands
PSYCHOLOGY 45
The pituitary gland is reddish-grey, about the size of a pea, located in the brain.
It is referred to as the “master gland” because some of the hormones it releases
stimulate and regulate the hormonal action of other endocrine glands.
Notes The thyroid gland, located in the neck, releases a hormone that controls
metabolism (transformation of food into energy). It also affects energy level and
the mood.
The adrenal gland is located above the kidney. It secretes adrenalin and other
hormones during emergency situations.
The pancreas, is located near the stomach. It produces insulin that controls blood
sugar level.
The gonads control sexual development and sexual behaviour. The male gonads
(testes) are located in the testicles. These glands produce the hormone known as
testosterone. The female gonads (the ovaries) produce the hormone known as
estrogen. In both sexes (male and female) these hormones not only control the
sex drive, but also regulate the development of secondary sex characteristics, like
beards in men and breasts in women.
The androgens (such as testosterone) are generally found at higher levels in males
than in females, while the oestrogens (such as oestradiol) are generally found at
higher levels in females. However, it is important to understand that, androgens
are not ‘male hormones’ nor Oestrogens’ female hormones’. Both classes are
found in both sexes.
The Endocrine Glands and their Functions

Gland Function
Pituitary Growth: metabolism (transformation of food into energy
(Master gland); regulation of adrenal, thyroid,
and gonadal hormone secretion; milk production in
females.
Thyroid control of growth, energy level and our mood
Adrenal Adaptation to prolonged stress
Pancreas Control of blood sugar level
Gonads Reproduction, primary and secondary sex
characteristics; sex drive
46 PSYCHOLOGY
3.8 GENETIC INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOUR

We often talk about people inheriting certain characteristics. Like Neena has
inherited her mother’s blue eyes, or Ashok has inherited his father’s curly hair. We
expect tall parents to have tall children. The inheritance of such characteristics is Notes
called heredity. The branch of biology, that deals with how heredity works, is
called genetics. Behavioural genetics is the study of inheritance of behavioural
characteristics.
All living beings are unique as they differ from the members of other species ( cats
differ from dogs and humans differ from animals). An organism’s physical
appearance and behaviour varies from individual to individual. The former is known
as genotype and the later are termed as phenotype. Every individual’s phenotype
is the result of the interaction between its genotype and the environment. The
physical development is in large part based upon the genes we inherit from our
parents. It is largely believed that the genetic characteristics transmitted by genetic
factors set limits on the capabilities of organisms.
The present genetic theory is based upon the work of Gregory Mendel. He showed
that the characteristics of parents are passed on to their offspring through genes.
These genes might produce visible characteristics in the offspring, or might be
carried for possible transmission to another generation. The children of one set of
parents do not necessarily inherit all the same characteristics.
The union of two cells, the egg from the mother and the sperm from the father is
the beginning of a new individual. These two cells like all others carry within them
material that forms a definite number of rodlike units called chromosomes. The
chromosomes carry hereditary factors or genes. The cell nucleus that contains the
chromosomes is made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in combination with
protein compounds. Chromosomes are pairs and each chromosome contains 1000
or so genes that also occur in pairs. (see Fig. 3.7)
Chromosome DNABroca a area

Cell Nucleus
(speech)
Fig. 3.7: Cell, Chromosome and DNA
PSYCHOLOGY 47
The process of inheritance is based upon the process in which the offspring receives
one of each gene pair from each parent. Some genes are dominant and some are
recessive. An individual with dominant gene for a particular characteristic displays
that characteristic, whether only one or both genes in the pair are dominant. In
Notes case of a recessive gene, the characteristic associated with it does not show up
unless both genes in the gene pair are recessive. Some characteristics are produced
by a single gene or gene pair. Multy-factor inheritance involves the action of several
genes.
The scientists working in the area of genetic engineering are trying to find out the
genetic code so as to manipulate the cell structure. One of the examples of this
type of research is the phenomenon of cloning. The research is basically aimed to
solve the problem of genetically transmitted diseases or behavioural abnormalities.
Moreover, through genetic manipulation scientists are trying to control certain
undesired behaviours and to facilitate the desired behaviour. The genetic
manipulation has so far been tested widely in plants and to some extent in animals.
The human research on genetic manipulation is under strict control of ethical
principles.

1. What are hormones?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Why pituitary is called master gland?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. What is the process of inheritence?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3.9 CULTURE AND BEHAVIOUR

Behaviour of human beings become meaningful in their cultural context. In terms
of shared meanings and practices different cultures guide us in choosing our goals
and conducting ourselves in various situations. The patterns of behaviour found in
different cultures emerge in the context of interactions of the people which are
48 PSYCHOLOGY
encoded in different forms. Various traditions, customs and cultural artifacts display
these codes. They help to interpret and make sense of the behaviour of people
belonging to a given culture. Thus a community may subscribe to certain beliefs
and values. They may become part of the social consciousness of the people of
that community. Notes
When the existing natural things change with human efforts may be known as
cultural change. Culture is said to represent what is contributed by human beings.
It has subjective as well as material aspects. Culture often transmits from one
generation to other. The subjective part of culture involves values, norms, roles
etc. the material part of culture deals with tools, sculpture, and various artifacts.
People are born in various cultures which provide a set of stimuli, languages and
practices. It is through these aspects of culture that we are made what we are. The
diversity in behaviour noted in different societies is to a large extent attributed to
the cultural diversity. This happens because culture selectively facilitates certain
patterns of behaviours and requires its members to inculcate them. Culture works
two ways i.e. it provides opportunities as well as puts constraints on us. Depending
on the particular eco-cultural context various behaviour patterns and skills are
encouraged or discouraged.
It is essential to know that human behaviour is shaped by the biological potential
as well as environmental contributions. However, the two interact and jointly
determine behaviour in a culture which gives a specific shape or direction to
behaviour. For instance, a child grows in a family, gets formal education in school
and plays with toys. A moment’s reflection will make it clear that families, schools
and toys vary across different cultural settings. An extended and a nuclear family
puts different demands. Similarly schools in metropolitan cities and remote villages
differ in terms of organization of classroom, interaction pattern and other inputs.
The toys too differ in metro and remote village. It may, however, be noted that
cultures do not remain static. While each culture tries to maintain its identity, it also
interacts with other cultures and is influenced by them. Thus there is both continuity
and as well as change.
3.10 THE PROCESSES OF SOCIALIZATION AND

ACCULTURATION
Now let us talk about socialization process.
Socialization is the process through which cultures are maintained and transmitted
across generations. Thus agencies such as parents, media, school, peer group and
religious institutions deliberately shape children and people to develop specific
behaviour patterns. They make conscious and deliberate attempt to define the
expectations of society. The parents, for instance, adopt various styles of parenting
which vary in the degree of affection and degree of control exercised on children.
PSYCHOLOGY 49
It has been found that authoritarian and permissive parenting interfere with the
healthy development of personality. Parents use reward and punishment to promote
or discourage children's behaviours. Children also learn by imitation and modeling
the significant others (e.g., parents, teachers) present in this environment. They
Notes also identify with others and internalise the characteristics of important persons
they observe. The role models play very important role in shaping the behaviour of
growing children.
The process of acculturation deals with the influence of a new or different culture
on a given culture. Thus it characterizes the process of contact between cultures.
Such contacts take place under various conditions including colonization, invasion,
international trade, travel and migration. Indian society presents a good example
of acculturation. The British impact on language, dress and education is clearly
noticeable.
The process of acculturation demands people to learn many new things and socialize
in different ways. Acculturation is often found quite stressful. People respond to
acculturative stress in different ways. They may assimilate with the new culture or
maintain separate identity. Also, a new kind of integration may emerge which will
involve the elements of old as well as new culture. In other situations people may
experience marginalization and separation.

1. In what ways culture shapes human behaviour?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Who are the main agents of socialization?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

• Human behaviour is an outcome of the interplay of evolution, heredity and
environment. Evolution through natural selection leads to changes in the life of
species. Human evolution is characterized by bipadelism, inciphalization and
development of language.
• We study the functioning of our body and brain with the help of our brain
itself. We receive sensation through our senses and react by the actions of our
50 PSYCHOLOGY
muscles and glands. Both sensation and control of our actions are mediated
by our brain. Every organism including human being is made up of small units
called cells. These cells constitute the basic unit of life.
• The nervous system is made up of neurons. Sensory neurons carry information
from sense organs to the central nervous system. Motor neurons carry Notes
command from the brain to the glands and muscles of the body. All the neurons
have cell body, dendrites (branch like extensions) and axons that carry
information to other neurons. Synapses are junctions between axons of one
neuron and the dendrites of the other.
• The nervous system consists of the CNS (brain and spinal cord) and the
peripheral nervous system. The peripheral system is further divided into somatic
and autonomic nervous system. Somatic system is responsible for receiving
the information through sensory receptors and for our actions through the
glands and muscles. The autonomic nervous system consisting of the sympathetic
and parasympathetic parts acts to mobilise in response to threats and then for
returning the body to the normal state.
• The cerebral cortex has four lobes: frontal, occipital, parietal and temporal.
The occipital lobe is specialised for vision. The parietal lobe is involved in the
sense of touch and the sensations from own body. The functions of frontal
lobe include co-ordination of movement, planning, attention, social skills, etc.
The temporal lobe is important in audition and language. The right and the left
cerebral hemispheres are specialised for various higher order functions.
• The endocrine system is a collection of ductless glands that control various
bodily functions through the secretion of hormones.
• Genetics is the study of how traits are inherited, or passed on, from parents to
the offspring. Studies in genetics suggest that a substantial portion of the
variation among individuals on many psychological attributes such as intelligence
and personality are heritable.
• Human behaviour can be meaningfully understood in a cultural context. Culture
consists of the man made part of environment. It has subjective and material
aspects. Cultures represent meanings and practices which are transmitted from
one generation to the other. Cultures do not remain static. They are maintained
through the process of socialization. The parents, peers and schools, etc., act
as agents of socialization. The contact with other cultures leads to the process
of acculturation. The contact may lead to assimilation, isolation or integration
in relation to the culture in contact.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the structure and function of a neuron.
2. Describe the functions of central nervous system.
PSYCHOLOGY 51
3. Describe the functions of endocrine system.

4. How are the behavioural characteristics transmitted from parentto their children?
5. Using examples describe the role of culture in shaping human behaviour.
Notes

3.1
1. bipedalism, encephalization and language
2. cell body, dendrite, neuron
3. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False
4. (i) half (ii) cytoplasm, nucleus, cell membrane
3.2
(A) (1) True (2) False (3) True (4) False
(B) (1) Central, peripheral (2) opposite
(3) brain, spinal cord (4) information
(5) sceletal muscles, movement
3.3
(1) Chemicals secreted into our blood streams.
(2) It regulates hormonal action of other indocrine glands.
(3) It is based upon the process in which offspring receives one of each
gene pair from each parent.
3.4
(1) By guiding the choice of goals, providing codes for intrpretation of
behaviours, and by facilitating selectively certain patterns of behaviour.
(2) Parents, Teachers, Peers, Media.

52 PSYCHOLOGY
Becoming Aware of the World Around Us MODULE - I
Notes
4
BECOMING AWARE OF THE
WORLD AROUND US
Human beings and animals are able to know the world around them, hear sounds,
taste various types of foods, smell different fragrances, feel the warm and cold
climate outside, and feel the pain when hurt. The most remarkable characteristic
of the organism, human or non-human, is its possession of different sense organs.
These sense organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue, nose, skin, etc.) are our windows to
collect information from the external world. Each of these sense organs is selectively
sensitive to different kinds of stimuli. For example, visual sense organ (the eye) is
sensitive to receive only light energy, the ear is sensitive to the sound, and so on.
Human beings depend primarily on visual, auditory, and cutaneous senses to gather
most of the information from the world around them. About 90 percent of the time
we use the visual sense, followed by the auditory. In this lesson we will learn about
the various sense organs.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the structure and function of different sense organs;
• explain how the organism gathers information about the external and internal
world;
• describe the physical nature of stimuli and how these are received and processed
at the sensory level;
• analyze the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological responses
to these stimuli.
PSYCHOLOGY 53
MODULE - I Becoming Aware of the World Around Us
4.1 VISION, AUDITION, AND OTHER SENSES

The sense organs, 10 in all, constitute the information gathering system. Eight of
these sense organs are those that collect information from the external world:
Notes vision, audition, smell, taste, touch, warmth, cold, and pain. The other two
are termed as deep senses: vestibular and kinesthetic. They help us in maintaining
body equilibrium and provide important information about body position and
movement of body parts relative to each other. In this section, you will study about
the structure and function of different human sense organs and how they help us in
gathering information from the external and internal world.
External stimulus (e.g. light) is received by a specific sense organ (e.g. eye). Within
a sense organ are the specialized receptors that transform the physical energy into
neural signals (process known as transduction) which are then transmitted to
the specific area in the brain. The pattern of neural activity is recognized by the
brain. In other words, the physical energy (information) is received by the specific
sense organ. The sense organ pre-processes (encode) the information and the
encoded information is transmitted to the specific area in the brain where encoded
message is decoded and further processed, which leads to perception. The
sequence of events is described in Fig. 4.1.
Physical Energy Sense organ Pre-processing Encoding
Transduction Decoding Processing Perception

to brain
Response
Fig. 4.1: The sequence of processing of stimulus information
Do You Know
Sensory Adaptation
Do you know that on continued stimulation the awareness of
sensation involved diminishes or fades out completely? For
example, if we sit in a room in which some fragrance has been
sprayed, initially we become aware of that fragrance but after
sitting for some time the sensation diminishes or completely fades
out. This process is known as sensory adaptation. All sensory
systems display adaptation. The sense of touch and smell adapt
54 PSYCHOLOGY
quickly whereas sense of pain adapts slowly. On the other hand,

the process is very different in visual modality. That is, if you
keep looking at one object, the object does not fade or vanish,
as is the case with other senses. This is possible because the eye
ball, due to very fast tremors, keeps shifting image from one set Notes
of receptors to others. Different type of adaptation takes place
in the visual modality, called light and dark adaptation.

Choose the correct alternative
1. Which sense organ is not associated with the collection of information from
within the body.
A. Kinesthetic
B. Vestibular
C. Taste
D. Proprioception
2. Human beings posses _________________ sense organs
A. 10
B. 5
C. 7
D. 8
3. The process by which physical stimulus is converted into neural signals is
called.
A. Transmission
B. Transformation
C. Transduction
D. Signalling
4.2 VISION
The most developed and most frequently used sense organ in human beings is
vision. More of the brain is devoted to mechanisms for vision than to any other
PSYCHOLOGY 55
sense. Vision dominates over the information received from other senses. For
example, what we see has more importance than what we hear. In our day to day
transactions, within the external world, we make the use of vision much more than
all the senses combined, about 90 percent of the time.
Notes
4.2.1 Physical Nature of Visuali Stimuli
As discussed earlier, each of the different sense organs is sensitive to specific
physical stimulus called adequate stimulus. For example, tactile sense (touch
and pressure) is sensitive to touch or pressure upon body's skin surface. Similarly,
the eyes are only sensitive to photopic stimulation (light). That is, the adequate
stimulus for the eyes are light waves (electromagnetic energy). The light waves
activate the visual receptors, called rods and cones. The eyes receive light reflected
from objects in the world and from this we perceive colour, shape, depth, texture,
etc.
10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104 106 108
Ultra
Gamma Infra
X rays Violet Radar TV Short AC
rays red
rays FM wave AM circuits
rays
Visible spectrum
(White light)
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

Fig. 4.2: Visible spectrum
The visible spectrum for human eye ranges just below 400 nm (nanometers or
mili-microns) to about 750 nm. Even within this visible spectrum human eye is not
uniformly sensitive to all the wavelengths. It can be observed from Fig. 4.2 that the
lower end of the visible spectrum has Ultraviolet rays and on the upper end are
Infrared. These rays are not visible to the human eye and if the eye is exposed to
these rays (ultraviolet and infra-red) in large quantity it can harm the eyes.
4.2.2 Structure of the Eye

Each eye is about 25 mm. in diameter and weighs about 7 gms. The human eye
consists of four major parts:
56 PSYCHOLOGY
(i) the cornea

(ii) the iris
(iii) the lens
Notes
(iv) the retina.
Fig. 4.3 : Structure of eye
Light rays enter the eye through cornea, the transparent covering in front of the
eye. The cornea is sharply curved. It focuses the light rays on the retina. Behind
the cornea is the pupil that appears black. The amount of light that enters the pupil
is regulated by the iris, a ring of muscle whose pigmentation gives the eye its
colour (brown, blue, etc.). The iris contracts and dilates reflexively and regulates
the amount of light that reaches the retina in accordance with brightness conditions
outside. Iris also allows the eye to adapt as light levels change. For example,
when we enter a dark room the iris dilates the pupil so that more light can enter the
eye, and when we step out from the dark room into bright sunlight, the iris constricts
the pupil to reduce the amount of light entering the eye. After passing through a
small aperture (pupil), the light rays pass through a transparent structure called
lens. The ciliary muscles attached to the lens modify its curvature to focus light
(accomodation) on the retina.
The process of adjusting the lens in accordance with distance, so that the image of
the external object is focussed on the retina, is called accomodation, similar to
the focusing in the camera.
The transparent cornea in front and the tough sclera surrounding the retina of the
eye serve to protect it from injury and to maintain its shape. The choroid is the
PSYCHOLOGY 57
middle layer of dark material richly supplied with blood vessels. The retina is a thin
and delicate inner layer containing the photo-receptors and an elaborate network
of interconnecting nerve tissues. Retina is the most important part of the eye.
Notes 4.2.3 The Retina

The light reaches the retina by passing through the anterior (front) and posterior
chambers containing watery fluid (called aqueous and vitreous humor) and the
various retinal layers. Finally, it reaches the visual receptors, the rods and the
cones. Each retina contains approximately 120 million rods and 6 million cones,
located near the back of the retina. These specialized cells (receptors) convert
light energy into electrical potential (electrical signals).
Try it yourself (sensitivity of visual receptors)
It has been stated that rods function most efficiently in the

scotopic range or dim light and cones are relatively ineffective
in dim light. It is interesting to see for yourself the functioning of
rods and cone in darkness.
Throw a coin in a dark room and try to search the coin by directly
looking at it. You will be surprised to find that the coin is not
visible if you look straight at it. Now, try looking at it off center
by about 10 degrees that is, fixate your eye little away from the
coin so that the image of the coins falls away from fovea, on the
rods. You can now find the coin. This shows that the fovea,
containing only cones, is blind in the dark, rods function efficiently
at this level.

1. Among the different sense organs ___________ occupies the most important
and dominant position:
a. Ear
b. Eye
c. Semi circular canals
d. Tongue
58 PSYCHOLOGY
2. The adequate stimulus for each of the four sense modilities is given below.
Identify the stimulus that is not the adequate stimulus for the sense modality.
a. vision – light
Notes
b. Audition – sound
c. Tactile – chemical
d. Temperature – heat and cold.
3. Light rays pass through __________ to finally reach the retina.
a. Cornea
b. Pupil
c. Lens
d. All of the above.
4. The changes in lens which enable the light rays to focus on the retina is called:
a. Convergence
b. Accommodation
c. Focusing
d. Centering
5. The cones mediate:
a. Daylight vision
b. Chromatic vision
c. Detailed vision
d. All the above.
6. The rods mediate:
a. Scotopic vision
b. Achromatic vision
c. Signal information about brightness
d. All the above.
PSYCHOLOGY 59
4.3 SENSORY PROCESSES OTHER THAN VISION

We have so far discussed vision and visual processes in some detail. Now, we
take up briefly the other senses. After vision, audition is used more often than any
Notes other sense. The senses, other than vision and audition, can be grouped in the
following manner:
1. Cutaneous senses-that include pressure, touch, temperature (cold and warmth)

and pain
2. Taste
3. Smell
4. Deep senses that include kinesthesis and vestibular.
Audition
The auditory receptors in the ears respond to sound waves to produce neural
signals. Sound waves are produced by pressure changes in the atmosphere.
The eardrum is pushed and pulled by the compressions and expansions. It
vibrates in a pattern that corresponds to the sound.
Sound waves have two important physical aspects: frequency and amplitude.
The pitch of a sound depends on its frequency; higher the frequency, higher the
pitch (e.g. women’s voice has more pitch than that of a male). Frequency is expre-
ssed in units called Hertz (Hz). Young people can hear sounds with frequencies
ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, with maximum sensitivity in the middle region.
With age the audible range is reduced especially on the high frequency side.
The intensity depends upon the amplitude. Intensity is usually expressed in units
called the decibles (dB).
Some dB values are given below for you to grasp the concept of dB.
Whisper – 30dB
Normal conversation – 60dB
Loud thunder – 120dB
Jet plane take off – 140dB
Sounds above 120 dB are likely to be painful to the human ear. If the sound is
produced by the great number of unrelated sound waves, it is perceived as noise,
60 PSYCHOLOGY
which we cannot analyze. The sound you hear from a jet aircraft engine or your
pressure cooker is called white noise.
The Structure of the Ear

Notes
The ear has three major divisions:
(i) the outer ear, consisting of pinna and auditory canal;

(ii) the middle ear, consisting of ear drum (tympanic membrane); and
(iii) the inner ear formed by three small bones called ossicles namely the malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil), and the stappes (stirrup).
Fig. 4.4: The Structure of Ear
The vibration of the oval window creates waves in the fluid that fills the cochlea.
As the waves travel through the cochlear fluid the hair cells bend to and fro. At
this point the mechanical energy of the waves is transduced into electro-chemical
impulses that are carried by the auditory nerve to the brain. The hair cells in the
cochlea are the receptors for hearing, corresponding to rods and cones for vision.
The auditory nerve fibers convey the auditory information through series of relay
stations to the auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain.

(A) Match the following:
a. Pitch p. Decibels (dB)
b. Intensity q. Frequency (Hz)
c. Audible range r. Expansion
d. Compression s. 20-20,000 Hz.
PSYCHOLOGY 61
(B) Choose the correct alternative

1.What is not a part of the auditory system?
a. Tympanic membrane
Notes b. Decibles
c. Stapes
d. Cochlea
2.Auditory receptors for hearing are:
a. Hair cells
b. Cochlea
c. Tympanic membrane
d. Malleus
The Cutaneous Senses

The skin or cutaneous senses give us information about the surface of our body.
Skin could be considered as a “giant sense organ” that covers the entire human
body. Skin senses, also called somesthetic system, consist of :
(i) Pressure and touch

(ii) Temperature sensation : Cold and warmth
(iii) Pain
It has been found that the skin is not uniformly sensitive throughout the body, but
has differential sensitivity. That is, points of greatest sensitivity to touch, cold, warmth,
and pain are differently located in the human body, some areas are more sensitive
to touch, others to pain, and so on.
Pressure and Touch

The amount of pressure required to produce the experience of pressure varies
greatly for different parts of the body. The tip of the tongue, the tips of the fingers,
and the hands are the most sensitive areas of the body. The experience of touch is
felt if we apply gentle pressure on the skin or if we slightly move or touch the hair
on the body.
It is believed that a fairly complex structure called Meissner Corpuscles serves

the pressure sense in the hairless regions of the body. The nerve endings do the
62 PSYCHOLOGY
same for the roots of the hairs. It is believed that free nerve endings convey touch
impulses.
Sensing the Temperature: Cold and Warmth

Notes
Experiences of cold and warmth are felt by the changes in normal gradient of skin
temperature. That is, difference (gradient) between skin surface temperature and
blood temperature. It is believed that free nerve endings appear to be responsible
for signaling information about temperature.
Pain
Let us talk about another side of pain, which one has never thought of. Pain has
great significance in human life, though, we would prefer not to experience it. It
has immense biological importance because it signals that something is wrong
within the body. If pain sensations were not there, we could bleed to death without
being aware of the wound. So pain is friend, not enemy.
There is evidence that free nerve endings are the receptors stimulated by tissue
damage. It is believed that the free nerve endings of pain spots must be specialized
in some way to respond to painful stimuli. That is, free nerve ending are specialized
to pick up and convey different body conditions.

1. What is not a part of the cutaneous sense?

a. Pressure and touch
b. Temperature
c. Pain
d. Kinesthesis
2. Which is the following receptors is not the part of pressure and touch sensation?
a. Meissner corpuscles
b. Basket nerve endings
c. Free nerve endings
d. Hair cell
PSYCHOLOGY 63
3. Sensation of temperature is believed to be signaled through :

a. Free nerve endings
b. Hair cells
Notes
c. Neurons
d. None of the above
Try it yourself
Though, we try to study the sense organs as entities or units but
there is interaction of various sense organs in our perceptual
system. For example, when we taste an apple, its taste has the
combined effect of specific smell, its visual quality (redness), its
tactual quality (roundedness, smoothness, firmness, etc.) and
even its temperature (cold or warm). It will be interesting to taste
an apple you have had cold, when the smell sensation is at its
low functioning or no smell sensation at all. If you do not handle
the apple yourself and you close, your eyes, you will find the
taste very different. Again try to taste the same quality of apple
when you are all right and eat under normal conditions. You will
find the apple very tasty, different from the first condition. This
indicates that several sense organs contribute towards our sense
of taste. This is true for other sense organs also. You enjoy the
music more when the singer is singing before your eyes as
compared to the some music on the tape-recorder.
The Sense of Taste

The sense of taste, or the gustatory system, has four basic tastes: salty, sour,
sweet and bitter. The tongue is not uniformly sensitive to all stimuli. For example,
back of the tongue is sensitive to bitter stimuli and the tip of the tongue to sweet.
The sides of the tongue respond mainly to sour stimuli and the tip and part of the
sides respond to salty solutions.
Taste buds contain hair cells that are the taste receptors. People, on an average,
possess about 10,000 such taste buds, the taste buds are spread all across the
surface and sides of the tongue and some are located in other regions of the
mouth. However, they are mostly found clumped together on the tongue and are
called papillae.
64 PSYCHOLOGY
Most of the papillae have grooves (moats) around their sides and when we eat or
drink something, the liquid in the mouth fill up these grooves around the papillae
and stimulate the hair cells chemically. The cells on their part send sensory message
to the brain and results in the sensation of taste.
Notes
Bitter
Papilae
Taste bud
Sour Taste
receptor
Supporting cells
Sweet Nerve
Salty
Fig. 4.5: The Structure of the Tongue
The Sense of Smell

Smell, or the olfactory system, provides information about chemical compounds
suspended in the air. We have three main senses that respond to stimuli at a distance:
Smell, hearing, and vision. Smell is the most primitive of these three. Though,
smell is a minor sense in human beings, it greatly adds to our enjoyment of food
and appreciation of perfumes and deodorants. In contrast, smell is of vital
importance to many animals, like dogs. Dogs and other animals use this sense to
locate food, prey, etc.
Olfactory receptors are located high up in the nasal passage leading from the
nostrils to the throat. These receptors lie in two small patches, one on the left and
other on the right in the roofs of this passage. These receptors are embedded in a
mucus-coated membrane called the olfactory ephithelium. These receptors lie
a little off the main route of air. Chemicals suspended in the air pass through the
nasal passages and stimulate the olfactory receptors which connect wth the
olfactory nerve. Human beings can distinguish among about 10,000 different
odours. Interestingly females are somewhat more sensitive and accurate than males
in odour recognition.
PSYCHOLOGY 65
Deep Senses
One group of senses perform the function of informing the organism about its own
movement and its orientation in space. The collection of two different senses,
Notes Kinesthetic and Vestibular systems is called deep senses.
(i) The Kinesthetic System : Skeletal movement of the body is sensed through
kinesthesis, a collective term for all the information that we get from receptors
in the muscles, tendons, and joints. It provides us information about the
movement of the body as well as information about bodily posture and
orientation. Of course, vision helps us a lot in this respect.
(ii) The Vestibular System: Another group of receptors, located in the inner
ear, signal the rotation of the head. These are receptors in the semicircular
canals which are located within the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear.
The three canals in the ear contain viscous liquid that moves when the head is
rotated. The motion of this liquid bends hair cells that are located at one end of
each canal. When bent these hair cells give rise to nerve impulses that
provide information about the nature and extent of head movement or rotation.
At the end of the semicircular canals are the vestibular sacs, which contain
hair cells that are sensitive to the specific angle of the head. It provides
information about the position of the head-straight up and down or tilted. The
system responds to gravity and keeps us informed about our body’s location
in space.

1. The back of the tongue is sensitive to ______________ stimuli.
a. Sour
b.Bitter
c. Salty
d.Sweet
2. Taste receptors are :
a. Taste buds
66 PSYCHOLOGY
b.Hair cells
c. Pepillae
d.Free nerve endings Notes

3. Olfactory receptors are located:
a. In the nose
b.High up in the nasal passage
c. In the throat
d.In the early part of the nose
4. The deep senses include:
a. Kinesthetic system
b.Vestibular apparatus
c. Semicircular canals
d.All of the above
5. In kinesthetic system we get information from receptors in the :
a. Muscles
b.Tendons
c. Joints
d.All of the above
6. The vestibular system is a feedback system that provides information to the

brain about:
a. pain
b. touch
c. the movement of our body
d. all of the above
PSYCHOLOGY 67
4.4 MIND, BRAIN AND CONSCIOUSNESS

In part I, you studied the role of the senses in providing information about the
external and internal world. However, receiving information from the external world
Notes and transmitting the same to the brain is just half the story. The chain of events start
from stimulus reception through our senses and ends up in reports such as “beautiful
flower”, “ a bitter taste, or “bright green”. The sensory experience that we get
from stimulus through our receptors is a process and a product the end outcome is
what we call perception, which is discussed in detail in a subsequent lesson (Lesson
5). However in this section we will study how our brain processes the information
received from our senses into a conscious sensory experience.
Usually, our conscious experience (perception) is a result of processing of

information that we receive from different sense modalities (e.g. vision, audition,
touch, etc.). So, what we experience is a product of the contributions made by
different sense organs (modalities) that results in a conscious sensory experience
or sensation.
Consciousness
We become aware of the world around us through our consciousness.
Consciousness is a state of awareness of external and internal events experienced
by an individual. In ordinary waking state (consciousness) we are aware of what is
going on around us, we are aware of our thoughts, feelings, desires, perceptions
etc. On the other hand, if one falls down unconscious due to low blood pressure,
one is not aware of all that is happening around the person. When this person
gains consciousness, he/she does not know all that was being done to revive him/
her.
The state of consciousness, however, keeps on changing even during the waking
state. We keep performing many actions at a particular time, some consciously
some automatically. For example, while driving a car we keep talking to the person
sitting by our side and during this period when we are busy talking we are not
conscious (aware) when we lifted our foot from the accleration pedal, pressed
upon the clutch, changed the gear and again started accelerating. In this example
the driver was paying attention to the conversation with the other person (conscious
act) while the driving part was automatic (without our being conscious). Though,
we can perform one action at a time where allocation of attention is required, we
can simultaneously carry on the other task if it is highly learnt (it becomes automatic
and no conscious control is required). But, think of a driver who is learning to
drive, he will not be able to talk and drive because both the tasks require allocation
of attention or conscious effort.
68 PSYCHOLOGY
Computers and Human Beings

It is interesting to compare computer and human being. Modern computers are
impressive, but none can match the amazing abilities packed within the human
brain. In some ways computer may be considered to be superior to human beings. Notes
For example, the memory of a computer could be more than that of human being.
Further, computer can process large number of variables simultaneously (parallel
processing). On the other hand, human being is basically capable of serial processing
(one task at a time). For example, if you read a book which needs attention to
grasp the material you cannot listen to the music simultaneously, unless the music
does not require any attention. However, tasks which are highly practiced, like
driving a car can be executed with other tasks that require attentional resources.
That means, one task is being performed automatically (without conscious control)
and the other under conscious control.
It is important to note that no computer can perform the function of thinking (atleast
presently). Computer has no emotions, imagery, insight, desires, motives, and
creativity of human brain. Computer can perform to the extent the hard-ware and
programmes allow. On the other hand, human brain is capable of performing various
cognitive and affective functions without any limit. The most important difference
between the two is that human being has consciousness whereas the computer
does not.
Mind is often considered a functional correlate of brain. Our thoughts, memory,

mental images, reasoning, decision making, and so on are all aspects of the human
mind. Brain has a physical structure. (e.g. neurons) and some physiological action
is generated whenever the brain works. Its psychological correlate is what we call
mind. The cognitive functions of the brain are what we call the functioning of mind.
The process of socialization and learning experience a human being undergoes
amount to programming the hard-ware (brain) the human being inherits.
Levels of Consciousness
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, believed that human mind has
three distinct levels: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious.
The conscious mind includes our current thoughts, whatever we are thinking or
experiencing at a given movement. Beneath this conscious realm is the much larger
preconscious. The preconscious contains memories that are not part of current
thought but can be readily brought to mind (conscious) if need arises. Finally, there
is the unconscious. This part of the human mind has been compared to iceberg, of
PSYCHOLOGY 69
which the major portion is concealed. The unconscious contains thoughts, desires,
and impulses of which we remain largly unaware. Human behaviour reflects all the
three levels of consciousness. However, many psychologists donot accept these
three levels of consciousness. The first level, that is, consciousness is well accepted
Notes by all. The preconscious is what we call stored material (memory) and the material
can be retrieved when required. However, the third level (unconscious) is very
controvercial and most of the psychologists, especially, the experimental or the
congnitive psychologists dont accept this level at all.

• The sense organs are our windows to collect information from the external
world.
• Ten different senses can be identified in human beings. These are : Vision,
Audition, Tactile, Warmth, Cold, Pain, Smell, Taste, Kinesthetic, and Vestibular.
The specific sense organ transforms the physical energy (information) into
neural signals and transmits those to the brain. This message is decoded and
processed in the brain which leads to perception.
• The most developed and often used sense organ in human being is vision.
Light waves are the stimuli for eyes. The visual receptors, called rods and
cones, are activated by the light waves.
• The auditory receptors in the ears respond to sound waves. The sound waves
are produced by pressure changes in the atmosphere. The ear has three major
divisions-outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear.
• The skin (cutaneous senses) provides information about the surface of our
body. Some main senses identified are pressure and touch, temperature
sensation (cold and warmth), and pain.
• We can sense taste (gustation) with the help of our tongue. The tongue contains
taste buds which are spread all across the surface and sides of the tongue. The
taste buds together are called papillae.
• The sense of smell (olfaction) is sensed by the nose. The olfactory receptors
are located in the nasal passage. These receptors are embedded in a mucus-
coated membrane which is called olfactory ephithelium.
• The kinesthetic and vestibular are the group of senses which inform the organism
about its own movement and orientation. These are called deep senses.
70 PSYCHOLOGY
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the different sense organs? How is the stimulus perceived by the
brain? Notes
2. Discuss briefly the function of
a. Retina
b. Rods
c. Cones
3. What are the three major divisions of human ear?

4. What are the cutaneous senses ? Name them and describe their functions.

4.1
1. c 2. 10 3. c
4.2
1. b 2. c 3. d
4. b 5. d 6. d
4.3 (A)
a-q
b-p
c-s
d-r
(B) 1. b 2.a
4.4
1. d
2. b
3. a
PSYCHOLOGY 71
4.5
1. b
2. b
Notes 3. b
4. d
5. d
6. c

72 PSYCHOLOGY
Attention and Perception MODULE - I
Foundation of Psychology
Notes
ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION
When you walk through a busy street, a large number of stimuli bombard your
sense organs, but you can take in and use only a very small number of stimuli. For
example, a number of people cris-cross each other wearing different colour dresses,
cars and buses pass through on the nearby road, shops and buildings also attract
your attention. However, only a small and selected part of the available stimulation
is registered by an individual for processing and the rest is filtered out. This process
of selectively responding to a stimulus or range of stimuli is called attention. Thus,
attention refers to all those processes by which we perceive selectively.
You have read in the lesson “Becoming aware of the world around us” that we
have ten senses which provide us information about the external and internal world,
but some central regulatory mechanism allows selective pick up of the information.
Have you ever thought that the dish antena on the roof of your home can pick up
all the signals that are available there, but the tuner in the television-set selects only
the signal that you want to view, others are filtered out. Similarly, from a large
number of stimuli that are available in the external world, attentional processes
limit the reception of stimuli selectively. Thus, attentional processes serve the tuner
function in filtering information selectively for further processing that finally leads to
perception.
PSYCHOLOGY 73
MODULE - I Attention and Perception
OBJECTIVES
Notes
• explain the nature and functions of attention;
• describe the process of perception;
• explain perception of shape and illusions;
• understand the problem of space perception and cues used in it;
• describe the factors influencing perception; and
• describe extra sensory perception.
5.1 ATTENTION AND ITS COMPONENT

PROCESSES
Attention is a central process and perception is not possible without attentional
processes. That means attention precedes perception. Attentional processes serve
various functions in the organization of our perceptions and other cognitive functions.
The various functions of attention are :
1. Alerting function
2. Selective function
3. Limited capacity channel
4. Vigilance
Let us examine these functions briefly.
1. Alerting function: Carefully observe a cat poised at the mouse hole. If you
look at the cat carefully in such a situation, you will observe that the ears of the
cat are directed towards the mouse hole (to receive the slightest sound of
movement inside the hole), eyes are converged and focused on the hole (to
get visual image of the mouse as it tries to come out), the four leg muscles are
in a state of high alert (to pounce at the mouse as it comes out). There is a
complete physiological and mental preparedness to catch the prey. This is an
example of alertness, what we call an alerting function of attention. You will
notice that the cat is allocating all its available attentional resources, this
demonstrates the alerting nature of attention.
Let us take another example to demonstrate the alerting nature of attention.
When the teacher asks the student in the classroom to pay attention to what
he is teaching, it means that the student can voluntarily create conditions that
prepare him/her to be receptive and alert in the class. Attention in this sense
74 PSYCHOLOGY
refers to a state of focused awareness with readiness to respond (e.g., if asked

some question). Distraction occurs when some interference (e.g. loud noise)
prevents the individual to continue with the ongoing task.
2. Selective function: The most important function of attention is selectivity. Notes
Selectivity refers to a process by which attention is focused on stimulus or
stimuli of ongoing interest and other stimuli are ignored. Selective attention
acts as a filter, that allows some information in and the other (unwanted) out.
The best example of selective attention is that of "tea-party effect" in selective
listening (generally referred to as cocktail –party effect)
You are in a tea- party organized by your friend. You will observe that in such
parties people take some snacks and cup of tea and stand and chat in small
groups of four to five people. You are busy chatting with your friend in such
one group. When conversation was going on, you suddenly hear someone
mentioning your name in one of the adjoining groups. You attention is diverted,
from your friend, to whom you were talking, to the group from where you
heard your name. Your friend is still talking to you, but your attention is diverted
to the other side to listen what someone there is saying about you. Apparently,
you pose that you are listening to what your friend is talking but you are unable
to register anything. This example demonstrates that we can selectively attend
to one task at a time. The ongoing task in this case is ignored.
3. Limited Capacity Channel: It has been established through research that
we have limited capacity to process information that is available in the outside
world. That is, tasks that require attentional resources cannot be carried out
simultaneously because we have limited capacity to process the incoming
information. We process the task one at a time, called serial processing. For
example, if you are asked to listen to music as well as read this page in your
text book, you cannot carry out both the tasks simultaneously or in parallel.
If you attend to music, then during this period you are not able to comprehend
what you were reading and vice-versa. That means, when the task requires
attentional resources (when the task is difficult) you can carry on with one
task at a time called serial processing, carrying two tasks simultaneously is not
possible.
However, if one task is highly practised or routinized then it is possible to
carry on with two tasks simultaneously. For example, when you are a practiced
driver, you can drive the car as well as converse with the other person sitting
by your side. This is possible because driving requires little or no attentional
resources or mental effort (because of high level of practice) and you can pay
attention to what the other person is talking. This condition is called
automaticity in information processing.
PSYCHOLOGY 75
In this sense we are serial processors. That means, two or more tasks that
require complex cognitive processing cannot be carried out simultaneously.
The bottle-neck is at the central level (in the brain). That is, the brain is not
able to handle two or more tasks simultaneously. In this case, computer is
Notes better then human beings, in that it can process information in parallel.
4. Vigilance Function: Maintaining attention on a task continuously, for some
time, like looking at the radar screen, is called vigilance or sustained
attention. It has been found that attending to a task for long is taxing, particularly
if the task is monotonous and it leads to decrease in performance. You will be
able to understand vigilance better by doing the following activity. (see Box
5.1)
Box 5.1: Understanding vigilance
Activity
Prepare a ramdom list of 500 letters (e.g., c, p, x, a, e, t, m..) and put

them in rows with a gap of one stroke between any two letters. Letters
should be bold and in lower case. Hand over the sheet of paper
containing the rows of random letters to the participant and instruct
him/her to cancel all the vowels (a, e, i, o, & u) that appear in the
rows as fast as he/she can. After two minutes stop the participant and
mark where he/she stopped. Immediately, ask him/her to restart with
the task and again after two minutes ask him/her to stop the task and
mark where he/she stopped.
Count all the errors of commission (wrongly cancelled letters) and

omissions (all the vowels not cancelled that were to be cancelled).
Add both the errors and compare the two tasks, one carried out in
the first two minutes, and the second one carried out in the second
two minutes.
You will find that the number of errors (omission plus commission) in
the second part of the experiment will be more than the first. This can
be explained as due to central fatigue (brain) occurring due to sustained
attention on a monotonous task.
You should also compare vigilance over five trials instead of two and
you should also try with random digits (e.g. 8, 1, 0, 5, 4 ...) in place
of letters and ask the subject to cancel 1, 4, 5, & 8.
76 PSYCHOLOGY

State whether the following statements are True or False
Notes
1. Attention is a central process. True/False
2. Perception is possible without attention. True/False
3. Attention refers to all those processes by which we perceive selectively. True/
False
4. The four functions of attention are:
i. ............................
ii. .............................
ii. .............................
iv. ............................
5.2 CREATING A WORLD OF REALITY :

PERCEPTION
We live and deal with a three dimensional world which
contains objects of different shapes and forms, sizes,
and colours. Generally, our experience of the external
world is quite accurate and error free. However, we do
encounter illusions (e.g. perceiving a rope in the night as
snake). To survive and live in this world we must get
accurate information from our environment. This
information is gathered by our sense organs, ten in all.
Eight of these are external (vision, audition, smell, taste,
touch, warmth, cold, and pain) and two internal or deep
senses (e.g., vestibular and kinesthetic). Fig. 5.1: Figure and Ground
You have already studied the chapter on sensory processes (lesson 4, "Becoming
aware of the world around us") and in this section you will learn about perception.
How do we construct a world of reality from the information that we receive from
our sense organs? The difference between sensation and perception is not clearly
mentioned, where one ends and the other starts is arbitrary. The division between
sensation and perception is made for the sake of scientific analysis. Most
psychologists treat perception as interpretation of sensation. For the purpose of
scientific investigation we consider the sensory system to include reception of
stimulation by sensory organs, transduction, transmission of neural impulses
through afferent neurons, and reaching the appropriate area in the cerebral cortex
(e.g., visual stimulation reaching occipital lobe in the cerebral cortex).
PSYCHOLOGY 77
In this section you will study how our sensory system gathers information from the
external and internal world. Further, by taking into account past experience,
knowledge, memory, motivation, cultural background, beliefs, and attitudes, etc.
from internal system, the brain makes sense out of the signals that it receives from
Notes different sense organs. Thus, how we receive information from the external world
and with the help of internal system we construct a world of reality. This is all we
study in perception. We have already considered the role of attention in perception.
Thus, multiple and complex nature of stimulation is available to us from the external
world and with the operation of attentional processes we selectively receive some
information and filter out the rest. In the following paragraphs you will study some
important aspects of perception.
5.3 PERCEPTION OF SHAPE

The terms “shape” and “form” are often used interchangeably. The study of shape
perception raises many questions, such as : How do we perceive shape? Is our
ability to perceive shape and form innate or learned? How do we segregate figure
from ground? Are there laws that govern the organization of perception? What are
illusions and why do these illusions exist? These are some questions that we shall
try to explore in this section.
How do We Perceive Shape?
Fig. 5.2:
78 PSYCHOLOGY
Shape or form is defined as areas of visual field that are set off from the rest of the
field by visible contour. Werner in 1935 demonstrated how contours are perceived
and their role in the perception of shape or form. To perceive a shape, its contours
must be sharp enough to mark off region that is called shape. For example, see
Figure 5.1 in which the contour has been made to clearly delineate an area that is Notes
a circle. If the contour becomes too weak or disappears, the shape also disappears.
Figure and Ground

Imagine, if figure-ground segregation was not there how confusing the world would
have been for us. Perhaps, perceptual organization would not be possible. For
example, see figure 5.1 in which the random shape stands out as a figure and page
becomes back ground. Another example, what ever is written on the black-board
by your teacher becomes “figure” and the black board becomes a “ground”. You
cannot read anything on the blackboard until and unless the figure (words) is
segregated from the back ground (black-board). In our visual field (whatever we
look out in the environment around us) some area is segregated to form figures
and the rest is relegated to the background (that part which is not important for us)
against which the figures are perceived. Figure-ground segregation is essential for
the perception of shape. It is not only the characteristics of visual perception, it is
there in all sense modalities. For example, when you listen to the music, the vocal
part of the music (what a singer sings) becomes figure and the instrumental part is
relegated to the background. If the listener is interested in the instrumental part
(“figure”) of the music then the vocal part becomes “ground”.
Let us know how this occurs.
The distinction between figure and background is presented below.

1. The figure has a shape, while the ground is relatively shapeless.
2. The ground seems to extend behind the figure.
3. The figure has some of the characteristics of a thing, whereas the background
appears like unformed material.
4. The figure usually tends to appear in front, the ground behind.
5. The figure is more impressive, meanigful, and better remembered.
5.4 THE DETERMINANTS OF FIGURE –GROUND

ORGANIZATION
The Gestalt psychologists in Germany, principally Kohler, Koffka, and Wertheimer,
proposed that the brain has the innate capacity for organizing perceptions. They
PSYCHOLOGY 79
identified the laws of organiztion which determine the way in which we perceive
the objects. They maintain that electrical fields in the brain are responsible for the
organization of perception. They were also interested in exploring figure-ground
distinction, what makes figures stand out against a background.
Notes
Laws of Perceptual Organization
(i) Good Form (Law of Pragnanz): This law states that perceptual organization
will always be as “good” as the prevailing conditions allow. The simplest
organization requiring the least cognitive effort will always emerge. Pragnanz
means that we perceive the simplest organization that fits the stimulus pattern.
(ii) Proximity: All the stimuli that occur together in space or time will be organized
together. In Figure 5.3 you can observe three groups of two vertical lines.
You will find it difficult to see six individual lines.
Fig. 5.3: Law of Proximity
(iii) Similarity: Other things being equal, elements which are similar in structure
or have common characteristics will be grouped together. In Figure 5.4, five
squares, five triangles, and five circles in columns are grouped together.
Fig. 5. 4: Law of similarity
80 PSYCHOLOGY
(iv) Closure: An incomplete figure will be seen as a complete one. Figure 5.5, is
a figure consisting of incomplete lines, that have gap in them. It is perceived
as a triangle despite the fact that its sides are incomplete. A closure like
phenomenon yields subjective contours. In Figure 5.5 you will observe that
the triangle does not exist, (the lines forming a triangle donot exist). Still it is Notes
compelling to perceive a triangle in the Figure.
Fig. 5.5: Law of closure
5.5 ILLUSIONS
Illusions are misperceptions resulting from misinterpretation of sensory information.
Illusions are also known as false perceptions. For example, if there is a thick
rope lying on one side in the dark, it could be perceived as a snake. Illusion is a
normal phenomenon which is perceived by all human beings and animals.
You must have experienced moon illusion. The moon in the horizon looks far
bigger in size than moon in the zenith. We know, that the retinal image of the moon
at the horizon or zenith is the same (moon being at the same distance from the
earth), however, its perceived size differs a lot. One explanation takes into account
the size –distance relationship. Helmholtz long back suggested that judgement of
size is related to the judgement of distance. For example, retinal angle being
constant, if the judged distance of an object is more than the actual physical
distance then the perceived size will also be larger than the actual physical size
and vice-versa. It is contended that with retinal image being the same, the perceived
distance of the moon in the horizon is more than the perceived distance of the
moon in the zenith. Thus, the perceived size of the moon will be larger at the
horizon than the zenith.
Geometrical Illusions: there are quite a few illusions that can be demonstrated
by drawing some lines, these are called geometrical illusions. The most famous is
Muller-lyer illusion. See figure 5.6 for some geometrical illusions.
PSYCHOLOGY 81
Three different types of geometrical illusions
These two lines These two lines

are drawn equal are drawn equal These two
Notes lines are equal
a b c
Fig. 5.6: a. Muller–Lyer illusion, b. Vertical horizontal illusion, c. Panzo illusion
5.6 PERCEPTION OF SPACE

Perception of space also refers to the perception of size and distance. The problem
emerges from the fact that the image of the three dimensional world is projected
on the two dimensional retina. This raises the question: From the two dimensional
image, how do we perceive the three dimensional world? Or in other words how
do we perceive depth and distance? The problem of space perception is depicted
in Figure 5.7.
Nodal Points a3
a2
a1
b S
Inverted Image
a
b1 b2
b3
Fig. 5.7: The problem of Space perception
It can be observed from Figure 5.8 that the points a1, a2, a3, … on the line of sight
fall on the retina at “a”. Similarly, those of points b1, b2, b3,… fall on “b” on the
retina. (The image of the external objects on retina is inverted). The available
information on the retina can only indicate the direction of these points in space,
but not in any obvious manner about distance from the eye. That is, the location of
a1, a2, and a3 or b1, b2 and b3.
However, in our day-to-day experience we know that our perceptions about the
depth and distance are quite accurate. If our judgement about the depth and distance
were not accurate we would be colliding with the objects in the external world.
We cannot drive bicycle or scooter if our judgments of depth and distance are
inaccurate. The problem is that how do we accurately perceive space (depth and
distance) from two dimensional image on the retina. You will find shortly that the
perception of space is possible because of the various cues availabile to us.
82 PSYCHOLOGY
Before we study the various cues, it will be in order to have a clear understanding
of various terms that are used here.
Distance: This refers to the absolute spatial extent (D) between the observer and
the object. See Figure 5.8 a. Corresponding to the physical distance (D) there is Notes
a perceived distance (D’) sometimes referred to as apparent distance also.
Depth
Distance
a. Physical extent between b. Physical extent between two
individual and object objects as perceived by individual
Fig. 5.8: a. Distance b. Depth
Depth: It is the Relative spatial extent between two objects as viewed by the
observer. For example, the relative extent between the two trees as viewed by the
observer (See Figure 5.9 b). Corresponding to the physical depth is the perceived
depth, the depth perceived by the individual.
Size: the object has a physical size (S) that is out there. The individual perceives
this, it is called perceived size (S’).
It is interesting to understand that we perceive depth and distance with the help of
various cues available to us. These cues may be divided into three categories
i. Non- Visual Cues

ii. Binocular Cues
iii. Monocular Cues.
We shall discuses these cues briefly.
(i) Non-visual Cues
Accommodation and Convergence are the two non-visual cues. These cues are
called 'non-visual' because they do not emanate from the retinal image, as is the
case with other cues.
PSYCHOLOGY 83
a. Accommodation: What we call focusing in camera, in the case of eye we call

accommodation. The image of the external objects is focused on the retina with
the help of lens in the eye. The lens is adjusted by the Ciliary muscles to focus
far and near objects on the retina. The ciliary muscle changes the convexity of the
Notes lens so that the image of the object is clearly focused and this process is called
accommodation.
If the object is relatively at a distance (more than 2 meters or so) the ciliary muscle
is relaxed. When the object comes nearer and nearer the muscle contracts more
and more, making the lens more convex. The degree of contraction of the ciliary
muscle, signaled to the brain through Kinesthetic impulses is a possible cue of
distance. That is, if the object is farther away from the viewer, the ciliary muscle is
relaxed and when the object is nearer the ciliary muscle is tense. The extent of
contraction in the ciliary muscle fed back to the brain is the cue of accommodation.
However, research indicates that accommodation is a weak cue of perception of
depth and distance.
b. Convergence: When you read the letters of this printed line, you converge
your eyes (with the help of six intra-ocular muscles located outside each eye)
to bring the image in both eyes to fall on the fovea of each eye for fusion and
clear vision. The extent of convergence achieved is signaled to the brain and this
provides a cue to distance. For example, if the object is nearer the angle of
convergence will be large and as the object goes farther away the angle of
convergence decreases. For objects at a far away distance the eyes are more or
less parallel. The extent of convergence achieved is fed back to the brain and it is
a cue to distance. Again, research indicates that like accommodation it is a weak
cue of perception and distance.
(ii) Binocular Cues
Binocular cues, unlike the two cues discussed above, emanate from the retinal
image itself. These cues are:
a. Double images
b. Binocular disparity
a. Double images: You have already learnt that when we fixate our eyes on an
object in space, fusion takes place and we see one object. However, when we
fixate on an object, all other objects nearer or farther than the fixation point fall on
the non-corresponding points and produce double images.
You can try this phenomenon. Take two pencils, hold them vertically in a line in
front of your nose, one nearer and the other farther away. Now, fixate your eyes
on the nearer pencil, the image of this pencil falls on the corresponding points (as
84 PSYCHOLOGY
you converge your eyes and accommodate) and fusion will take place. You will be
able to see the pencil. However, the image of the other pencil will be double, as it
falls on the non-corresponding points and fusion will not take place. Similarly, if
now you fixate on the farther pencil, the image of the nearer pencil will be doubled.
Notes
However, the double images you have just experienced are not similar in nature.
The first will be uncrossed double image and the second will be crossed. The
phenomenon just explained can be seen in Fig 5.9 A & B.
F
N2 F N1
Fixation Point Horoptor
Fixation Point
F2 N F1
Horoptor
L R L R
A. Uncrossed Double Images A. Crossed Double Images
Fig. 5.9: Double images A. uncrossed; B. Crossed. (L: Left Eye; R: Right Eye; N: Near
Point; F : Farther Point)
Thus, when we get uncrossed double images, the object is farther than the fixation
point. On the other hand when we get crossed double images then the object is
nearer than the fixation point.
b. Binocular Disparity: Objects that are nearer and farther than the fixation
point project their retinal images on the non-corresponding or disparate areas of
the two retinas. Greater the distance from the fixation point, greater will be the
binocular disparity. That is, disparity increases as the distance of the object from
the fixation point increases. This retinal disparity is the possible cue about the
distance of the object from the fixation point.
(iii) Monocular Cues
Monocular Cues are also called pictorial cues because they include the kind of
depth information found in the photographs and paintings. These cues are extensively
used by the artists in their paintings. These cues are
PSYCHOLOGY 85
a. Interposition
b. Aerial perspective
c. Linear perspective
Notes
d. Lights and Shadows
e. Familiar size
f. Texture-Density Gradient
Let us consider these cues briefly.
(a) Interposition: When an object (A) partially blocks another object (B), the
object blocked is perceived farther away than the object blocking it (See Fig.
5.10). This cue develops early in the children.
Fig 5.10: Interposition. The tree is perceived farther than the house
(b) Aerial perspective: When you look at buildings in the city, buildings close
by look clearer and their boundaries (contours) are well defined in comparison
to distant ones, which look gray and hazy. The buildings, trees, and other
objects that look hazy are perceived far away in comparison to those which
look clear.
(c) Linear Perspective: When parallel lines recede into the distance, as rail
road tracks, they converge towards a point in your retinal image (see Fig.
5.11). Further, the farther away two objects are in the visual field, the closer
they will appear to be to each other. On the other hand, the two objects
nearer to us appear further apart from each other. This cue appears much later
in children.
(d) Lights and Shadows : We are often aware of the source and direction of
light. It is generally from above, as sunlight. The shadows cast by one object
on another can indicate which object is farther away.
86 PSYCHOLOGY
Notes
Fig. 5.11: Linear perspective
(e) Familiar Size: Because you know the height of your friend, you can judge
the distance at which he is standing. This is possible because we always store
the memory image of objects that we see. When we look at an object which
is away from us we can interpret the distance form the retinal image by taking
into account the familiar size. You can do this activity. Take a playing card and
present it to your friend at a distance of 10 ft from him. Ask him to judge the
distance at which the card is placed. He will be quite accurate in judging the
size of the playing card. Because he is familiar with the size of the card, which
is always of the same (standard) size.
(f) Texture-Density Gradient : Look at the ploughed field, the nearer surface
looks rough and as we extend our vision farther away the texture gets finer.
Similarly, if you look at the grass nearby, you will be able to see the blades of
grass clearly, but as you extend your vision to a distant point the ground looks
as if painted green and the blades of the grass are no more visible. This texture
gradient is a cue to distance. The objects lying on a surface that look fine and
smooth in texture are perceived at greater distance than those objects on a
rough surface.
5.7 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION
At any particular time there are many competing stimuli out there which will gain
our attention and result in perceptual organization. The stimulus characteristics are
important, as are our own internal needs, motivations, and our specific socio-
cultural back ground in which we have been reared. All these factors, stimulus
variables and internal factors peculiar to an individual, determine how our
perceptions are organized. In the following section you will learn how the stimulus
and internal factors determine what we perceive.
PSYCHOLOGY 87
i. Context and Set-effects
ii. Needs and motives
iii. Social and Cultural factors.

Notes
i. Context and Set-effects
A given stimulus may provide radically different perceptions because of the

immediate context. The context creates an expectation in our brain (top-down
phenomenon) that influences our perception at a particular moment. For example,
in noisy conditions you are verbally provided with a sentence “eel is moving”. You
will perceive the word “eel” as "wheel" because of the context provided by the
later part of the sentence. Similarly provide a stimulus verbally “eel the orange”.
You will perceive the word “eel” as peel. This is because the later word “orange”
provides an expectation for the perception of earlier word.
Perceptual sets also influence our perceptions. Perceptual set refers to our mental
expectancies and predispositions to perceive one thing and not another. Perceptual
set can influence what we hear as well as what we see. Broadly speaking our
educational, social, and cultural experiences shape what we perceive. In other
words, our learned assumptions and beliefs help us in organizing our perceptions.
For example, if we hold very strong beliefs about God, the temple is perceived as
a place that gives us peace, love, solace, affection, and a satisfying experience.
Similarly, stereotypes (a generalized belief about a group of people) help us to
perceive persons we meet first time. Much of our social interaction is determined
by the stereotypes we hold about individuals and groups.
(iii) Needs and Motives
We have seen above that immediate Context and perceptual sets affect our
perceptions. Similarly, personal variables, like needs, emotions, values, personality,
etc. influence our perceptions. An example will demonstrate the effect of need
state on the perception of an individual. Two men, a hungry and another thirsty, go
to a restaurant and the waiter hands over to each a menu for obtaining order. It
was found that, at a quick glance, the hungry man could see eatable items in the
menu and the thirsty drinks. This example supports the hypothesis that need states
of individuals affect their perceptions. It has been found that emotions, motivation,
and personality factors influence our perceptions. For instance, while studying the
effect of reward and punishment on the organization of one’s perception, it was
found that children perceived significantly more often rewarded aspects of the
figure-ground stimuli in comparison to the punished.
88 PSYCHOLOGY
(iii) Social and Cultural factors

Perceptual learning and development takes place in the context of socio-cultural
environment. Our perceptions reflect the effect of past learning and, therefore, if
learning and socialization takes place in a particular socio-cultural background it Notes
will be reflected in our perceptions. A large number of studies support the hypothesis
that culture influences our perceptions. It has been found that the Africans living in
dense forests displayed greater illusion in the Vertical – Horizontal figure and
Western-Urbans in the Muller –Lyer figures. The differences have been explained
due to their experiences in different culture. So, it should be clear to you that
cultural background influence the individual to perceive the world differently.
5.8 EXTRA – SENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP)

We have observed in the foregoing discussion on perception that sense organs
provide the raw material or data on which our perceptions are organized. However,
there is another type of perception in which perception is organized without the
involvement of senses, called Extra-Sensory Perception (ESP). As the word
denotes, extra sensory perception is perception without (physical) stimulation.
Extra sensory perception includes phenomenon like telepathy, clairvoyance,
and telekinesis.
Telepathy: It refers to transfer of thought between two persons at different places.
Clairvoyance: Perceiving objects and events without the involvement of senses.
Telekinesis: Controlling objects without touching them.
ESP is considered a para-psychological phenomenon. Psychologists, with scientific
attitude, are generally skeptical about the phenomena of ESP.
INTEXT QUESTION 5.2

1. Define perception.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Shape or form is defined as areas of visual field that are set off from the rest of
the field by ________________.
3. Perceptual organizations will not be possible without __________ segregation.
4. Gestalt psychologists identified __________ which determine our perceptual
organizations.
PSYCHOLOGY 89
5. Illusions are ______________ resulting from misinterpretation of sensory

information.
6. The moon in the horizon is perceived bigger in size than moon in the zenith, it
is called ______________.
Notes 7. Distance and depth is perceived with the help of ________________.
8. The three category of cues are:
i. ________________
ii. ________________
iii. ________________

• Attention plays an important role in perception. Its most important function is
to filter out information that is not relevant at a particular moment; that is
selecting the input of information for further processing. The four important
functions of attention are: Alerting function, Selective function, Limited Capacity
channel, and Vigilance.
• Alerting function refers to the processes by which an organism is physiologically
and mentally prepared for a particular situation. It prepares an individual for a
task with readiness to respond.
• Selectivity refers to the process in which the stimuli of interest are focused and
others are ignored or filtered out.
• The task that requires attentional resources cannot be carried out simultaneously.
The information is processed serially; it is due to limited capacity channel.
• Maintaining attention on one task for some time is called sustained attention or
vigilance. Sustained attention on some task, especially of monotonous nature,
leads to decrement in performance.
• How we construct a world of reality from information that we receive from
our sense organs, is what we study in perception.
• By taking into account our past experience, knowledge, memory, motivation,
cultural-background, etc. we construct a world of reality (perception).
• We studied perception of shape or form and also about space perception.
• Shape is defined as areas of visual field that are set off from the rest of the
visual field by visible contour.
• Contours determine the shape.
• Perceptual organization is not possible without figure-ground segregation.
Figure-ground is possible in all sense modalities - e.g. vision, audition, tactile,
etc.
90 PSYCHOLOGY
• The Gestalt psychologists in Germany proposed that the brain has the innate
capacity for organizing perceptions - laws of organization.
• Laws of perceptual organization are: Good form, Proximity, Similarity, Closure,
etc.
• Illusions are misperceptions resulting from misinterpretation of sensory Notes
information.
• Perception of space refers to perception of size and distance.
• The problem of space perception emanates from the fact that the retinal image
is two dimensional. The third dimension is perceived with the help of various
cues of depth and distance.
• The three sets of cues available to us are
- Non-visual cues
- Binocular cues
- Monocular cues
• Factors that influences our perceptions are:
- Context and Sets
- Needs and motivations
- Social and cultural factors
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the main functions of attention?
2. Describe the laws of perceptual organization.
3. Discuss the nonvisual cues of space perception.
4. Describe the factors that influence perception.

5.1 1. True 2. False 3. True
4. i. Alerting Function
ii. Selective Function
iii. Limited capacity channel
iv. Vigilance
PSYCHOLOGY 91
5.2 2. Visible contour 3. Figure-ground 4. Laws of organizations

5. misperceptions 6. moon illusion on 7. cues
8. i. Non-visual cues
Notes ii. Binocular cues
iii. Monocular cues
HINTS FOR TERMINAL EXERCISE

92 PSYCHOLOGY
Learning Process and Acquiring Skills MODULE-II
Key Psychological Processes
Notes
LEARNING PROCESS AND

ACQUIRING SKILLS
Have you seen a newly born child able to walk, talk, feed or dress by herself or
himself? The mother feeds and dresses the child and gradually teaches to walk
and talk. But you can do all of the above actions yourself. Have you ever thought
how this dramatic change happened? Of course through learning. Further, you
have learned social habits and customs, and as an adult you deal with various
situations in life. You would even have learnt various professional skills like typing,
reading, riding a bicycle, speaking etc.
Since everything we do and think comes out of learning, it is the key to understanding
how most individuals behave. It is through the process of learning that we become
competent, skilled, perform various activities and excel in life. We become what
we learn. No doubt, you have been learning throughout your life, without knowing
how learning takes place. In this lesson we will study how learning takes place,
methods of learning and the factors that influence it.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the concept of learning;
• describe the process of learning and its scope;
• describe the different ways of learning; and
• explain certain important phenomena such as preparedness for learning, learning
disability related to learning.
PSYCHOLOGY 95
MODULE -II Learning Process and Acquiring Skills
6.1 NATURE OF LEARNING

If a child avoids touching burning firewood after being hurt, it can be said that
learning has taken place. Learning is a process by which a certain change or
Notes modification in behaviour occurs. ‘Behaviour’ refers to any action which may be
muscular, social, mental or a combination of these.
Learning can be defined as the process by which any relatively permanent change
in behaviour occurs as a result of practice and /or experience. This definition has
three important elements:
(i) Learning is a change in behaviour, for better or worse;

(ii) It is a change that takes place through practice or experience; changes due to
growth, maturation, fatigue or injury are not included in learning. Thus learning
brings about improvement in performance.
(iii) Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent or
enduring, that is it must last a fairly long time. For example, once an individual
learns to ride a cycle he or she does not forget it.
Try It Yourself
You must be having a child at home or in your neighbourhood

of the age of 6 –8 months. Show him a small pup and when
he touches it, make a pleasant sound. The child will have a
pleasant experience and learn to like dogs. On another
occasion while showing the pup to the child, make a
frightening sound. The child will have an unpleasant
experience and learn to avoid dogs. In the first case you have
conditioned the child by positive reinforcement and in the
second by negative reinforcement. This activity will enable
you to understand the relationship between stimulus-
organism-response.

(1) Fill in the blanks:
Learning is any change in ___________ which occurs as a result of
_________________ or _________________.
(2) Write True and False against the characteristics of learning listed below:
(a) Learning is not a continuous process. True/False
96 PSYCHOLOGY
(b) Improvement in performance is brought about by learning. True/False

(c) Learning is a gradual process. True/False
(d) Changes in behaviour due to maturation or fatigue are called learning.
True/False Notes
Learning is a thoughtful reaction to a given stimulus. Learning needs to be

differentiated from other concepts, such as, maturation, reflex and instinctive
behaviour.
A child cannot learn to walk unless his leg muscles are strong enough to support
his/ her weight. This implies that maturation provides the necessary readiness to
learn. Certain level of maturity is required to acquire skills or knowledge.
Learning and maturation both result in changes in behaviour. Sometimes, it is difficult
to differentiate as to which has influenced the behaviour more. Maturation may be
considered as the development brought about by growth of the neural and muscular
system, while learning is an outcome of stimulating situations.
Other types of behaviour which, do not represent learning are those, which arise
from instinctive and reflex actions. Instincts are complex patterns of behaviour.
For example, building of nests by birds is instinctive. Each animal type has certain
instinctive patterns of behaviour which are necessary for their survival.
Reflex action is a direct automatic and immediate response of a muscle or a gland
to the stimulation of a sense organ. For example blinking of eye in response to a
sudden movement of an object in front of a person’s eyes. These are innate
tendencies and are not acquired through practice. However, instinctive behaviour
can be modified by learning.
Try It Yourself
Try to teach a 3 month old infant to walk Can she walk? No,
because his/her legs have not developed and matured
enough. Try to teach a one year old to walk. Can she walk?
Yes, because the muscles of the legs have developed and
matured enough to support his/her weight. This shows the
relationship between learning and maturation.

(a) Maturation provides the ______________________ to learn.
PSYCHOLOGY 97
(b) Learning ____________ take place without maturation (can/cannot).

(c) ___________ and experience are necessary for learning to take place.
(d) Reflex behaviour is ____________ and _____________ response of a
Notes muscle or a gland to the _______________ of a sense organ.
6.2 BASIC EXPERIMENTS IN LEARNING

Different types of learning have been investigated by psychologists. Some of the
important types of learning include ‘classical conditioning’, ‘operant conditioning’,
‘insight’, ‘trial and error learning, ‘motor learning’, ‘verbal learning’, and ‘social
learning’. In this section we shall study some of the major forms of learning.
(a) Learning Predictable Signals : Classical Conditioning
Conditioning is a form of associative learning. In classical conditioning a connection

or association between a stimulus and a response is established, for example the
behaviour of a child who avoids burning match sticks after being hurt by it once.
Figure 6.1: Pavlov’s classical conditioning Experiment
Classical conditioning gets its name from the experiments of Ivan P Pavlov (1849-
1936). It is also sometimes called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian
conditioning. Pavlov observed that just prior to being fed, his laboratory dogs
secreted saliva from their mouth. In his first experiment, Pavlov served the dogs
food and at the same time or little after a bell was rung. After twenty to forty joint
presentations of bell and food, the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell alone.
The sound of the bell had come to substitute for the originally effective stimulus of
food, so that the bell alone was able to make the dogs’ saliva flow. Thus, the
salivation response had become conditioned to the new stimulus namely sound of
bell.
98 PSYCHOLOGY
The essential requirement for conditioning to take place is that the two stimuli shall
occur together. In laboratory, the two stimuli are presented either simultaneously
or with the new stimulus slightly prior to the old one. No learning or very little
learning occurs if the old stimulus is presented before the new one. This would be
like the ineffective procedure of giving a child reward before she had performed a Notes
task.
The classical conditioning can be depicted as follows:
UCS à UCR (Food à Saliva)
CS + UCS à UCR (Bell + Food à Saliva)
CS à (Bell àSaliva)
Generalization and Differentiation : In the course of learning a newly learned

conditioned response may become generalized with respect to stimuli and
responses. If the same response occurs to two different stimuli which are some
what similar it is a generalized response. For example, a dog taught to salivate
when a bell is rung, may also salivate when a buzzer is rung. By further practice,
animal can be trained to differentiate between stimuli. If food is given only with a
bell tone and not with the buzzer the animal will stop reacting to the buzzer and
learn to differentiate.
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery: Since some conditioned responses

are undesirable, as we have seen, it is fortunate that they can be forgotten. One
way to make the organism forget a conditioned response is to repeat the new
substitute stimulus without reinforcement. In the case of the dog, this would mean
ringing the bell without giving food. After a while, the dog will not salivate at the
sound of bell. The response has become extinct. Like forgetting, extinction seems
to be temporary rather than a permanent loss of response. An extinct response is
much more quickly relearned when the reinforcement is given than an altogether
new response.
Spontaneous recovery is a tendency of responses to recover spontaneously. Pavlov

noticed that a day or so after he gave his dogs a series of extinction trials, salivary
responses came back, stronger than they had been at the end of extinction. It is a
kind of forgetting in reverse, a tendency to forget the extinction that has occurred.
In human beings we see that the responses learnt to ride a bicycle like balancing,
applying brakes etc. are generalized to riding a scooter. However, while riding a
normal bicycle one does not use gears. While driving the scooter one differentiates
and further learns to use gears. If the human being stops riding a bicycle or scooter
PSYCHOLOGY 99
for a long time he/she may temporarily forget the balance, this is extinction. However,
on trying, relearning occurs very fast, faster than the initial time to learn. This is
spontaneous recovery.
Notes (b) Learning by Consequences : Operant Conditioning
Another important type of conditioning is operant conditioning. B.F. Skinner, speaks

of operant behaviour as voluntary behaviour of an organism. In operant conditioning
the reinforcement is dependent on the response of the organism. Since response is
instrumental in getting the reinforcement, it is also known as instrumental conditioning
or learning.
A central concept of operant learning is reinforcement. Behaviour which is

reinforced is likely to be repeated. For example, a hungry pigeon is placed in a
box which has a lighted button on the wall. The pigeon moves around the box
pecking here and there. Finally, it will peck at the button and immediately a
mechanism in the box feeds the bird with a little grain. The pigeon eats and then
continues its movement in the box. Once again it accidentally pecks the button and
is reinforced with food. Finally, the pigeon will stop the random behaviour and will
simply peck the button to get food as required. The pigeon has learned to peck
the button to obtain food.
Operant learning is by no means confined to the animal kingdom. The principles of

learning new behaviour through reinforcement have been applied by Skinner to
human beings. For example, (i) teaching new material in schools by means of
programmed learning (a method by which in each correct step the learner is
reinforced by response). (ii) Behaviour modification techniques for treating
behaviourally disturbed children and adults.
Other Forms of Learning

Skill Learning
Skill learning takes place in three stages. For example, while learning to ride a
bicycle the individual learns what is required in the task and certain specific
components of the task. This is the cognitive stage. In the second stage called
‘association stage’ the skill is perfected with accuracy and precision. Finally, the
individual need not even think about the various aspects of the task to be performed.
The skill becomes automatic. Everyday life is full of activities that demand skills
learning such as motor learning; eating with spoon, talking, handwriting, typewriting,
driving a car, playing a musical instrument etc. In all these, practice is required to
make responses with speed and accuracy. Motor skills require coordination
between environmental and internal bodily stimuli and the act to be performed.
100 PSYCHOLOGY
Verbal Learning
The child begins to acquire verbal skills as she grows. Initially, a child has limited
understanding of what certain words and gestures mean. Verbal learning involves
learning to respond to words or with words. As the child grows up she develops
Notes
improved verbal skills such as naming objects, pronouncing words, combining
words to form sentences, writing sentences to convey an idea and so on. She
acquires a new vocabulary to communicate properly.
Verbal skills are generally acquired through memorising, by repeating, recalling
and recognising the material. Speaking is a complex skill involving both motor as
well as symbolic or verbal skills. It is acquired partly on the basis of reflex
vocalisation which appears during infancy and also through imitation and
modelling.
While studying verbal learning, psychologists use a number of methods for presenting
the material. They include serial learning, free recall and paired associates learning.
In serial learning the learner is asked to recall in the way the words were presented
to him. Free recall requires the learner to recall the words without regard to their
order of presentatiion. In paired associates the verbal material is presented in
pairs such as CRAT-BOOK
Concept Learning
Concept is a category name and it has certain characteristics. Concept learning
involves both generalization and differentiation. An individual learns to distinguish
between two or more stimuli which differ in some detail. For example, the child
learns what is an animal, later she differentiates between dog and a cat, etc. Thus,
an individual learns to make different responses to stimuli from different categories.
All concepts represent a set of features connected with the help of some rule.
The individual learns to respond to objects in his or her environment in terms of

their different features like colour, shapes, position, number and so on. He/she
tries to find certain common properties in a group of objects and attaches some
category names to them. Various words which are normally used to denote an
object such as house, car, school, animal, doll and so on are examples of concepts.
Learning concepts is useful in understanding the world and in solving problems.
Most of the subjects which we study involve concept learning.
Social Learning
As we grow our environment widens to include people, objects and events. We
learn new habits, as well as modify our perception of objects, events, persons and
attitudes. Much of the learning of an individual involves change in one’s attitudes.
An attitude is a learnt way to act towards an object, person, situation or an idea.
It determines favourable or unfavourable responses to the person, situations, places
PSYCHOLOGY 101
or things. For example, one learns to respect and disrespect different persons in
his/her environment due to habit formation and attitudes. Certain social responses
are reinforced by the society if they are acceptable as per the norms of the society.
The learned behaviour of a person is ‘shaped’ accordingly. In addition to other
Notes mechanisms social learning involves ‘imitation’ of the role models which is a process
by which individuals learn new behaviour by observing others, also called modelling
or observational learning. In this process no direct reinforcement is involved.

(1) Match the following:
(a) Classical Conditioning (a) BF Skinner
(b) Operant conditioning (b) Ivan Pavlov
(c) Motor learning (c) Words, sentences to form ideas
(d) Verbal learning (d) Shaping of behaviour as per social

norms
(e) Concept learning (e) Muscular movements
(f) Social learning (f) Classification of objects in terms

of their common properties.
6.3 LEARNING CURVE

Learning can be measured by assessing the performance of an individual on a
given task. The rate of learning, as normally measured by performance, can be
represented graphically by placing the ‘units of practice’ on the X-axis and ‘degree
of learning’ on the Y-axis. The horizontal axis of the graph represents the amount
or units of practice. The vertical axis shows the degree of learning on some measure
of performance, such as percentage of correct responses, amount of time to achieve
a goal, etc.
In Fig. 6.4 Curve A shows very little or no improvement initially followed by a

period of rapid improvement after which there is a period of least improvement or
no improvement, indicating a plateau (flatness).
102 PSYCHOLOGY
Notes
Degree of leaning
units of practice
Fig. 6.2: Learning Curve
The rate of learning varies from person to person and time to time for any given
individual for any given task. For example in learning to typewrite, in the beginning
one student may show rapid improvement while another may need to practice for
a long time before his/her performance improves. Sometimes a person may reach
a certain level of performance in type writing and may remain at that level for a few
days after which he/she may show improvement. Learning curves can be prepared
for any learning task.
(a) Learning curve indicates how ___________ varies from time to time
during _____.
(b) The learning curve is a ___________ drawn to show ________ and

_________.
(2) Indicate True/False for the following:
(a) In the learning curve units of practice are placed on the X-axis.
True/False
(b) The rate of learning varies with practice. True/False
(c) Performance on a task is not an indication of learning. True/False
PSYCHOLOGY 103
6.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING

There are certain factors that affect learning. Some of the important ones are
described below. These factors are related to the stimulus, task or the learner.
Notes
(a) Reinforcement
Learning requires motivation and reinforcement is an important aspect of motivation.

A reinforcement is anything that strengthens a response and increases the probability
of its occurrence. A reward is an example of reinforcement. Reinforcement is the
key to learning. If it is not applied in the right way at the right time, there will be no
observable learning. Reinforcement is of two types i.e. primary and secondary.
The source of reinforcement is called reinforcers.
A primary reinforcer is an natural or unlearned source of reinforcement. Food is a

primary (positive) reinforcer for a hungry animal.
A secondary reinforcer, on the other hand, is learnt or an acquired source of

reinforcement. The rule for learning a secondary reinforcer is that it should be
paired with a primary reinforer. The effect of reinforcement depends on the way it
is given.
(b) Feedback or Knowledge of Results
It is another motivational variable. If you are provided with knowledge of results

or feedback, the efficiency of your learning is increased. For example, while learning
to type, knowledge of one's performance on each trial will help to know where the
person has made mistakes. The person may try to correct accordingly. It also
helps to eliminate errors and increase the precision in performance. Knowledge of
results, especially when favourable, reinforces learning and maintains interest and
motivation.
(c) Distribution of Practice
The length of the practice session and distribution of rest periods between trials
affect the progress of learning to a great extent. It has been found for a wide
variety of motor skills, that practice is more effective when it includes brief and
judiciously distributed rest pauses. This leads to rapid learning as compared to
continuous practice. However, practice periods should not be too long. The
acquisition of skill in playing badminton may improve more, after three one-hour
long practice sessions with intervals rather than after one continuous three-hour
long session. The practice periods should also not be too small and frequent either.
This would tend to break the task into small and meaningless parts.
104 PSYCHOLOGY
(d) Whole and Part Learning
If you have learnt this entire lesson in totallity it would have been difficult for you to
learn as it is easier to learn it in parts than as a whole. Whole learning is often
considered as an efficient method to learn the task particularly for fast learners and Notes
for short or meaningful material which is easily memorized as a whole. But if the
content is very long it may first be learnt in parts and then as a whole.
(e) Meaningfulness
Try to learn words like CAT, DOG, BAT, DOLL which have meaning and NAD,
BAB, COL, PEM which are nonsense syllables having no meaning. Meaningfulness
of the material to be learnt contributes to your learning efficiency. If the material to
be learnt is meaningful, the rate of learning becomes rapid. The more meaningful
the material; the fewer the trials or practice sessions are required to learn it.
(f) Interest and Attitudes
One of the important determinants of effective learning is the learner’s attitude

towards the material to be learnt. For example, if you are interested in learning to
learn and recognise that it will help you in achievement of your goals, you develop
a favourable attitude towards the lesson on learning and make sincere effort to
learn and remember it. If one feels that nothing worthwhile will result from learning
something, one’s rate or progress of learning will be poor.

(1) List the factors that affect learning.
(a) __________________
(b) __________________
(c) __________________
(d) __________________
(2) Match the following :
(a) Feedback (i) Length of practice sessions
(b) Distribution of practice (ii) Length of learning material
PSYCHOLOGY 105
(c) Whole vs. part learning (iii) Knowledge of results
(d) Meaningfulness of learning material (iv) Better and faster learning.
(3) Write True / False for the statement given below:

Notes
(a) If an individual is interested in the learning material, the learning may take
longer time. True/False
(b) Motivation on the part of an individual brings about better learning.

True/False
(c) Role of reward and punishment in learning is not important.

True/False
(d) Primary reinforcers are learned. True/False
(e) Punishment is a positive reinforcement. True/False
(f) Reward and punishment are used in conditioning. True/False
6.5 PHENOMENA RELATED TO LEARNING

Learning is one of the most widely investigated fields of study. As a result, the
researchers have observed a variety of phenomena which are peculiar to the process
of learning. You have already studied about some of them in connection with
conditioning and factors influencing learning. In this section you are going to know
about three more phenomena of great importance. They include preparedness for
learning, learning disability and transfer of learning.
Preparedness for Learning
You must have noticed that various organisms and animals (e.g., man, rat, cat,
dog) differ in their sensory and motor capabilities. Thus dogs have extra sensitive
nose. Similarly, cats jump and run very fast. A close scrutiny of the variations
found across species indicates that organisms work under certain biological limits
or constraints. Every organism is not equally ready or prepared to learn a given
response. Organisms are differentially endowed with capability to respond. So,
the possibility and ease of learning is determined by the degree of preparedness
on the part of organisms for a given learning task. All organisms are not equally
prepared for all responses or associations. This becomes one of the key determinants
of learning.
106 PSYCHOLOGY
Learning Disability
It is a disorder which leads to difficulties in reading, writing, speaking, and doing

mathematical exercises. These problems are found because of some problem in
the central nervous system. It may be related to sensory impairment or some kind Notes
of mental/physical handicap. They may occur in children with average or superior
intelligence. If not remedied they may continue and interfere with their personal
and social development in subsequent years. The main features of children with
learning disability include difficulty in writing and reading, attentional problems,
poor motor coordination, perceptual disorders, and difficulty in following
instructions. An important problem faced by them is dyslexia in which children fail
to distinguish letters (e.g., P and I, was and saw). Remedial teaching is used in
helping these children.
6.6 TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Transfer of learning is the process of applying or carrying over the knowledge,
skills, habits, attitudes or other responses from one learning situation, in which
they were initially acquired, to a different learning situation. For example, a person
who has learnt to ride a bicycle finds it easy to learn to ride a scooter. It means that
experience or performance on one task influences performance on subsequent
learning tasks. A person’s ability to recognise objects, perceive relationships and
conceptualise the experiences of daily life are facilitated by transfer of learning.
The influence of transfer is found, not only in the domain of intellectual tasks and in
complex motor skills, but also in emotional reactions and attitudes of individuals. If
transfer of learning does not take place, each task would have to be learnt afresh
and it would make life difficult.
Types of Transfer of Learning

Transfer of training affects learning of a new task in three ways:
(a) positive, (b) negative and (c) zero
(a) Positive Transfer

When learning of the task makes the second task easier to learn, positive transfer
effect is seen. What one has learnt in one subject or a task may facilitate learning
in another subject or task. In positive transfer, the carry-over of knowledge or
skill is beneficial to future learning.
For example, after learning to spell the word ‘house’ a child may be able to apply
the appropriate phonetic rule and spell the word ‘mouse’ correctly even without
being taught the word ‘mouse’. Similarly, skill in riding a bicycle facilitates learning
PSYCHOLOGY 107
to ride a motor cycle. Learning the rules of addition and subtraction makes it
easier to count one’s change and check the balance when one makes purchases
from the market. Learning to drive a car, makes it easier to learn to drive a truck
or a bus. In all these cases, the previous learning experience facilitates subsequent
Notes learning.
Positive transfer occurs when the responses expected from two tasks or learning
situations are similar. However, the maximum amount of positive transfer is obtained,
when the stimulus and the response elements in the previous and the new learning
situations are similar. For example, learning of a stimulus-response relationship
like that of 5 × 8 = 40 and 8 × 5 = 40. In this case, there is similarity between the
elements in the stimulus response relationship.
(b) Negative Transfer

There are cases in which the previous learning interferes with subsequent learning.
In such cases, the carry over of knowledge or experience in one task interfere
with further learning. As a result of negative transfer, performance on one task may
block performance on the subsequent task. For example, a child’s experience in
learning the plural of ‘house’ may inhibit his/her learning the plural of a word ‘mouse’.
He/She may spell the plural of the world ‘mouse’ as ‘mouses’, instead of ‘mice’.
Negative transfer usually occurs when the stimuli in the previously learnt task and
the new task are the same or comparable, but the responses are dissimilar.
(c) Zero Transfer

There are instances, where the learning of one task, does not have any effect on
the ability of a person to perform another task. It happens when the tasks are
dissimilar in stimuli as well as responses. In zero transfer, the performance in the
new situation is neither aided nor hindered by the past learning. Learning history
may contribute to the understanding of one’s own culture but it has hardly any
effect on learning mathematics. Similarly, improving one’s skill in playing football
will have no effect on the improvement of one’s skill in writing an essay. Learning
to typewrite, will not affect the learning of painting.

1. What is transfer of learning?
2. Give one example each of Positive transfer, Negative transfer and Zero transfer.
a.
_______________________________________________________
108 PSYCHOLOGY
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b. Notes
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

• Learning can be defined as the process by which any relatively permanent
change in behaviour occurs as a result of practice or experience. It is a continuous
and a gradual process that brings about improvement in performance.
• Learning differs from other concepts such as maturation, reflex actions and
instinctive behaviour. Learning is a result of experience, whereas maturation is
biological in nature.
• Maturation provides the readiness to learn and occurs due to neural and
muscular development, while learning takes place through practice and
experience.Learning and maturation both result in modification of behaviour.
• Certain complex patterns of behaviour, which occur innately, are called instinct.
• Reflex is a direct and immediate response of a muscle or a gland to the
stimulation of a sense organ.
• Conditioning is a form of associative learning. In classical conditioning a neutral

conditioning stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that
evokes an unconditioned response (UR). After repeated pairing of the two
stimuli, the conditioned stimulus will elicit a response similar to the unconditioned
response. This elicited response is called the conditioned response (CR).
PSYCHOLOGY 109
• Generalization, Differentiation, Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery are some

of the concepts related to conditioning.
• In operant conditioning the response is instrumental in getting reward or

Notes escaping punishment.
• Skill learning requires a coordination between environmental and internal bodily

stimuli to produce a muscular response involving movement. It occurs in three
stages viz. cognition, association and automation.
• Verbal learning involves understanding of words such that a child can pronounce
words, combine them to form sentences and convey ideas through words.
• Concept learning develops the abilities in an individual to classify objects in

terms of their characteristics or common properties.
• Social learning involves the learning of new attitudes, social norms and to be
able to live and behave according to the socially acceptable patterns of the
society through modelling.
• Transfer of learning is the process of applying or carrying over the knowledge,

skills, habits, attitudes or other responses from one learning situation, in which
they were initially acquired, to another learning situation.
• In positive transfer, learning in one situation facilitates or brings about

improvement in another learning situation.
• In negative transfer, learning in one situation hinders the learning in another

situation.
• In zero transfer the learning in one situation does not affect the learning in
another situation due to no relationship between the stimuli and responses of
the two situations.
• The factors affecting learning include: reward and punishment, feedback or

knowledge of results, distribution of practice, division of learning task,
meaningfulness, interest and attitude, and motivation.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
Answer the following questions in brief:
(1) Explain how does learning occur.
110 PSYCHOLOGY
(2) Distinguish between the concepts of :

(i) Learning and maturation (ii) Learning, reflex and instinct.
(3) Describe the two major types of conditioning.
Notes
(4) Which factor according to you affects learning most? How?
(5) What is the importance of transfer of learning in daily life?

6.1
1. Fill in the blanks:
relatively, permanent, behaviour, practice, experience
2. True and false
(a) F (b) T (c) T (d) F
6.2
(a) readiness
(b) cannot
(c) practice
(d) maturation, learning
(e) direct, immediate, stimulation
6.3
1. (a)-(b), (b)-(a), (c)-(e), (d)-(c), (e)-(f), (f)-(d)
6.4
1. (a) performance, learning
(b) graph, units of practice, degree of learning
2. (a) T (b) T (c) F
6.5
1. (a) Feedback or knowledge of results
(b) Distribution of practice
(c) Meaningfulness
PSYCHOLOGY 111
(d) Motivation
2. (a)- iii, (b)-i, (c)-ii, (d)-iv
3. (a) F (b)T (c) T (d) F (e) F (f) T
Notes 6.6
1. Transfer of learning is the process by which previously learned skills are carried
over from one learning situation to another.
2. (a) Learning to draw helps in learning to write- Positive transfer
(b) Learning to drive a left hand drive can block the learning to
drive a right hand drive car- Negative transfer
(c) Learning to play football will have no effect on learning to write
an essay- Zero transfer.

112 PSYCHOLOGY
Remembering and Forgetting MODULE-II
Notes
REMEMBERING AND
FORGETTING
Do you remember your first day in the school?
On what day did you go to the market last week?
Can you name your friends?
In our everyday life almost all activities in one or the other way deal with memory.
Loss of memory means loss of one’s self. Learning will make no sense if it is not
retained by the person. It is only through the capacity of memory that we are able
to relate to different events, experiences, conditions, people and objects. Also,
we use the understanding thus developed in different contexts and on different
occasions. Thus, memory makes it possible to operate beyond the constraints of
time and place. A child learns something in class and uses it in the market or at
home or some other place. Memory establishes links across diverse experiences.
It’s a great mental capacity — almost magical. It is needed in developing social
relationships, mastering cognitive competencies (mental capacities) and solving
various problems. There are also occasions when our memory fails and we forget
a name, a formula or fail to recognize a person. The study of memory is one of the
oldest fields of research in psychology. Psychologists have been studying various
aspects of memory. In this lesson we will study how our memory works, the
factors which increase or decrease our memory capacity, and what can be done
to improve memory.
PSYCHOLOGY 113
MODULE -II Remembering and Forgetting
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to :
Notes • describe the nature of human memory system;
• differentiate between short-term memory, long-term memory and the various
ways retention is measured;
• explain the causes of forgetting;
• describe important aspects of everyday memory;
• explain the constructive nature of memory; and
• describe the ways of enhancing memory.
7.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEMORY

Memory is a remarkable mental process and a mental system which receives
information from (external or internal) stimuli, retains it and makes it available on a
future occasion. It provides continuity to our experiences across different time
points. A moment’s reflection will tell you how difficult it will be if you do not have
intact memory function. You would perhaps loose your identity or the sense of
what you are and will always remain a new learner because the past learning
experience will have no value or significance to you.
Memory appears like a tape recorder which records a song or music and plays
whenever we demand. Our memory system does perform this but it is more dynamic
and versatile than a tape recorder. When some one asks us to sing a particular
song and we sing, then we are working like tape recorders. But human memory
differs from a tape recorder in many important ways. For instance, we remember
not only verbal material but visual experiences, tactile impressions, feelings of pain
and joy, motor skills, events, activities and so on. Second, retrieval of information
can be exactly in the same way or in a different form. Third, the reception of new
information depends a lot on what information we already have. Fourth, we neither
receive nor retain all the information presented to us because there is great deal of
selectivity in receiving the information. Fifth, all tape recorders have some limitation
on recording but human memory can retain extremely large amounts of information.
Finally, our memory system is an active system. It works on the information received.
It may integrate, add, modify, omit or reorganize the information. It is not passive
like a tape recorder which reproduces the information in its original form.
7.2 KEY ASPECTS OF MEMORY

Based on the features of the human memory system just described, we may say
that memory is a perceptually active mental system. It receives, encodes, modifies,
retains and retrieves information. Let us understand these terms more clearly.
114 PSYCHOLOGY
Encoding refers to the translation of incoming stimulus into a unique neural code
that a person’s brain can process.
Storage is the retention of the material encoded over a period of time.

Notes
Retrievel is the recovery of the stored or retained information at a later occasion.
These components of memory can be seen in Figure 7.1.
Sensory Sensory Selective Short-Term Encoding Long-Term

input registrar attention Memory Retrieval Memory
Fig. 7. 1 : A General Model of Human Memory System
We gather information through our senses. Each sensory modality has its own
sensory registor (or sensory memory). It holds information for a very short duration,
then it passes the information for further processing to long term memory. Let us
try to understand the three major systems of memory.
Sensory Memory: Hold a picture in front of you and look at it steadily for a
while. Now close your eyes and notice for how long does a clear image of that
picture last. A clear visual image of any object will last in our sensory memory for
about ½ a second. Sensory memory occurs within the sensory system while it is
being transmitted to the brain.
What we are able to memorize depends to a large extent on what happens to the
information once it reaches the sensory memory. We are continually bombarded
by sensory stimulations of various kinds. As we cannot respond to all of them, it
is important that we must selectively focus on those things which are significant.
This kind of selectivity is possible on the basis of attention. The process of attention
limits the input of information which we receive from the environemnt. Thus through
selective attention information enters short-term memory (STM). STM holds
information for a few seconds and transmits it to the long-term memory (LTM)
which has a very large capacity to retain information.

1. Memory is thought to be made up of ______________ stages.
a. One
PSYCHOLOGY 115
b. Two
c. Three
d. Four
Notes
2. Approximately how long does it usually take for visual information in the sensory
register to fade?
a. about a second
b. from several seconds to a minute
c. several minutes
d. generally an hour or more
3. In the memory model, in order for information that has just been sensed to
enter short-term memory, it must first be
a. attended to
b. stored
c. extensively processed
d. retrieved
7.3 SHORT-TERM MEMORY AND LONG-TERM

MEMORY
We have read that human memory comprises of three interrelated subsystems,
namely - sensory register, short- term memory (STM) and long-term memory
(LTM). The sensory register as the name implies makes the environmental input or
information available for a very short period consisting of milliseconds. The retention
which forms the basis for the use of information in future is largely related to the
systems of STM and LTM. Now let’s find out what is STM and LTM?
The nature and functioning of STM and LTM are different. The distinction may be
made in terms of capacity, duration, type of information retained, and the causes
of forgetting. These differences are give in Table-1.
116 PSYCHOLOGY
Short-term Memory
While you are studying, look up for a moment and see around you?
What are the thoughts that are occuring to you at this moment? Notes
Do you know what you have just done? You have identified the contents of your
Short-term Memory (STM). STM can also be called “working memory”. For
example, you look for a telephone number from the diary and after your finish
talking, keep the diary back in your pocket. Looking for and using the telephone
number is an example of short-term memory. You forget it again after dialling.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Can you remember the name of your childhood friend?
Have your ever thought about how you can remember things/events that happened
to you a long time ago. It is possible because of LTM. The sensory memory and
STM are not limited in terms of duration. Information in LTM can last as long as
we live. It is a relatively enduring memory in which information is stored for use at
a later time.
Table –1: Comparison of Short-term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Features Short-term Memory Long-term Memory

Capacity Limited up to 7 items or chunks Unlimited
Duration Usually up to 30 seconds but May range from days

varies under different situations to a life time
Type of Visual images, sounds, words, Meaningful verbal

information sentences material, life events.
Causes of Displacement of old information Interference, organization
forgetting by new one, inadequate of material
It is clear from Table –1 that while STM has limited capacity and exists for short
durations, LTM has no known limits. People show large scale variation in
memorizing stories and poems. The Vedas have been passed on from one generation
to the other in an oral tradition. There are scholars who still retain and recite
Vedas, Ramayan and Mahabharat.
PSYCHOLOGY 117
We also find that STM has pieces of information which are simple and relatively
less organized. In contrast, LTM consists of a broad range of information and
experiences. They are often meaningfully organized and refer to a wide spectrum
of information ranging from personal life events to abstract theoretical knowledge.
Notes
Finally, the causes of forgetting in these two memory systems are also different. In
STM forgetting takes place because of the entry of new information in the system
which displaces the old information. This leads to forgetting of the old information.
In LTM various kinds of events, experiences and stimuli are retained. Forgetting is
caused by numerous factors including interference from one information to the
other, lack of organization in the material retained and/or unavailability of appropriate
cues at the time of retrieval.
Eyewitness Memory
Human memory as an active process creates a major challenge when we collect

eye witness accounts of accidents or other events. People often interpret what
they see in terms of what they expect and their memories reflect that. It has been
found that we always actively process our memories and try to fit them in the
schemata and beliefs that we hold about the situation. It is only when we look at
the overall meaning and context of a memory that we can really judge about the
accuracy of accounts. The details do not constitute the most significant aspect of
memory in most of the cases of that kind.
Autobiographical Memory
This kind of memory refers to people’s memory for their own personal experiences.
The studies indicate that autobiographical memory is organized at three different
levels. The highest level consists of lifetime period. These are the periods of time
in which some aspect of personal life remained reasonably consistent (e.g. living
with someone, working for a particular organization). The second level is of general
events. These are major occurrences covering several days or months (e.g.
conference, visit or trip). The third level is that of event–specific knowledge. It
involves details about a particular event or happening in one’s life. We organize
our personal memories across various phases and periods as we go through our
lives.
Measurement of Retention
The measurement of memory is undertaken with the help of two types of measures
i.e. explicit and implicit. The explicit measures require that a person must remember
some given information that is stored in memory. The person makes deliberate
efforts to recall the details of the previously experienced events or material. Thus
118 PSYCHOLOGY
a direct measure of memory is used. The implicit measure of memory is one in

which a person has to perform some task in which no deliberate or intentional
effort is made to retrieve from memory. Let us learn about some of these measures
in some detail.
Notes
Explicit Measures
Recall: In recall a person first learns a list of words. Then he or she is required to
recollect the material learned. The number of items correctly recalled becomes the
measure of explicit memory. The accuracy of reproduction of the story may provide
a measure of explicit memory.
Recognition: In recognition the learner is presented with the previously learnt
items or words mixed with new items and his or her job is to identify the previously
learned items. Usually recognition is found to be a more sensitive measure than
recall.
Implicit Measures
Word Completion: In this task the learner is presented with fragments of words.
The learner is then required to complete the fragmented word. Thus f – sh is a
fragmented word.
Priming Task: In this task earlier background activities (e.g., reading a story)
may help to complete fragments of word in a particular manner. The background
task does priming.
In both of the above mentioned tasks the learner is not explictly asked to remember.
7.4 CAUSES OF FORGETTING

Memory is a very complex psychological process and any kind of mechanical
analogy in terms of storage, processing and retrieval (e.g., tape recorder, computer)
falls short. In this process information is retained not only as it is but it may be
subjected to change and modification. We often fail to remember due to brain
damage, resulting in loss of memory functions, called amnesia. But people do
forget in the normal course of life. In fact remembering and forgetting are both
natural processes subject to a number of factors that operate in everybody’s life.
Understanding the factors of foregetting is helpful to clarify the nature of memory
and making it more effective. Let us examine some of the important factors which
have been found critical to retention.
(i) Decay of Memory Traces: It is a common experience that memories of
many events and experiences become “dim” over time, like the colours of a
PSYCHOLOGY 119
photograph bleached by the sun. This notion was proposed by many early
psychologists as a general cause of forgetting. However, people remember
many events of early childhood during old age without any kind of distortion.
Therefore, decay cannot be considered as a general cause of forgetting.
Notes However, it has been found that decay is an important factor in sensory memory
and in STM when there is lack of rehearsal.
(ii) Interference: Whatever we learn, we learn in some context. Thus every
experience of learning is preceded and followed by some other experiences.
These experiences are often interrelated and influence each other. When such
influences are adverse we call them interference. When earlier learning
negatively influences present learning, it is called proactive interference and
when present experience influences previous learning then it is termed as
retroactive interference. It has been noted that more the similarity between
two sets of materials to be learned, the greater will be the degree of interference
between them.
(iii) Motivation: According to Freud, forgetting takes place because the event is
unpleasant. We forget because we do not want to remember something. We
may exclude memories or push them out of consciousness if we do not like
them. Freud called this process repression. It’s a common experience that we
usually remember pleasant events more often than unpleasant ones. Also, we
find a strong tendency to remember incomplete tasks more than completed
tasks. This has been termed as Zeigarnik effect. The role of mood in human
memory suggests that affective aspects of our lives do shape our memory in
significant ways.
(iv) Retrieval Failure: It has been found that a lot of forgetting, particularly in
long-term memory, is due to absence or non-availability of retrieval cues at
the time of recall. The changes in context associated with physical and mental
states from the occasion of learning (encoding) to recall (retrieval) often result
in poor retention scores. We often “blank out” during examinations.
Memory as a Constructive Process
The meaning of forgetting in terms of failure to retrieve gives the idea that memory
storage is static. This, however, is not the case. Memory and remembering in
particular has been shown to be a constructive process. In summary the reproduction
are found to be constructive in nature. The constructive nature of memory is evident
when we recall some event. If you compare recollections of the story of a movie
which you and your friends have seen, you will notice how differently people have
constructed the same story. In fact rumours often show our tendency to highlight
certain details and assimilating some. It seems that recall is always a combination
of retrieval and reconstruction. The three main tendencies are sharpening, leveling
and assimilation.
120 PSYCHOLOGY
7.5 WAYS OF ENHANCING MEMORY

It is a common experience that forgetting is usually a source of trouble for people.
Everyday conversation, class room participation, performance in examination,
interview, presentation and communication in meetings often put demands on us to Notes
remember information. Failure in doing so has negative consequences which all of
us experience to different degrees in our lives. As a result most of us are interested
in improving our memory. The study of memory aids and related techniques is
called mnemonics. Some of the techniques used in improving memory are listed
below:
1. Organization: While preparing for learning a learner needs to organize the
material in some form. Such an organization may help by creating a natural
context and provide relevant cues while retrieving the learned material. If the
material lacks natural organization, an artifical organization may be created by
the learner.
2. Concentration: One of the main reasons of forgetting is inadequate allocation
of attentional resources to the material while processing the same. As a result
the material is not stored and we fail to recall when we need it. Thus by
focusing attention on the material while processing we can increase the
probability of storage and recall.
3. Method of loci: As the name implies, this technique uses associations with
place or task. The visualization of the same provides cues for recalling the
task. By choosing any action properly one can use memory at any point in the
day. Use of such mnemonic codes allows one to have vivid and distinctive
associations between new information and prior knowledge. Being related to
context the cues become very effective. For instance one may have a clear
visual image of a building, its rooms, furniture and other details. These may be
linked to different ideas and using these linkages, memory of those ideas can
be enhanced.
4. Recoding: While dealing with non-meaningful material one may recode the
items to be remembered in a more meaningful manner. Recoding may take
many forms. For example people may use the first letter of all the items and
make a sentence. This kind of narrative structure works as a cue. Acronyms
(e.g., U.N.O., TV, CBI, WHO) are also used for the purpose in which all the
first letters are used. Using elaboration one may add more information which
makes the material distinctive. Chunking is a good example of recoding. If a
large serial of numbers is presented it becomes difficult to remember. The
same, however, may be divided in two or three chunks in some meaningful
way using ingenuity. Using elaborative coding one may put many items in a
story form and recall the same easily.
PSYCHOLOGY 121

Notes
1. Under ordinary conditions, short-term memory seems to be able to hold
______________items at a time.
a. about 2
b. about 7
c. about 17
d. about 100
2. Which of the following items is most likely to act as a single “chunk” of
information in STM?
a. 843348
b. CKNUH
c. I like you
d. Mohan, river, bag
3. Radha and Nishi are studying together for a test. Radha’s strategy is to read
her book over and over. Nishi tries to link what she reads to other concepts
she knows. What will be the likely result?
a. Radha will remember more
b. What Radha learns will stay with her for a longer period of
time.
c. Nishi will become confused
d. Nishi will remember better
4. When you are reading a textbook, which technique will facilitate recall of
contents of a lesson.
a. asking yourself questions about the materials you read
b. having other people ask you questions
c. using your powers of concentration to focus on each word

individually before moving on to the next.
122 PSYCHOLOGY
d. Remaining relaxed and trying not to get too involved with the
material.
Notes
• Human memory is a dynamic system. It helps us to retain information and
make the same available for future use.
• We receive information through various sense modalities. The information is

registered in the sensory memory and through selective attention it goes to
short-term memory (STM). Then it is encoded and enters long-term memory
(LTM). Sensory memory lasts for one second.
• The STM has limited capacity and lasts only for a few seconds or minutes.
• LTM has unlimited capacity and persists for hours and months or even the
entire life time. Forgetting is caused by a number of factors such as interference,
motivation, retrieval failure and reconstruction.
• Capacity for retention can be enhanced through organization of material,

concentration, using method of loci and recoding.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the main types of human memory system.
2. What are the main properties of short-term memory?
3. Enumerate the factors which cause forgetting.
4. Try some nmemonic devices and write your experience.

7.1
1. c
2. b
3. a
4. a
PSYCHOLOGY 123
7.2
1. b
2. c
Notes 3. d
4. a

1. Consult section 7.3
124 PSYCHOLOGY
Going Beyond the Reality: Thinking and Reasoning MODULE-II
Notes
GOING BEYOND THE REALITY:

THINKING AND REASONING
Suppose, you are going to the airport to pick up your friend. Before you leave
home, you will decide what route you will be following. You may not follow the
shortest route because it will be a rush hour and you may have to face traffic jams
at several places. Thus, before you start for the airport you will consider various
options available to you. You would like to avoid roads that are under construction,
roads that are too busy at that time and so on. Your decision to follow a particular
route will depend upon the consideration of such problems that you are likely to
encounter. Thus, even a simple problem like this one requires use of thinking and
reasoning. The solution to the problem emerges after processing information that
is available to you from the environment and past experiences. In this lesson you
are going to learn about important aspects of thinking and reasoning.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the nature of thinking;
• explain different components of a thought process;
• describe the stages of problem solving;
• explain the types of reasoning; and
• describe the relationship between language and thought.
PSYCHOLOGY 125
MODULE -II Going Beyond the Reality: Thinking and Reasoning
8.1 NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF THINKING

Thinking is a mental activity, usually initiated by a problem. It follows a sequence
of internal (mental) steps that involve a variety of activities such as judgment,
Notes abstraction, inference, reasoning, imagining, and remembering etc. Thinking is a
cognitive process in which we use symbols as representations of objects and
events. It is a constructive process as we construct something new. Thinking relies
on a variety of mental structures such as I) concepts, ii) schemas, and iii) mental
imagery. Let us consider these mental structures.
Components of Thought Process

(i) Concepts
We have the capacity to abstract the essential characteristics of objects, events,

human beings, or whatever we perceive and experience. For example, whenever
we see an apple we categorize as “fruit”; when we see a cat we categorize it as an
“animal”, and so on. Whenever we encounter a new object we tend to categorize
it and take the same action toward it as before. For example, when we see a dog
in the street we categorize it as an “animal” and like any other animal we take the
same behavioural action towards it (e.g., avoid it). Similarly, when we encounter a
new social situation, we try to categorize it on the basis of past experience and
take appropriate action. This is considered as one of the basic aspects of thinking.
Concepts are mental structures. The categories we form are called concepts.
They are the building blocks of thinking. They allow us to organize knowledge in
systematic ways. Most words (except proper nouns) represent concepts as they
refer not to a single object or event but to a whole class. For example, the word
“house” refers to a class of buildings with common features. It has rooms, kitchen,
toilet, store, etc., and is used for living by people and families and has certain
facilities. The word “building” is more general than house. The word building is a
larger concept that includes houses, offices, markets, etc. Concepts represent
objects, activities, ideas, living organisms. They also represent properties (e.g.,
green, or large), abstractions (e.g., honest, love) and relations (e.g., bigger than).
Learning of concepts utilizes the psychological processes of generalization and

discrimination. For example, when a child learns the concept dog, he/she may
generalize the term initially to include all small animals (e.g., cat). But from parental
corrections and process of learning, the child learns to make finer discrimination
until the concept is correctly formed. At this moment it was only the family dog.
However, the child may generalize the concept to include other dogs of different
breeds and sizes. The child may further refine the concept and distinguish between
pet dog and street dog, friendly dog or aggressive dog, etc.
126 PSYCHOLOGY
Concepts may be concrete (e.g., a dog, table, tree, etc.) or abstract (e.g., honesty,
democracy, justice, etc.). The child acquires the concrete concepts much earlier in
life and later on abstract concepts. Studies by Piaget indicate that the child first
learns object concepts (e.g., ball) and develops more abstract concepts only as
he grows older. Notes
Activity 8.1
Concept Formation
Take 20 white cards of 8 × 12 cms in size. Choose three shapes (say,
triangle, square, and circle) and three colours (say red, green, and blue).
On each card draw different shapes below (say triangle and square) and
above these two shapes in the middle, draw another shape (either triangle
or square) as shown in Figure 8.1.
Green
Red Green
Figure 8.1: A sample stimulus card
The two shapes below are to be different in shape as well as colour and one
above should have the shape of one and colour of the other. Take care that
the size of the shapes are cut from the same size square. In this manner
prepare 29 such cards, all having different combinations of shapes and
colours.
Randomly place the cards in a pack. Keep the pack of cards on the table
and pick one card at a time, place it before the participant (child) and ask to
match the upper shape with one of the two given below. Do not indicate
anything about shape or colour. Present the card to the participant one by
one and encourage the child to respond as quickly as possible.
Record the responses of the respondent in terms of the response, i.e., colour
(C) or shape (S). If the participant matches red triangle with green triangle,
then the participant is matching on the basis of shape, so put a tally under
shape (S). On the other hand, if the participant matches the green triangle
with green square, then the matching is on the basis of colour, so place a
tally under colour (C).
In this manner, present all the 20 cards one by one and record the responses.
Count the total tallies under colour (concept) and shape (concept). The
analysis of your observations will indicate the processes of concept
development in the child.
PSYCHOLOGY 127
In the activity you will observe how children classify ‘colour’ and ‘shape’ in terms
of concepts. This will reflect their level of concept formation. Research indicates
that children first develop the concept of colour followed by shape. Classifying
objects, events or ideas into common classes minimizes the time and effort required
Notes in processing information. It is very helpful in thinking process.
We not only learn to classify objects and events in terms of their features or
properties (e.g., colour, shape, size, etc.) but also abstract the conceptual rules
associated with the property. For example, we not only learn to classify the colour
of traffic light (red, green, amber) but also the conceptual rules by which these
colours are related. That is, if the light is red, “stop”; if amber then “get ready to
stop or move”; if green, “then go”. It is amazing that we learn so many conceptual
rules, store them, retrieve on demand, and use them in our day to day interactions
in our environment.
(ii) Schemas
Schemas are more complex than concepts. Each schema contains many distinct
concepts. For example, each of us possesses a self-schema, a mental framework
holding lot of information about ourselves (as we perceive ourselves to be). This
self-schema will include many different concepts about ourselves. For example,
you may consider yourself as intelligent, attractive, healthy, hard working, and
pleasant. All these separate concepts make up a self-schema. Such schemas are
important building blocks for thinking.
(iii) Mental Imagery

Thinking also involves the manipulation of visual, auditory or other images. Here
we may focus on visual images. It has been found that mental manipulations
preformed on images of objects are quite similar to those that may be performed
on the actual objects. Once we form a mental image of any object, person or
situation, we perceive it and think about it just as we would if it actually existed.
Sometimes we could refer to it as we see things in our “mind’s eye.” For example,
if you have to remove a large table out of the room having a narrow door, you will
mentally rotate (mental image) the table and think a way out to solve the problem.
It has been found that we usually think in words (words represent the concepts,
e.g., table). At other times we rely on mental images, such as visual image of the
table. In the above stated problem one could physically try to manipulate the table
to find a way out. But a more mature person will try to find solution through mental
rotation (thinking). In the introductory part of this chapter you read about the
planning of a route to go to the airport. The individual could think in words or plan
the route through mental imagery. That is, create a mental picture of the route to
the airport and decide.
128 PSYCHOLOGY

Notes
(a) Thinking is a ___________ process in which we use symbols.
(b) We ______________ objects encountered in our life.
(c) Children learn __________ concepts earlier than __________ concepts.
(d) Learning of concepts involves __________ and ______________.
(e) Classifying objects into common classes makes _______ ________ easier.
8.2 PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving is an important cognitive activity. It is so central to the process of
thinking that many people use it interchangeably with thinking. A moment’s reflection
will make it clear that all our day’s activities involve problem solving. The problem
may be simple or complex. The simple problems are of routine nature as deciding
what to eat in the breakfast. There could be a complex problem as deciding which
career to choose. Problem solving refers to thinking directed towards solving a
specific task/situation. This type of thinking has three stages starting from the stage
of occurrence of a problem followed by a set of mental operations, leading to the
solution of the problem.
Stages and Strategies of Problem solving
A problem signifies a situation that requires a solution. It has three stages or steps
as stated below:
1. Initial State : A problem
2. Operation : Actions
3. Goal State : Solution
Let us explain these three stages with a concrete problem. Suppose you get an
unexpected bill to pay. Receiving the bill represents the initial state, the problem.
Your goal is to find money to pay this unexpected bill without disturbing the original
family budget. This leads to deployment of certain operations for solving the
problem. Some problem solving operations or steps are more desirable than others.
PSYCHOLOGY 129
For example, withdrawing money through credit card happens to be a more

acceptable solution than borrowing from a friend. By choosing the most acceptable
operations or steps, you move from the initial problem state to the goal state,
when the problem is solved. Problems may differ with respect to the levels of
Notes complexity but steps involved remain the same. For more complex problems the
second stage requires more time in order to carry out a number of mental operations.
8.3 MENTAL SET IN PROBLEM SOLVING

A Mental Set is a tendency on the part of an individual to respond to new problem
in the same manner that he or she used earlier to solve a problem. Previous success
with a particular rule provides a kind of mental rigidity which hinders creativity.
Sometimes a mental set can enhance the quality and speed of perceiving and
problem solving, but under certain conditions it can also restrict or inhibit the
quality of our mental activity or thinking. However, in solving our day to day and
other complex problems we often rely on past learning and experience with similar
or related problems. You will appreciate the phenomenon of mental set better if
you do Activity 8.2, called Luchins water jar problems.
Activity 8.2
Mental Set and Problem solving
Present to one of your friends the following set of problem to solve. Give
the following instructions:
There are 7 problems in the table given below. There are 3 empty jars (A,
B and C) available and enough water in a container. With the help of the
given jars you are required to produce the required quantity of water. How
to arrive at the solution is explained with the help of problem NO. 1. given
in Table 8.1.
You have three empty jars that can hold 21 ml (A), 127 ml (B) and 3 ml
(C). With the help of these three jars you are required to produce 100 ml of
water. So, fill jar B with water and pour out enough water from jar B to fill
jar A. After pouring water from jar B to A, you are left with 106 ml in jar B.
Now, pour out enough water from jar B to fill jar C twice, you will be left
with 100 ml of water in jar B. Now, go ahead and solve the remaining 6
problems.
130 PSYCHOLOGY
Table 8.1: The Water Jar Problem
Problem No. Volumes of empty jars (ml) Required quantity
A B C
Notes
1. 21 127 3 100
2. 14 163 25 99
3. 18 43 10 5
4. 9 42 6 21
5. 20 59 4 31
6. 14 36 8 6
7. 28 76 3 25
The participants will be able to obtain the solution by following the same
steps (B – A – 2C). However the 6th problem is critical, in that the solution
can be worked out by the method used earlier and also by using a straight
and simple method of pouring water from jar A to jar C (i.e., A – C).
However, because of the mental set (formed through the solution of earlier
5 problems) the individual becomes mentally blind to the simpler and different
solution. The 7th problem is the second critical problem. In this problem the
person is not able to arrive at the solution by using the earlier method (B –
A – 2C). It is interesting to observe the time taken by the person in solving
the problems from number 2 to 7. The participant will take maximum time
in solving problem 7, because he cannot solve the problem with the help of
the earlier set.

Mark the following statements True or False:
(a) Problem solving takes places through stages. True/False
(b) Mental set may hinder problem solving. True/False
(c) Schema consists of one concept. True/False
(d) Images make mental manipulation difficult. True/False
8.4 REASONING AND DECISION MAKING

Reasoning
Reasoning is a mental process. Reasoning is involved in logical thinking, problem
solving, and decision making. In reasoning, information from the environment and
PSYCHOLOGY 131
the stored information in the brain are used to arrive at some conclusion or goal.
The individual follows certain rules in reasoning and decision making. We can
classify reasoning into two main types Deductive reasoning, and Inductive
reasoning. Let us consider these two types briefly.
Notes
(a) Deductive Reasoning: In deductive reasoning the person tries to deduce or
draw conclusions from a set of initial assertions or premises. An example of
deductive reasoning, known as syllogism, which contains two premises and
a conclusion is drawn:
All A are B (premise)
All B are C (premise)
Therefore: All A are C
It is an example of a valid syllogism.
Let us consider an example of invalid syllogism
All A’s are B (premise)
Some B’s are C (premise)
Therefore: Some A are C
This is an example of invalid conclusion.
In deductive reasoning, we typically go from general to the particular. We apply

the same general rule as all human being are mortal. Ramesh is human. Ramesh is
mortal.
(b) Inductive Reasoning: In comparison to deduction reasoning, the process in

inductive reasoning is reversed. In this case we go from available evidence to
generate a conclusion about the likelihood of something. In inductive reasoning,
we consider a number of different instances and try to determine (induce)
what general rules cover all instances. Let us explain inductive reasoning with
the help of an example.
Suppose you are not able to locate your scooter keys. You try to look at place
where you generally keep your keys, you don’t find them there. You use inductive
reasoning to search your memory – “I took out the scooter keys and with another
key I opened the entrance door and entered the house. Immediately, on entering I
found the telephone bell was ringing. I proceeded to receive the call. I had to note
down a message. I took out the pen from my pocket and noted down the telephone
number on the telephone diary. I must have kept the keys near the telephone. “you
proceed there to search the keys and find them there”.
132 PSYCHOLOGY
Most cases of scientific research involves inductive reasoning. Scientists and lay
persons consider a number of instances and try to determine what general rule
covers them all. For example a boy of 15 years age is moody, aggressive, impatient,
hyperactive – he is a teenager. The general statement that “he is teenager” attempts
to cover his behaviour in a more general statement. Notes
Decision Making
In everyday life we often make personal, economic, social and political decisions,
which could have far reaching consequences. When you decide to take up physics
as a subject for specialization in your studies you are making a decision which
could have far reaching consequences in your life. We often make decisions which
are of routine nature, like what to eat in the breakfast or which movie to go. While
making decisions we consider certain variables that are important in taking a
decision. For example, someone closely related to you has been hospitalized and
the doctor, after examining the patient, recommends surgery to save the life of the
patient. Before you take a decision to go ahead with what the doctor has
recommended, you will consider a number of alternatives. These alternatives could
be : to have a second opinion, to consider alternative method of treatment, whether
the patient can withstand surgery, doctor who will conduct the surgery, hospital
where surgery is to be done, finances involved and so on. After considering the
relevant points you will take a decision.
8.5 JUDGEMENT AND DECISION MAKING

Judgement and decision making are interrelated processes. Judgement involves
evaluation of information about the world (objects, events, persons etc.) while
decision requires choices. Let us make the distinction clear with the help of an
example. The judge hears the arguments and examines the evidences provided by
the lawyers and on hearing the arguments gives his judgement in the case. On the
other hand, decision making is a kind of problem solving in which quite a few
alternatives are available and one has to make a choice. For example, you have to
go to airport and there are three routes available to you. You will consider the
different good and bad points about each of the three routes and make a decision.

Mark the statements True or False:
(a) Reasoning helps to go beyond the available information. True/False
(b) Induction moves from general to specific. True/False
(c) Deduction moves from specific to general. True/False
PSYCHOLOGY 133
8.6 LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT

Imagine what would have happened if we did not have language to express what
ever we wanted to express. Without language it would not have been possible to
Notes express our feelings and communicate with others. The process of acquiring
language is very interesting. The child by the age of six months first starts saying
“ma..ma..ma” (babbling) and it is an enjoyable sound both for the child as well as
the parents and others. Slowly, the child learns to say mama and papa and gradually
other mono-syllables start appearing and later could starts comparing two or more
words to communicate his/her needs etc.
Initially the child learns to communicate in the language being used at home, called
mother tongue. Later, the child learns a formal language (say English) at school.
The child may then learn two languages. The progress from ultering “ma…ma…ma”
to the attainment of mastery over language is a fascinating journey. Some people
become creative writers, poets and novelists. What sets us apart from non-human-
beings is the use of language.
Use of Language
Children progress rapidly from two-word utterances to more complex sentences.

By the time they are three, many children are constructing complex sentences like
“I want this doll because she is big”. Thus, in the course of development infants
start from cry, coo, and babble and gradually become linguistically socialized so
that they become effective participants in conversation with others and are able to
communicate well.
Language is a vehicle of thought and a tool for all kinds of social interaction.
Language conveys intentions, feelings, motives, attitudes and beliefs, etc.
Language and Communication
We communicate information by using a system of symbols. Language is one such

symbol system. It has two basic characteristics: the presence of symbols and
communication. Symbols represent or stand for something else. For example,
home, school, office, temple, etc. these are all buildings. However, these buildings
represent something that has a meaning more than what the ‘building’ carries.
Home is a place where a family lives and school is a building where education is
imparted to the children. When these words (e.g., school, home) are associated
with certain functions, they acquire meaning and we recognize those words and
use them for communicating with others. So, when you say to another person that
you are going to the temple, you are communicating that you are going to a place
(building) for worship.
Language also helps us in describing abstract ideas or thoughts (e.g., beauty,
134 PSYCHOLOGY
democracy) in addition to the concrete objects of everyday use and experience.

Through language we are able to express our abstract thoughts.
We also communicate with others through the use of our body parts, called gestures
and postures. Such type of communication is called non-verbal communication. It Notes
may be noted that a sign language is also a form of human language.
Language and Thinking
Often people have wondered whether language is essential for thinking. Is thinking
possible without language? Most of our thinking does involve words. It is well
established that language and thought are related. Watson called thinking as “inner
speech”. If language is essential for thinking then an obvious question that arises is
what happens to those in whom there is no language or the people whose language
is not well developed (say young children). It has been argued that such people
can use sign language and understand each other’s thoughts. For example, deaf
people can think and communicate in sign language. One can say that language is
an essential tool of thinking, but it can not be said that thinking is not possible
without language.
Language is helpful in thinking and at the same time language works as a vehicle of
thought. That is, whatever we think it is communicated through language.
WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• Thinking is a mental or cognitive process that often starts with a problem
situation.
• Thinking involves many types of mental structures such as concepts, schemas,
and mental imaging.
• Concepts are class names based on categorization. Formation of concepts
involves generalization and discrimination. Concepts can be concrete and
abstract.
• Schema refers to a mental structure consisting of several concepts and imagery.
• Problem solving is an important aspect of thinking. It starts with a problem,
moves with certain mental operation and finally reaches to a solution that
terminates the problem.
• The mental set developed by a person may create rigidity and become an
obstacle in problem solving.
PSYCHOLOGY 135
• Reasoning is a mental process for drawing inferences. There are two main
types of reasoning i.e., deductive and inductive. Deductive reasoning moves
from general premises to specific conclusions. In contrast, inductive reasoning
consists of drawing general conclusions from specific information.
Notes • Decision making is a common cognitive process relevant to every day life in
which we take into account a variety of factors and make planning of a course
of action. Judgement requires evaluation of information available.
• Language is a vehicle of thought. Language helps to communicate with the
help of symbols. Language is of particular help in communicating abstract
ideas and thoughts.
• While we do think through language, language is not essential for thinking.
Deaf people do think, although they may not have language.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Define a concept and describe how concepts are formed.
2. What are the main components of thought process?
3. Describe the steps in problem solving and use an example to illustrate the
same.
4. What is the importance of language for thinking.

8.1 (a) cognitive(b) categorize (c) concrete, abstract
(d) discrimination, generalization (e) information processing.
8.2 (a) T (b) T (c) F (d) F
8.3 (a) T (b) F (c) F

136 PSYCHOLOGY
Motivation MODULE-II
Notes
MOTIVATION
When you come from school, you feel hungry and want to eat something. You
want to eat because there is a force which compels you to have food. Likewise if
a question is asked why do you want to join a college? The answer can be given
in various ways like you want to learn or you need a degree to get a good job. You
may want to join college to have lot of friends. This basic question of the ‘why of
behaviour’ or factors which compel us to do certain activities makes us study the
psychological process called motivation. In this lesson you will study about the
nature of motivation, types of motives, intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation,
conflict, and frustration. Understanding motivation helps us to have insights into
the dynamics of action.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the meaning of motivation;
• describe the types of motives;
• differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation;
• describe self efficacy, life goals and values as motivators; and
• describe conflict and frustration.
PSYCHOLOGY 137
MODULE -II Motivation
9.1 MEANING OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is one of the most frequently used words in psychology. It refers to the
factors which move or activate the organism. We infer the presence of motivation
Notes when we see that people work toward certain goals. For example, we might
observe that a student works hard at almost every task that comes to him/her;
from this we infer that the person has motive to achieve.
All human behaviour appears to arise in response to some form of internal

(physiological) or external (environmental) stimulation. The behaviours, however,
are not random. They often involve some purpose or goal. It is often held that
behaviours take place as a result of the arousal of certain motives. Thus motivation
can be defined as the process of activating, maintaining and directing behaviour
towards a particular goal. The process is usually terminated once the desired goal
is attained by the person.
The process of initiating action is technically called ‘motivation’. Directing behaviour

towards certain goal is the essence of motivation. Motivation is not always directly
observable. It is inferred and used to explain behaviour. When we ask “What
motivates a person to do a particular task?” We usually mean why does she behave
as she does. In other words, motivation, as popularly used, refers to the cause or
why of behaviour.
Interestingly, we are not aware of all our motives. Behaviour can be governed by
unconscious motives too. If our understanding of motives is correct, we have a
powerful tool for explaining behaviour. We explain our everyday behaviour in
terms of various motives.
Motives also help us make predictions about behaviour. We may tell what a person
will do in future. Motives may not tell exactly what will happen but they give us an
idea about the range of activities a person will do. Thus a person with a need to
achieve in academics will work hard in school, an individual with a strong need to
excel in sports will put in a lot of hard work in that field; similarly in business and in
many other situations.

(1) Fill in the blanks with correct alternative:
a) The process of initiating ________________ in the organism is called
motivation.
b) All intentional behaviours involve ______________.
138 PSYCHOLOGY
c) Motivation is ______________ observable.

d) Motives help in predicting _____________.
(2) Define motivation.
Notes
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
9.2 KEY CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION

There are certain terms which you will commonly come across when you learn this
lesson on motivation such as needs, goals, incentives etc. Let us understand some
of these concepts.
(a) Needs and Motives
A need is a condition of lack or deficit of something required by the organism.In

order to maintain homeostasis or balance the organism finds it necessary to satisfy
the needs.
The needs are of different types. The need for food or water is a physiological
need, which arises out of lack or deficit of food or water in the organism. The
needs for excretion and urination are also physiological needs. They are due to
the organism’s necessity to eliminate waste matter from the body. The need for
contact with other persons is a social need. The other social needs include need
for prestige, status, affection, self-esteem, and so on. A person becomes more
aware of his needs when they are not fulfilled. In other words, when you are
hungry, you need food, and, when you are thirsty you need water. In these cases
you are in a state of deprivation and your bodily system suffers from some kind of
imbalance.
The needs may be broadly categorised as, primary or physiological needs and
secondary or social needs. Needs for food, water, sex, sleep and rest, and
elimination are primary needs. Needs for achievement, affiliation, power are
examples of social needs.
The term ‘motive’ refers to goal directed behaviour and energising conditions
within the organism that drive behaviour. It is generally used to refer to certain
conditions which, besides arousing, predispose a person to respond, or behave in
a way appropriate to that motive. Motives direct the activity of the individual
towards person’s goals.
PSYCHOLOGY 139
(b) Goals
Thinking about the goal motivates a person to organize his or her action. If hunger
is a need, eating food is a goal. Thus goal is related to the need state. However, in
certain cases, behaviour is also guided by intrinsic goals. It means behaviour does
Notes
not always need external goal. It may be satisfying and enjoyable in itself. Some
people may like to sing, dance or play just for the sake of singing, dancing or
playing. They like such activities. Thus goals can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
(c) Incentives
Incentives refers to the goal objects which satisfy the needs. Incentives vary in
quality and quantity which make them less or more satisfying and attractive. Thus
one can put in greater amount of effort to attain a more attractive incentive. As a
matter of fact many incentives assume considerable significance in the lives of
people and they do every thing possible to attain those incentives.
(d) Instincts
Instinct is an old concept in the field of motivation. It is defined as an innate biological
force that predisposes the organism to act in a certain way. At one time all
behaviours were supposed to be results of certain instincts. Some of the instincts
identified by early psychologists are fight, repulsion, curiosity, self abasement,
acquisition etc. It was thought that instincts were inherited and compelling sources
of conduct, but can be modified by learning and experience. This term is no more
used in relation to human behaviour. Animal behaviour is sometimes explained
using this term. In current usage 'instinct' is reserved for innate response tendencies
found among animals.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
a) Need is a condition of ___________ or _________.
b) Goals are ___________ representations of _________ states
c) Incentives are ______________ that satisfy needs.
9.3 TYPES OF NEEDS

It is difficult to classify needs into distinct categories because the behaviour displayed
by an individual at a given time is not the outcome of a single need. Many needs or
140 PSYCHOLOGY
motives contribute to it. But on the basis of information gained through the analysis
of human behaviour, psychologists have attempted to classify human needs into
two broad categories. As mentioned earlier these categories are as follows.
(i) Primary or physiological needs, and (ii) Secondary or socio-psychogenic needs.
Notes
The primary needs are rooted in the physiological state of the body. They are
innate and include bodily conditions such as hunger, thirst, sex, temperature
regulation, sleep and pain. These needs are of recurring type becaue they can be
satisfied for short periods only.
The secondary or socio-psychogenic needs are unique to human beings. Many of

them are learned and they drive the individual toward special kinds of behaviours.
Since these needs are learned, their strength differs greatly from one individual to
another. Some of the important socio-psychogenic needs are power, affiliation,
achievement and approval.
Psychologists have developed a number of standardized tests for the assessment
of these needs. They may also be assessed through non testing procedures as
well.
9.4 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham Maslow, who was a humanistic psychologist, argued that needs are
arranged in a ladder-like steps. He proposed a rising order of needs from the level
of physiological to self transcendence. The order of needs starts from basic survival
or lower order needs to higher order needs. As one level of need is satisfied
another higher order need will emerge and assume importance in life. The hierarchy
is shown in Fig. 9.1.
Physiological needs: The most potent and lowest level of all the needs are
physiological needs. Thus the needs of hunger, thirst, sex, temperature regulation
and rest occupy the lowest step in the ladder. According to Maslow, when these
physiological needs are deprived for a long period, all other needs fail to appear
We must eat to live. The bio-chemical processes which sustain life get their energy
and chemical substances from food. Food deprivation results in contractions in
the stomach which are felt by the individual as hunger pangs. When this happens,
the individual spends energy in trying to get food. Factors like habits and social
customs also influence eating behaviour.
We can go without food for weeks but we cannot live without water for more than
a few days. The brain directs the organism to obtain water. Sex need differs in
many respects from hunger and thirst. Sex is not vital to the survival of the organism
but is essential to the survival of the species
PSYCHOLOGY 141
Notes Self Transcendence

Self actualization
Esteem needs
Love and Belongingness needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Fig. 9.1: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Safety needs : When the physiological needs are satisfied safety needs become
the dominant force in life. Safety needs are mainly concerned with maintaining
order and security, to feel secure, safe and out of danger.
Love and Belongingness needs: These are the needs of making intimate
relationship with other members of the society. People want to become an accepted
member of an organised group, need a familiar environment such as family. These
needs are dependent on the fulfilment and satisfaction of physiological and safety
needs.
The Esteem needs: Esteem needs are divided into the following two categories:
(a) Needs related to respect from others like reputation, status, social success
and fame. The need of self evaluation occurs in those persons who are
comfortably situated and satisfied with the fulfilment of lower order needs.
For example, a competent professional who has established a high reputation
and does not have to worry about getting a job, may become quite choosy
about what type of work he/she would accept.
(b) Self esteem, self respect and self regard.
The other type of esteem needs include need to achieve, to be competent, to gain
approval and to get recognition. The need to feel superior to others also falls
under this category. For fulfilling this, a person may buy good quality and costly
clothes.
Self actualisation: Self actualisation refers to the desire to utilise one’s personal
capacities, to develop one’s potentialities to the fullest and to engage in activities
142 PSYCHOLOGY
for which one is well suited. One should realize and be satisfied that he or she has
achieved what one is capable of.
Self actualization is possible only when the needs of a person are met to the degree
that they neither distract nor consume all available energy. When the person Notes
succeeds in satisfying his/her lower order needs, only then he can act upon his/her
higher order needs.
Self transcendence: This is the highest level of need where a person becomes
conscious of broader reality. He transcends the boundaries of self and attends to
the needs of collectivity and society. At this level one becomes aware of the entire
humanity. At this level spiritual concerns become very important.
In this hierarchy it is assumed that the lower order needs dominate people’s lives
until that level is fairly satisfied; then comes the next one and so on. However,
Maslow explains that every individual does not follow this hierarchy step by step;
exceptions do arise. An individual sometimes risks his life to save someone or to
save a valued object by defying his own safety needs. There are certain examples
in Indian history when women sacrificed their lives to save their honour. There
have been freedom fighters who starved themselves to death fighting for the cause
of the freedom of the country. Here the higher order needs superceded the hunger
and thirst needs. Sometimes individual rejects love, family, friends, etc. by
committing suicide, thus defying the needs of love and sense of belongingness.
It may be noted that the hierarchy, however, does not imply that lower order
needs become dormant once they are satisfied and the higher order needs become
active.
9.5 ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

One of the important needs present to some degree in all human beings is the
“need for achievement” or the need to attain excellence and higher level of
performance. People in whom the need for achievement is strong seek difficult
work and improve their task performance. They are future oriented, aspire for
higher goals and persist on the task chosen. They are task oriented and prefer to
work on tasks that are challenging and on which their performance can be evaluated
in some way. It may be by comparing it with other person’s performance in terms
of some standard. Achievement motivation can be seen in many areas of human
endeavour such as job, school or sports competition.
The differences in early life experiences are found to be related to the strength of
achievement motivation in later stage. The expectations parents have from their
PSYCHOLOGY 143
children also play an important role in the development of achievement motivation.

Parents who expect their children to work hard, encourage and praise them for
their performance do so as to promote achievement oriented behaviour.
Notes The degree of achievement oriented behaviour depends on many factors. One of
these is “fear of failure”. It inhibits the expression of achievement behaviour. When
some one is successful in school, sports and other activities, we say that achievement
motivation is very strong in him or her.
9.6 INTRINSIC MOTIVATION AND EXTRINSIC

MOTIVATION
While thinking about motivation we often try to locate its source whether it is
internal to the person or external to him or her. Undertaking a given task may be
motivated by promise of a prize or some other kind of gain which is external to the
task. Thus, the task is instrumental in receiving or gaining access to the external
reward. In all such situations the locus of control is external to the person who is
asked to undertake the activity. Such situations characterize the kind of motivation
which is extrinsic. On the other hand, we have situations in which the source of
motivation lies inside the task. In such cases we work because the task itself is
interesting and does not require any external source of motivation. Here, the task
is not instrumental in obtaining any external reward. The locus of control is inside
the person. Person’s involvement in the task is spontaneous and the task itself acts
as its own reward. This situation represents intrinsic motivation such as a child’s
play, reading an interesting novel, writing a poem or a story.
It has been found that intrinsic motivation leads to high quality of work, meeting
challenges, and pursuit of excellence. Infact attachment with outcome often distracts
the process or activity. This is why Indian thinkers realized the significance of non-
attachment (Anasakti). It is the action which is important and on which we have
control and therefore we need to focus more and more on the action without
bothering much about the outcome of action. In the modern life extrinsic rewards
are being emphasized more and more and everything is becoming contractual.
The exchange relationships are becoming central. This situation is creating many
problems in personal and social lives of the people. It is therefore important to
plan activities and organize relationships in such a manner that the task remains in
the center of interest.
144 PSYCHOLOGY

(1) Who has given the theory of hierarchy of needs? List the needs in hierarchy.
Notes
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
(2) What is intrinsic motivation? Give an example.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
(3) What is extrinsic motivation? Give an example.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
9.7 SELF EFFICACY

People hold beliefs about their competence to undertake some task and such
beliefs influence the level of their performance. The self efficacy beliefs are the
subjective standards held by the people that inform judgements about choosing
specific goals. Introduced by Bandura, the concept of self efficacy has been used
to motivate people in a variety of settings. By learning appropriate or realistic self
efficacy beliefs one can plan behaviours and perform at a higher level. Self efficacy
beliefs are found to play significant role in adjustment and physical health. It is
what people believe they can do with their skills under certain conditions. Self
efficacy beliefs develop over time. They reflect development of understanding that
actions produce results and one can produce action that causes results. It may be
noted that efficacy beliefs also operate at collective levels. Thus, collective efficacy
involves a group’s shared belief in its joint capabilities to organize and execute the
courses of action required to produce the given level of attainment.
PSYCHOLOGY 145
9.8 VALUES
Values work as important motivators. They are considered as desirable and
cherisliable goals that serve as guiding principles in people’s lives. Values help to
Notes make choices. Values prioritize needs. It is only because of values that people
take purposeful long range actions. Pleasure and pain connected with specific
behaviours have momentary effects.
In the analysis of values, moral values are given special significance. These values
guide choices and actions. Moral values differentiate between good and bad. In a
recent study based on data from several countries, some values have been noted
which are given below:
Power : This includes social status and prestige, control and dominance over
people and resources
Achievement: This includes personal success by demonstrating competence

according to social standards.
Self-direction: This includes independent thought and action, choosing, creating,

and exploring.
Universalism: This includes understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection

for the welfare of all people.
Benovelence: This includes preservation and enhancement of the welfare of

people with whom one is in frequent personal contact.
Tradition: This includes respect, commitment and acceptance of the customers

and ideas that are given importance in the traditional cultures or religions.
Conformity: This includes restraint of action, inclination, and impulses likely to

upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms.
Security: This includes safety, harmony and stability of society, of relationships

and of self.
In the Indian context the framework of Dharma provides a set of values which are
considered central to the sustenance of life. They include truth (Satya), non stealing
(asteya), keeping tolerance (driti), intellect (dhi), knowledge (vidya), non-anger
(akrodh), forgiveness (kshama), purity (saucha), control of sense organs (indriya
nigraha) and self control (dam). These values provide basis for maintaining and
promoting life at the individual and the social levels. It maintains a the view that
holds entire universe into account.
146 PSYCHOLOGY
9.9 FRUSTATION AND CONFLICT

You must be aware that it is not always easy to satisfy the needs. You must have a
variety of needs at a time. We all face certain difficulties in our attempts to satisfy
the needs. We sometimes meet with failures. Also many obstacles prevent us from Notes
reaching the goals. When our needs are not satisfied, we get frustrated.
Frustration is the feeling within an individual of being blocked in the attempts to

satisfy needs which one considers significant. Frustration refers to the blocking of
behaviour directed towards a goal. An individual displays some sort of disturbed
behaviour when he or she is prevented form fulfilling the desired goals. If motives
are frustrated or blocked, the person may feel anxious, depressed or angry. For
example, if you want to go to a movie or want to play and your parents refuse
permission, you may show some kind of disturbed behaviour such as anger and
shouting. Frustration often leads to aggression directed towards to source of
frustration.
Generally there are three main sources of frustration. These are as follows:
(i) Environmental Forces: The environmental factors can frustrate the satisfaction
of motives. The obstacle may be physical such as lack of money or a road
block. They may be social. For instance, yours parents, teachers or classmates
may prevent you from doing something what you want to do.
(ii) Personal Factors or Limitations: They make goals unattainable and produce
frustration. The personal inadequacy may be either physical or psychological.
The personal characteristics of individual like personality or intelligence affect
performance. The limitations of ability frustrate individuals because they do
not let him or her to achieve very high goals. At times we have conflicting goals
which create frustration.
(iii) Conflict : A conflict is a situation in which an individual is required to act in
two or more incompatible ways to achieve two or more exclusive goals. It
occurs when an individual is unable to choose between two or more goals.
We all confront some degree of conflict in every stage of our life. We sometimes
face a situation where we are supposed to choose between two or more alternatives.
For example, we may have to decide whether to buy a book or go to a movie. On
the one hand, you may like to play and get company of your friend, and on the
other, if you study for the examination you may be successful in the exams. The
motive to play and get the company of the friend is thus in conflict with the motive
to be successful in examination.
PSYCHOLOGY 147
Types of Conflicts: There are three kinds of conflict which are called “approach-
approach conflict”, “avoidance – avoidance conflict” and “approach – avoidance
conflict”.
Notes An approach-approach conflict is a situation when one has to choose between

two positive and equally attractive goals. It is caused when we have two pleasurable
goals within our reach. We have to choose one out of these two. The example of
this kind of conflict may be found in a situation when you are offered admission to
two equally attractive courses of study for higher education and you have to decide
between them.
The second type of conflict is avoidance- avoidance conflict. It occurs when

we have to decide between two equally undesirable and negative goals. For
example, such a conflict may arise when you have to choose between goals that
are equally disliked by you.
In approach-avoidance conflict, we are both attracted and repelled by the same

goal. It arises when there are both desirable and undesirable feelings associated
with a single goal. For example, you want to marry a girl to whom you love because
your parents are not agreeable. You cannot marry her as you do not hurt your
parents as well. This kind of conflict is most difficult to resolve and brings emotional
discomfort.

• Motivation refers to the driving and pulling forces which result in persistent
behaviour directed towards a goal. The primary needs such as hunger, thirst
and sex, have their origin in the physiological state of the body. Hunger may
be, initiated when blood sugar level falls below certain point. A decrease in the
volume of blood due to water loss causes to thirst. Sexual motivation depends
on sex hormones.
• Socio-psychogenic motives such as need for power, affiliation, achievement
and approval are learnt motives and involve other people. The need for
achievement is a motive to accomplish things and to be successful in performing
tasks. Power motivation is a social motivation in which the goal is to influence,
control, persuade, lead, charm others and enhance one’s own reputation in
the eyes of others.
• Intrinsic motives are those activities for which there is no apparent reward but
one gets enjoyment and satisfaction in doing these activities. Competence is
an intrinsic motivation. Self efficacy, life goals, and values held by people also
148 PSYCHOLOGY
work as sources of motivation. Motivation are often blocked or frustrated.

The major sources of this frustration are environmental factors, personal factors
and conflict. Three types of conflicts are a) approach-approach conflict b)
avoidance – avoidance conflict and c) approach – avoidance conflict.
Notes
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1) Briefly explain the nature of motivation.
2) Explain the basic concepts of motivation.
3) What do you understand by primary needs? How are these different from
socio-psychogenic needs?
4) What is self efficacy? Show its relationship with behaviour.
5) Define values and describe some important values.
6) What are the sources of frustration? Name the three kinds of conflict of motives.

9.1
1. a) Action
b) motivation
c) not
d) behaviour
2. Motivation is the process of activating, maintaining and directing behaviour

towards a particular goal.
9.2
a) lack deficit b) cognitive, and c) objects
9.3
1) Maslow . The hierarchy is:
(i) Physiological needs
(ii) Safety needs
PSYCHOLOGY 149
(iii) Love and belongingness needs

(iv) Esteem needs
(v) Self actualization
Notes (vi) Self transcendence
2) Intrinsic motivation is when motivation arises from satisfaction due to own
behaviour.
3) Extrinsic motivation is when motivation arises because of external rewards.

150 PSYCHOLOGY
Emotions MODULE-II
Notes
10
EMOTIONS
When we meet our friend after a long time we feel happy; when a baby clings to
her mother she displays love, when we are praised by our parents or teachers we
feel proud of ourselves. Similarly joy and sorrow, excitement and disappointment,
love and fear and many more emotions are experienced by us in our daily lives. In
this lesson you will study what is an emotion, how these emotions are expressed
and how emotions direct our behaviour.
OBJECTIVES
• describe what is an emotion;
• describe the relationship of emotion with cognition and motivation;
• describe the physiology of emotional experience; and
• describe various expressions of emotions.
10.1 NATURE OF EMOTION

The term 'emotion' is derived from the Latin word ‘emovere’ which means to stir
up, agitate, excite or move. Emotions are generally referred to as a stirred up
condition involving subjective experience and affective reactions. They may be
pleasant or unpleasant. Pleasant emotions are the sources of joy whereas unpleasant
emotions are related to disturbing mental states like aggression, fear, anxiety etc.
Each emotion has three basic aspects.
PSYCHOLOGY 151
MODULE -II Emotions
(i) Cognitive aspect: It involves thoughts, beliefs and expectations that are
involved when we experience emotions. For example – your friend may find
a novel rich in descriptions of people and places whereas you may find it
unrealistic.
Notes (ii) Physiological aspect: It involves physiological activation. When you
experience emotions such as fear or anger, you experience an increase in
pulse rate, blood pressure and respiration. You may also perspire.
(iii) Behavioural aspect: It includes various forms of emotional expressions. If
you observe your father or mother during anger and happiness you will notice
that facial expressions, bodily postures and tone of voice vary with anger,
joy and other emotions.
List what you do when you are
Happy Sad Afraid
_________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________
_________ _________ _________
10.2 THEORIES OF EMOTION

Psychologists have tried to explain the phenomenon of emotion in different ways.
William James and Carl Lange stated that physiological changes give rise to
emotional experience. According to them first you cry then you feel sad, first you
run then you feel afraid. This sequence is presented in Figure 10.1.
Arousal and Awareness Experience of

Event Physiological of changes emotions
Changes
Fig. 10.1: James-Lange theory of emotion
Cannon and Bard said that when we face an event we feel physiological changes
and perception of emotion together.
Arousal & physiological changes
Event
Emotional experience
Fig. 10.2: Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion experience
152 PSYCHOLOGY
Emotions MODULE-II
S. Schachter and J.E. Singer suggested that cognitive processes play a major role
in the experience of emotion. According to them if you are aroused by an outside
stimulus you will notice the arousal and look toward the environment to find out
why the arousal has occurred. After that you will label which emotion you are
Notes
experiencing. Like a man startled by a dog shall label his state as fear whereas a
student excited by success in the examination labels his state as happiness.
When we are excited by an event or stimulus, it provides the basis for an emotional
experience. This excitement is shaped into a specific emotion by an attribution
process. Suppose your heart starts beating rapidly and fingers tremble. Is it fear,
anger or joy or a touch of flu? If you have been insulted by your friend you will
interpret these reactions as ‘anger’. You will experience fear if you suddenly face
a snake and start running very fast but when you are in a race you will attribute
these feelings to excitement and will be motivated to run faster in order to win.
Thus it is seen that in each case your body will be in an excited state and depending
on the situation and attribution of causes the different emotions are experienced.
10.3 DIMENSIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF

EMOTIONS
Recent studies across different cultures have shown that emotions can be placed
along two dimensions i.e., Arousal and Valence. Thus one can have high or low
degree of arousal and positive or negative (e.g. pleasant vs. unpleasant) emotional
experience.
Although the general ability to respond emotionally is present at birth, emotional

development is due to maturation and learning. Infants show emotional responses
like crying, smiling etc. With the growth of imagination and understanding a child is
able to differentiate family members from strangers and the fear of strangers
develops.
Children learn to express their emotions by imitating their parents, siblings and
other family members. For example the expressions of anger and happiness are
frequently observed in social interactions and a child starts expressing them. The
role of learning in emotional development becomes clear if we notice emotional
expressions peculiar to some cultures. For example in Indian culture, fathers don’t
show their affection openly to children because its not welcomed in society whereas
there are no such inhibitions in Western culture. Learning is responsible for
conditioning of fear of darkness, lightening, certain animals or objects.
PSYCHOLOGY 153
MODULE -II Emotions
Activity
Ask your friend to observe you and then stick your tongue out
towards him. How will your friend interpret it? Then you clap
Notes your hands and ask for his interpretation. Do you know that
your friend’s interpretation of these acts may be completely
different from that of a Chinese. Chinese people clap their hands
when they are worried but for us clapping is a sign of happiness.
They stick out their tongue to show surprise but you may interpret
it as teasing.
Certain Important Features of Emotions
(i) You will experience an emotion when any of your basic needs are not satisfied
or challenged. You also experience positive emotion on satisfaction of a need.
(ii) Under the influence of an emotion you experience physiological changes such
as facial expressions, gestures, change in the rhythm of the heartbeat, blood
pressure, and breathing pattern.
(iii) Your thinking, reasoning, memory and other psychological functions are
affected by emotions.
(iii) During an emotional state tremendous amount of energy is released which
helps facing critical situations. For example if a dog runs after you, you run at
a much higher speed than the normal speed.
(iv) Both maturation and learning play an important role in development and
expression of emotions.
(v) When you have pleasant emotional experiences you will be in a happy, good
or positive mood. In contrast, unpleasant emotional experiences would lead
to sad or negative moods.
(vi) The experience of emotion can first increase your performance to some extent
but if heightened and prolonged it will decrease the level of performance.
10.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOTIVATION AND

EMOTION
You must have realized in the course of the preceding discussion that emotion and
motivation are closely related. Motivation is present along with emotion in every
day experience in our life. When you are afraid of a mad dog running after you,
you cry for help. In this situation fear is an emotion which leads to goal directed
behaviour (running) and therefore acts as a motive. The emotion of fear is also a
154 PSYCHOLOGY
Emotions MODULE-II
result of the need for safety. The dog threatens your safety and you become afraid
and run. Thus motive leads to emotion and emotion further motivates to act
consistent with the original motivation.
You are motivated to do things which give pleasant emotional experiences and Notes
avoid doing things which make you unhappy or sad. Emotions provide energy for
motives. The stronger the emotion, the greater will be the level of motivation. The
more you get angry the more you fight.

(i) Emotion is _______________ state of an individual.
(ii) The term emotion is derived from the Latin word ___________.
(iii) _______________,________________ and ____________ are
basic components of each emotion.
(iv) Emotions provide ___________ for motives.
(v) ___________ and _____________ highlighted the importance
of cognitive process in emotional experiences.
2. Mark the following statements as True and False
(a) Maturation and learning play an important role in the development of
emotions.
(b) Emotions have no effect on our thinking and reasoning.
(c) Pleasant emotional experiences lead to good mood.
(d) Cannon and Bard stated that physiological changes and perception of
emotion occur together.
10.5 EMOTION AND PHYSIOLOGY

During emotional experience a number of physiological systems are involved. The
physiological activity is controlled largely by the autonomic nervous system’s
sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions. You may refer to
the lesson on biological basis of behaviour (Lesson 3) for details of the involvement
of these systems.
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MODULE -II Emotions
Physiological changes that take place during emotional state are produced by the
activities of all the internal organs and nervous system. However, the organs which
are closely related with emotional experiences are hypothalamus, autonomic nervous
system, and adrenal gland. Let us study more about them:
Notes (i) Adrenal Glands : These glands are located near the kidneys. They secrete a
hormone called adrenalin. The various physiological changes that occur under
emotional arousal are produced by the secretion of adrenalin. They include
dialation of air passage of lungs, increase in heart beat and blood pressure and
slowing down of digestive process. These glands play a significant role in
preparing the organism for emergency reactions, when we are charged with
emotions. These are stimulated by hypothalamus through sympathetic nervous
system to release greater amount of adrenalin.
(ii) Autonomic Nervous System: It consists of many nerves leading from the
brain and spinal cord to various organs of the body. The Autonomic Nervous
System has two parts as given below.
Sympathetic System: This system is active during aroused states and prepares
the body for mobilisation of actions needed in various situations. It brings
about the dilation of the pupil, increased sweating and heartbeat, dryness of
mouth etc.
Parasympathetic System: This system is active when we are calm and
relaxed. Activation of this system decreases the heart rate and blood pressure
and increases digestive activity. All the changes caused by sympathetic system
during emotional arousal are brought back to a normal state of functioning of
this system.
(iii) Hypothalamus: The physiological expressions during emotion are activated
by hypothalamus. It sends impulses to muscles and glands. The individual
whose hypothalamus is injured becomes incapable of experiencing any emotion.
Arousal: When we are emotional we often feel excited. This excited state is an
aroused state. The degree of arousal is measured by heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing pattern, pupil size and skin conductance.
A little arousal is good because it keeps us working and alert. When we become
highly aroused (as in anger or fear) our performance decreases. Similarly very low
level of arousal leads to poor level of performance.

(1) Fill in the blanks with suitable words:
i) The two parts of autonomic nervous system are __________
and ____________.
156 PSYCHOLOGY
Emotions MODULE-II
ii) When we are ____________ sympathetic system is active.

iii) A little arousal ___________ the performance.
(2) What is an arousal? How can it be measured?
Notes
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Activity
Try to agitate your friend by opposing his/her ideas and rejecting

the suggestions. When s/he becomes angry observe closely. Do
you notice any change in the facial experessions, voice, colour
of the face?
Now you try to make him/her feel happy and again observe the
change in expressions and voice etc. Was there a difference in
these two situations?
Organism Functioning During Emotional Arousal

Physical Changes
Facial expressions change during emotional experience. When we are angry our
face becomes reddish, nostrils and jaws stiffen, and our voice becomes loud high-
pitched and hoarse. When we are afraid our eyelids are widely open and face
turns pale, and knees may tremble.
Physiological Changes
When we experience an emotion there are changes in internal activities too. Increase
in heartbeat and blood pressure occurs and some times slight stomach ache is also
felt. When we are angry or afraid our digestive activity stops, our mouth becomes
dry and pupils of the eye enlarge. Sweat glands become active. The conductivity
of our skin to electrical current increases.
Psychological Changes
Under strong emotions such as anger or fear, our thinking and memory get affected
adversely. We face difficulty in learning and concentration becomes poor. Our
perception gets distorted and memory gets inhibited.
PSYCHOLOGY 157
MODULE -II Emotions
It may, however, be noted that all these changes (physical, physiological and
psychological) differ from individual to individual.
10.6 EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS

Notes
We reveal our felt emotions not only in bodily responses but also in expressive
behaviours. Look at the faces give below. Try to identify the emotions displayed
by these facial expressions.
Fig. 10.3: Facial expression showing irritated, happy and angry emotional states
Facial expressions are important for the communication that takes place non
verbally. For instance we can communicate intimacy, submission and dominance
by a gaze or an averted glance, or a stare. We are quite good at reading nonverbal
cues to decipher various emotions. Some of us are more sensitive than others to
such non-verbal cues.
The gestures are found to differ across cultures. However, researchers have shown
certain universal facial language for basic emotions. In collectivist cultures like
India where inter-dependence is valued, intense display of negative emotions is
infrequent. The expressions made by people not only communicate but also intensify
the felt emotion. They signal the body to respond accordingly. In this way emotions
arise from an interplay of cognition, physiology and bodily expressions.
158 PSYCHOLOGY
Emotions MODULE-II
In India the expressions of emotions have been studied systematically by Sage

Bharata some time during fifth century. In Natyashastra he has described eight
major emotions with could be effectively translated into ‘rasa’ which means aesthetic
relish. Some of them are depicted in the figure given at the end of this lesson. The
figure shows various ‘rasas’ through facial expressions during Bharatnatyam Dance. Notes
Try to identify the ‘rasa’ and corresponding emotion portrayed by the dancer in
those figures.
The key forms of emotional expression include the following:
(i) Startle Response: Walk quietly upto your friend when he or she is deep in
thought and yell “Boo!” You will notice rapid closing of eyes and widening of
the mouth. The chin tilts up and the arms and legs are bent. This response is
an inborn response.
(ii) Facial Expressions: Each emotion has its characteristic facial expression.
The eye, nose lips and forehead twist and twitch and take different shapes.
The facial expressions show three dimensions of emotional expression.
Pleasantness-unpleasantness: The facial expressions represent feeling of
pleasantness (e.g. smile and laughter) or unpleasantness (a sad look).
Attention-Rejection: Attention is expressed by wide open eyes and an
open mouth. Rejection shows contraction of eyes, lips and nostrils.
Sleep-Tension: It refers to the level of relaxation and tenseness or excitement
as found when you sleep and when you are angry and anxious.
(iii) Vocal Expressions : People express emotions with the help of voice also.
You must have noticed that your voice trembles and breaks when you are
sad, you groan when you are in pain, your voice is loud and high pitched in
anger.
(iv) Gestures and Postures : The gestures and postures that you display during
joy differ from those that happen during sorrow. In sorrow you slump your
face down. In joy you hold your head high and take an upright posture. In
fear you either run or are rooted to the spot. We learn gestures and postures
from the people around us. Therefore societies may have different ways of
expressing emotions.

(1) What are the important changes that occur in an emotional state?
________________________________________________________
PSYCHOLOGY 159
MODULE -II Emotions
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
(2) Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
Notes
(i) During sadness one's voice ___________ and ___________.
(ii) Under strong emotions thinking and reasoning get affected _________.
(3) State whether the following are True or False
(i) We learn gestures from our society and culture. True/False
(ii) When you are sad your voice will become loud. True/False
(iii) We learn gestures and postures from our society. True/False
10.7 MAJOR EMOTIONS

We develop a number of emotions while dealing with different persons and objects
in the environment. They can be negative emotions like fear and anxiety or positive
emotions like pleasure and love. Let us study these emotions in some detail.
(i) Fear : Fear is caused by situations which are perceived as physically

threatening. The situations that produce fear change with age. During early
childhood we are afraid of strange objects and persons, loss of support,
darkness and devils etc. During adolescence fears are mostly social in nature
(e.g. fear of authority, parental criticism, peer rejection, fear of failure).
Maturation and personal experiences contribute to the development of fear.
Children learn emotional reactions by imitating their parents, and other family
members. That is why a one or two year old child would have no fear of
snakes, whereas older children feel quite afraid. Fear can also be developed
through conditioning. That is why each person’s fear will be somewhat
different from that of others. For example if during childhood somebody was
lost in crowd he or she may develop a fear of crowd. You must have noticed
other similar types of fear among your friends such as fear of lizards, darkness
etc. When such fears become very strong, they are called phobias. They are
unfounded fears. Usually people try to escape fearful situations by running
away from them.
(ii) Anxiety: Anxiety is a state of painful discomfort of mind. During anxiety a
vague fear or apprehension occurs. You may feel anxious if you don’t know
the exact cause. The difference between fear and anxiety often refers to the
160 PSYCHOLOGY
Emotions MODULE-II
involvement of present situation. You can recognise the cause of fear in your
present circumstances whereas anxiety may arise due to an anticipated or
imaginary situation.
You will become anxious when you anticipate any harmful or threatening Notes
event. The sense of anxiety can be an unconscious memory of fear arousing
stimulus. We may forget the particular unpleasant situation in which we learned
a fear. When we face similar situation we feel anxious without knowing why
do we feel so. High level of anxiety is destructive for our performance and
health. In extreme cases anxiety may take the form of a mental disorder.
(iii) Pleasure: Pleasure or happiness is a positive emotion which gives satisfaction
to the person who experiences it. Pleasure is the reaction to the satisfaction
of a need or attainment of a goal. When we are happy we smile and laugh
and there is a clear expression of satisfaction on our faces. An infant expresses
pleasure by babbling. They learn to express happiness in socially approved
ways. People derive pleasure from different sources during different stages
of life. The babies derive pleasure from physical well being, tickling etc.
whereas adults experience pleasure by the experiences like being successful
in different situations. Children whose home, school, and neighbourhood
environments are pleasant have more happy experiences than those who
must live, work and play in unpleasant environments.
(iv) Affection: It is a pleasant emotional reaction directed towards a person, an
animal or an object. It is built up as a result of pleasant experience. The most
primitive basis of affection is associated with warmth of mother’s body, and
being fondled and cuddled. Learning plays an important role in determining
the persons or objects to which child’s affection becomes attached. Children
indiscriminately show affection towards members of the family, pets and
toys. As adolescence approaches, affection is diverted more towards people
than pets. Affectionate responses are shown in an outgoing striving and
approach behaviours. Affection is expressed by patting, hugging, verbal
expression, protecting and helping the loved one.

Fill in the blanks with suitable words:
(i) The situation which produces fear changes with ______________.
(ii) Fear is ______________ emotion whereas love is ___________ emotion.
PSYCHOLOGY 161
MODULE -II Emotions
(iii) Anxiety arises due to ___________ or ______________situation.

(iv) Cause of anxiety could be _________________ memory of a fear arousing
stimulus.
Notes
Emotional competence
In recent years the gap between cognition or rationality and emotions is being
bridged. It is considered that emotional competence, emotional maturity and
emotional intelligence are important for the growth of a person. Thus one needs to
understand one's own and other’s emotions and learn to express, control and
manage emotions in social situations. Promotion of emotional competence has
been found central to the overall competence of a person.In recent years researchers
have taken interest in improving emotional intelligence.

• Emotion is a stirred up state which directs human behaviour in important ways.
Motivation and emotion are closely related. The autonomic nervous system
and hypothalamus play an important role in experience and expression of
emotions.
• There are subjective, physiological and psychological changes which
accompany emotional states for example changes in heartbeat, breathing pattern
etc.
• There are several theories to explain the phenomenon of emotion. The James-
Lange theory suggested that emotion is the recognition of changes in some
bodily states. The Cannon-Bard Theory suggests that a stimulus event gives
rise to both physiological changes and perception of emotions. These events
occur close in time. The Schacter-Singer theory proposes that a person is
aroused by an external stimulus, evaluates the arousal state with respect to the
environment and labels the emotion.
• The undifferentiated arousal is shaped into specific emotions by the attribution
process. This then motivates people to act according to different emotions.
• The expressions of emotions can be understood by observing an individual's

facial and vocal expressions, gestures and postures.
• Fear and anxiety are two important negative emotional patterns. Fear arises
from a present situation, whereas anxiety comes from an imaginary situation.
An intense persistent fear can lead to phobia. Anxiety, when low, can be good
but when high can be destructive.
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Emotions MODULE-II
• Pleasure and affection are examples of positive emotions. Pleasure is a reaction

to the satisfaction of a motive and is expressed by smiling and laughing. Affection
is an emotional reaction of pleasant experiencess directed towards a person,
an animal or an object. It is expressed by taking care of the loved one, patting,
hugging, protecting and verbal admiration. Notes
• In order to live and grow in an effective manner, development of emotional

competence is necessary. One must understand one's own and other's emotions
and regulate them properly.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
(i) What is emotion? Give examples of positive and negative emotions?
(ii) Briefly describe general characteristics of an emotion?
(iii) Explain how emotion is related to motivation.
(iv) Discuss the role of physiological processes in emotional behaviours.
(v) Describe facial and vocal expressions of emotion.
(vi) What is emotional competence?

10.1
(1) (i) Stirred up (ii) emovere
(iii) cognitive, physiological and behavioural
(iv) pleasant (v) energy
(2) (a) True (b) false (c) true (d) true
10.2
(1) (i) sympathetic system, parasympathetic system
(ii) excited (iii) increases
(2) The feeling of excitement in an emotional state is known as arousal. It can be
measured through one’s heart beat, blood pressure, breathing, pupil size and
skin conductance.
PSYCHOLOGY 163
MODULE -II Emotions
10.3
(1) The changes that occur in an emotional state are physical, physiological and
psychological.
Notes (2) (i) trembles, breaks (ii) adversely
(3) (i) True (ii) False (iii) True
10.4
(i) age (ii) negative and positive
(iii) imaginary or anticipated (iv) unconscious

164 PSYCHOLOGY
Development: Its Nature MODULE-III
Developmental Processes
Notes
11
DEVELOPMENT: ITS NATURE
Have you ever thought why a child behaves in a different way as compared to an
adult or why there is a difference in their physical appearance? We are usually not
aware of the fact that we are constantly changing. Some noticeable changes take
place when an infant slowly grows into a child and then gradually into an adult. But
some changes like intensity in the expression of emotions, or the ability to think
and reason better, formation of personal values or the capacity to do work
independently, although not seen clearly, do bring about a change in the maturity
level and competence of a person. This process of bringing about a series of
orderly changes, leading towards maturity, is known as development. This lesson
will help you to understand and answer many questions related to development.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the concept and processes of development;
• identify and explain the principles of development and;
• gain an understanding of the main approaches to study development;
• differentiate between growth and development.
11.1 NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT

The two major aspects of development i.e. the meaning and processes of
development are explained in this portion.
PSYCHOLOGY 3
MODULE -III Development: Its Nature
11.1.1 What is meant by development?

In simple words, development is a process by which an individual grows and
changes throughout its life span. This change may defined as: a progressive series
Notes of changes which are orderly and coherent and which lead towards the goal of
maturity.
The term “progressive” signifies that the changes are directional, leading forward,
and not backward.
The terms “orderly” and “coherent” suggest that there is a definite relationship
between different stages in the developmental sequence. Each change is dependent
upon what preceded it, and it, in turn, will determine what will come after.
Development can therefore be summed up as:
1. Consisting of progressive, coherent and orderly changes;

2. Changes which have a definite direction and leading forward;
3. Changes which are not haphazard but where there exists a definite relationship
between what exists and what will come after (next stage).
It should be clear that the development results in new characteristics, and new
abilities in an individual. There is a shift from lower stages of functioning to higher
levels.
All changes which appear as a result of development, are not of the same kind.
For example, changes in size (physical growth), changes in proportion (baby to
adult), changes in features (disappearance of baby teeth) and acquiring new features
are of different types. Such changes which are clearly definable or which can be
identified specifically show growth. It is necessary here to differentiate between
the terms growth and ‘development’. They are often used interchangeably, however,
they are highly interrelated and there is a difference between them too. Growth
refers to clearly measureable or specific change which is quantitative in nature
such as “growing tall”, a girl’s hair becoming long and beautiful; and an old man
growing a beard etc.
Development, on the other hand, refers to qualitative changes unfolding or increase

in capacity. It is not as obvious as growth. Examples of development include
remarks such as, “she has become a fine young woman”, “he has developed
his talent in music very well”, “My father enjoys doing social work now because
he has retired,” etc. All these illustrate changes in personality interests and
abilities. Development thus is a broader term and includes ‘ growth’ as one of its
aspects.
4 PSYCHOLOGY
11.2 HOW DEVELOPMENT OCCURS?

Development occurs through two main processes:
i) maturation, and Notes

ii) learning.
(1) Maturation refers to the unfolding or gradual opening-up of traits or potentials
present in an individual because of genetic inheritance. It is the net result of
what one possesses genetically.
(2) Learning takes place as a result of a child’s interaction with the environment
which then brings about a change in his behaviour.
For example, when a baby begins to teeth or starts walking it is because of
maturation. But, when a child acquires the skill of performing specific dance
or singing a particular song, it is an act of learning.
Both maturation and learning occur side by side, each one influencing the other.
Infact, environmental learning often promotes maturation. For example, the
development of cognitive abilities in a person is dependent on the experience and
opportunities provided by the environment as well as maturation.
It may be concluded that maturation provides the raw material for learning, i.e. no
amount of effort on the part of the individual can bring desired results if the inherited
trait has limited potentialities for development. Thus all persons cannot become
international athletes by effort alone, unless the genes in the person contain the
potential for outstanding physical abilities.
The main points may be summed up as:
• Maturation and learning are two processes through which development

occurs.
• Maturation occurs due to the genetic raw material which an individual has.
• Learning or interactions with the environment in the form of doing various
activities result in change in behaviour.
• Maturation and learning are complementary processes.
11.3 GROWTH CURVE

You have already learnt in the earlier section that ‘growth’ is measurable and can
be represented quantitatively. Let us see what the pattern of growth is in the course
of the human life span, that is, let us try to answer questions like:
PSYCHOLOGY 5
i) are there any stages of rapid growth?

ii) when does maximum growth occur?
iii) does the pattern of growth changes from stage to stage?
Notes The growth curve helps us to answer all these questions. It basically shows the
relationship between the percentage of growth and age in years.
The following diagram (Figure 11.1) will make the idea more clear.
Fig. 11.1: Growth Curve
In this diagram, age in years is shown on the X axis and percentage of growth on
the Y axis. The slope of the curve indicates the nature and level of growth.
It is clear form this diagram that growth is very rapid in the first three years and in
the first year it is more rapid. Thereafter, from 5years to approximately 12 years,
the pace of growth slows down. This is called the plateau stage in which the child
is probably assimilating and making sense of the growth experiences in the earlier
years.
The period following this from 12 to 18 is once again a growth spurt stage in which
rapid growth takes place. This is the stage of adolescence and all through continues
to take place, but the pace is slow. The growth curve is also important in that it
indicates that growth is a continuous process with no breaks or discontinuities and
that there are no sudden changes. Secondly, it also shows that growth is an ongoing
process throughout life.
From the growth curve you have thus identified the following descriptions of the
different development stages:
6 PSYCHOLOGY
Stage Age Rate of growth

Infancy Birth to 1 year Very rapid
Early Childhood 1-3 year Rapid
Notes
Middle Childhood 3-5 year Somewhat rapid
Late Childhood 5-12 year Plateau Stage
Adolescence 12-18 year Very rapid
Adulthood 18 and above (growth spurt stage gradual
increase in growth)
Infancy, Early Childhood and Adolescence are the three stages of maximum growth.
This is evident from the nature of skills acquired during these stages.
In infancy and early childhood there is considerable psycho-motor development,

language acquistion, and improvement in cognitive skills.
During adolescence, there are rapid body changes, the sex drive begins to operate,
cognitive and social skills improve and there is gradual increase of all human
capacities.
To sum up, it may be said that the growth curve helps us to understand and anticipate
the changes which are likely to take place at different stages of development. We
can thus adjust and adapt better to them.

1. Write True/False against each statement:
(i) Maturation and learning are two separate processes and have no
connection with each other.
(ii) Genes decide the upper-limit of attaining development.
(iii) All changes which occur as a result of development are of the same
kind.
(iv) According to the growth curve, growth is an ongoing process.
(v) The two period of maximum growth are early childhood and adolescence.
(vi) Growth stops during the adult years.
2. Why is the growth curve important? Give two reasons
PSYCHOLOGY 7
11.4 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Although all individuals grow and develop in their own unique way and in their
own contexts, there are some basic principles which underlie the process of
Notes development and can be observed in all human beings. These are called the
principles of development. Let us now illustrate them.
1. Development follows a pattern
In human beings, development takes place in an organised, orderly and patterned

fashion. Every species has a specific pattern which all its members follow. The
sequence of development is also the same. For example, all babies learn to turn
over, crawl, stand, and then walk. They may skip a particular stage, but the order
or pattern will remain the same.
While studying grammar, nouns are always learnt before verbs. In some children
they may be learnt simultaneously but verbs cannot be learnt without knowing
nouns. Further development, at each stage is a result of the one which precedes it
and the one which follows it. For example, a child first learns to stand, then walk
and has baby teeth before permanent teeth appear.
Whether it is physical, behavioral or speech related aspect, development takes

place in an orderly manner. For example, early development proceeds
cephalocaudally, i.e. from the cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail region.
A second principle is that growth proceeds form the centre axis of the body to the
extremities or more distal regions. The general pattern is not altered by the speed
or development; all children pass through the same fundamental forms at
approximately the same time.
2. Development proceeds from general to specific (global to analytical)
The child’s responses in all phases of development, whether motor or mental, are
first of a general sort before they become specific or differentiated. For example,
the new born first moves his whole body at one time then learns to move a specific
part of it. Thus if a toy is kept near an infant he will use his entire body to move
close to it, and catch it. An older child will merely stretch out his hand knowing that
this specific movement will serve the purpose.
In speech the child takes out sounds called babbles first, before saying words.
Similarly, all playthings are “toys” before specific names are learnt and a vocabulary
is acquired. Observation of children in our daily lives will show that they do simpler
things first and the more complex ones later.
8 PSYCHOLOGY
3. Development leads to integration
Once the child learns specific or differentiated responses, then, as development

continues, she can synthesise or integrate these specific responses to form a whole.
For example, the young child learns to speak single, discrete words in the beginning. Notes
Later, he can join together these sentences in the form of language. Similarly, a
young child may have a specific concept of a car. Later, as she grows, her concept
expands as she is able to synthesise new aspects into it.
4. Development is continuous
No development whether physical, mental or speech, occurs suddenly. It takes
place at a slow, regular pace. Growth starts from the time of conception of the
baby and continues till maturity. Physical and mental traits continue to develop
until they reach their maximum level of growth. Growth occurs at a continuous rate
and does not take place in “jerks and stops”. It is the continuous nature of
development which accounts for one stage of growth and development influencing
the next. For example, if a child has not mastered a particular task at a specific age
then this will affect his mastery over the developmental task of the next stage. The
emotional tensions due to unhealthy environment in early childhood can affect the
personality of a child in later years. Similarly, lack of proper nutrition in early
childhood can result in physical and psychological damage which can impede
development in later years.
5. Individuals differ with respect to the rate of development
Although all development is sequential and orderly, yet the pace at which
development takes place may vary from person to person. For example, a 3 year
old child may be able to recognise the English alphabets, whereas the another 5
year old may not be able to do so. This does however mean that the 3 year old is
exceptionally bright or the 5 year old is backward. It just simply that the rate of
acquistion or mastery of a skill may vary from child to child. In order to establish
this fact, the concept of a ‘range of development’ has been introduced. The range
for learning alphabets, for example, implies that children are expected to learn
them anytime between 3 to 5½ years. All children falling within this limit are
treated as normal. Differences in the rate of development can be seen in many
areas-the acquisition of teeth, age at which the child sits, stands, walks, becomes
pubescent, etc.
6. Development occurs at different rates for different parts of the body

Neither the growth of different parts of the body, nor the mental growth takes
place at the same rate. The different aspects of physical or mental growth take
place at different rates and reach maturity at different times. In some areas, the
body growth maybe rapid, while in others relatively slow. Thus, the size of the
PSYCHOLOGY 9
organs of the body keep changing from time to time and because of these inequalities
in growth the body attains adult proportions.
Do you Know that

Notes Height, weight, and development of different organs gain full maturity at
different times. For example, research studies have shown that:
- the brain attains mature size around six to eight years of age;
- the feet, hands and nose reach their maximum development during early
adolescence.
- the heart, liver, digestive system etc. grow during adolescence.
All areas of development are initially interrelated. A child whose intellectual
development is above average is generally above average in size, sociability and
special aptitudes. This shows that there is interrelatedness in the mental, physical,
social and emotional development of the child. A shy child will not be able to
participate in school activities. A physically handicapped child may have difficulties
in making friends. These examples show how one aspect of development influences
another.
After adolescence, any one area of development may take precedence over another
and develop independently. In the case of scientists, for example, cognitive
development takes precedence over other areas. In the case of an athlete physical
development will take precedence over the other areas.
7. Development proceeds from ego-centricism to allocentricism

This means that intially a child is very self-centred and does not think of others.
His needs and wishes are the only reality he knows. He is not receptive to what
even his parents think or feel. For example, a two year old child will throw a
tantrum and cry for a bar of chocolate at midnight if he wishes to eat one. He is
unable to understand that his demand cannot be fulfilled as the market is closed at
this time. As he grows older, however, this ego centricism gives way to allocentricism
or being ‘others oriented’ or considerate to others. A ten year old child having the
same desire as the two year old will thus not make this impossible demand since
he will wish not to trouble his parents.
8. Development proceeds from heteronomy to autonomy
Heteronomy means dependence on others, while autonomy means self reliance.
Young children are dependent on others for their care and welfare, but adolescents
are capable of taking care of themselves. This shows the movement from
heteronomy to autonomy.
10 PSYCHOLOGY
A young child, when hungry, will wait for his mother to give him food. An adolescent,
on the other hand, can serve a meal for herself/himself.
9. Development is Predictable
As was discussed in an earlier principle of development, the rate of development Notes
is fairly constant for each child. This shows that it is possible to predict the future
level of development of the child and to what degree he will exhibit particularly so
for height, weight, cognitive ability etc.
11.4.1 How is the knowledge of the principles of

development important?
1. It helps us to know what to expect and when to expect it. This provides an
accurate picture of the child’s capability at a particular age.
2. It gives information on when to stimulate and when not to stimulate growth in
the child i.e., provide opportunities or wait for maturation.
3. It helps parents, teachers and others who work with children, to prepare them
before hand for the bodily changes. interests and behaviours that are to take
place. It tells teachers what to teach, when to teach and how to teach.
The principles of development thus provide the base to understand the different
stages of development which an individual grows through. However, the rate and
pattern of development can be changed by certain conditions inside and outside
the body. Certain factors like nutrition, sex. intelligence, injuries and diseases,
race, culture etc. also contribute to these differences.

Put a mark (T/F) and check your answer. In case of more than five wrong answers,
revise the unit again and recheck.
1. Growth takes place in an erratic or whimsical manner.

2. A child with below average intellectual development has superior health,
sociability and physical structures.
3. A child who is above average in one trait will be below average in others,
because compensation is the general rule of development.
4. The sequence of development in a child is fairly constant.
5. Traits are age-specific and therefore develop accordingly.
6. Children show specific skills before they develop general ones
PSYCHOLOGY 11
7. As children grow, they become more self reliant.

8. The basic difference between children and adults is that while the former are
ego centric, the latter are allocentric.
9. The baby can see large objects before he can focus on small ones.
Notes
10. Because development is continuous, what happens at one stage carries over
and influences the subsequent stages.
11. Every individual normally passes through each major stage of development.
11.5 APPROACHES TO STUDY DEVELOPMENT

After discussing the nature of development and the underlying principles, we will
now examine some approaches which are employed by researchers to study the
development of human beings. The two main approaches to the study of human
development are discussed alongwith their limitations and strengths. These
approaches may use a variety of tools like interview schedules, questionnaires,
rating scales, anecdotal records, bio-graphic records, etc. The two main approaches
to studying development are:-
1) Cross-sectional Approach.
2) Longitudinal Approach.
1) Cross-Sectional Approach
It implies studying several representative children of different ages at the same

point of time. There is usually only one observation for each child and developmental
changes are identified by including children of different ages in the study. For
example, changes in intellectual ability may be investigated by comparing the
performance of representative samples of one year, two-year, three-year olds,
and so on. The advantages of this approach are:
* It prevents the loss of sample strength which occurs in studies of long duration.
* It is cost-effective, saves time and facilitates record keeping.
* It is practicable
However certain disavantages too accompany this approach. They are as follows:
* The totality and the individuality of the person is lost.

* There is a loss of developmental continuity in studying the persons in the sample.
12 PSYCHOLOGY
2) Longitudinal Approach
It is a length-wise study of development, as the name sugests, in contrast to the

earlier approach. This approach emphasizes on the study of the same person over
a period of time noting the stability and changes taking place during that time span. Notes
Thus if a set of new born babies constitute the sample, they are seen through
infancy, early childhood, late childhood, etc. To understand the process of
development, several methods are used. Case-Study is an example of one such
method used for the study of behaviour over a long period of time. Piaget’s study
of eye-hand coordination on his daughter is one famous example of the longitudinal
approach.
Inspite of the longitudinal approach being the best way to actually “see” how
growth occurs, it has some disadvantages. These are:
* Difficulties are encountered in keeping contact with a large sample over a long
period of time.
* It is time consuming and expensive.
* Repeated testing makes the subjects test-wise which affects the scores.
Read the problems given and mention the approach suitable for their study:
1. Will characteristics observed in infancy like aggression, and mistrust persist till
childhood?
2. Do children at different ages show the same emotional response to viewing

films on ghosts?
3. Do children of 5 years of age belonging to different cultures show the same

intellectual ability?
4. At what age children should be observed to examine the pattern of eye-hand

coordination.
5. Studying the effect of early parental deprivation on adjustment during pre-

adolescence.
6. Study of children’s social response from birth to five years of age
PSYCHOLOGY 13

• Development consists of progressive, coherant and orderly changes. The
Notes changes have a definite direction and lead forward. Changes which occur are
not haphazard in nature.
• Development occurs through two main processes maturation and learning.
• The growth curve helps us to find changes in the course of development, the
period of maximum growth, and change in the pattern of growth.
• The principles of development are:
• it follows a pattern
• proceeds from general to specific
• development is continous
• individuals differ with respect to the rate of development
• development leads to integration
• development occurs at different rates for different persons
• The approaches to the of study of development are:
(i) cross sectional
(ii) longitudinal
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Explain the term development.
2. What are the two main processes which bring about development?
3. State briefly the main principles of development. Give examples to illustrate
any three of them.
4. How does knowledge of the principles of development help?
5. Differentiate between the following:
(i) Maturation and Learning.
(ii) Longitudinal and Cross-sectional approach.
(iii) Ego centricism and allocentricism.
(iv) Heteronomy and autonomy
14 PSYCHOLOGY

11.1
Notes
(i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) True
(v) True (vi) False
11.2
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. True
5. True 6. False 7. True 8. True
9. True 10. True 11. True
11.3
1. Long 2. Cross 3. Cross 4. Cross
5. Long 6. Long

1. Refer section 11.1.1
2. Refer section 11.1
5. i) Refer section 11.2
ii) Refer section 11.5
iii) Refer section 11.4. (5)
iv) Refer section 11.4 (7)
PSYCHOLOGY 15
MODULE -III Domains of Development
Notes
12
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Whenever we see a child we often go back to our own childhood.

Can you remember the days and activities you did when you were a child?
Can you recall what all you did?
We all must have been playing and running a lot, whereas, now as grown ups, we
mature in our activities and also behave in a different manner. In the family we can
see that our parents behave differently because they are more mature than us. This
is because we are in different periods of life which are called stages. Human life
proceeds through different stages. In this lesson you will study and learn about
development as it takes place in the various stages of human life.
OBJECTIVES
• describe what is a developmental task;
• identify the development stages in the human life span;
• list the main characteristics of development at each stage;
• list the developmental tasks representing the different stages.
• explain the difference between boys and girls after attaining puberty.
• explain the critique of Freud’s theory of psycho-sexual development.
12.1 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Human life proceeds by stages. For example, childhood is a stage. After growing
16 PSYCHOLOGY
Domains of Development MODULE-III
up to some degree the child proceeds to the adolescent stage. Each stage is
characterized by a dominant feature, a leading characteristic which gives the period
its uniqueness. For example, a child is expected to go to school and study and an
adult is expected to work and support family. Certain characteristics stand out
more prominently than others in these periods and each period is called a stage. Notes
People learn certain behaviour patterns and certain skills more easily and successfully
at certain stages and this becomes the social expectation. For example, a father is
supposed to run the family and a child to study and go to school. Such social
expectations of a particular age common to all persons are known as
‘developmental tasks’.
Developmental tasks are social expectations of a particular age. Havighurst was

the first developmental psychologist to identify the developmental tasks of different
age groups. Developmental tasks at different stages are as follows:
Birth to 6 years Developmental tasks Adolescent
from 6-12 years
1. learns to walk 1. learns physical skills for Developmental
simple games tasks of adolescent
2. takes solid food 2. learns to get along with stage are given in
friends of his age chapter 15.
3. talks 3. learns gender roles
4. controls the 4. develops basic skills in
elimination of body reading, writing and
wastes calculating
5. learns differences 5. develops concepts
between genders necessary for everyday
living
6. learns the differences 6. develops independence in
between right and wrong. daily activities
7. develops morality and a
set of values
Try it yourself
Write down the names of the members of your family and identify the different
stages they are in.
12.2 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

You have read that different periods during development are marked by various
stages. All children progress in a definite order through these stages and they all
follow similar basic patterns. These stages along with the corresponding ages of
PSYCHOLOGY 17
the child have been identified by developmental psychologists as follows.
Stage Time frame

prenatal before birth
Notes
infancy 0 to 1 year
early childhood 1-3 years
preschool 3-6 years
school childhood 6-12 years
adolescence 12-20 years
young adulthood 20-30 years
adulthood 30-50 years
mature adult 50-65 years
aging adult 65+
1. Prenatal Period (before birth)
Life begins at the time of conception. When the child is in the mother’s womb the
particular period spent there is known as prenatal period. All important external
and internal feelings start to develop at this stage.
2. Infancy (0 to 3 years)
From birth up to the third year of life, the stage is known as infancy. Babies grow
very rapidly in size during their first three years. The acquisition of motor skills like
holding things, crawling, walking proceeds from simple to complex.
3. Pre-school childhood (3-6 years)
The growth in height is not as rapid during this stage as it is in infancy. Children
improve eye, hand and small muscle coordination. For example they can draw a
circle, pour fluids into a bowl, button and unbutton clothes, and language
development is rapid.
4. School childhood (6-12 years - Primary school years)
School children between the age of 6 to 12 years look much taller and thinner.
Children exhibit rapid gains in strength and swiftness. They achieve new
motor skills and their competence becomes more pronounced in all areas of
development.
18 PSYCHOLOGY
5. Adolescence (12-20 years)

It is the span of year between childhood and adulthood which begins at puberty.
This is the period of rapid physiological growth. There are a number of psychological
changes which also take place. Children jump rope, bicycle, ride horses, dance
Notes
and indulge in all possible games. Cognitively they are more agile and social
relationships become important. But the hallmark of this stage is the search for
identity. A number of psychological changes also take place. Given sex-role-
expectations, girls attach greater importance to good interpersonal relationships
and the family while boys emphasize the importance of their own social prestige
and career.
6. Adulthood (20-65+ years)

For better understanding, adulthood can be divided into three stages. These are:
(a) Young adulthood (20-50 years)

(b) Mature adulthood or the Middle years (50-65 years)
(c) Aging adulthood (65+ years)
Strength and energy characterize this time of life from the middle twenties when
most bodily functions are fully developed, until about the age of 50. Thereafter
there is gradual decline in energy level. Details of this stage are dealt with separately
in chapter 16.
Try it yourself
You have parents and other brothers and sisters at home. Find out their age and
classify them according to the ages given above for each stage. List their
characteristics. Talk to your parents to find out how they have changed over a
period of time. This exercise will enable you to develop an insight into the
characteristics which people show at different stages of life.

1. Human life proceeds by ...............

2. Social expectations are known as ...................
3. Childhood is a ..................
4. Rate of growth is most rapid during ......................
5. There is a decline in energy after the age of ...................
PSYCHOLOGY 19
12.3 ASPECTS OR AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT

At each stage, development takes place in various areas or domain simultaneously.
Development in the respective areas during different stages is discussed under the
Notes following aspects:
Physical : Physical development is about the physique, i.e. height and weight.
Motor : Motor development is about the muscular development and coordination.
Cognitive : Cognitive development is about mental growth and intellectual

development.
Language : Language development is about the way children learn language, and
the age at which they acquire different components of language.
Personality development: It is about the total development of personality.
Psychosocial : Psychosocial development is about the cultural and societal
influences on personality.
Emotional : Emotional development is about different emotions at various stages
and how they grow over a period of time.
Moral : It deals with what is right and what is wrong, the age at which this knowledge
is acquired and with the rules of punishment and justice. Development of conscience
and values also comes under the domain of moral development
Vocational- : It deals with choices about career and how they arise and are pursued
in life.
Let as study about some of these:
a) Physical development
Babies grow very rapidly in size during their first three years: Even the proportions
of their bodies change markedly. They gain twice as much in height during their
first year of life as compared to the second year. Most children grow three times
of their birth weight during the first year and then gain only about one-fourth of that
during the second year. During the third year, increments in both height and weight
are smaller. A baby’s brain reaches about two-thirds of its adult size during the first
year, and four-fifths by the end of the second year.
Preschool years: During the preschool years children’s height no longer increases
as rapidly as during infancy. It continues to grow at a steady 2 to 3 inches per year
until they reach the growth spurt that occurs during puberty.
20 PSYCHOLOGY
Middle/ Late School childhood: School children between the age of 6 to 12 look
very different from their preschool brothers and sisters. They are much taller and
thinner. Girls generally retain more fatty tissue than boys and continue to do so
throughout adulthood. Younger boys are generally slightly heavier and taller than
younger girls. But girls reach their pubescent growth spurt before boys and now Notes
tend to be larger. Adolescence is the span of years between childhood and
adulthood. It begins at the age of twelve and ends at the age of twenty. Its beginning
is marked by pubescence. It is that stage of rapid physiological growth when
reproductive functions and primary sex organs mature, and when the secondary
sex characteristics appear. A sharp adolescent growth spurt occurs around this
stage.
Strength and energy are at its peak during the age range 20-50 years and declines
from this peak are so gradual that they are hardly noticed. After the age of 65, old
age sets in that is marked by physical debilitation and loss of agility.

(a) Children gain ...................as much in height during their first year of life
as during the second year.
(b) Most children grow .................... times in their birth weight during the
first year and then gain only about ................ of that during the second
year.
(c) Girls retain more ........................ during adolescence than boys.
(d) Different areas of development are .....................
2. State whether the following statements are true or false:
(a) Children grow very rapidly in middle childhood. T/F
(b) Strength and energy are at their peak during 10-20 years. T/F
(c) A baby’s brain reaches about two-thirds of its adult size during the first
year, and four-fifths by the end of the second year/ T/F
(d) A sharp growth spurt occurs around adolescence. T/F
b) Motor Development
There is a definite order for acquiring motor skills, proceeding from the simple to
the complex. The changes in body proportions have an effect on the child’s
PSYCHOLOGY 21
behaviour. When they change rapidly, they temporarily lose control over their
body. Initially babies have a poor motor control. With increase in age, their motor
development shows more control. Their control over body parts gets specific and
differentiated as they grow. It proceeds from good control of their hands to good
Notes control of their fingers, e.g. if a small child picks up a biscuit, he moves his large
joints like shoulders and the whole hand. As he grows older, he uses his fingers
only to pick up those biscuits. His movements are differentiated and specific. After
they have gained control over various differentiated movements and thus manage
walking.
These skills are acquired at a particular age and are called milestones.
Some milestones of motor development-

Head control 1 month
Sitting without support 7 months
Rolling over at about 5 months
Prewalking locomotion at about 9 to 10 months (crawling)
Standing stand alone at 13 or 14 months
Walking with help at 9 to 11 months, walk alone at 15
months,
Climb with help at 18 months
Jump at 20 months
Manipulation 15 month old shows mature grasp.
Preschoolers: Three year old improves eye-hand and small-muscle coordination.
They can draw a circle, pour into a bowl, button and unbutton, cut on a line, make
designs and crude letters, and fold paper. At 5, they can string beads well, grasp
and control a pencil appropriately, copy a square, etc.
School children keep getting stronger, faster, and attain better coordination as
they achieve new motor skills. They are able to jump rope, bicycle, dance and
indulge in all possible games. There are differences between abilities of boys and
girls at this stage. Boys improve in performance from ages 5 to 17. Girls on the
other hand improve through their early school years, reach a peak performance at
about 13, and decline in certain abilities or stay the same as they are encouraged
to put aside their “boyish” ways and conform to gender stereotypes of feminity.
From young adulthood through the middle years, biological changes do take place
but are so slow that they are hardly noticed till the age of 50 or 55. At this stage
22 PSYCHOLOGY
they feel they cannot work as much as they did earlier. There is also a slight loss in
sensory abilities and in physical strength and coordination.
Notes
1. What are milestones in development?
2. State whether the statements below are true or false.:
(a) Differentiation in development is followed by integration of movements
into complex behaviour patterns. T/F
(b) Babies begin to sit independently at the age of 4 months. T/F
(c) Babies begin to walk at the age of 2 years. T/F
(d) The child can grasp and manipulate at the age of 28 weeks. T/F
(e) Motor skills are acquired in a definite order. T/F
c) Cognitive (mental) development
Cognitive development deals with studying how human beings think, reason and
form concepts. In other words, it deals with the development of the mind. According
to a leading psychologist, Piaget, the mind like the body also has structures. The
basic unit or structure of mind is called ‘schema’. A schema is an abstract
representation of the orginial elements in an object. For example the infant’s schema
for a face is likely to emphasize an oval frame containing two horizontally placed
circular shapes (the eyes). It is likely that a schema is not an exact copy of any
particular object or event. This complex concept involves both mental organization
(a child’s conceptualization of a specific situation), and observable behaviour. A
schema is known by the behaviour it involves, e.g., the schema of sucking implies
that a baby recognizes the schema of hunger and therefore sucks. Here hunger is
the schema and the effort to get food or sucking is the behaviour which is
observable.
Schemata (plural of schema) are intellectual structures that organize events as they
are perceived by the organism into groups according to common characteristics.
For example, in the schema of face the child perceives common characteristics
that are organized in a particular way in all human faces. They are repeatable
psychological events in the sense that a child will repeatedly classify stimuli in a
consistent manner.
Cognitive development is influenced throughout by two general principles:
organization and adaptation.
PSYCHOLOGY 23
Organization involves the integration of all processes into one overall system. Initially
an infant’s schema of looking and of grasping are quite different, resulting in faulty
hand-eye coordination. Eventually the baby organizes these schemata in order to
hold and look at the object at the same time.
Notes Adaptation is a twofold process through which children create new structures to
deal effectively with their surroundings. It involves both assimilation and
accommodation, which are the essence of intelligent behaviour.
Assimilation is the taking in of a new object, experience or concept into an existing
set of schemata. When children use them to respond to a new stimulus, they are
assimilating. In this, the child interprets the meaning of an object in relation to an
existing schemea. For example, a child of 8 or 9 months who sees a ball will
probably try to put it in his mouth. In Piagetian terms, the child is assimilating the
ball into his sucking schema.
In the process of accommodation, the child changes his schema so that his response
is better tailored to the object. The process by which children change their actions
to manage new objects and situations is called accommodation. The example of
accomodation is imitation of others. In the process of imitation child suppresses
his/her available schema and strives to establish new schema.
Assimilation and accommodation are necessary for cognitive growth and
development and constantly work together to produce changes in a child’s
conceptualization of the world and reactions to it. The state of balance between
assimilation and accommodation is called equilibrium.

(a) .....................is a twofold process through which children create new structures
to deal effectively with their surroundings.
(b) .................. is the taking in of a new object or experience or concept into an

existing set of schemata.
(c) The process by which children change their actions to manage new objects
and situations is called .................................
(d) Adaptation involves both .....................and ......................
(e) The basic unit or structure of the mind is called...........................
(f) .....................involves the integration of all processes into one overall system.
24 PSYCHOLOGY
Stages of Mental Development

According to Piaget, cognitive development progresses through four major stages:
(i) Sensory motor (birth to 2 years): is characterized by reflex actions of the

Notes
infants.
(ii) Preoperational (2 to 7 years)
(a) Preoperational (2-4)
(b) Intuitive (4-7)
Children during this preiod are egocentric and do not have the concept of
object permanence.
(iii) Concrete operations (7 to 12 years)
Children of this age are able to differentiate themselves from the environment,
learn about the object permanence, and do goal-directed behaviours. They
can arrange things or objects in a sequence.
(iv) Formal operations (12+years)
During this period, children are able to do abstract reasoning and are able to
think like adults.
d) Moral Development
Moral development deals with the development of ethics or ethical norms, values,
the conscience and the ability to judge an act morally. Children cannot make moral
judgments until they achieve a certain level of cognitive maturity . According to
Piaget, children go through two stages in a rigid way, while the second stage is
characterized by moral flexibility. Children’s conception of rules, intentionality,
punishment and justice move from rigid to flexible thinking. This change is a sign of
cognitive development.
In stage 1
Child views an act as totally right or totally wrong and thinks everyone sees it the
same way. He cannot put self in place of others.
Child tends to judge an act in terms of actual physical consequences and not the
motive behind it.
Child obeys rules because they are sacred and not changeable.
Unilateral respect leads to feeling of obligation to conform to adult standards and
obey adult rules.
PSYCHOLOGY 25
Child favours severe punishment. He feels that punishment defines the wrongs of
an act. An act is bad if it will elicit punishment.
Child confuses moral law with physical law and believes that any physical accident
Notes or misfortune that occurs after a misdeed is a punishment willed by God or some
other supernatural force.
In Stage 2
Child can put self in place of others and see others’ point of view.
Child judges act by intentions and not by consequences.
Child realizes that rules are made by people and can be changed. There is mutual
respect for authority and peers.
Child favours milder punishment that leads to reform of the victim
Child does not confuse natural misfortune with punishment.
Not until adolescents have attained the Piagetian stage of abstract formal operations
can they reach the most highly advanced stages of moral development. People
have to be capable of abstract reasoning to understand universal, moral principles.

State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. Children can not make moral judgments until they achieve a certain level of
cognitive maturity. T/F
2. In the first stage a child deals with moral concepts in a rigid way, while the
second stage is characterized by moral flexibility.
3. In Stage1, child views an act as totally right or totally wrong and thinks everyone
sees it the same way. T/F
4. In Stage 2, child can put self in place of others and see others point of view.
T/F
e) Language Development
Children learn to understand language before they can speak it. Only a few minutes
after birth, infants can determine where sounds are coming from. Neonates can
26 PSYCHOLOGY
also tell the difference between sounds, based on frequency, intensity, duration
and tempo.
Towards the end of the first year, babies can distinguish among individual sounds
of their language. They can tell the difference between pairs of words that differ Notes
only in initial sound (like cat and bat)
Infants follow stages of prelinguistic speech before the first real word which involves
sequentially undifferentiated crying, differentiated crying, cooing, babbling, lallation
or imperfect imitation, or imitation of the sounds of others, expressive jargon, etc.
However, real communication involves the ability to speak, and, the ability to
understand what others say. Thus it entails four major developmental tasks-
comprehension, pronouncing legibly, building expressive vocabulary and meaningful
sentences.
When babies begin to utter meaningful speech, they again go through distinct stages
as follows:
1. One-word sentence: One-year-old points to and says ‘out’. Depending on

the situation, he may mean, “I want to go out” or “mom went out”.
2. Multiword sentence: At about two, he strings two or more words to make a
sentence., e.g., ‘Me go’. These words are only nouns and verbs. This
telegraphic speech contains only words that carry meaning.
3. Grammatically correct verbal utterances: Three-year-old have an impressive
command of language. They have a vocabulary of some 900 words; they
speak in longer sentences that include all parts of speech; and they have a
good grasp of grammatical principles. They make little allowance for exceptions
to the principles e.g. we goed to the store.
Between 3 and 4 year of age, children use 3-4 “telegraphic” sentences that include
only the most essential words. They ask many questions and can give and follow
simple commands. Their vocabulary includes about 900 to 1200 words. Between
the ages of 4 and 5, children’s sentences average four to five words. They can
now deal with such prepositions as over, under, in, on, and behind. They use
verbs more than nouns, and have a vocabulary of 1500 to 2000 words.
Between ages 5 and 6, children begin to use sentences of six to eight words. They
can define simple words, and they know some opposites. They use more
conjunctions, prepositions, and articles in everyday speech. Speech is fairly
grammatical although they still neglect the rules. Language becomes less egocentric
and more socialized, and vocabulary ranges from 2000 to 2500 words.
PSYCHOLOGY 27
Between 6 and 7 years of age, children’s speech becomes quite sophisticated.

They now speak in compound, complex, and grammatically correct sentences.
They use all parts of speech and they have a vocabulary of 3000 to 4000 words.
Piaget characterized preschool speech as being either egocentric or socialized.
Notes Egocentric speech consists of repeating words and syllables for the pleasure of
monologue (talking to oneself) and of collective monologue (two or more talking-
at each other with no communication). Socialized speech involves two-way
communication.
Six-year-olds use complex grammar and a vocabulary of some 2500 words but
they still have not mastered syntactic niceties. From the age of 4, children speak in
longer sentences and use more complicated grammar. During the early school
years, they rarely use passive sentences, or verbs that include the form have, or
conditional sentences (if you were to do this, I would do that). They develop
increasingly sophisticated understanding of syntax up to and possibly after the age
of 9. There is diminishing egocentricism during this stage.

State if the following statements are true or false:
1. After birth infants cannot determine where sounds are coming from. T/F
2. Babies utter meaningful speech through distinct stages. T/F
3. A child can speak sentences at the age of 3 years.
4. Between three and four years of age, children use three- to four-word
‘telegraphic’ sentences.
f) Personality Development
Personality development deals with an individual’s physique, temperament, traits,
abilities, aspirations, interests, etc., which are representative of him and give him a
distinct sense of identity.
One of the oldest and most significant theory of personality was given by Freud.
According to him, the personality structure has three parts-the id, the ego and the
superego. The ego develops when gratification is delayed; it operates on the reality
principle and seeks an acceptable way to obtain gratification. The superego or
conscience incorporates the morals of society, largely through identification with
the parent of the same sex.
The id is present at birth. Infants are egocentric. it is only when gratification is
28 PSYCHOLOGY
delayed and they have to wait for food that they develop their ego and begin to
differentiate themselves from the surroundings. Thus the ego develops soon after
birth. The superego does not develop until the age of 4 or 5. Freud viewed
personality development as the organization and expression of basic sexual energy
or libido. In Freudian thought, the human organism goes through several different Notes
stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital). Freud
assumed that the events of infancy and early childhood are major determinants of
adult personality. He saw the first three stages as particularly significant in their
relation to adult behaviour. The experiences during these stages determine
adjustment patterns and personality traits of people at adulthood. Individuals may
be fixated at a particular stage if their needs are not met or if thy are overindulged.
Fixation implies an immature attachment that remains in a neurotic way and interferes
with normal development.
In the oral stage (birth to 12-18 months) babies attain most of their gratification
from sucking any thing that can go into mouth. During this stage, infants are
concerned only with their own gratification. They are all id impulses as they operate
on the pleasure principle. If a baby does not feel satisfied at this stage, it may
become fixated. The adult personality of such a case may derive a disproportionate
amount of satisfaction from the mouth kissing, smoking, nail biting, overeating, or
overdrinking or an imperious demand for the loved object or over dependence
like babies.
The anal stage (12-18 months to 3 years) : Greatest pleasure during this stage
comes from moving their bowels and the way toilet training is handled. If there is
concern with cleanliness, a person may become obsessively clean or defiantly
messy, pedantic, obsessively precise and rigidly tied to schedules and routines.
Problems at the anal stage may make people hoard their possessions or may
cause them to identify love with the bestowal of material objects.
Phallic stage (early genital stage) : According to Freud, the primary zone of
psychosexual pleasure changes at about the age of 3 or 4, when interest and
pleasure become concentrated in the genital area. Preschoolers are fascinated by
anatomical differences between girls and boys and adults and children. According
to the theory of the Oedipus complex, a 3 to 6 year-old boy lavishes love and
affection on his mother, thus competing with his father for the mother’ s love and
affection. Unconsciously, the little boy wants to take his father’ s place, but he
recognizes his father’ s power. The child is caught up by conflicting feeling- genuine
affection for his father and also hostility, rivalry, and fear. Noticing that little girls
are different, he wonders what happened to them, and his guilt over feelings for his
mother, make him worry that he will be castrated by his father. Fearful, he represses
his sexual strivings toward his mother, stops trying to rival his father, and begins to
identify with him. Karen Horney (1924), although broadly in agreement with Freud’s
PSYCHOLOGY 29
theory of psycho-sexual development, dismissed the notion that young girls

experience penis envy during the phallic stage. Instead she introduced the concept
of womb envy, that boys may come to envy those parts of woman’s anatomy
which they lack. She suggested that young girls desire not the anatomical penis but
Notes the social penis - the power and identity that the phallus seems to ensure her male
counterpart.
The Electra complex is similar to the Oedipus. A little girl desires her father, fears
her mother, represses these feelings, and eventually identifies with the same-sex
parent.
Development of the superego
By identifying with the parent of the same sex, children actually take the parent’s
personality into their own. In psychoanalytic terms this is called introjections. They
introject their wishes, values and standards. The superego is comparable to
conscience. At this stage a child’ s conscience is rigid.
By middle childhood, youngsters resolve their Oedipal conflicts, accept their sex
roles, and can now turn their energies to acquiring facts, skills, and cultural attitudes.
The developing ego or self-concept of the school-aged child is threatened from

all sides. To uphold its strength, children may develop defense mechanisms,
many of which persist throughout adult life. You can read about some of them in
lesson 17

(a) .....................operates on the reality principle and seeks an acceptable way

to obtain gratification.
(b) The .................. or conscience, incorporates the morals of society, largely

through identification with the parent of the same sex.
(c) In ................ stage, their gratification.......... from sucking any thing that can
go in mouth.
(d) In the ...................... stage, greatest pleasure comes from moving their bowels.
(e) In Oedipus complex, children show love for the ........................ sex ..........
30 PSYCHOLOGY
2. State which of the statements below are true or false:
(a) The id is present at birth. T/F
(b) The ego develops soon after birth. T/F

Notes
(c) The superego does not develop until the age of 14 or 15. T/F
(d) Personality development is the organization and expression of basic sexual

energy or libido. T/F
(e) According to Freud, the events of infancy and early childhood have nothing
to do with adult personality. T/F
g) Psychosocial development
Psycho-social development focuses on children’s response to the social world. It
includes perception of self, others and relationships with others. From 2-6 years,
the child learns how to make social contacts and get along with people outside the
house. He learns to adapt himself to others and co-operate in group play.
h) Emotional development
All emotions play an important role in adjustment an individual makes in life. The
ability to respond emotionally is present in the newborn infant. The first sign of
emotional behaviour is general excitement due to strong stimulation. In 1919 the
psychologist claimed that infants are born with three major emotions-love, rage,
and fear-which are natural responses to stimuli. After a decade it was suggested
that emotional states are generalized in infants and not so specific as psychologists
had believed. It is believed now that newborns show only one emotion, an
undifferentiated excitement (also termed distress). The general excitement of the
newborn becomes differentiated into simple reactions that suggest pleasures and
displeasures. Even at the age of one year, the number of emotions has increased
and the child shows joy, anger, fear, jealousy, happiness, anxiety, curiosity and
envy. The emotions are present at birth and their development is due to maturation
and learning.
Babies’ emotions differentiate as they grow older, proceeding from general to

specific. From the first week of life they cry because of hunger, cold, pain, being
undressed, and having their sleep interrupted, when their feedings interrupted,
when stimulated in a fussy state, and when left alone. A baby’s smile is a basic
means of communication that sets in motion a beautiful cycle. At about four months
babies start to laugh aloud. They laugh loudly at all sorts things in an excited
manner. In the emotional sphere, the adolescent is capable of directing his emotions
PSYCHOLOGY 31
at abstract ideas and not just toward people. Many adolescents feel under constant
scrutiny from everyone and think that others are as admiring or as critical of them
as they are of themselves. They are continually constructing, or reacting to an
imaginary audience. They spend hours before the mirror imagining how they look
Notes in the eyes of others.

State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. Newborns show only one emotion-an undifferentiated excitement. T/F
2. Babies’ emotions differentiate as they grow older, proceeding from general to
specific. T/F
3. In the emotional sphere, the adolescent is capable of directing his emotions at
abstract ideas and not just toward people. T/F
4. Emotions are present at birth and their development is due to maturation and
learning.

• Development takes place in various stages of life:-
(i) Prenatal - before birth
(ii) Infancy - 0-3 years.
(iii) Preschool - 3-6 years
(iv) School childhood - 6-12 years
(v) Adolescence - 12-20 years
(vi) Adulthood - young adult 20-50 years
adult 50-65 years
aging adult 65 + years
• Social expectations of a particular age are known as developmental tasks.
• Milestones are ages at which particular skills are acquired.
• Development takes place in different areas ... Characteristics in each .... are
as given on pages 45-46.
32 PSYCHOLOGY
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Discuss various stages of development and the age groups corresponding to
these. Notes
2. What is a developmental task.?

3. What are the main areas of development?
4. Discuss the differences in the outlook of infants and pre-school children.
5. Write short notes on;
a) cognitive development
b) moral development
c) Personality development

12.1
1.Stages 2. Developmental tasks
3. Stage 4. First three years
5. 50
12.2
1. a) twice b) three; one- fourth c) fatty tissue,
d) physical, motor, mental, language, personality,
psychosocial, emotional, moral, vocational
2. a) F b) F c) T d) T
3. a) T b) T c) F d) T
12.3
1. Milestones are ages at which particular skills are acquired.
2. a) T b) F c) F d) F e) T
12.4
1. a) Adaptation b) Assimilation c) Accommodation
d) Assimilation; accommodation e) Schema
f) Schemata
PSYCHOLOGY 33
12.5
1) T 2) T 3) T 4) T
12.6
Notes 1) F 2) T 3) T 4) T
12.7
1. a) ego b) super ego c) oral d) anal e) oppoite
2. a) True b) True c) True d) True e) False
12.8
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T
HINTS TO TERMINAL EXERCISES

4. Refer section 12.3 (a)
5. a) Refer section 12.3 (c)
6. b) Refer section 12.3 (d)
1. c) Refer section 12.3 (f)
34 PSYCHOLOGY
Adolescence MODULE-III
Notes
13
ADOLESCENCE
Each one of us passes through a particular stage in life when we are caught
unaware by the sudden changes in our body or when our elders do not let off go
a single change to say that you’re grown up but not grown enough to take decisions.
This statement must be quite familiar to you. The period of growing up to an adult
from a child is known as adolescence.
Adolescence is one of the important stages in the life span of a human being. It is
the phase when very rapid changes take place both physically as well as
psychologically. The literal meaning of adolescence is to ‘grow up’. This means
accomplishing a number of developmental tasks. An adolescent has to adjust to
the changes taking place in his/her body and behaviour. He/She realizes that he/
she is no longer a child but has not become an adult. What does the growing
adolescents experience and feel? How does he/ she cope with the bodily changes?
Why does she/he behave the way she/he does? What are some of the psychological
characteristics of adolescents? These are some of the questions this lesson will
help you to understand.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the importance of adolescence;
• explain the psychological characteristics of adolescents;
• describe physical and psychological changes during adolescence;
• enumerate secondary sex characteristics of boys and girls;
PSYCHOLOGY 35
MODULE -III Adolescence
• list the developmental tasks faced by adolescents; and

• enumerate the problems faced by adolescencts related to body and self
• indicate the relationship between risk taking charactgeristics of adolescents
and substance abuse, STD, HIV/AIDS and premarital pregnancy.
Notes
13.1 WHAT IS ADOLESCENCE?
The stage of adolescence is one of the significant stages of development in human
beings which helps in the transition from childhood to adulthood. It starts from
about twelve years of age and continues through eighteen years. This period is
marked by rapid and significant physical and psychological transformation of the
child like maturation of the sex organs and increase in the height and weight. Let us
study about them.
Physical changes during adolescence: Puberty and Transition
During adolescence significant increment is noted in the following five areas of

physical growth:
i) Height
ii) Weight
iii) Shoulder width
iv) Hip width
v) Muscle strength
The changes during puberty are dramatic. Within a few years the school going
child is transformed into a full grown adult. These changes can be classified as.
(1) Harmonal changes

(2) Changes in body size and proportions
(3) Muscle fat make up and other internal changes
(4) Sexual maturation
Increase in height and weight is associated with redistribution of fat in the body
and an increase in the proportion of bone and muscle tissues. The growth spurt in
boys generally begins about two years later than it does in girls, but, continues for
a longer period. There are also changes in body proportion. Girls generally broaden
in the hips and the boys mostly in the shoulders. The waist line proportionately
drops.
There are also major changes in the secretion of hormones by the endocrine glands
in the body. The gonads, or the sex gland, begins to function bringing about sexual
36 PSYCHOLOGY
development. Both boys and girls develop sex charateristics, which are broadly
classified as
(i) Primary and
(ii) Secondary Notes
Primary sex characteristics in boys refer to the growth of the male sex organs
which include the penis, scrotum and testes. For girls the primary sex characteristics
refer to the growth of sex organs like uterus, fallopian tube and breasts.Ovulation
and menstruation among the girls and production of semen among the boys are
primary sexual developments directly related to reproductive capacity. There are
many secondary changes associated with the development of primary sexual
characteristics. Development of breasts among the girls, beard among the boys
and growth of pubic and underarm hair and changes in voice are some secondary
sex characteristics. These sex characteristics are acquired over a span of time.
The period of sexual maturity and reproductive capacity is called puberty.
13.2 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING

ADOLESCENCE
The adolescent has to attain particular attitudes, habits and skills if he or she has to
function effectively as an adult. These are called the developmental tasks of
adolescents.
During infancy and childhood, for example, the developmental tasks consist of
learning to take solid food, to achieve physiological stability, and to form simple
concepts of social and physical reality. During middle childhood, the tasks are to
learn physical skills necessary for games and to learn appropriate sex roles. You
have already read about these developmental demands in the previous lessons.
A developmental task is a task which pertains to a certain period in the life of the
individual. Successful performance of the developmental tasks leads to happiness
and success in later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual,
disapproval by the society and difficulty in handling later tasks.
The main developmental tasks for adolescents are listed below.
• Accepting one’s physique as it is and using the body effectively.

• Achieving new and more mature relationship with agemates of both sexes.
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
• Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults.
PSYCHOLOGY 37
• Preparing oneself to have economic independence through an enjoyable and

productive career.
• Preparing for marriage and family life.
Notes • Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
• Acquiring a set of values and ethical system and developing an ideology as a
guide to behaviour.
Thus an adolescent has to develop and acquire a wide range of skills and abilities.
These relate to all aspects of development: physical, emotional, social, moral and
cognitive. A supportive environment at home and school can greatly facilitate the
accomplishment of these developmental tasks.
13.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

ADOLESCENTS
In the previous section, you learnt about the physical (bodily) changes which take
place during adolescence. In this section you will learn about the psychological
changes that take place among adolescents. These psychological changes appear
in the areas of emotional, social, cognitive, and moral development. Let us now
examine them in detail.
13.3.1 Emotional Development

During adolescence, the individual faces a wide range and variety of emotions.
These include both positive as well as negative emotions. Happiness is experienced
as joy, exuberance, exhilaration, etc. and sadness is experienced as depression,
unhappiness, anxiety, fear, etc. In addition, feelings of anger, rebellion and protest
also emerge. Interestingly, emotions of loyalty, patriotism and sacrifice for the
nation also develop during adolescence.
Each of the above emotions is felt very intensely. In fact the strength and intensity
of adolescent emotions is one of their prominent characteristics. Adolescents tend
to express everything in an exaggerated form. It is common to hear adolescents
who express their liking for food as love-such as “I love Ice-cream”, “I love
cakes”, etc. Similarly, dislike is expressed as ‘hatred – “I hate that person” or “ I
hate eating fruits” etc.
Mood swings also occur quite frequently. This is another prominent feature among
the adolescents. Sometimes they are happy, sometimes sad. Sometimes they have
a high degree of patriotic zeal, but a few minutes later they become disillusioned or
38 PSYCHOLOGY
angry. This makes their behaviour somewhat unpredictable. Sex related emotional
experiences like ‘crushes’ and ‘infatuation’ also begin to surface during this period.
13.3.2 Social Development

Notes
In the social sphere, adolescents undergo a lot of changes in their interpersonal
relationships and they also begin to understand society and its diverse influences.
The dependence on parents noted during childhood gets transformed into
dependence on friends and peers. In fact, friendship becomes very important for
the adolescents and most of them like to spend more time with their friends than
with family. Being recognized as a popular member of a peer group is an important
adolescent need. The adolescents often get into argument with their parents and
elders since they want to break away from their control.
Attraction towards members of the opposite sex is another prominent characteristic

of the adolescent. This is natural and occurs mainly because of the sexual maturity
taking place among the adolescents.
The adolescents also begin to acquire beliefs, opinions, attitudes and stereotypes
about society based upon their own understanding. Media becomes a very powerful
source of influence in this stage, especially music and television. These provide
adolescents with role models like film heroes, great athletes, etc., whom they try
to emulate. Such models help the adolescents realize their fantasies and dreams.
Body image becomes a very important concern for the adolescents. Having an
appropriate figure in fact, is almost a teenage obsession. In addition, fashion and
glamour reflected in the style of dressing, sporting, make-up, having the right hairstyle
etc. become very important in their lives. These are associated with the social
roles that the adolescents want to develop and to experiment with.
13.3.3 Cognitive Development

The thinking and reasoning skills of adolescents expand substantially. They become
more competent especially compared to the earlier stage of late childhood. The
adolescents enter the stage of Piaget’s “formal operations” which means that they
can now understand abstract concepts and think in terms of probabilities as well.
They develop the capacity to think both inductively and deductively. They can
also reflect, analyse, judge, hypothesize and discuss various points of views.
Adolescents' own opinion about an issue becomes very important to them. This
often gets the adolescents into hot arguments with parents, teachers and friends.
PSYCHOLOGY 39
Adolescents begin to question every thing like an experimenter. They draw

conclusions only when they are convinced. They also tend to defend their point of
view very rigidly. There is a noticeable increment in their vocabulary. Adolescents
can attend to several intellectual tasks simultaneously making this a very promising
Notes stage of intellectual development.
13.3.4 Moral Development

In the moral sphere, too, the adolescents, undergo very significant changes. They
now develop a firm ethical sense or an understanding of what is right and wrong.
The ideas are based not only on what the parents and elders have taught but on
adolescents' own experience. They begin to question the social and moral codes
prevalent in society and accept only those which they are convinced of.
The eagerness to be a nice-boy/nice girl and to please others ceases to be important

now. It gets replaced by a questioning mind and conviction about adolescents
own stand on the issues.
During this stage, adolescence begin to understand the importance of law in

maintaining order in the society. Further, they begin to evolve a set of personal
values which become guiding principles in life. According to Gilligan (1982),
Kohlberg’s formulation of morality emphasized justice, while ignoring or
underplaying the role of feeling and care in moral decision-making. Gilligan herself,
and other theorists, argue that moral choices are more flexible and complex than
kohlberg’s work implies, and that morality may be simultaneously guided by several
sets of considerations.
To sum up, it may be said that adolescence is the stage of identity crisis, when the
individual is neither a child nor an adult. With the bodily changes and corresponding
psychological changes which take place, the individual is forced to reflect on the
question, “who am I?”. The answer to this question is not easy to find and it often
remains a pre-occupation throughout adolescence. Towards the end of
adolescence, however, the person emerges with a sense of identity.
INTEXT QUESTION 13.1

a. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
1.During adolescence emotions are felt very _____________.
2.During adolescence there is movement away from parents

towards______________________.
40 PSYCHOLOGY
3.The adolescent is cognitively in Piaget’s stage of

___________________.
4.Frequent ________________,_______________________ lead to the

unpredictablility of adolescent emotions. Notes
5.In the area of moral development adolescents begin to develop

a set of ________________.
b. Name the area in which psychological changes appear?
13.4 ADJUSTMENT AND COPING WITH

ADOLESCENT PROBLEMS
The physical and psychological characteristics of adolescents and the nature of
the developmental tasks which they are expected to face often lead to crisis in
development. Basically adolescents face problems related to their home, school
and society. Table 13.1 lists some common problems faced by adolescents relating
to their own self, family, school and society.
Table 13.1: Common Adolescent Problem
Problems related Problems related Problems related Problems related

to body to family to school to society
and self
Body image Authoritative parenting Strict Teachers Gender bias

Pimples Poor rapport with parents Partial treatment Caste related
Complexion Lack of communication Closed school problems
Eating disorders Low socio-economic Atmosphere Generation gap
Body changes background Not acceptable by Orthodox
Moodiness Non conducive atmosphere Classmates practices
Touchiness Space constraint Poor marks Repressive
Anger Comparison with others Too much home- Over expectation
Hypersensitivity work Lack of friends
Feelings of rebel No co-curricular
Crushes participation
Infatuation Long school hours
Day dreams
PSYCHOLOGY 41
The problems listed above represent only some common examples. Each individual
adolescent may have specific combination of similar and other problems. The
more serious problems include drug addiction, alcoholism, smoking, truancy, sexual
obsessions, etc. These problems may not appear in all the individuals.
Notes
13.5 SOME CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS FACED
BY ADOLESCENTS
By now, we know that the experiences of adolescents are products of both
biological and social factors. The biological changes are universal. The social
expectations from children about the way of behaving, developing new interpersonal
relationships often give rise to moments of uncertainity and self doubt.
Up till now you have studied about how adolescence is a major transition period
for an individual. Adolescence is a phase which makes a person enter into the
adult world. Growing up into adulthood makes one experience problems in various
domains of life including personal, social and educational.
Stereotypes and misconceptions related to adolescence period has given rise to

various problems among the adolescents. Some of the critical issues include
substance abuse, teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease and AIDS.
Let us try to understand these issues in detail.
a) Substance Abuse : Teenage substance abuse often has lifelong consequences.

Dependence on alchohol and hard drugs to deal with daily stresses reduce
their responsible decision making skills. They also increase serious adjustment
problems including depression and antisocial behaviour. To avoid this problem
proper guidance and creating conducive environment to channelize energy of
adolescents are needed so that they can cope up with stress.
b) Sexually Transmitted Disease : Another widespread problem, recently
observed throughout the world is Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD).
Teenagers are in greatest danger of getting affected by STD. They are the
ones who engage in irresponsible sexual behaviour. Adolescents should be
helped in removing their false beliefs about sex which put them at higher risk.
The adolescents should be provided proper sex education in an effective
manner.
c) Teenage Pregnancy: Becoming a responsible parent is a challenging and
stressful experience. It is especially difficult for adolescents. Child rearing
imposes lasting hardships on both the mother and the child. It also builds
stress. After going through so many problems of adolescents let us see the
42 PSYCHOLOGY
reasons related to these problems are: Lack of proper guidance from teachers
and parents, inappropriate effect of media, wrong association in peer groups,
and nervousness towards physical changes, faulty perceptions towards sex
instincls and mood swings. The society and family can provide young people
with good reasons to postpone early childbearing by expanding their Notes
educational, vocational and employment opportunities. Society and family
should provide proper guidance to adolescents regarding teenage pregnancy
and its problems.
Through guidance and counseling process, adolescents can be helped to solve
these problems. In particular, career counseling and vocational guidance can make
them aware of various career opportunities and educational choices. Personal and
social counselling can help adolescents in solving their problems. The family also
plays a crucial role in solving these problems. Parents, elders and peers can come
as useful help for the growing adolescents.

• Adolescence is an important stage in human development. It is a period of
transition from childhood to adulthood.
• This period is marked by rapid physical and psychological transformation.
• Major changes in body functioning are introduced by the secretion of hormones
by the various glands. Reproductive capacity and sex characteristics also
develop during this phase.
• The period during which the bodily changes occur to bring about sexual maturity
is called puberty. The puberty can be divided into three stages — prepubescent,
pubescent, post pubescent.
• Some of the developmental tasks of adolescents are achieving new and mature
relations with classmates, achieving appropriate masculine/feminine social role
and achieving emotional independence etc.
• Other than the physical changes, some psychological changes like emotional
development, cognitive and moral development, also take place.
• Some common problem of adolescents occur in relation to adjustment in
respect of home and family, self, school and society.
• Development of several life skills and guidance and counseling can help the
adolescents for a smooth transition to adulthood.
PSYCHOLOGY 43
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. How do adolescents express their emotions? Give illustrative examples.
Notes
2. What are the prominent social characteristics shown by the adolescents.
3. How do adolescents differ from children in their cognition?
4. List some developmental tasks of the adolescents?

13.1
a. 1. intensely
2. peers
3. formal operations
4. mood swings
5. personal values
b. The area of psychological changes are emotional, social cognitive and moral.

44 PSYCHOLOGY
Adulthood and Aging MODULE-III
Notes
14
ADULTHOOD AND AGING
‘What will you do when you grow up?’

‘What do you want from life?’
‘What have you planned for your old age?’
These and many more questions come to our mind everyday. Our lives are becoming
more complex day by day. We now have several options to choose from along the
way. At every stage of life, there are several changes coming up in the lifestyle of
the people. Adulthood is the most stable period of the life span. Adults achieve
stablity by making adjustment with the world outside as well as within one’s own
self. For example, a person who loses job, makes a desperate attempt to find a
new one and tries to adjust himself/ herself with it.
The present lesson starts by describing some of the important features of adulthood.
It then brings out the physical and psychological changes taking place during
adulthood. The later section of the lesson deals with problems of coping and
adjustment during this period. Some of the psychological interventions for the
aged are also given briefly.
OBJECTIVES
• describe some of the important developmental tasks to be performed during
adulthood;
• explain the important features of adulthood; and
• enumerate the problems of adjustment in old age.
PSYCHOLOGY 45
MODULE -III Adulthood and Aging
14.1 PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON

ADULTHOOD
It is believed that most of the development ends with adolescence. Only wisdom
Notes continues to grow during adulthood. However, there are many specific development
tasks during adulthood and old age requiring the grown up to engage in specific
development and make special adjustments in life. In this respect the perspectives
given by Havighurst and Levison are quite relevant.
Box 14.1: Havighurst’s Development Tasks
Early Adulthood:
Selecting a mate, Learning to live with a married partner, Starting a

family, Rearing children, Managing a home, Getting started in an
occupation, Taking on civic responsibility and Finding a congenial
social group
Middle Age:
Achieving adult civic and social responsibility, Establishing and

maintaining an economic standard of living, Assisting teenage children
to become responsible and happy adults, Developing adult leisure-
time activities, Relating to one’s spouse as a person, Accepting and
adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age and Adjusting to
aging parents
Old Age:
Adjusting to decreasing strength and health, Adjusting to retirement

and reduced income, Adjusting to death of spouse, Establishing an
explicit affiliation with members of one’s own age group, Meeting
social and civic obligations and Establishing satisfactory physical living
arrangements.
Havighurst’s developmental tasks are based on life situations. Another

psychological perspective is that of Daniel Levinson who derived his data from
clinical studies of men only. Levinson’s stages are described in Box 14.2.
46 PSYCHOLOGY
Box 14.2: Levinson’s Stages
Leaving the family (20-24): A transitional period from adolescence

to early adulthood that involves moving out of the family home and
establishing psychological distance from the family, analogous to Notes
Erikson’s stage of identity versus role diffusion.
Getting into the adult world (early 20s to 27-29): A time of

exploration and provisional commitment to adult roles in occupational
and interpersonal areas and of fashioning an initial “life structure”.
Settling down (early 30s to early 40s): A period of deeper

commitment, sometimes involving the expansion motif of Jung and
Kuhlen.
Becoming one’s own man (35-39): The high point to early adulthood.
The midlife transition (early 40s) : A developmental transition

involving a sense of bodily decline and a vivid recognition of one’s
mortality, as well as an integration of the feminine aspects of the self
as postulated by Jung.
Restabilization and the beginning of middle adulthood (middle

40s): A period in which some men make new creative strides but
other lose their vitality.
If you look at the developmental tasks and also Levinson’s analysis of stages of
adult development, you can realize that the specific development tasks are related
to the different social demands on a person at different stages of life. The need to
take up an occupation or to enter into a marital relationship during early adulthood,
for example, may be seen as leading to developmental tasks and challenges of
seeking and succeeding in an occupational role or selecting a life partner in marriage.
The social demands of different stages of life and hence, the developmental tasks
depend on the nature of the society and the cultural norms. In Indian joint family
system, for example, the nature of marriage and mate selection are different and,
therefore, the nature of developmental tasks are also different from what has been
observed by Levinson or by Havinghurst. Similarly, moving out from the family
home is a common feature of western societies or modern urban industrial
economies. As such, the processes and problems of development during adulthood
and old age are specific to the social context of the grown ups.
PSYCHOLOGY 47
14.2 THE PERIOD OF ADULTHOOD

Young adulthood: The period of young adulthood begins from the age of twenty
years onward. The major concerns of young adults in 20s are to establish themselves
Notes in life, job, and family. The young adult wants to seek social and economic security
in preparing for a role of greater independence and responsibility in society.
Middle Age: From the period of his twenties and thirties, the individual arrives at
middle age in the forties and fifties. Middle age is characterized by competence,
maturity, responsibility and stability. These are the important characteristics for
middle-aged adults. This is the time when one wants to enjoy the success of job,
satisfaction derived from family and social life. The individual looks forward to the
successes of children. Attention gets more focussed on health, the fate of children,
aging parents, use of leisure time and plans for old age. For women, menopause
occurs between the age of forty-five and fifty. Menopause is sometimes
accompanied by some distressing physical and psychological symptoms in women.
Men during this period show greater amount of concern towards their health,
strength, power, and sexual potency.
Old Age: The period of old age begins at the age of sixty. At this age most
individuals retire from their jobs formally. They begin to develop some concern
and occasional anxiety over their physical and psychological health. In our society,
the elderly are typically perceived as not so active, deteriorating intellectually,
narrow-minded and attaching new significance to religion. Many of the old people
lose their spouses and because of which they may suffer from emotional insecurity.
‘Nobody has ever died of old age’, is a true statement. Since old age is close to
the end point of life, death has been associated with old age. Death is actually
caused by disease, pollution, stress, and other factors acting on the body. In the
biological sense, some organs and systems of the body may start deteriorating. In
the psychological sense, there may be measurable changes in the cognitive and
perceptual abilities. There are also changes in the way a person feels about him/
herself.
You must have come across old people who are very active in life and socially
very particiaptive. Such persons seem to be productive and stable and happy.
Mental or physical decline does not necessarily have to occur. Persons can remain
vigorous, active, and dignified until their eighties or even nineties. In fact, the older
persons have vast reservoir of knowledge, experience, and wisdom on which the
community can draw. In view of increase in life expectancy increasingly greater
proportion of society is joining the group of aged people. Hence they need greater
attention in national planning and making them feel as an integral part of society.
48 PSYCHOLOGY
14.3 PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE CHANGES

DURING ADULTHOOD AND AGING
Normally people see old age as a period of decline in physical and mental health.
This section deals with physical and psychological aspects of aging. With advancing Notes
age, there are certain inevitable and universal changes such as chemical changes in
cells, or gradual loss of adaptive reserve capacity. There are also certain cognitive
changes taking place from middle adulthood onwards. These changes are slow
and gradual. They become more prominent among the elderly people.
(a) Physical Changes
It has been found that the organ system of most persons show a 0.8 to 1 percent
decline per year in functional ability after the age of 30. Some of this decline is
normal, some is disease related and some are caused by factors such as stress,
occupational status, nutritional status and various environmental factors.
Major physical changes with ageing are described as
(1) external changes

(2) internal changes, and
(3) changes in sensory capacities.
1. External Changes
External changes refer to the outward symptoms of growing old. The more
observable changes are those associated with the skin, hair, teeth, and general
posture.
There are changes in the skin. The most pronounced change is wrinkling. Wrinkling
process begins during middle years. Skin also becomes thick, hard and less elastic.
It becomes brittle and dry.
With advancing age, the hair of the person continues to turn white and loses its
luster. It continues to thin. By the age of fifty-five, about 65 percent of men become
bald.
It is estimated that at age 65, fifty percent people have lost all their teeth. For
many, dentures become a way of life. Over the time, the production of saliva is
diminished. This increases the risk of tooth decay.
Physical strength begins to decline from age 30 to age 80 and above. Most
weakening occurs in the back and leg muscles, less in the arm muscles. There is a
progressive decline in energy production. Bones become increasingly brittle and
tend to break easily. Calcium deposits and disease of the joints increase with age.
PSYCHOLOGY 49
Muscle tissue decreases in size and strength. Muscle tone becomes increasingly
difficult to maintain with age because of an increase in fatty substance within the
muscle fibres. This is often caused by the relative inactive role thrust on the elderly
in our society. Exercise can help maintain power and sometimes even restore
Notes strength to the unused muscles. Changes in the general posture become more
evident in old age.
The loss of teeth, balding and greying of the hair, wrinkling of the skin, and lack of
physical strength all have a potentially negative effect on an individual’s self-concept
and confidence.
2. Internal Changes
Internal changes refer to the symptoms of growing old that are not visible or obvious.
We shall examine some of the changes taking place with increasing age in the
respiratory system, gastrointestinal system, cardiovascular system, and central
nervous system.
The Respiratory System: With increasing age, there is reduction in breathing
efficiency. The lungs of an old person do not expand to take in as much air as the
lungs of a young person. Decreased oxygen supply makes the old person less
active, less aware and less strong. This decline seems to be part of normal aging
process.
The Gastrointestinal System : With increasing age there is decreased capacity
for biting and chewing, decrease in the production of digestive enzymes, decreased
gastric and intestinal mobility and lack of appetite.
The Cardiovascular System: Cardiovascular system which includes the heart
and the blood vessels show the effects of normal aging rather slowly. With the
aging process there is a decrease in the elasticity of blood vessels and blood cell
production also. Increase-in time required for heart to return to rest and arterial
resistance to the passage of blood is also found. Many old individuals are found to
be suffering from high blood pressure. However, healthy old individuals are found
to have blood pressure similar to those of young healthy indiciduals.
The Central Nervous System (CNS) : The CNS shows certain universal changes
as a function of age. There is decreasing rate of arterial and venous flow. Beginning
at about age 60, there is a reduction of cerebral blood flow. There is also a decline
in oxygen and glucose consumption. Number of cells and cell endings are found to
be decreasing. The most definite change is the slowing down of responses.
3. Changes in Sensory Capacities
With advancing age, there is gradual slow down in the sensory abilities. We
communicate with the outer world through our senses. Losses in any senses can
have profound psychological consequences.
50 PSYCHOLOGY
Vision: Increasing age brings in several problems in vision. The lens continues to
lose elasticity. The pupils become smaller, irregular in shape. The eyelids have a
tendency to sag. Colour vision becomes less efficient. Cataract and glaucoma are
commonly found among the elderly. People with cataracts have blurred vision.
This also interferes with normal vision. Notes
Hearing: Hearing seems to be at best around the age 20. From then onwards
there is a gradual decline. Most hearing loss is not noticed. However, in the case
of hearing problem, it can be improved by a hearing aid.
Other senses: The senses of taste and smell decline with old age. This decline
affects appetite and nutritional requirements of the elderly. You must have noticed
that many old persons demand food that is overly sweet or spicy. This is because
the four basic tastes, sweet, bitter, sour, and salty, all generally diminish in sensitivity.
Sensitivity to touch appears to increase from birth to about 45 and then decreases
sharply.
14.4 COGNITIVE CHANGES DURING ADULTHOOD

AND AGING
The term ‘Cognition’ refers to the processes by which information is acquired,
stored, and used. In this section, four major aspect of cognition-memory, learning,
attention and intelligence will be discussed in relation to adulthood and aging.
a) Memory
Memory is one of the most central aspects of cognition. Memory has been defined
as ‘the mental processes of retaining information for later use and retrieving such
information’.
No significant age differences may be found in short-term memory task like forward
digit span or word span. Older subjects do not perform as well on the tasks that
demand repeating numbers in reverse order. Old persons are found to perform
poorer than young ones on long-term memory tasks which require processing of
information and organization of material.
b) Memory of the Elderly
Memory performance with advanced age is affected by several factors. Some of
the important factors are given below.
(i) Beliefs about Memory
Old persons’ beliefs and attitudes about their memory ability affect their memory
performance. Research shows the role of beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, and
PSYCHOLOGY 51
knowledge in memory abilities. Questionnaires typically ask respondents how

frequently they forget names and events, how anxious they are about forgetting,
what they know about how to improve memory and what strategies they employ
in remembering. Older adults have been found to have more difficulties with their
Notes memory than do younger adults. The common expression among elderly has been
‘I am getting old’. Elderly persons are often found to be complaining about their
memory failures.
(ii) Use of Memory Strategies
Memory requires the use of strategies. Memory performance would be better for
those who can use effective memory strategies. An example of memory strategy is
repeating to yourself over and over again the items you want to buy is connected
with something that is familiar. For example, if you want to remember the name of
somebody, you may associate that person with some popular figure. You can also
use memory aids such as a diary or writing out a list of items you want to buy at the
grocery store. Most of us use some such strategies every now and then but we are
not aware of using them. In their everyday lives, the elderly persons are more
likely to use diaries, making lists of things to buy, etc. than using rehearsal or
association strategy.
(iii) Life Styles of Elderly
The type of daily activities in which elderly persons engage determines their memory
performance. The elderly persons who engage in daily activities like playing chess
or bridge, their performance on some of the memory and reasoning tasks is found
to be better than elderly non-players. Another aspect of lifestyle determining
cognitive performance is regularity in the structure of daily life. Regularity of sleep
patterns, daily exercise, following regular schedule of every day activities helps to
maintain everyday cognitive functioning.
c. Learning
Learning involves formation of new association. It means acquisition of general
rules and knowledge about the world. It is believed that learning performance
tends to be poorer during late than early adulthood. Can older people acquire
new information and skills? Can they try new careers? Such questions are difficult
to answer. We must note that the ability to learn may be relatively unchanged in old
persons. Factors such as poor motivation, lack of confidence, test anxiety, etc.
may lower performance on learning tasks.
Old persons’ learning performance maybe very close to that of young persons if
older persons are allowed more time or can self-pace the tests. They were found
to perform better when there is no time pressure and the material is presented very
distinctly and in a simplified manner.
52 PSYCHOLOGY
d. Attention
The term attention refers to the manner in which we focus on what we are doing.
People vary in how wide their attention span is. If attention span is too narrow,
one looses a lot of information. Old people may not differ from young people in Notes
terms of their attention span as such. However, they get easily distracted by any
kind of interference. With training, attention can be improved.
e. Intelligence
As has been pointed out earlier many of our impressions of old age originate from
inaccurate knowledge or misconceptions. How do elderly persons perform on
intelligence test? Most of the intelligence tests require speed of performance. We
have already discussed that old persons are slower on reaction time. Thus lower
performance on intelligence tests may be due to slower reaction time than due to
a decline in intellectual functions. General knowledge does not decline with age.
Among the elderly, we often find reduced abilities for complex decision making
and slowing of performance. Hardly any losses in verbal comprehension, social
awareness and the application of experience may be noticed among the older
people.
Intelligence in adulthood and aging maybe viewed as enabling the individual to
cope with a variety of demanding everyday tasks and events. Everyday intelligence
of the elderly maybe determined by their ability in reading road maps, understanding
labels, filling out forms, understanding charts, conversations, TV programmes,
doing shopping, driving during rush hours, and performing many other daily jobs.
You may remember that we have already discussed that elderly work best when
they are away from pressure and can set their own pace. Moreover, the factor of
general health is very important to be considered. Healthy individuals and those
who lead happy and active life generally show no or little loss of intellectual abilities
during old age.

1. List the factors in memory performance of the elderly.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. How can be everyday intelligence of the elderly be judged?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
PSYCHOLOGY 53
14.5 PROBLEMS OF ADJUSTMENT IN OLD AGE

How does one adjust to the aging process? Different people adopt different coping
strategies to adjust with their current life situations. Some aged people try to remain
Notes very active by engaging themselves in social roles, enjoy interpersonal relationships
and happily participate in some type of occupational activities while others tend to
remain socially isolated and withdrawn. The level of activity and nature of
engagement is determined by health status, socioeconomic status and family status
of the elderly. Let us study about some of the related problems.
A. Poor Image Problems faced by Older People

Older people in general do not like themselves as much as younger people. Older
men are generally found to have lower self-esteem than older women. This may
be due to the fact that men’s self-esteem is related to their occupational achievement
while women tend to derive their feelings of self-worth from family circumstances.
Thus when men retire in old age or loose their occupational status, their self-
esteem goes down. Women, on the other hand, continue to derive self-satisfaction
by their family involvements.
B. Happiness
When asked “Is your life exciting?” majority of elderly men and women report
that they hardly had any feeling of excitement in their lives and that their life is very
dull with nothing to look forward to. However, before we conclude that life gets
duller as one goes along, we need to consider many factors towards one’s own
self as an old person and kind of expectations from life.
C. Economical Problems
Self-employed elderly persons or those having their family business continue to
work until they die or became disabled. Those who work for others retire after a
certain age. Individual’s personal attitude toward retirement varies as a function of
a number of factors such as income, educational level, and occupational level.
Adjustment to retirement is often difficult for individuals. Retirement requires
adjustment to a new life-style characterized by decreased income, lesser activity
level, and increased free time. Retirement causes extreme stress in males because
in our society a significant part of men’s identity depends on their jobs. Loss of job
thus results in loss of self –esteem and self-worth. Retired people find it difficult to
adjust to retirement because of financial problems, illness, and feelings of loneliness.
Retired individuals have to make several adjustments in their roles, personal and
social associations, and in their sense of accomplishment and productivity. However,
54 PSYCHOLOGY
it does not necessarily mean that retirement results in negative consequences for
every body. In case of some, it may not have any adverse effects on their self-
esteem and life satisfaction. Health may even improve for some after retirement.
Retired individuals may find more time for social and hobby-related activities
Notes
especially if they have adequate economic resources and are healthy to engage in
these activities.
D. Death
Elderly persons are not afraid of death per se. They do, however, fear to a great
extent the dying process — the process of dying in pain or dying alone. Their
feelings related to death may be due to specific occurrences in their lives such as
being moved from home to nursing home, failing health, or the loss of one’s spouse.
Thus fear about death must be understood in light of current life circumstances, the
individual’s own value system, and what death personally means to a person.
E. Depression
Older persons often show two major symptoms of depression : depressive mood
(sadness, guilt, hoplessness, helplessness) and reduced behaviour (giving up,
apathy). Many elderly persons also represent their depression somatically by
complaints (such as loss of appetite, sleep disturbances). Both biological factors
(biochemical disturbances) and social/cultural factors (cultural views regarding the
worth of the aged person, isolation, retirement, institutionalization) can contribute
to depression in aged persons. Other factors such as perceived loss of sexuality,
material possessions, and failures also contribute to depression.
14.6 COPING WITH THE PROBLEMS

How does one cope with increasing age? Different people adopt different coping
strategies to meet their life challenges. Some of the effective coping strategies may
be summarized as follows:
(1) The elderly need to develop an attitude of flexibility so that they may adapt to
life’s pressures and problems of old age.
(2) They need to recognize that they have to explore new ways of coping with
their life events.
(3) The elderly need to make greater use of information seeking and of problem
solving rather than withdrawing or isolating.
(4) Increasing one’s self-confidence, self reliance, developing healthy attitude about
one’s strengths and weaknesses, learning and maintaining effective coping skills
PSYCHOLOGY 55
and adopting an active approach toward the environment are some of the
important ways of making healthy adjustments in old age.
(5) Enlarging social networks is another way of coping with life problems.
Participating in various group activities such as joining clubs and certain
Notes
organizations for informal social interaction is very helpful for the aged. Building
a social network of people of their own age group in the neighbourhood or
elsewhere provides them with greater opportunity to share their life
circumstances and find emotional expression to their existing problems. Through
such social networks, one can get an unconditional expression of approval,
share secrets, provide new experiences to each other, and develop trusting
relationships.
(6) Involvement in grand parenting helps elderly satisfy many of their personal
and emotional needs. Grandparents can serve as important role models. Old
people find these roles emotionally self fulfilling and tend to derive self-
satisfaction through achievement of their grandchildren.
14.7 PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS FOR THE

AGED
All of us need to turn to others (friends, relatives, professionals) for help in times of
severe stress. In this section we will examine what kinds of psychological
interventions can be used for dealing with difficulties of elderly and enabling them
to cope with life on a daily basis.
Our chief concern with elderly can be improving their quality of life. The attempt
needs to be in the direction of building adaptive resources. The most important
goals of psychological interventions are:
1. Insight into one’s behaviour
2. Anxiety or depression relief
3. Adaptation to a present situation
4. Improving self-care skills
5. Encouraging activity
6. Facilitating independence
7. Accepting one’s weakness and difficulties
8. Improving interpersonal relationships
There are several psychological interventions which are needed for the aged and
have proved to be very useful. Some of the important ones are described below:
56 PSYCHOLOGY
A. Seeking Help through Mental Health Services
Old persons can be provided help from professionals or from family, friends or
neighbours to solve their personal or social problems. Many of their problems
may be solved by joint family members. Depending on their resources, elderly Notes
need to seek professional help for their personal and family matters. Counselling
psychologists can help people prepare for and cope with potentially stressful life
events like retirement, death of spouse and financial insecurity. They can be
motivated to have an active orientation toward oneself and the world and to keep
their options open.
B. Cognitive Behavioural Interventions
Elderly persons seem to be lacking realistic feedback about themselves from others,
and thus make ‘thinking errors’. Feelings of inadequacy about one self can lead to
fear, anger, frustration and depression. Cognitive therapy is very effective in
substituting irrational thoughts with rational thoughts. Relaxation training helps
reducing anxiety and tension. Cognitive-behavioural interventions have been found
to be useful in treating depression, anxiety, memory loss, and response speed in
the aged.
C. Behavioural Interventions
Behavioural interventions are based on positive and negative reinforcing stimuli.
Elderly persons for example can be given positive reinforcement such as verbal or
material reward for the desired self-care behaviour and negative reinforcement
(depriving of reward) for the undesirable aggressive behaviour. It is relatively brief
and economical. However, it requires a great deal of expertise to use effectively.
D. Family Therapy
Family therapy aids in adjustment to various life problems such as retirement,
family care giving role, grandparenthood, family conflicts between young and the
aged, coping with illness of elderly, and family decision about institutionalization of
the elderly people. If properly handled, family therapy can strengthen the feelings
of love, closeness and interdependence.
E. Societal Intervention
In addition to changing the individual, we might like to change the environment or
the context in which a person functions. Attention needs to be paid to home
environment, activity programmes, as well as to neighbourhood and community in
which the person lives. Societal intervention would involve altering attitudes towards
the aged and increasing the older person’s reliance on the community, family, and
friends.
PSYCHOLOGY 57
1. What factors cause depression in old age?

Notes
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Name three psychological interventions.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

• Age is one of the basic categories in which people are classified. At each sub
stage of adulthood, there are certain special needs and demands which need
to be fulfilled for healthy adjustment. During young age, need for an appropriate
job and family security is very important. During middle-age, one is trying to
derive satisfaction from a successful job and family life. In old age, concern is
more towards physical and psychological health, and emotional and financial
security.
• The patterns of physiological aging in the brain and the body are as varied as
the individuals who age. Factors such as diet, smoking, excessive drinking,
stress all affect the status of health. Many of our society's myths about aging
are based on misinformation or prejudice. Though there is a systematic
decrement and loss of reserve, it does not necessarily create physical or
psychological incompetence and invalidism. Also, early studies on human aging
were conducted on hospital or mental patients. Few studies were conducted
on normally functioning elderly persons who led active lives. It is important to
establish which physiological changes are due to the aging process itself and
which are due to environmental factors like disease, diet, lack of activity or
exercise. Most of the aged people have more than enough systematic capacities
to meet the demands of everyday life. It is a mater of developing positive
attitude towards their own health care from adulthood onwards.
• Sensory capacities decline with age. Because of decreased sensory efficiency,
old persons are less able to participate in many social activities. As a result,
they seem to be gradually losing interest in their personal hobbies and tend to
experience loneliness.
• With advancing age, there may be decline in some of the mental functions,
such as reaction time, complex decision making and difficulty in retrieving
58 PSYCHOLOGY
stored material. Intelligence remains fairly constant. If allowed more time and
self-paced task performance, elderly can perform much better as compared
to time controlled conditions.
• Self-esteem, or how much one likes oneself, depends on one’s concept of
what one should be like. Notes
• Women tend to derive their self-worth from family circumstances and men
from job circumstances.
• Happiness or excitement seems to decrease with age. However, factors such
as health, attitude towards one’s self, life circumstances are important
determiners of happiness.
• For most individuals, retirement is a difficult and stressful event. For some,
retirement can be perceived positively as they can devote more time to their
hobbies and leisure activities.
• In bereavement, elderly persons suffer from depression, loss of social support
and physical problems. Loneliness is a chief problem for all bereaved.
• Aged persons tend to suffer from depression due to biochemical disturbances,
personal inabilities, and social/cultural factors. They may represent their
depression somatically.
• With increasing age, people seem to gradually build up a repertoire of coping
skills which give them survival power during old age. Older people can endure
greater stress than young ones.
• Psychological interventions at multilevels — individual, family and societal,
prove to be effective in enabling the elderly cope with daily life events. They
help the elderly in their personal growth and improving their quality of life.
Elderly can deal more effectively with their stresses, conflicts, anxiety, depression
and health-related problems of themselves and of the family members.
Psychological interventions should be geared to the needs, interests, capabilities
and life goals of the elderly.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the major developmental tasks for the middle aged people?
2. Describe some of the external changes taking place with advancing age.
3. What happens to the cardiovascular system during old age?
4. What are the economical problems in old age?
5. What are the chief goals of psychological interventions?
6. Write short notes on
(i) Bereavement
PSYCHOLOGY 59
(ii) Societal interventions for the aged

(iii) Depression in old age
(iv) CNS changes with age
Notes (v) Family therapy
14.1
1. a) Belief about memory b) Use of memory strategies
c) Life styles of elderly
2. It can be judged through their ability in reading road maps, understanding
labels, filling out forms, understanding conversations, doing shipping and
performing daily jobs.
14.2
1. Biological factors like the biochemical disturbances and socio cultural factors
(like retirement, isolations etc. cause depression in old age).
2. (i) Seeking help through mental health service
(ii) Family therapy (iii) Societal intervention

1. Refer Section 14.1 & 14.2
2. Refer Section 14.3
6. (i) Refer Section 14.6
(ii) Refer Section 14.8
(iii) Refer Section 14.6
(iv) Refer Section 14.5
(v) Refer Section 14.8
60 PSYCHOLOGY
Understanding Individual Differences MODULE-III
Notes
15
UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERNCES: THE CASE OF
INTELLIGNCE
Think about any characteristic of people around you and you will immediately
notice that they differ from each other. They differ not only in bodily features like
height, skin colour, weight, vision and hearing ability etc. but also in the psychological
attributes. In our everyday experience we find that people differ in their motivation,
approach to problems, interest and ability to learn. The study of these individual
differences forms an important field of psychology. Assessing intelligence,
personality, interest, creativity and other attributes with the help of psychological
tests has become an established practice. In selecting people for jobs, diagnosing
of mental handicap and monitoring psychological development have provided
impetus to develop a variety of tests to suit different groups of people (e.g. children,
adults, educated, illiterate). The term IQ has now become a common word and
people often want to know their IQ and personality. This lesson will help you to
learn about the basic features of psychological assessment and understand the
nature and assessment of intellectual ability.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the meaning of psychological assessment;
• describe basic features of psychological tests used in assessment;
• explain the concept of intelligence;
• describe some of the tests of intelligence; and
• suggest various uses of psychological tests.
PSYCHOLOGY 61
MODULE -III Understanding Individual Differences
15.1 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Psychological assessment refers to the use of specific procedures employed in
evaluating the personal qualities, behaviours and abilities of individuals. These
Notes procedures describe people by specifying how they are different from or similar to
other individuals. Such assessments are frequently done by most of us when we
make judgments such as ‘nice’ ‘good’ ‘bad’ ‘attractive’, ‘ugly’, ‘genius’ and
‘idiot’. Needless to say that such judgments are quite often found erroneous on
many occasions. Scientific psychology tries to systematize these procedures so
that assessment can be made with a minimum error and maximum accuracy.
Psychologists often call these procedures as ‘tests’. A psychological test is a
structured technique used to generate a carefully selected sample of
behaviour.
In order to be useful for the prupose of drawing inferences about the person being
tested or examined it is necessary that the test should be reliable, valid and
standardized. Let us understand the meaning of these terms. A test is reliable if
it measures something consistently. For instance if you assess something the
scores obtained on separate occasions should be same. If a scale tells two different
values while assessing the same object on two occasions, it will be called unreliable.
A test of intelligence can be called reliable only when a person scores high on both
the occasions.
The validity of a test is the degree to which it measures what it intends to

measure. A valid test of personality gives a measure of a person’s personality
and predicts behaviour in situations where that aspect of personality is found
important.
In order to be useful an assessment tool should be standardized. Standardization

involves establishing the procedure of administration of a test to all persons
in the same way under the same condition. It also involves establishing norms
so that an individual’s score can be interpreted. Norms involve comparison of a
score of a person with those of others in a defined group. Standardization
ensures uniformity and objectivity in the process and conditions of administration.
It makes the results of a test interpretable.
Psychologists have developed a variety of tests to measure different human

characteristics. In schools we use achievement tests which measure what pupils
have learned. Psychologists frequently use tests of ability and personality. The
tests of ability to tell what an individual can do when they are at his/her best. These
tests measure capacity as potential rather than achievement. Tests of intelligence
and aptitude come under this category. Aptitude refers to the ability of a person to
learn a particular kind of skill required in a specific situation. Admission tests of
62 PSYCHOLOGY
IIT or PMT is an aptitude test. Personality tests measure the characteristic ways
of thinking, feeling and behaving.
15.2 THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE Notes

There are very few things which are so obvious and illusive as ‘intelligence.’ The
differences in intellectual achievement are expressed in performance. For instance
if we take the marks in school examination of 10th grade students it will yield a
distribution in which most people show moderate level of performance and very
few are on the extremes showing extremely high (excellent) or extremely low
(very poor) level of performance. The same is true about intelligence. Fig. 15.1
presents such a distribution. We can see that the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which
has been used as an index of intelligence varies in degrees and very few people
have extraordinary level of intelligence. Similarly, very few people come in the
categories of profound and severe retardation.
Fig. 15.1: Distribution of IQ scores as expected in a large sample
However, when we try to define and measure intelligence it proves to be a knotty

problem. Intelligence is abstract in nature. Therefore our access to it is guided by
our own theoretical view point. We can not approach and have access to it
independent of our theoretical or conceptual models. At present psychologists
have many such models which provide diverse views of intelligence. The diversity
in defining intelligence is so perplexing that many psychologists have come to define
it in terms of “what an intelligence test measures”. This complexity is partly due to
the fact that many of the intelligence tests were developed before defining of what
is being tested. In this connection one may recall the story of the first published
intelligence test. Binet and Simon in 1905 were asked by the French Minister of
Public Instruction to help in teaching mentally retarded children. These psychologists
considered it necessary to measure intelligence for identifying these mentally retarded
children. They tested children with the help of a test and compared their scores
with the average score obtained by normal children at each age level. Children
who were two mental-age years behind their chronological age were considered
as “ retarded.”
PSYCHOLOGY 63
Subsequent to the publication of Binet ’s first test of intelligence voluminous research

on intelligence has been undertaken across the globe. This has resulted in several
theoretical views. Before we proceed towards presenting some of these view
points it may be mentioned that most researchers relate intelligence to the following
Notes broad classes of abilities:
(a) adapting to new situations and changing task demands,
(b) learning or profiting optimally from experience or training, and
(c) thinking abstractly using symbols and concepts.
Here it should be made clear that the term ‘ability’ refers to the currently available
power to perform something. The various view points about intelligence may be
put into two broad categories namely psychometric or factor theories and process
oriented views. Factor theories try to identify the factor (s) constituting intelligence,
and process theories describe intelligence in terms of the specific tasks, processes
or operations involved in intellectual functioning. Let us examine some of the major
view points on intelligence.
15.3 FACTORIAL VIEW POINT ON INTELLIGENCE

The composition of intelligence whether it is unitary or multi componential has
been a matter of curiosity. Using a correlational technique named factor analysis
several researchers have tried to uncover the structure of intelligence.
Intelligence as a General (G) Factor
Spearman proposed that we possess one general intelligence factor (g) and many
specific factors (s) which are specific to particular abilities. The g factor runs across
all types of abilities. It is expressed in the ability to understand abstract relations.
This view is depicted in Fig. 15.2.
G
1
2
Fig. 15.2: Sperman’s model of intelligence
64 PSYCHOLOGY
Multiple Factors of Intelligence
Thurstone proposed that intelligence consists of 7 factors namely, verbal

comprehension, word fluency, number, space, associative memory, perceptual
speed and induction (or general reasoning). He developed a test of perceptual Notes
speed and induction (or general reasoning). He developed a test of Primary Mental
Abilities (PMA) to measure these factors.
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Fig. 15.3: Thurstone’s model of intelligence
15.4 THE STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT
With a view to provide a comprehensive measure of intelligence Guilford has

proposed another view point. He terms it as the structure-of-intellect (SI) model.
This model classifies intellectual traits along main three dimensions.
Operations: What a person does? Operations include cognition, memory,

divergent production (creativity), convergent production, and evaluation.
Contents: This refers to the nature of the materials or information on which

operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters,
numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural and Figural (information
about person’s behaviour, attitudes, needs etc.)
Products: This refers to the form in which information is processed by a person.

Products are classified into units, classes, relations, system transformations
and implications.
Thus it is clear that the factorial viewpoint presents a view of intelligence in terms
of trait organisation. The variety of traits thus identified is perplexing. Here, the
readers should remember that the traits identified through the technique of factor
PSYCHOLOGY 65
analysis are simply an expression of the degree of relationship among behavioural

measures. They are descriptive categories. The trait organisation is influenced by
the experiential background of the people who are performing the task. The
differences found across groups, socio-economic levels and types of school
Notes curricula in trait organisation lend support to this view. Looking at the plethora of
research using factor analysis Anastasi has rightly concluded that human intelligence
consists of “that combination of cognitive skills and knowledge demanded,
fostered, and rewarded by the experiential context within which the individual
functions.”
15.5 INTELLIGENCE AS A PROCESS

This view point is related to cognitive science tradition. In particular the information
processing model is very relevant to it. It traces the processes of acquisition,
representation and use of information in undertaking intellectual activities. Let us
learn about some of the models emphasising the process view of intelligence.
Triarchic Theory
After rejecting the factorial or psychometric approach Robert Sternberg analysed
intelligence in three aspects i.e. componential, experiential and contextual. The
componential aspect includes those processes which are employed by a person
taking a test in responding to the items of standardised intelligence tests. Its
constituents include meta component or higher order control processes,
performance component, acquisition component and transfer component. The
second aspect namely experiential one refers to the way people’s mental world
and the outer or external world are related to each other. It adds creativity to the
notion of intelligence. In reality a person’s intelligence shapes his or her experiences.
Also, the experience which one has influences intelligence. The third aspect of
intelligence is contextual. It refers to the way individuals share their environments,
adapt to them and try to get maximum from the available resources. It is also
called practical intelligence.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Haward Gardner has argued that there are multiple intelligences. He says that
intelligence is not a single entity, rather there are multiple intelligences each distinct
from others. He has so far identified eight types of intelligence: linguistic, logical,
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and
natural . The value of these is determined by their relevance to culture in which
people live. Different cultures assign different degrees of importance to each of
these intelligences.
66 PSYCHOLOGY

Notes
(i) Scores of a large group of persons on intelligence test will show distribution in
which majority will get:
a) low scores
b) moderate scores
c) high scores
d) extremely high scores
(ii) The first test of intelligence is associated with:
a) Binet
b) Spearman
c) Terman
d) Raven
(iii) Who has stated that intelligence consists of multiple factors?
a) Thurstone
b) Guilford
c) Vernon
d) Sternberg
(iv) The view which conceptualizes intelligence in terms of operations, contents
and products is known as:
a) systems model
b) structure of intellect
c) hierarchical model
d) G factor model
15.6 INTELLIGENCE IN THE NON-COGNITIVE

DOMAINS
As can be seen from the preceding analysis the major concern of studying
intelligence has been with the rational and cognitive domain. In recent years many
PSYCHOLOGY 67
other aspects have been explored. It would be interesting to briefly refer to some
of them. One such concept is of wisdom. It comprises a unique blend of cognitive,
interpersonal, social and personality attributes. It is achieved as a result of
successfully negotiating the conflict between integrity and despair or as a result of
Notes transcendence of preoccupation with one’s self. It is knowledge that effectively
integrates emotional and cognitive components. Another related concept is that of
prudence of “practical wisdom”. It emphasizes on the practical achievement of
personal goals, plans and intentions. It is characterized by a flexible and applied
concern for the practical contingencies, specially in the face of uncertainty.
Social intelligence has also received attention by the researchers. It represents
the efforts of an individual to solve the problems of daily life and work toward the
desired goals. Finally, the most recent notion is that of emotional intelligence. It
is defined as the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and
action. People high on emotional intelligence show greater degree of emotional
self awareness, manage emotions well, harness emotions productively, have
empathy and handle relationships effectively. It has been observed that success in
jobs and in the different walks of life depends more on emotional intelligence than
IQ. While childhood is a critical time for its development, emotional intelligence is
not something fixed at birth. It can be nurtured and enhanced throughout adulthood.
15.7 INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Let us familiarise with some intelligence tests. These tests may be classified into
verbal and non-verbal (performance) and individual and group tests. The
performance tests are used for the assessment in case of illiterates and people with
certain types of physical handicap. Individual tests are those which can be
administered on one person at a time and group tests can be administered
simultaneously on several persons. Some information about certain important
intelligence tests is presented below.
1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

The test developed by Binet and Simon for the children in French schools was
adopted and revised by Terman and his associates at Stanford University and was
published in 1916. Since then this individual test has been revised several times.
Now we have the fourth edition of Stanford-Binet (S-B IV) scale. It has 15 tests
selected to represent four major cognitive areas: verbal reasoning, abstract/visual
reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory. The tests are
administered in a mixed sequence. The age range covered is 2 Years to 18+. Its
administration involves two stages. In the first stage the examiner gives the
vocabulary test which helps in determining entry level for all the remaining tests. In
68 PSYCHOLOGY
the second stage the examiner establishes a basal level and a ceiling level for each
test in terms of actual performance. The basal level is reached when four items on
two consecutive levels are passed. If this does not occur at the entry level, testing
continues downward until a basal level is reached. The ceiling level is reached
when three out of four or all four items on two consecutive levels, are failed. This Notes
is where testing with that particular test is discontinued for the individual.
In earlier edition of this test the scores were interpreted in terms of intelligence
Quotient (IQ) as per the following formula:
MA
IQ = ×100
CA
Here MA stands for mental age and CA stands for chronological age. The concept
of IQ has been very popular as an index of intelligence. But in recent years it is
being criticised. Now there is a move to develop and use other indices of
intelligence.
In the recent version of the test Standard Age Scores (SAS) are given for all the
15 tests. The record booklet of the test provides a chart for plotting a profile of the
test taker’s SAS performance on each test administered. The use of the term IQ
has now been completely abandoned. The test allows examiners to assess separate
abilities appropriate for specific testing purposes.
2. The Wechsler Scales

These scales developed originally by David Wechsler deal with the groups of
adults, school-age children and pre-schoolers. They are used as measures of general
intelligence as well as a possible aid in psychiatric diagnosis. The current version
of the test includes Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R), which
covers the age span of 16 to 74 years; the Wechsler intelligence Scale for children-
Third Edition (WISC-III) intended for children aged 6 years to 16 years and 11
months, and the Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised
(WPPSI) which covers the range of 3 years to 7 years and 3 months. Out of the
17 different kinds of sub tests 8 are common to all three scales (5 verbal and 3
performance sub tests). The information sub test is the first verbal sub test to be
administered in all three scales. The performance subtests of these scales typically
require manipulation of various objects, such as puzzles and blocks, or the visual
scanning of printed materials like pictures or symbols. Some researchers have
proposed short forms of these scales, the raw scores on each of the subtests are
transformed into standard scores with means of 10 and an SD of 3. All the subset
scores are thus expressed in comparable units. An examinee’s performance is
evaluated in terms of the appropriate age norms.
PSYCHOLOGY 69
3. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
This is a performance test designed to measure g factor or general intelligence.

The items consist of a set of matrices, or arrangement of design elements into rows
Notes and columns from each of which a part has been removed. The task is to choose
the missing insert from given alternatives.
The easier items require accuracy of discrimination; the more difficult items involve
analogies, permutations and alternations of patterns, and other logical relations. It
is available in three forms differing in the level of difficulty:
(i) The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) is suitable for the ages of 6 and
80 years
(ii) The Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) is for younger children and for
special groups.
(iii) The Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) is for adolescents and adults,
4. Draw-A-Man Test
Developed initially by Goodenough, this nonverbal test requires the the test taker
to draw or make a picture of a man. Credit is given for the inclusion of individual
body parts, clothing details, proportion, perspective, and similar features, Moderate
reliability and validity have been reported for this test. In India Pramila Phatak has
developed norms for this test.
15.8 USES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Since tests are used as a tool in vital decision making about jobs, promotions,
school or college admissions there emerge many problems of ethical and procedural
kind which require that the use of tests should be controlled. It is recommended
that the test is given or administered by a qualified examiner. Also, the scores
should be properly used. The general familiarity with the test content should be
prevented. This may invalidate the test results. The examiners are required to
make advance preparations to maintain uniformity in the procedure. Testing
conditions should be proper. The examiners are required to arouse the test takers’
interest in the test, elicit their co-operation, and encourage them to respond in an
appropriate manner.
At present, intelligence tests are used in many settings to help in a number of

activities like selection of people for various jobs, diagnosis of mental handicap,
guidance and counselling, and research in the area of intellectual development. A
brief description of these uses is as follows.
70 PSYCHOLOGY
Personnel Selection
It’s a matter of common experience that people differ in the degree of

competencies, abilities and interests. Success in a job depends on the fact
whether the person applying for a job possesses the qualities required in Notes
undertaking a particular job. In this way the process of selection becomes one
of matching the characteristics of the applicants with job requirements.
Intelligence is considered as something basic to success in all kinds of jobs.
As a result in most of the procedures of personnel selection assessment of
intelligence constitutes an important component. With the help of intelligence
tests applicants’ intelligence level is assessed and the results are used by the
employer in the process of decision making about the applicants.
Diagnosis of mental Handicap
People differ in their intellectual abilities, Those who have a very low level
of intelligence are known as mentally handicapped. Such persons experience
difficulty in adjusting with the demands of their external environment. They
need special care and training. Infact many of them can not communicate or
express their needs and have difficulty even in taking care of themselves.
Intelligence test along with certain other indicators is commonly used to
estimate the degree of mental handicap.
Guidance and Counseling
Career of vocational guidance is assuming an important role in the context of

education. With the expansion and diversification in our country’s educational
scenario, selection of a course and career is becoming a tough task for the students,
teachers and parents. In this context, psychologists use intelligence tests to assess
the capability of the people and use this information in deciding about the choice of
career options.
15.9 EXPLAINING DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN

INTELLIGENCE
While differences in intelligence are obvious the reasons of there differences are till
matters of debate. In particular researchers have tried to examine the contributions
of genetic or hereditary and environmental factors toward variation in IQ. Studies
indicate that the scores of more closely related people are quite similar. In particular
the evidence from the studies of adopted children and of identical twins separated
early in life and raised in different homes show this trend. The studies of
environmental deprivation and enrichment have indicated the effects of
environmental factors on IQ. Interestingly females are found to score higher
PSYCHOLOGY 71
than males with respect to verbal abilities while males tend to score higher in
visual-spatial abilities. Such differences may reflect the evolutionary history
of human species.
Notes Another important issue about the group differences relates to the cultural
bias of intelligence tests. It has been argued that many of the tests have been
developed in western cultural context. As a result children familiar with
western cultural context score higher than those who are not familiar with it.
This is why some efforts have been made to develop culture fair test
like Cattell’s Culture Fair Test of Intelligence.

(i) Which one of the following does not deal with non-cognitive aspect of
intelligence:
a) practical intelligence
b) social intelligence
c) emotional intelligence
d) process model of intelligence
(ii) Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is derived using the following formula:
a) MA/ CA + 100
b) MA/ CA×100
c) CA/ MA × 100
d) CA/ MA + 100
(iii) Wechsler test provides a measure of:
a) specific abilities
b) verbal ability
c) processes of intelligence
d) general ability
(iv) An intelligence test must have the following
a) norms
72 PSYCHOLOGY
b) validity
c) reliability
d) all of the above
Notes
(v) Intelligence tests do not help in:
a) guidance
b) personal selection
c) measurement of learning
d) measurement of problem solving ability.

• Psychological characteristics are normally distributed in the population.
Thus majority of the people are found moderately intelligent and a limited
number is found to have very low or very high level of intelligence.
• The study of individual differences is practically important. Intelligence
is viewed in many ways depending on the theoretical view point adopted.
Some psychologists view it as a trait while others view it as a process.
• The trait approach has also yielded different views. Thus we have single
(general) factor, multiple factors, and hierarchical views. On the whole,
intelligence appears to be a combination of cognitive skills and knowledge.
• The process view of intelligence considers it in terms of various cognitive
processes. Also, there is realization that intelligence is of multiple kinds. The
notion of social and emotional intelligence have opened new areas of research.
• Intelligence is assessed with the help of psychological tests which are reliable
and valid measures of a sample of behaviour. The first test of intelligence was
developed by Binet which was subsequently standardized at Stanford
University. The tests may be verbal or performance and can be administered
individually or on a group.
• Special tests have been developed for children and the handicapped people.
These tests are often used in personnel selection, guidance, diagnosis of mental
retardation and research.
• The Indian psychologists have adapted several tests are often used in personnel
selection, guidance, diagnosis of mental retardation and research. The Indian
psychologists have adapted several tests but much is still desired.
• Psychologists have also developed tests to assess achievement, aptitude and
PSYCHOLOGY 73
personality.
Notes
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Show your acquaintance with the different ways in which the concept of
intelligence is used by psychologists.
2. Describe the properties of a psychological test used in
assessing intelligence.
3. Describe one test of intelligence and indicate its possible uses.

15.1
i) B ii) A iii) A iv) B
15.2
i) D ii) B iii) D iv) D
v) C

3. Refer section 15.4 and 15.5
74 PSYCHOLOGY
What is Self? MODULE-IV
Self and Personality
Notes
16
WHAT IS SELF?
Self is focus of our everyday behaviour and all of us do have a set of perceptions
and beliefs about ourselves. This kind of self concept plays important role in
motivating us and organizing our behaviours. It starts evolving early in life. A sense
of self awareness grows among us when we grow. In fact, all of us engage in
experiences which enhance our sense of self. As Rogers said we want positive
regard from others. In other words we have a strong need of being loved and
valued by other people. The study of self and its functioning is a fascinating topic.
In this lesson you are going to learn about the way self is conceptualized and the
different aspects of self are related to human behaviour.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the concept of self;
• explain the different levels of self as conceived in Indian thought;
• describe the different aspect of self;
• appreciate the value of self awareness;
• describe the relationship of self with other processes.
16.1 CONCEPT OF SELF

If some one asks: who are you? We often describe that physical features, traits,
goals, motives etc. The self concept is a collection of diverse information. It
PSYCHOLOGY 77
MODULE -IV What is Self?
constitutes a central aspect of psychological functioning. However, its definition

has been approached from many angles. A close scrutiny of these views indicates
that self is subject as well as object. The self as a subject includes the person’s
experience of self as thinker, feeler and actor. Thus, when I feel anger or think
Notes about the idea of freedom, it is “I” – the self as subject. On the other hand, the self
as object is the other person’s view of the self or “me”. In recent years researchers
have tried to understand the representations or mental models of self.
The experience of self is very common but complex phenomenon. Its structure
and contents are shaped by the society and culture in which people live. Based on
the cultural context people divide the world into the categories of “self” and “non
self”. In the individualistic cultures people prefer independent self construal
while people in collectivist cultures prefer an interdependent mode of self
construal. The independent self construal considers self in terms of a bounded,
separate and individual entity which is central to all the activities of a person. In
contrast, the interdependent self construal emphasizes on connectivity,
interdependence and sharing. In this case the boundaries between self and non
self are over lapping. It may, however, be noted that the two modes of self construal
are broad trends and within a given culture people may display both kinds of self
construal in different degrees.
Some researchers think that the idea of self emerges and shaped in social interaction.
In particular when a child is addressed by some one s/he starts thinking about self.
Thus, self originates in social experience. Gradually people internalize a particular
view of self which becomes a powerful source that influences behaviour. Some
part of our self is private to us and only we know about that. Another part is public
which is known to others. Also, there is a part of self which comes from our
membership of a group. This kind of self is called collective self or social identity.
16.2 LEVELS OF SELF

Self is experienced at different levels, William James, who started serious study of
Self talked about material self, social self and spiritual self. More recently
Neisser has talked about ecological self. Let us try to learn more about these
types. The ecological self refers to the self in the embodied form that can be
physically identified in time and space. The inter personal self involves the self
which exists in the social relations when we interact with others. The extended
self is the self which is in our memory. It is personal and private. Finally, there
is conceptual self which is the idea of self that a person holds. All of us have
acquired a set of ideas about what can be included within the category of self. This
kind of conceptualization is nurtured in each culture in a given way. It is a
comprehensive network of ideas about self. In order to illustrate this point we may
78 PSYCHOLOGY
consider the concept of Panch Koshas as developed in the Indian thought. Here
the term Kosh means layers or sheath like the sheath of an onion. The Jiva consists
of five such Koshas and self should be considered in terms of a multi layered
structure of hierarchically organized sheaths. A brief description of these sheaths
is as follows: Notes
1. Annamaya Kosh: This involves the gross physical body. This is the outermost
layer of existence. It is called annamaya because it is grounded in the food
that we eat and consume.
2. Pranamaya Kosha: This layer deals with life (Prana) and represents the
functions of breathing and metabolic processes. The five effectors are also
included in it.
3. Manomaya Kosha: It consists of sense organs. It is the seat of ego and

leads to personal involvements which bind people with the desires and activities.
4. Vigyanamaya Kosha: It consists of five sense organs and intellect. It regulates

the worldly life. The feeling of “I-ness” present in it relates Jiva to past
actions. Also, the feelings of pride take place.
5. Anandmaya Kosha: It is the joyous sheath. The experience of bliss is has

spiritual basis also, the pleasure that one gets from obtaining the desired objects
is part of it.

Fill in the blanks with suitable words:
1. In individualistic culture people prefer ___________ while in collectivist culture

they prefer___________.
2. _______________ has talked about material self, social self and spiritual
self.
3. According to theory of Panch Koshas, as described in Indian thought,
Annamaya Kosh involves the _____________.
16.3 ASPECTS OF SELF

In the psychological studies of self the researchers have explored many aspects of
self. They show that self is multi-faceted. As you will find in the following description
PSYCHOLOGY 79
our ideas about self, its evaluation, its presentation and its monitoring vary among
the people and shape behaviour in important ways. In fact the ideas held by the
people about self shape and organize our personal lives and allow participation in
group life.
Notes
Self Esteem
It is the evaluative component of self concept. It basically deals with internalized
social judgments and ideas about how worthwhile a personal quality is. Self esteem
is an important factor in one’s psychological health. People who feel good about
themselves or have high self esteem are found to be more active, motivated,
persistent, and happy than the people with low self esteem. It has been noted that
unhappiness, and dispair are related to low self esteem. Thus our affective evaluation
of ourselves, positive and negative both, have important consequences for the
way we are going to conduct ourselves in future. Research has shown that low self
esteem is related to depression, and self doubt.
Self Efficacy
Self efficacy refers to our belief about what we are capable of achieving. In other
words it refers to perceived competencies of a person. They determine how we
interact with our environment and other people. High self efficacy children solve
problems more quickly than those who had low self efficacy beliefs. According to
Bandura self efficacy beliefs have power of four major influences as given below:
(a) Cognitive: It refers to the effect on thought patterns. Self efficacy influences
evaluation of capability and preparation to make an attempt.
(b) Motivational: It influences how long we will keep trying.
(c) Affective: It deals with stress, anxiety, and feeling of control.
(d) Selection: It includes choosing challenging activities.
Self Presentation
This deals with the behavioural expression of self. We are often concerned with
the images we present to others. The growing importance of cosmetic and fashion
industry clearly shows the degree to which we are preoccupied with our physical
appearance. We are often quite concerned with the impression what we convey in
public. The term self-presentation technically means the strategies people use to
shape what others think of them. If life is viewed as theater, we act out certain lines
as they are taken out from a script. Researchers have tried to study the process
through which we attempt to shape what others think about us. The process of
self-presentation can take many forms. It can be conscious or unconscious, accurate
or misleading, and intended for real audience or for ourselves. In general two main
80 PSYCHOLOGY
motives have been identified for self-presentation. They include strategic self-
presentation and self-verification. The strategic self presentation is our effort to
shape other’s impression to gain power, influence or sympathy. Ingratiation and
self promotion often make us liked and respected by others. The goal of self –
verification help people to affirm their existing self concept. Notes
Self Monitoring
Self monitoring means the extent to which external situation and the reactions of
others help one to regulate behaviour. Thus politicians, sales persons and artists
are high self monitoring persons. The people who are low self monitors regulate
their behaviours on the basis of internal factors such as beliefs, attitudes and interests.
It has been found that high self monitors pay attention to others and low self
monitors pay attention to themselves. Also, the high self monitors select a companion
on the basis of how well the others perform and low self monitors choose a
companion on the basis of liking. People who are high on self monitoring seem to
have a repertoire of selves from which to draw. They are quite sensitive to the
concerns of strategic self-presentation.
Self Consciousness
If we examine our daily life we find ourselves busy with many activities. During
these activities we are often away from ourselves. We think very little about
ourselves. In other words we are not always self-focused. However, certain events
do compel us to turn to our own selves. Thus when we glance into a mirror, talk to
ourselves, stand before an audience or a camera or occupy an important position
in a group we become self aware. When we become self aware we start comparing
our behaviour with internal standards. Such a comparison reveals negative
discrepancy. Under these conditions our self esteem decreases. In order to deal
with this situation we may attempt to reduce self discrepancy or withdraw from
the state of self awareness. It has been found that some people have tendency to
introspect the inner thoughts and feelings (private self consciousness) while others
have tendency to be aware of outer public image (public self consciousness).
16.6 AWARENESS OF SELF: HOW ACCURATE ARE

WE IN SELF APPRAISAL?
It is often taken for granted that we know ourselves very well. However, in reality
this is not true. Studies show that there are many aspects of our self concept which
are known to us and others also know about that. In other words it is public. But
there are three other possibilities as given below:
1. there are attributes of self that are known to the person but unknown to others.
PSYCHOLOGY 81
2. there are attributes of self that are not known to the person but known to
others.
3. there are attributes of self that are neither known to the person nor known to
others.
Notes
You can easily imagine the situations where there is discrepancy of any kind in
terms of the attributes known to the person and known or not known to others. In
order to live a healthy life proper appreciation of one’s attributes is necessary.
Also, it must be a realistic appraisal. It is on the basis of an impartial knowledge
and understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of oneself that proper course
of action can be planned.
While discussing self it should be pointed out that people often show self serving
bias. This implies that they try to defend themselves and view things in a way that
positive attributes of self are enhanced. For instance people explain success on
any task to their ability and effort and attribute failure to external factors like chance
or luck. Also, every body likes positive appreciation from others, whether it is
correct or incorrect. This may lead to building false self images and a number of
related problems.

Match the terms of column A with the appropriate description given in the column
B.
Column A Column B
(a) Self esteem (i) behavioural expression of self
(b) Self efficacy (ii) the extent to which external situation and the reactions
of others help one to regulate behaviour
(c) Self presentation (iii) evaluative component of self concept
(d) Self monitoring (iv) thinking about oneself
(e) Self consciousness (v) belief about one’s competency
16.5 RELATIONSHIP OF SELF WITH OTHER

PROCESSES
A moment’s reflection will make it clear that self is involved in almost all kinds of
psychological processes. Our learning, perception, motivation, memory, all are
shaped by the nature and state of self. One must recognize the fact that these and
other psychological processes are not mechanical. They are activities or functions
of self. For instance, when some one finds self at stake, he or she may put in
82 PSYCHOLOGY
maximum efforts. Similarly, we attend and perceive objects and people in a manner
which is compatible with one’s self.
In recent years researchers have become interested in relating self construal or

one’s idea about self with various psychological processes. In this connection Notes
attention has been paid to the cultural differences in self construal and its implications
for various processes. In an earlier section it was pointed out that these are two
main types of self construal i.e., independent and interdependent. Let us examine
how these two types of construal are related to cognition, motivation and emotion.
Self and Cognition : The effects of self construal on cognition are found in a
variety of ways. It has been found that people with independent self construal
emphasize on their internal attributes as important features. In contrast, the people
with interdependent self think more about relationships and contexts. Similarly
while explaining behaviours of other persons, people with interdependent self
recognize the significance of situational factors. Research has shown that situational
and context dependent explanations are used more frequently by the Indian people
as compared with Americans.
Self and Emotion: Some emotions emphasize inner attributes. For example, pride
or feelings of superiority are often found when some one has accomplished
something. Similarly frustration occurs when the personal goals or desires (internal
attributes) are blocked. In these situations the emotional experience tends to separate
or disengage the self from one’s social relationships. On the other hand, there are
certain positive emotions like friendly feelings or feelings of gratitude and respect.
Such emotions occur when one is in close or congenial relationship with others.
Experiencing such emotions promotes an interpersonal bond. The same is true in
case of negative emotions such as feelings of indebtedness or guilt. They occur
because of failure in maintaining relationship with others. This set of emotions
reflects socially engaged emotions. It has been found that persons with
interdependent self construal with tend to experience socially engaged emotions
more frequently than the people with independent self.
Self and Motivation: It has generally been thought that the issue of motivation
deals with internal processes pertaining to a person. The ideas of needs and motives
deal with these processes. This view is very close to the independent self construal.
All of them refer to the motivation related to the person or “me”. In case of
interdependent self, it is noted that behaviours are directed or guided by the
expectations of significant others (e.g., parents, teachers, other family members),
obligations and duties toward others. In this context studies of achievement motive
provide a useful illustration.
Achievement motivation deals with the “desire to excel”. This desire is present in
all cultures. However, it is conceptualized in different ways in different cultures. In
PSYCHOLOGY 83
cultures where independent self is predominant this need is personally based while
in the cultures emphasizing interdependent self, this need is interpersonally and
socially structured. In the Indian context where collectivism and interdependent
self dominate social concern emerges to be an important aspect of thinking about
Notes achievement.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the concept of self.
2. Name five koshas discussed in the Indian thought.
3. Describe the possible ways of self appraisal.
4. Discuss the relationship of self construal with emotion and motivation.

16.1
(1) Independent, interdependent.
(2) William James
(3) Gross physical body
16.2
(a) (iii) (b) (v) (c) (i)
(d) (ii) (e) (iv)

(1) Refer to section 16.1
84 PSYCHOLOGY
Self and Psychological Processes MODULE-IV
Notes
17
SELF AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

PROCESSES
As people grow they develop their own concept of self which determine how
they relate to others and perform the various activities. Our self concept, however,
does not remain constant, rather it changes during the different stages of life. We
perceive others as persons, relate to them and develop friendship and other kinds
of close relationships. Also, we develop self control and grow morally. In this way,
self does not remain one’s attribute related to personal functioning only. It goes
beyond that and relates to the social world that we inhabit. Infact, self relates to
the social world in a reciprocal manner. It influences our interactions with the
social world and is influenced by it. In this process self also gets influenced by the
social world. In this lesson you are going to learn about self in action and see how
we perceive and interact with others.
OBJECTIVES
• explain development of self across the life span;
• understand the meaning of self control;
• explain the stages of moral development; and
• describe stages of the development of pro-social behaviour.
PSYCHOLOGY 85
MODULE -IV Self and Psychological Processes
17.1 SELF IN A LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE

Most of us tend to agree that human beings have a self. It is treated as a distinct
entity with its own qualities and functions. It is often considered as a natural aspect
Notes of our lived experiences. However, this assumption does not hold ground when
we try to understand the lives of children. The studies suggest that some crude
idea of self recognition is noted by the middle of the first year. It is during this
period that children start processing the voices and facial images of infants other
than themselves. This is often interpreted as an indication of the beginning of
self-other distinction.
Infancy: While using mirrors it has been found that children of different age groups
respond differently to the images they see. The infants are found to have a visual
self concept between 15 and 24 months of age. Using videotapes of children it
was found that 3 year olds do not have clear self awareness. The 4 and 5 year
olds do have better representations of themselves. The toddlers start categorizing
other children on the basis of age and gender. During childhood the categories
remain concrete (e.g., possessions, appearance, things they can do)
Childhood and Adolescence: During early childhood children start defining

themselves on the basis of psychological attributes. They start thinking about
attitudes. During adolescence representations of the self become much more subtle.
They realize that they are not the same kind of person with everyone and in every
situation. Identity is the key issue of development during adolescence. Identity
provides a stable sense of who a person is and what one’s values and
ideals are. Many adolescents experience identity crisis. They fail to have a
coherent and enduring sense of self. They have difficulty in committing to roles,
values and occupational choices. Some adolescents establish their identities after
considerable soul-searching and introspection. Others commit early without much
exploration. This forecloses identity development.
Early Adulthood: This stage of development confronts the challenge of intimacy

vs. isolation. Intimacy refers to the establishment of a committed relationship
which is enduring. It includes both romantic as well as friendly relationship. In the
course of development one needs to redefine his or her role as father/mother,
uncle/aunt.
Middle Age: During this stage people become concerned with relating to the
next generation and one’s contribution to society. During this period a person
faces the crisis of generativity vs. stagnation. People are expected to engage in
more and more generative activities. In fact ‘midlife crisis’ has become a popular
phrase. It brings an interruption in the normal rhythm of life. For some, the changes
are gradual and for others they are drastic in nature.
86 PSYCHOLOGY
Old Age: With increase in life expectancy, the population of elderly people is
increasing. The main challenge faced by the aged people is that of integrity vs.
despair. Poor physical health, lack of support and physical illness make the life of
older people difficult. In view of social mobility and disintegration of traditional
family ties, many aged people suffer from poor self concept. However, those who Notes
look back upon their lives with a sense of satisfaction that they have lived it well,
experience a sense of integrity. Others may have regret and despair.
Thus we find that the notion of self assumes different forms and undergoes important
changes during the life course. It reflects the changes in the experiential world of
the people. However, the view of self held by people is not merely a representation
of the expectations of others. It also works as a powerful force which directs
behaviours and shapes interactions in social situation. Self undergoes transformation
and many elements are included and excluded in one’s self structure. People often
strive for an ideal self. They are expected to contribute to the healthy development
of society to which they belong.
People like Mahatma Gandhi, and Mother Teresa, who have immensely contributed
to society, were psychologically very strong. One of the notable characteristics
that they had is a well developed conscience. Their ideas, words and actions went
together. Mahatma Gandhi thought that truth would always triumph; so he spoke
only the truth. Also, he carried out what he spoke. Like-wise, Mother Teresa was
concerned for the poor and the sick. She spoke for their welfare and dedicated
her entire life to that cause. Like-wise many famous people all over the world,
have contributed to the welfare of society. All of them are known for their integrity.
Well-integrated people contribute not only to their personal growth but also to the
growth and development of society.
To achieve this integrity, each individual should develop all the skills which he/she
is capable of, and in the long run, these individuals become psychologically and
socially competent and lead a healthy life. By gaining social competence and
contributing to society at large, they command respect of the people.
17.2 SELF-CONTROL AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

Self control is a process of learning to regulate one’s own behaviour in a manner
maximally rewarding or satisfying. To this end, people use a number of self control
strategies. For instance, an obese person is taught to use self-control methods to
lose weight, a chain smoker to decrease smoking and an extremely tense person
to reduce tension.
Steps in Self control: Following are the major steps in developing self- control.
PSYCHOLOGY 87
(1) Performing a task : This refers to the action taken to solve a specific problem.
(2) Self-monitoring of performance and outcome : It means actual observation

and recording of the action taken.
Notes (3) Self-evaluation: This involves revising one’s beliefs about his or her
competence.
(4) Self reinforcement: This means recognizing and approving of the

accomplishment that may lead to a tangible reward or a positive self-statement.
Following is an example where a child is taught to remain calm and to take control
of a difficult situation and not get provoked to react.
(1) Prepare for provocation: Teach the child to anticipate difficult situations
and tell her not to get provoked.
(2) Confront the difficulty: Through imagination, play-acting or rehearsal, the

child is taught to confront the provocation but at the same time be in control so
that a desirable response follows.
(3) Cope with the provocation: The child is made aware of the physical response
to confrontation like tightening of the muscles and rising fear or anger and that
this will be followed by teaching simple coping skills.
(4) Reflect on the consequences: The child is taught to think about the outcome
of handling the provocation, whether positive or negative. The child is also
encouraged to become more reflective about herself, others’ responses and
other consequences by keeping a diary, talking to friends, parents and generally
becoming more aware of the possibilities.
Self Instructional Training (SIT): This kind of instruction focuses on the

development of major skill areas emphasizing “self-talking” responses. The steps
of self instruction are as follows:
(1) Teaching problem identification.
(2) Teaching self interrogation skills.
(3) Teaching attention – focusing and appropriate responding skills.
(4) Teaching self-reinforcement skills so that the youngster evaluates his own
responses and rewards the adaptive ones.
(5) Self correction and coping options enable the youngster continuously to monitor
his behaviour, evaluate alternatives and arrive at optional solutions.
88 PSYCHOLOGY
Box 17.1: Application of Self Instructional: An Example
(1) Problem Identification : You cannot sit to read for a

considerable length of time.
Notes
(2) Interrogation Skills : Since when have you had this difficulty?
At what times of the day does this happen to you? Is it related
to any subject?
(3) Attention : (i) Sit for only 30 mins at a time; (ii) take rest for
five minutes by going away from the books and doing what you
like (e;g; chatting with your mother, listening to the radio, etc.),
(iii) return to reading and voluntarily draw your wandering
attention to the reading.
(4) Self Reinforcement : (i) Reward yourself when you have
achieved undistracted reading for some time with “I could do
this for ten minutes. I can do it for twenty minutes now” or
reward yourself with what you like to do most when you achieve
the goal after a few days. On the other hand, if you get distracted
even after your efforts, punish yourself by denying what you
like doing most (e.g., watching your favorite TV serial).
(5) Self correction and coping option : Correct yourself when
you do what is not desired. In this case, when you get distracted,
attempt focusing back on your work. Cope with the distractions
by perhaps changing your place of reading e.g. go to a quieter
place like library.
Thus, self-control procedures can be used for self improvement.

1. What do you mean by self control?
2. Describe briefly any two conditions in which self control will be effective?
17.3 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Development of the notions of “right” and “wrong” is an important aspect of social
development. These notions help a person to balance the self interest and well
being of others. In other words acquiring such rules facilitates morality or the
normative standards that are helpful in organizing social lives of the people.
PSYCHOLOGY 89
Development of morality occurs through stages. The development of the idea of

other persons and perspective taking play important role in its development.
During infancy children start recognizing social interaction as a reciprocal process.
It’s a great achievement to realize that people’s actions depend on one’s own.
Notes Initially children, up to the age of 8 years children focus on simple and concrete
attributes of others and have difficulty in appreciating others. They only gradually
learn to understand other’s point of view. This ability starts during childhood and
continues during adolescence.
Researchers trying to explain the pattern of cognitive development have tried to

see how moral reasoning develops. Piaget found that younger children up to 9-10
years of age show morality of constraint.
During this stage children think in terms of conformity to social rules. Such rules
focus on one aspect of the event and ignore others. For example, if child is asked
to decide who needs to be punished, a child who went to kitchen to get her
favourite dish by stealing and broke cups while reaching the jar in which the dish
was kept or another child who did not know and accidentally opened the door
and broke five cups which were kept near the door.
The younger children tend to recommend greater punishment for the second child
who broke 5 cups than for the first one. Older children follow a different type of
reasoning. They think about the intentions and do not consider rules as
unchangeable. The moral rules can be changed if there is need. This is known as
morality of cooperation. If we compare the reasoning of children we notice that
young children’s morality is autonomous.
In the process of socialization, the ethical beliefs are internalized and provide the
foundation for moral development. Moral concepts start developing in a child
from an early age. The first stage of morality is based on consequences, that is,
before the age of about seven, the child tends to view or categorize acts which
yield positive outcomes as “good” and those which yield negative outcomes as
“bad”. This pattern is called objective moral orientation. After the age of seven
years, we focus our attention on the intentions behind various actions. This is
called subjective moral orientation and generally it develops when a child is
around ten years old.
Moral reasoning passes through three different levels, namely pre-conventional

stage, conventional stage and post-conventional stage .
In the pre-conventional stages, the reasoning is somewhat self-centred and focusses

on the personal consequences of individual’s behaviours. Then in the conventional
stage, reasoning focusses on what is considered as acceptable moral rules. Later
90 PSYCHOLOGY
during adolescence, the individuals enter the post conventional stage in which they
rely on abstract principles. A brief description of the stages of moral development
as envisaged by Kohlberg.
Preconventional Level Notes
Stage One : Moral judgement is based on obedience and punishment. Actions

which demonstrate obedience to authority and allow the individual to avoid
punishment are viewed as “good”.
Stage Two : Actions which satisfy the individual’s needs are viewed as “good”
while those which do not, are viewed as “bad”.
Conventional Level
Stage Three : Actions which are approved of by others are viewed as “good”
and those which are disapproved of are labeled as “bad”.
Stage Four : Actions through which an individual “does his or duty” or which
shows respect for law and authority are viewed as “good”. Actions which violate
this sense of duty are viewed as “bad”.
Postconventional Level
Stage Five : Actions which are consistent with the community’s well fare are
viewed as “good”. Actions which do not abide by the laws of the community are
viewed as “bad”.
Stage Six : Actions which are consistent with an individual’s self-chosen standards
of justice are viewed as “good. Actions which are not consistent with such standards
are viewed as “bad”.

1. Trace the developmental nature of moral orientation.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. How many levels does moral reasoning pass through according to Kohlberg?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
PSYCHOLOGY 91
Box 17.2:
Try it yourself
Check whether you experienced changes in your attitude towards
morality during late childhood and adolescence in morality. From
Notes when did you start noticing that certain things are forbidden
because they are bad, whereas right things are to be repeated?
List out the persons responsible for your moral development.
Kohlberg used certain situations in which a moral dilemma is presented and the
task of person is to solve the dilemma. The solution arrived at indicates the stage
of moral reasoning being used by the person. In general it is thought that acting in
a moral way demands a higher stage of moral reasoning. However, the studies
indicate that other factors like perception of risk, self interest and social conventions
also play important role. Studies have indicated that moral behaviour of children
does vary from situation to situation. For example, cheating may be reported in
one situation (home) but not in school. It has been indicated that situational factors
play important role.
17.4 ROLE OF FAMILY

In recent years the studies have demonstrated the role of family in moral
development. The various domestic exchanges regarding rights and wrongs and
parental expressions of regulations contribute to the development of morality. The
idea of ‘proper behaviour’ develops in initial form as early as two years of age.
The actions and emphases on acceptable behaviour by parents play an important
role in moral development. The early experiences outside the family (e.g., preschool,
peers, neighbourhood) also contribute to the development of morality.
Gilligan has proposed that while male children are socialized to be independent
and achievement oriented, female children are socialized to be nurturant and
maintain a sense of responsibility. Womenhood or femininity is often linked with
self sacrifice and care of others.
It is also important to note that questions of morality are dealt with in different
ways in different cultures. For instance, the views prevalent in Western society
may not be appropriate in the non-western cultures. For instance, in the Indian
context the non relative objective values are important. Such values are based on
human and spiritual dignity.
17.5 PRO AND ANTI SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Prosocial behaviours are behaviours which benefit another person. They include
cooperation, sharing and helping when others are in distress. Children pass through
four predictable stages in the development of empathy which makes prosocial
behaviours possible.
92 PSYCHOLOGY
In the first stage infants have difficulty in differentiating self form others. They cry
when others cry and they laugh when others laugh. After one year they gradually
develop a sense of self as different from others and at that point they enter the
second stage characterized by egocentric thinking. They “help” the other person
in ways that they themselves would want to be helped. Then comes the third stage Notes
during which children show situation—specific empathy. Finally when they reach
the fourth stage they come to relate their expression of distress to others when
others are also in distress. Infact in the fourth stage, only appropriate exhibition of
empathy is demonstrated, that is, others get emotional support from those who
show appropriate empathic reaction.
Children can learn helping behaviour by imitating other known people. Opportunities
for responsibility taking, role playing, reinforcing desirable behaviour as and when
it occurs will strengthen the development of prosocial behaviour.
Anti social behaviours are characterized by truancy, delinquency, theft, vandalism
and other forms of violation of the accepted social rules and convention. In some
cases of antisocial behaviour the causal factors may be more personal than
environmental, whereas in other cases it is vice versa. However, there is always a
mixture of both personal and environmental influences, in varying proportion, that
leads to delinquent behaviours.
Psychological management of antisocial behaviour would include counseling and
guidance for learning socially constructive behaviours, assertiveness training or
social skills training which will enable them to shed aggressive behaviour or channelize
the aggressive behaviour into something constructive. This would enable the growing
child to benefit himself as well as the society.

1. Give two example of pro-social behaviour.
________________________________________________________
2. Mention any two techniques with the help of which pro-social behaviours can
be strengthened.
________________________________________________________
3. Give any three examples of antisocial behaviour.
________________________________________________________

• Self control is a process by which an individual learns to regulate one’s own
behaviour in a manner that is maximally rewarding or satisfying.
PSYCHOLOGY 93
• Chain smoking, over eating, compulsive behaviour are some of the responses
which can be modified by self control.
• Self Instruction Training (SIT) is one of the methods of self control. It emphasizes
the importance of self talking.
Notes
• The foundation for moral development is laid when ethical beliefs are
internalized. Jean Piaget and Kohlberg are well known theorists who put forth
their views on moral development.
• Prosocial behaviour is a response which benefits fellow members of a society
in their development which in turn enables society to grow and develop in the
positive direction. Antisocial behaviour is an act which hinders the well being
and development of society.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. How will you apply the procedure of self control to any problem condition?
Illustrate with an example.
2. How does morality develop?

17.1
1. Self control is a process of learning to regulate one’s own behaviour in such a
way that it maximally rewards or satisfies the individual concerned.
2. Discuss the stages of moral development.
17.2
1. Resolution of inner conflicts 2. Three main levels
17.3
1. Cooperation 2. Role playing and modeling.
3. Stealing, promiscuity, delinquency.

94 PSYCHOLOGY
Personality Theories MODULE-IV
Notes
18
PERSONALITY THEORIES
Every one of us shares many things with others. However, apart from commonalities
we also find that people are different in the way they appear and behave. The
study of personality deals with the issue of human individuality. It has attracted the
attention of common man as well as academic psychologists.
As a human being each one of us shows certain specific patterns of thinking,
feeling and acting. They represent who we are and provide the basis of our
interaction with other individuals. In everyday life we often find people who are
called “aggressive”, “jolly”, “happy” and so on. These are impressions of people
which we carry with us and use while interacting with them. It is in this sense that
we frequently employ the word ‘personality’. The study of personality has also
attracted the attention of psychologists and they have developed various theories
of personality. Also, they have developed certain tools to assess people’s
personality. The personality related information is used in selecting people for
various jobs, giving guidance to people in the need of psychological help, and
mapping their potential. Thus the study of personality contributes to different areas
of human behaviour. This chapter will help you learn about different aspects of
personality.
OBJECTIVES
• Describe the concept of personality;
• Explain psycho-analytic, trait, social-cognitive, and humanistic theories of
personality;
• Explain the concept of three gunas and familiarize with the ways of assessing
personality; and
• Describe the factors influencing personality development.
PSYCHOLOGY 95
MODULE -IV Personality Theories
18.1 CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

The term personality is used in a number of ways including the apparent features
of a person. However, psychologists use it to refer to the characteristic pattern
Notes of thinking, feeling and acting. By characteristic pattern we mean the
consistent and distinctive ways our ideas, feelings and actions are
organized. When we talk about personality we usually refer to the totality or
whole of the person. Thus, the enduring pattern expressed by the person in various
situations is the hall mark of personality. Interestingly the theories of personality go
beyond the literal meaning of “personality” which stands for large masks used by
actors in ancient Greek drama. Contrary to this the personality theorists view
‘personality’ as the essence of the person. It is a person’s “true” inner nature. The
unique impression that a person makes on others is equally important in
understanding personality. However the concept of personality has been defined
by psychologists in many ways and it is the theoretical perspective or position
which directs our attention to particular aspects of personality.
Understanding personality has proved to be a difficult and challenging task. It’s so

complex that no single theory is able to cover the total personality. The different
theories approach the structure and functioning of personality from different
positions. There are many theories of personality each provides different answers
about the way they treat the issues about personality functioning. In particular,
they provide different explanations about the role of conscious/unconscious factors,
determinism/freedom in functioning, role of early experience, role of genetic factors,
uniqueness/universality etc. In the present lesson you will learn about four major
theoretical perspectives of personality. They include psychoanalytic, trait, humanistic
and social-cognitive perspectives.
18.2 THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this theory emphasizes the influence of the
unconscious, the importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and early childhood
experience on a person. This theory has been very influential not only in psychology
but also in literary circles, art, psychiatry and films. Many of Freud’s ideas have
become part and parcel of every day usage. Freud started his career as a
neurologist. His theory developed in the course of his observations of his patients,
as well as, self analysis. He used free association to help his patients recover
forgotten memories.
Freud discovered that mind is like an iceberg and we have limited conscious
awareness.
96 PSYCHOLOGY
Freud proposed that psychological forces operate at three levels of awareness:
Conscious level: The thoughts, feelings, and sensations that one is aware of at
the present moment.
Notes
Preconscious level: It contains information of which one is not currently aware,
however, they can easily enter conscious mind.
Unconscious level: It consists of thought, feelings, wishes, drives etc. of which

we are not aware. It, however, influences our conscious level of activity.
Freud thought that unconscious material often seeks to push through to the conscious
level in a disguised manner. It may be in a distorted manner and or it may take a
symbolic form. Interpretation of dreams and free association were used for analysis
of the three levels of awareness.
Personality Structure
Freud believed that human personality emerges due to a conflict between our
aggressive and pleasure seeking biological impulses and the internalized social
restraints against them. Thus, personality arises in the course of our effort to resolve
the conflicts. To this end he proposed three structures which interact with each
other: Id, Ego and Super Ego. Let us learn about these structures:
Id: It is the unconscious, irrational part of personality. It is the primitive part immune
to morality and demands of the external world. It operates on the pleasure principle.
It seeks immediate satisfaction.
Ego: It is involved with the workings of the real world. It operates on the reality
principle. It is the conscious, and rational part of personality that regulates thoughts
and behaviors. It teaches the person to balance demands of external world and
needs of the person.
Super Ego: It is the internal representation of parental and societal values. It
works as the voice of conscience, that compels the ego to consider not only the
real but also the ideal. It judges one’s behaviors as right or wrong, good or bad.
Failing up to moral ideals bring about the shame, guilt, inferiority and anxiety in the
person.
Personality Development
On the basis of case-history of patients, Freud reached at a conclusion that
personality development occurs through a sequence of psychosexual stages. In
these stages the Id’s pleasure seeking tendency focuses on different areas of body.
Table 18.1 shows these stages.
PSYCHOLOGY 97
Table18.1: Stages of Psychosexual Development
Stages Focus of activity

Oral Pleasure centers in the mouth and leads to
Notes (0-18 months) activities of sucking and biting etc.
Anal Pleasure centers on bowel and bladder
(18-36 months) elimination
Phallic Pleasure centre is genitals
(4 to 6 years) Touching and fondling of genitals give pleasure
Latency Children repress their sexual impulses and
(7 to 11 years) channelize them into socially acceptable
activities such as sports, arts.
Genital Pleasure zone is the genital.
(From the onset of puberty) Maturation of sexual interests
Defense Mechanisms
The Ego has to perform a difficult duty of mediating between the instinctual demands
of Id and moral position of Super Ego. The Ego tries to solve the problem and if a
realistic solution or compromise is not possible it indulges in distorting thoughts or
perception of reality through certain processes called defense mechanisms. To
defend or safeguard ourselves, we use technique called defense mechanism. These
are also called Adjustment Mechanisms. Some of the key mechanisms are given
below:
Mechanism Description
Denial Failure to recognize or acknowledge the existence
of unpleasant event/information as I do not know,
I have not seen etc.
Displacement Emotional impulses are redirected toward one
other i.e. substitute person/object
Projection Attributing own unacceptable urges to others
Rationalization Justifying our actions or feelings through socially
acceptable explanations
Reaction formation Thinking or acting in a way that is the extreme
opposite of unacceptable urges
Regression Retreating to behaviour characteristic of an
earlier stage of development
Repression Exclusion of anxiety producing thoughts, feelings
or impulses from consciousness
Sublimation Sexual urges are channelized into productive,
nonsexual activities
98 PSYCHOLOGY
Freud’s ideas have been controversial. The neo-Freudians differed from Freud on
a number of issues. Some of the key theorists who are included in this category
are listed below.
Carl Jung: Collective Unconscious Notes
Jung was opposed to the central role of sex and aggression in human life. Instead
he proposed that people are motivated by more general psychological energy. He
proposed that the deepest part of one’s psyche comprises the collective
unconscious. It is a set of influences inherited from our family and the human race.
The collective unconscious contains archetypes which are the mental images of a
particular person, object or experience. Hero, powerful father, innocent child,
nurturant mother are example of archetypes.
Karen Horney: Basic Anxiety

Horney emphasized on the importance of social relationships in personality
development. Basic anxiety refers to the feeling of a child of being isolated and
helpless in a potentially hostile world.
Alfred Adler: Feelings of Inferiority and Superiority

Adler proposed that the central human motive is that of striving for superiority. It
arises from feelings of inferiority that are experienced during infancy and childhood
During this period the child is helpless and depends on others for help and support.
The psychoanalytic ideas have been criticized on the ground that there is inadequate
evidence to support the theory.

Fill in the blank with suitable words:
1. Freud has likened mind with an __________________.

2. In Psychoanalytic theory personality has three structures, namely————,
—————— and ———————.
3. Children repress their sexual impulses during ________________ stage.
18.3 THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE

Traits are characteristic behaviours and conscious motives. They represent a
PSYCHOLOGY 99
relatively stable and enduring predisposition to behave in a given way. Traits are
frequently used in describing people. The focus of trait approach is very common
and involves enumerating list of personal characteristics. Trait theories of personality
identify, describe and measure individual differences. The apparent traits are called
Notes surface traits (e.g. happy, cordial). Contrary to this there are certain source traits.
Raymond Cattell developed a trait theory which has 16 source traits. He called
them personality factors. Some of them are: Reserved-Outgoing, Serious-Happy-
go-lucky, Practical-Imaginative and Relaxed-Tense.
Eysenck proposed a theory which classifies people in four types: introverted-
neurotic, introverted- stable, extraverted- neurotic and extraverted- stable. In
subsequent work Eysenck proposed psychoticism as another dimension of
personality.
Recently McCrae and Costa have proposed a five factor model, comprising of
neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and
conscientiousness. Traits are used to describe behaviour and make prediction.
However, human behaviour is an outcome of interaction between traits and
situations. Hence, the situations chosen and consistency in responding to situations
indicate the value of traits.
It is said that the trait theories do not explain the personality of a person. They tell
us little about the causes of individual difference, and the dynamic processes are
neglected.
10.4 THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

This perspective was developed by Albert Bandura. It views behaviour as influenced
by the interaction between persons and the social context. It is proposed that our
thoughts and actions originate in the social world but it is essential to note that
human beings have capacity for self-regulation and engage in active cognitive
processes. Their interrelationships are shown in Fig. 18.1
Cognitive
factors
Behavioural Environmental
factors factors
Fig. 18.1 Reciprocal determinism of Behaviours, Cognition and Environment
Bandura developed the concept of self efficacy which incorporates a person’s
100 PSYCHOLOGY
cognitive skills, abilities and attitudes as represented in one’s self-system. Self-

efficacy indicates the degree to which one is convinced of the abilities and
effectiveness in meeting the demands of a particular situation. The theory is based
on laboratory research. However, the theory ignores the unconscious factors which
may influence behaviour. The theory also emphasizes the rational side of life while Notes
ignoring the emotional side.
The cognitive-social theory brings into focus the role of thought and memory in
personality. We often find that the expectations and skills learned by people are
very important in determining behaviours.

Match the names given in column A with the concept given in column B:
Column A Column B
(a) Freud (i) introverted – stable
(b) Jung (ii) Need hierarchy
(c) Eysenck (iii) Sublimation
(d) Bandura (iv) Collective unconscious
(e) Maslow (v) self efficacy
18.5 THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

These theories propose that within each individual is an active creative force, often
called “self”. This force seeks expression. It develops and grows. This perspective,
also known as the third force, emphasizes on human potential and characteristics
like self-awareness and free will. It views human beings as innately good. The
conscious and subjective perception of self is considered very important. Carl
Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the main proponents of the humanistic
perspective.
Abraham Maslow proposed the idea of self actualized people. He proposed that
human motives are arranged in a hierarchy of needs. As shown in figure 18.2
human needs are organized from physiological needs to self transcendence.
Maslow notes that the self actualized people have realistic perception, are
spontaneous, easily accept self and others, are creative, and enjoy and appreciate
positive aspects of life, like privacy and independence.
PSYCHOLOGY 101
Carl Rogers thinks that the basic human motive is actualizing tendency. It is the
innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism. Rogers observed that
people are motivated to act in accordance with their self concept. They deny or
distort the experiences that are contrary to their self-concept. The ideal condition
Notes for development is unconditional positive regard. His notion of a fully functioning
individual is that the self-concept is flexible and evolving. It holds an optimistic
view of human beings.
Self transcendence
Self actualization
Esteem needs
Belongingness and love needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Fig. 18.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
18.6 CONCEPT OF GUNAS

The Indian approach to personality emphasizes on the combination of three qualities
namely, Sattava, Rajas and Tamas. These qualities or Gunas have been discussed
in detail in the Samkhya Theory. Bhagvadgita has provided an account of these
gunas. These gunas are present in different degrees and at any point of time one or
the other may dominate. The behaviour of a person depends on the guna that is
dominating a person at any point of time. A brief description of these gunas is given
below.
Sattva Guna: The main attributes which characterize Sattva guna are truth,
gravity, duty, discipline, detachment, cleanliness, mental balance, sense of control,
determination and sharp intelligence.
Rajas Guna: A person dominated by Rajas guna has attributes that include
vigorous activity, desire for sense gratification, dissatisfaction, envy and materialistic
point of view.
Tamas Guna: It involves anger, arrogance, mental imbalance, depression, laziness,

procrastination and a feeling of helplessness. Bhagvadgita views the three gunas in
102 PSYCHOLOGY
a prototypical form and describes that the food which we eat, mentality (Budhi),
Charity (Dan) etc. can also be categorized in the three types of gunas or qualities.
18.7 ASSESSING HUMAN PERSONALITY Notes

In view of the fact that the knowledge about personality is useful in many settings
researchers have developed a variety of tools for its assessment. These tools can
be categorized into three types namely observational, self-report and projective.
The observational tools include interview, rating of a person in one or many

situations.
Projective tests are a special kind of test in which ambiguous material is used and
the person whose personality is being tested has to give his or her own meaning or
interpretation. Thus, it is expected that the personality of the examinee will be
projected in the response given by him or her. Two of the famous projective tests
are Rorschach Ink Blot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). In the Ink
Blot test a person is shown a set of 10 symmetrical ink blots and asked to say
what he or she sees in each of them. The response given is interpreted by the
psychologist. In the TAT certain photographs are shown and the person has to
develop a story describing the situation with regard to its past, present and future.
The story narrated by the person is coded and analyzed by the psychologist.
It must be noted that the use and interpretation of various personality tests requires
professional training.

State whether the following statements are True or False:
(1) Projection is failure to acknowledge the existence of unpleasant event

information. True/False
(2) Sublimation is canalization of sexual urge into productive, non sexual activities.
True/False
(3) Cattell has proposed 16 core traits of personality. True/False
(4) Rogers has developed the concept of self efficacy True/False
(5) Humanistic perspective is also called third force in psychology.
True/False
PSYCHOLOGY 103
18.8 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT
The development of personality of an individual takes place in a socio-cultural
Notes context. The particular potentialities with which a child is born may develop or
become stunted depending on the way maturation takes place and the kind of
experiences encountered by the person. In the process of growth and development
people develop unique configuration of traits which lead to individual differences.
In this way one finds that personality formation is a complex process depending
upon common and unique experiences on the one hand, and, genetic factors on
the other. It has been indicated that there are stable ways in which specific situation
trigger specific patterns of thought, feeling and behaviour.
(1) Genetic factors: Almost all theorists consider heredity as a major determinant
of personality. Some like Freud, view personality as purely biological.
However, others recognize the value of social and cultural factors. In fact it
would be wrong to view the question in either or manner and give more emphasis
to heredity or environment. Studies of behaviour genetics suggest that most
personality variables are 15 to 50 percent inheritable.
(2) Early experience: Most of the theorists of personality think that personality
development is a continuous process. The early years play very important role
in the shaping of personality. However, the immediate environment and
experiences are also found to be of immense value.
(3) Primary groups: While explaining personality development family is found
to play a critical role. The early relationships with members of family are
particularly important. Freud thought that many of the problems during adult
life are due to problematic child rearing practices leading to emotional
disturbances. The sense of identity and relevance of appropriate modeling has
been emphasized.
(4) Culture: People living in one culture often share similar practices, beliefs and
values. The child is expected to learn to behave in the manner expected by the
culture. For instance boys and girls are expected to show different sets of
personality characteristics. The various occupational roles are also shaped by
culture. However, the effect of culture may not be uniform for everyone
belonging to that culture because they are transmitted through different ways
and persons and people also have certain unique experiences.
104 PSYCHOLOGY

1. Name the guans mentioned in the Indian approach to personality.
Notes
2. Name the three categories of personality assessment.
3. Name two important projective tests of personality.
4. What are the factors that influence personality?
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the concept of personality.
2. What are main four perspectives to understand personality?
3. What is the difference between conscious and pre conscious mind?
4. Name various stages of psychosexual development.
5. What is meant by need hierarchy? List all these needs.

18.1
1. iceberg
2. id, ego, superego
3. latency
18.2
Column A Column B
(a) (iii)
(b) (iv)
(c) (i)
(d) (v)
(e) (ii)
PSYCHOLOGY 105
18.3
1 False 2. True 3. True
4. False 5. True
Notes
18.4
1. Satva, Rajas, Tamas
2. (a) observational, (b) self report, (c) projective
3. Rorschach; TAT
4.Genetic factors, Early experience, Primary groups, culture.

2. Refer to section 18.2, 18.3, 18.4 and 18.5
106 PSYCHOLOGY
Personality Assessment MODULE-IV
Notes
19
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
In the previous lesson, you learnt about different theories of personality. These
were the psychoanalytic, trait, social-cognitive, humanistic and the Indian approach
to personality, based on gunas. If we wish to determine aspects of a person’s
personality based on a particular theory, there are specific techniques for assessing
those. For example, if you wish to know about the dominant traits in a person,
e.g., whether he is an extrovert or introvert, there are specific ways developed by
psychologists, to get this information. Similarly, if we wish to know about the
unconscious aspects of a person’s personality, we will have to use psychoanalytic
ways of assessing the same. In this lesson you will learn about the different ways of
personality assessment.
OBJECTIVES
• assess personality based on different theoretical approaches.
19.1 ASSESSING PERSONALITY TRAITS

There are two ways of assessing personality traits. One method consists of asking
a set of questions which a person has to answer about his/her opinions, feelings
and actions. For this purpose, a personality inventory is used. In the second
approach, some other person makes assessments about a person’s traits, based
on prior knowledge about that person, or by direct observation of the person.
This is called the rating-scale approach.
PSYCHOLOGY 107
MODULE -IV Personality Assessment
Personality inventories are questionnaires where a person has to answer many

questions about the way she/he reacts to different situations. A personality inventory
may be designed to assess a single trait like extroversion-introversion, or it may
assess a number of traits. For example, if a person answers “Yes” to the question
Notes “Do you stay in the background in social situations?” this is an indication of
introversion. Of course, the assessment will be based on a number of questions
relating to different types of situations, not just one question. The Sixteen Factor
Personality Questionnaire (16 PF) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) are two very well known inventories which are useful for
obtaining information about a person’s traits.
Inventories are very useful, but when a person has to report about his/her reactions,
sometimes we can be biased about our own characteristics. To overcome this
problem, another way of assessing personality traits has been developed based
on rating scales. For example a person may be asked to describe the self-confidence
level of another person, using of 7 point scale ranging from very low ”(1) to very
high ”(7).
There are certain conditions which the raters must fulfil, for the rating to be useful
and valid. The raters must (a) be able to understand the scale, (b) know the
person well about whom the rating has to be made, and, (c) not get biased in his/
her judgment, about the person, and rate in favourable or unfavourable way.
19.2 ASSESSMENT IN PSYCHOANALYIC APPROACH

As you will recall from the previous lesson, the psychoanalytic approach focuses
on a person’s unconscious conflicts and motives. But the unconscious part of
person’s personality, (the major part in this view), is hidden from one’s self-
awareness. Psychoanalysts, therefore, have to use indirect symbolic information
and interpret this to uncover the unconscious conflicts and motives. This approach
is called projective technique.
In this approach, if the psychoanalyst wants to obtain knowledge of unconscious

processes in a person’s psyche, she/he presents certain ambiguous material and
asks the person to describe what she/he sees. This ambiguous material may be on
ink-blot, or a picture which leads to the person “reading” or projecting some
meaning into it from personal experience or fantasy. In this way, the person’s
unconscious mind is tapped and something is revealed about it. The ‘Rorschach
Test’ and the ‘Thematic Apperception Test’ (TAT) are two well known projective
tests. The former is based on ink-blots and the latter consists of pictures containing
human characters. For example, a TAT picture may have an outline of boy from
the back, looking at the sun. On being asked what she/he sees, a person may
108 PSYCHOLOGY
respond that “The boy is thinking that she/he will achieve great things in life”. In
this way the person may have projected his/her own dream of achieving great
things in life.
Notes
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words
1. In ____________________ a person has to answer many questions about

the way she/he reacts to different situations.
2. A description of a person’s traits, based on prior knowledge, is called the
__________ approach.
3. __________ __________ uses indirect symbolic meaning which is interpreted
by the psychoanalyst to uncover unconscious conflicts.
4. __________ _________ test consists of pictures containing human figures
about which a person is required to tell a brief story.
19.3 ASSESSMENT IN HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

As you have learnt, the humanistic approach to personality focuses on how a
person experiences her/his world. Therefore, assessment here is concerned with
understanding the perception of a person about his/her life situation and experience.
A number of methods have been developed to measure a person’s self-concept.
One approach is based on the person selecting, from a number of descriptive
sentences, those which describe him/her in an accurate way. (e.g., “I am a confident
person”, “I am often nervous”, “I am a sincere and hard working student, etc.).
Another approach focuses on a persons willingness to express his/her inner nature
or self to others. This approach is based on the understanding that the tendency
for very high or very low level of self-disclosure are both an indication of emotional
immaturity.
19.4 ASSESSMENT OF GUNAS

In the last lesson you also studied about the Indian approach to personality which
emphasises the three Gunas: Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. In order to assess a person’s
nature based on this conception, we need to have an understanding of which Guna
is predominant in a person’s life, in thought, speech and action, and then which is
PSYCHOLOGY 109
MODULE -IV Personality Assessment
less dominant, and finally which is the least. For example, a person who is extremely
truthful, detached, and helpful is likely to be high on Sattva. In order to assess
which Guna is predominant in an individual’s personality, we have to obtain combined
information using questionnaires, observation etc. Some inventories have been
Notes developed which gives us some information about the way the Gunas are active in
an individual’s personality.

Fill in the blanks:
1. In the ____________ approach, assessment focuses on how a person perceive

his/her world.
2. A person’s willingness to expose his/her inner nature or self to other’s is referred
to as the tendency for __________________.
3. Assessment in the Indian Guna approach attempts to find out, which Guna is
___________ in an individual’s personality.
4. _____________ method which is used in the trait approach is also used for
the Guna perspective.

• Personality assessment is related to the theory of personality through which
we want to understand a person.
• The trait approach to assessment uses personality inventories, and rating scales.
• The psychoanalytic approach to assessment uses the projective technique
where a person describes ambiguous material like inkblots.
• The humanistic approach to personality assessment attempts to find out how
a person perceives his/her world.
• The Guna approach to assessment relies on multiple ways, including inventories.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
Briefly write how personality assessment is done in each of the following
approaches:
110 PSYCHOLOGY
1. Trait approach
2. Psychoanalytic approach
3. Humanistic approach
Notes
4. Guna approach.
PSYCHOLOGY 111
MODULE -IV Psychological Disorder
Notes
20
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Feeling happy, or crying when one is hurt, are some common actions which we
all engage in some time or the other. Most of the time we act as the situation
demands us to, that is, we control our emotions and behaviours according to the
norm prevalent in the society. But if behaviour is perceived to occur without any
reason or against the context–how will you evaluate it? It will not be called normal
behaviour, in othe words, it will be termed as abnormal behaviour. But again at
some point of time in our life many of us behave irrationally or away from normal
behaviour. Does it mean that we have become abnormal? Perhaps not.
So what is the definition of abnormal behaviour, what are the factors which cause
abnormal behaviour and many such other questions arise in our mind. This lesson
attempts to explain and answer such questions.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the term psychological disorder;
• enumerate and describe the major types of abnormalities;
• describe the symptoms of various types of psychological disorders such as
anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia.
20.1 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

As the name itself suggests, any disorder, which presents a person to function in
effectively in the social domain, is termed as a psychological disorder. Psychological
112 PSYCHOLOGY
Psychological Disorder MODULE-IV
disorders can be defined as a pattern of behavioural or psychological symptoms

that causes significant distress, impairs the ability to function in one or more areas
of life or both.
The important feature is that the symptoms which a person is showing must represent Notes
a serious departure from the prevalent social and cultural norms. Cultural and
social norms are being emphasized here because the traditions in each culture
differ. Some actions which may form an essential part of one culture may be a
serious disturbance in others. For example tribal societies have different norms
and culture. Their way of living and habits will be considered abnormal in the
urban context.
To determine any behaviour as away from normal, seven considerations are used
as the distinguishing criteria. They are:
(i) Suffering – experiencing distress and discomfort in one’s own life.

(ii) Maladaptiveness – engaging in bahaviour or thought pattern which makes it
more difficult to lead one’s life.
(iii) Irrationality – unable to communicate in a reasonable manner with others.
(iv) Unpredictability – acting in ways which are entirely unexpected.
(v) Vividness and intensity– experience sensations which are far more vivid and
intense than those of other people.
(vi) Observer discomfort – acting in ways which others find embarrassing.
(vii)Violation of moral and ideal standards – habitual breaking of norms.
As we have read earlier, normality and abnormality are not very rigid concepts. As
states of mind, they lie in a continuum, and, most of us experience them in different
phases of life.
It can be said that abnormality is a matter of the degree to which a set of behaviours
of an individual are considered inappropriate as against accepted norms of the
society, and which are problematic for the person in his/her social functioning and
adjustment. Now let us study about the various causes of abnormal behaviour.
20.2 CAUSES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

There are many factors which contribute to the causes of abnormal behaviour.
Some of them are:
(a) Biological factors: The biological factors which give rise to abnormal
PSYCHOLOGY 113
behaviour include the genetic factors, chromosomal dysfunctions, brain or

endocrine dysfunctions that may cause the development of abnormal behaviour.
(b) Psychological factors: The psychological factors causing abnormal behaviour
are difficult to identify and measure as they work indirectly. The effect is not
Notes
very predictable but if one tries to analyze the various processes adopted
during childhood like over-protection or over-indulgence, inconsistent rewards
and punishments, these factors significantly contribute in the development of
maladaptive behavhour.

(a) Explain irrationality as a property of abnormal behaviour.
________________________________________________________
(b) What are the causes of abnormal behaviour.
________________________________________________________
20.3 TYPES OF DISORDERS

Till now in this lesson we have learnt about abnormal behaviour and the causes.
Now let us study in detail about some psychological disorders. Some of the major
psychological disorders are –
1) anxiety disorder
2) mood disorders
3) schizophrenic disorders
4) substance related disorders.
20.3.1 Anxiety Disorder

All of us have experienced anxiety in our life in some way or the other. Whether it
is during examination or waiting for interview results or maybe due to death of a
loved one, anxiety is experienced by us. We also have our own way of coping
with it but anxiety can take the form of a disorder if not treated properly at the
correct time. Anxiety disorders are disorders which decrease the performance or
social functioning of an individual due to hyper-anxiety. Anxiety disorder can be of
many types. Some of the anxiety disorders are:
114 PSYCHOLOGY
(a) generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

(b) panic disorder
(c) phobias
(d) obsessive – compulsive disorder Notes
(e) somatoform disorder

(f) post traumatic stress.
Let us look at the features of these disorders as described below:
(a) Generalised Anxiety Disorder: It is the most common form of anxiety
disorder. The chief symptom of this disorder is unrealistic or excessive worry.
The various symptoms of GAD are nervousness, dizziness, sweating, trembling,
tension, difficulty in concentration etc.
(b) Panic Disorder: Intense anxiety along with marked physiological symptoms
such as increased palpitation, breathing difficulty, and a sense of helplessness
are seen in the case of panic disorder. Before and after the release of anxiety
calmness prevails. The person suffering from this disorder may not remain
always anxious.
(c) Phobia: Phobia means an irrational fear of some object or situation. Most of
us have a fear about something or the other but when this fear reaches a level
when it disrupts normal functioning, then it is termed as phobia. One type of
phobia is known as social phobia – when one is afraid of speaking on stage,
or talking to strangers and ther are some specific phobias, like fear of rats or
cats.
(d) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders: Persistent thoughts or wishes that intrude
into ones consciousness and cannot be stopped are obsessions. Compulsion
is an act which a person feels compelled to carry out despite knowing that it is
unnecessary. Obsessive thinking often leads to compulsive acts.
(e) Somatoform disorder: Somatoform disorders refer to physical problems
which have no organic basis, for example, fatigue, headaches, vague body
pains etc. The persons suffering from this disease remains preoccupied with
symptoms.

1. What is an anxiety disorder?
________________________________________________________
PSYCHOLOGY 115
2. List any two types of anxiety disorder.

________________________________________________________
Notes 20.3.2 Mood disorders

Mood disorders are disorders of emotion. Heightened intensity and duration of
emotion require immediate psychological and medical attention. The individuals
suffering from this type of disorder are termed as emotionally disturbed. The three
types of mood disorders have been characterized as - depressive disorders, bipolar
disorders, and other disorders. Mood disorders include severe symptoms such as
dissatisfaction and anxiety, changes in appetite, disturbances of sleep and
psychomotor functions, sudden weight loss, inability to think clearly, and thought
of death and suicide.
In some of the disorders genetic factors are involved. Drug therapies and biological
therapies have been found to be very effective for its treatment.
20.3.3 Substance related disorders

It has been found that when people suffer from prolonged periods of pain or
tension, they take drugs or alcohol. Drugs, like alcohol, influence our thoughts,
actions and activities negatively. These drugs, if used for a long time, cause
deterioration in attention, motivation, and motor co-ordination. People have suffered
losses in their personal and social life due to the usage of drugs.
Substance related disorder is not only limited to the usage of alcohol but it also
related to panmasala, tobacco, opium, marijuana etc. To help a person suffering
from this disorder, the following issues are important. These are :
(i) Detoxification
(ii) Administration of drugs for easing withdrawl symptoms.
(iii) Aversive conditioning
(iv) Social support
(v) Psychotherapy
(vi) Rehabilitation
(vii)Prevention and follow up.
20.3.4 Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is considered by the experts as the most devastating mental disorder.
116 PSYCHOLOGY
It can be defined as a cluster of disorders characterized by fragmentation of the

basic psychological processes such as attention, perception, thoughts, emotions
and behaviour. This fragmentation leads to serious maladjustments. Patients suffering
from schizophrenia do not perceive things happening around them correctly, and
they often see or hear things which are not there. Their thinking pattern is confused Notes
and disorganized and they fail to communicate properly with others.
The categorization of schizophrenia is given in the following table.
Type Symptoms
1. Catatonic Unusual patterns of motor activity, speech disturbances
such as repetitive chatter or rigid postures.
2. Disorganized Verbal asymmetry, poorly developed ideas
3. Paranoid Preoccupied with one or more set of ideas.
4. Undifferentiated Hallucinations, incoherence
5. Residual Withdrawl, absence of motivation etc.
The primary symptoms of schizophrenia are disturbance of thoughts, disturbances

of perceptions, disturbances in emotional expression, disturbances of speech, social
withdrawl, low motivation.
20.3.5 Personality disorder

Rammohan is a clerk in a company. As a clerk he was able to do work that was
assigned to him. But whenever any situation comes when he has to take a decision,
he is not able to do so. He has a good rapport with his seniors because he was
highly submissive, but when his promotion was due, his officers were not sure
about his capability for that position.
This is an acute case of dependent personality disorder where the individual always
shows a need to be taken care of and is not able to show any decision-making
skill. Another form of personality disorder is antisocial personality disorder in which
individuals show irresponsible and socially disruptive behaviour like destroying
property, stealing etc.
Personality disorder is characterized by a maladaptive style of thinking, feeling

and behaving which disturbs the normal functioning of an individual.
PSYCHOLOGY 117

1. List any two steps to be followed for helping a person with substance related
Notes disorder.
________________________________________________________
2. State any two symptoms of schizophrenia.
________________________________________________________

• Any disorder which prevents a person to function effectively in a social set-up
is known as a psychological disorder.
• The behaviour should show a serious departure from the prevalent social and
cultural norm.
• To determine any behaviour as abnormal, seven considerations are used as a
criteria-maladaptiveness, irritability, unpredictability vividness, observer’s
discomfort and violation of moral standards.
• The cause of abnormal behaviour can be biological or psychological.
• Some of the major psychological disorders are anxiety disorder, mood disorder,
substance related disorder and schizophrenia etc.
• Anxiety disorder decreases the performance of a person due to anxiety.
• The various forms of anxiety disorders are: Somatoform disorders, generalized
anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• Schizophrenia is a severe psychological disorder. Schizophrenia is also
characterized by fragmentation of basic psychological processes. The various
forms of schizophrenia are catatonic, disoganized, paranoid, undifferentiated
and residual.
118 PSYCHOLOGY
Group Processes MODULE-V
Social and Applied
Psychology
Notes
21
GROUP PROCESSES
Human life primarily depends on various kinds of groups. After we are born we
remain dependent upon fellow human beings to achieve various goals. We spend
most of our time interacting with people. A child is born in a family, goes to school
and makes friends. An adult works in an organization, looks after the needs of
family members and indulges in various kinds of activities in relation to other persons.
His/her interaction with different types of people is to a large extent determined by
the type of group, and the context in which the interaction takes place. In this
lesson you will be learning about the nature of group, the processes involved in
group formation and advantages and disadvantages of being a group member.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the concept of group;
• understand the functioning of groups;
• explain the nature of group processes;
• discuss various stages in group formation;
• describe types of group; and
• discuss effect of group on individual’s behaviour.
21.1 THE NATURE OF GROUP

When two or more persons interact, we say that a group has come into existence.
The reasons for interaction among persons and forming social relationships are
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many. For example, students might interact to collaborate for their studies outside
the classroom. Others might interact as they live at one place and share a common
goal. They may want to play together and fulfill the need for companionship. Some
people might meet by chance but continue to interact because they find each
Notes other’s company mutually rewarding. Thus it is clear that each group strives to
achieve a goal. The more explicit a goal is, the greater the interaction and co-
operation among the group members. The relationship among group members
remains stable or continues for some time (months, or years). The group also has
a structure and members think that they are part of a group or have a feeling of
belongingness.
At the physical level any collectivity with a purpose can be called a group.
A class of fifth grade children is a group, a committee of bank officials is a group,
two carpenters manning a saw to cut a large piece of timber form a group, and a
team playing football is also a group, and so on. All these groups exist at the
physical level and have direct or face to face interaction. In these groups direct
and immediate communication among the members of group is possible and usually
takes place.
Persons possessing certain common characteristics, too, are conceived to

form a group. For example, all Sikh students in a class may be conceived to form
a group; all left-handed students in the small class form another set; all elements in
the set possess at least one common characteristic which non-members may lack.
There need not be any face-to-face communication among the members in such
sets. One member may not necessarily know another member.
Thus, it may be said that a group comprises of two or more persons who interact
and share common goals. They have stable relationship and are interdependent
and perceive themselves as belonging to this collectivity.
The most important characteristic of a group is interdependence. It may

be related to behaviours and outcomes tasks. Let us examine three types of
interdependencies:
(i) The interdependence of behaviour refers to the fact that the behaviour of
one member gives rise to another member’s behaviour and which in turn forces
the entire group to perform certain functions.
(ii) The interdependence of outcome refers to the fact that each member’s
outcome (received reward) is not the result of his/her behaviour alone but is
also dependent upon the behaviour of other group members. For example,
while walking on a road, you are safe till someone hits you from the back or
the front side. It also implies shared fate, that is, the outcome of an event has
more or less equal implications for the welfare of every member of the group.
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(iii) Task interdependence refers to the fact that to achieve a goal, group members
need to coordinate their activities. For example, in playing football or cricket,
coordination of activities of different players is essential for winning the game.
They work on the basis of the principle of complementarity.
Notes

1. Define a group?
2. What is the most important characteristic of a group?
21.2 HOW GROUPS OPERATE?

Whenever a group is organized or formed it functions on the basis of certain
norms. Also, the group members perform different roles. They also vary in status.
Finally, a group may be highly integrated and members may share cohesiveness or
may lack it. It will be good if we are clear about these aspects of group functioning.
(a) Roles: In any group different members are required to perform different roles.
You will recollect that in various associations we get people who occupy the
roles of president, secretary, treasurer etc. All of them perform different roles
which help achieving group goals.
(b) Norms: Each group functions according to certain rules. These rules constitute
the norms. They may be explicit or implicit and regulate the behaviours of
group members. It is expected that members must accept the norms
(c) Status: The different roles carry a specific rank or standing in the group. This
standing is related to nature of task assigned and power to influence decision
making. Thus status differences emerge in the group.
21.3 THE NATURE OF GROUP PROCESSES

After knowing the nature of a group, you may be interested in knowing why people
join groups, how groups are formed, and what are the experiences of joining a
group. Let us examine these questions in some detail.
Reasons for Joining the Group
People often join a group primarily for the reason that it enables them to receive
certain benefits or need satisfaction. They often extend opportunity to achieve
certain desired goals. For example, a football player would like to be a member of
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the football team as it would enable him to play football. A group can be helpful to
individual in at least four ways:
(i) People join a group because groups help to achieve those goals that one
Notes cannot attain individually. For example, you join a group because your
friend or teacher is a member of the group.
(ii) You join a group because you feel that the group members have resources
(economic or otherwise) which can at times be helpful to you.
(iii) People often join a group to meet the need for security. People get protection
when they become members of particular groups.
(iv) Groups help to provide positive social identity to its members. People
who are members of various groups tend to have a positive feeling and positive
self appreciation simply because of being members of that group.
In brief people join groups because groups help achieving goals, have resources,
meet the need for securites and provide social identity.
Outcome of Group Experiences: Cohesiveness
A number of outcomes occur when people come together over a period of time.
For example, being a member of group provides satisfaction to the group member.
We all feel proud of being an Indian, or studying in a particular school, or working
with a particular organization. Thus, a sense of satisfaction leads to cohesiveness
in the group. A cohesive group has a higher level of solidarity and consensus.
There are forces in the structure of the group that act on the members to remain in
the group.
21.4 STAGES IN GROUP FORMATION

The formation of group follows four stages. These are: (a) orientation (b) focus
(c) regulation and (d) formalization. Let us learn more about the important features
of these stages:
Stage 1 – Orientation
In the initial stage of group formation, the potential or would be members make an
attempt to assess their gains and losses for working together and interacting over
a period of time. At this stage people judge about their potentialities and the goals
of the group. They become more concerned about their benefits or losses while
joining a particular group. People spend much time in asking and answering
questions about one another’s interest, abilities and knowledge etc.
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Stage 2 – Focus
When an individual decides that it is in their interest to form a group to achieve a
specific goal, their focus gets centred on the means (or how) to achieve the goal.
At this point the members become clear about their contribution to achieve the Notes
group goal, the other available resources, and the likely benefits to be received by
the members of that group.
Stage 3 – Regulation
Due to interaction over a longer period of time, a pattern in the social exchange of
the group members emerges. The roles and functions of each member are clearly
defined. It is at this stage that one member becomes the leader of the group and
starts playing a decisive role in shaping the activities of the group. Other members
look forward to that leader for guidance.
Stage 4 – Formalization
During this phase, the norms and roles that emerge during the third stage become
formalized. Members of the group, either in writing or in their speech, acknowledge
the existence of these rules and show their willingness to comply with them.

1. Why do people join groups?
2. Name the four stages in formation of a group.
21.5 TYPES OF GROUPS

There are generally two types of groups:
(i) Primary groups

(ii) Secondary groups
Primary groups are characterized by more or less continued, intimate, face-to-face
association and cooperation. The most important example of primary group is the
family, where one can observe close, face-to-face interaction in family. The
members of a primary group have a common fate. Primary group is the nucleus of
all social organizations. Such groups exert profound influence on shaping the
personality of children.
Secondary groups, in contrast, are special interest groups. For example,

membership to these groups is voluntary. One may be a member of a professional
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group such as doctors, engineers, teachers, artists and so forth. The members of
these groups do not necessarily have face-to-face contact although there may be
direct interaction among them.
Notes People become members of a secondary group to satisfy their psychological needs
such as prestige, companionship, etc. When their needs are satisfied by the group,
the individuals take on the secondary groups attitudes more readily that they might
otherwise.

1. What are the two types of groups?
2. Give an example of a secondary group.
21.6 EFFECTS OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL’S

BEHAVIOUR
Becoming a member of a group on the part of an individual appears to influence
his or her behaviours in many ways. Let us examine some of the important influences
in detail.
Decision Making
It has been found that while taking decisions an individual, when left alone, takes
less risk. On the other hand, when he or she is present in a group, there appears a
tendency on the part of an individual to take greater amount of risk. The group as
a whole takes greater risk than the individual. This phenomenon is popularly known
as risky shift.
The question then arises as to why groups take greater risk than individuals? It is
believed that it is due to the spread of responsibility. The fact that there are others
to share the blame if failure occurs makes each group member feel lesser degree
of personal blame for a possible failure. The risky shift also results in part from
persuasive communication. If most members of a group agree that risk is the
correct response to the problem under consideration, then most of the reasons
and justifications brought out in the discussion shall favour risk.
Social Facilitation
Social facilitation refers to the influence of the presence of others persons

on one’s performance. Try to recall your own behaviour. When you are performing
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an easy task or something which you know very well, there is a possibility that
other group members such as parents or teachers will evaluate your work, and
you try to show your best performance. On the other hand, such awareness
interferes with your ability to perform when the task is complex and your performance
decreases. Notes

1. Why does a group take greater risk than an individual?
2. What is social facilitation effect?

• Persons possessing certain characteristics with a common goal often form a
group.
• A group is a subpopulation within a large population with which individuals
may be identified as included and belonging to it.
• Interdependence is an important characteristic of a group. It means that the
behaviour of one member gives rise to another member’s behaviour, which
results in forcing the group to perform in certain ways.
• People join groups for different reasons because groups are beneficial and
group members have resources and responsibilities which can be shared.
• Cohesiveness refers to the belief of the individuals that being a member of a
particular-group would be rewarding.
• The formation of a group follows four stages, which include orientation, focus,
regulation and formalization.
• There are two types of groups : Primary and Secondary.
• Group formation has an effect on individual’s behaviour like decision making
and performance.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Define a group.
2. List down the characteristics of a group.
3. Describe briefly the four stages in the evolution of groups?
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4. How does being part of a group affects individual behaviour?
Notes ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

21.1
1. When two or more people interact for achieving a common goal, a group
comes into existence.
2. interdependence
21.2
1. People join groups because groups:
• help achieving goals
• have resources
• meet the need for securitz
• provide social identity
2. Orientation, Focus, Regulation, Formalization
21.3
1. Primary groups and Secondary groups.
2. Association of teachers
21.4
1. Because in groups there are others to share the blame if failure occurs.
2. When an individual’s performance improves due to the presence of other
people, it is called social facilitation.

128 PSYCHOLOGY
Person Perception and Interpersonal Attraction MODULE-V
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Psychology
Notes
22
PERSON PERCEPTION AND

INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION
We have already noted, achieving a sense of self is an important achievement. A

neonate may not be able to distinguish between self and others. Our self knowledge
is peculiar in the sense that we are aware that we have a self. This kind of self
consciousness is a major achievement.
It may be easily guessed that the knowledge of self does require some kind of
social knowledge. In the beginning the infant lacks distinction between his and her
world which includes other persons. The child is immersed in the social environment.
From there, the child gradually attains an awareness of self.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the salience of social environment for self growth and development;
• identify the factors that determine interpersonal attraction; and
• understand the role of interaction with significant others in self-perception.
22.1 PERCEPTION OF OTHERS

Toward the end of infancy children start constructing a representation of the self as
an objective entity. The cognitive and linguistic development facilitates interaction
with others. Others help defining our characteristics. We adjust our behaviours in
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relation to their expectation. With some mastery over language children organize
their self knowledge. It may be noted that recognizing or deciding that something
is “mine” presupposes some differentiation of “me” from everything else. By the
third year children tend to show various characteristics. They indicate existence of
Notes internal processes, appearance, opinions and volition. As the children grow their
self concepts become more and more differentiated.
It may be noted that the development of self concept is primarily a social activity.
The other persons present in the environment provide context and guidance to
them. For instance, it is common to find parents approving or disapproving the
actions of children. They suggest goals and encourage aspirations. They talk about
various events and happenings in the child’s environment. All these situations help
child to learn about ‘self’. In particular children learn about emotional regulation.
However, it would be inaccurate to view self merely something to be shaped by

others. It is a complex social product in which child’s own experience also plays
an important role.
While learning about self, children also develop an understanding that people are
different from other things, they have certain characteristics and have independent
psychological existence. Infants are very much interested in other persons. They
are aware of differences between people and other things. It has been found that
the understanding of others is related to understanding of the self. The children are
aware of other’s internal processes like feelings, thoughts and intentions from an
early age. The awareness grows and gets elaborated with advancing age. The
school age children provide elaborated and complex descriptions of others. The
children actively construct a social understanding. This involves finding out the
similarities between child’s own psychological processes and those of others.
22.2 IMPRESSION FORMATION

Perceiving other persons is an important task in our every day life. When you meet
a person you often form an impression. A glance, and a few uttered words are
enough for this. When we perceive others we do not simply add various pieces of
information. Rather we perceive the various traits in relation to others. We form a
dynamic whole. We form an impression of the whole person. The traits do not
remain in isolation. They interact with each other and form a new whole.
While forming impressions we rely on and give greater weightage to the sources
we trust or admire. Similarly we often emphasize more the negative information.
Also, we give more importance to unusual information. Finally, the first impressions
are given more weightage than subsequent information.
It has been found that when we make judgments about others we recall examples
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of their behaviours and base our judgments on them. We also use previously
formed abstractions or representations in mind while forming impressions and
making decisions.
Notes
State whether True or False.
1. In the beginning the child cannot differentiate between self and other.
(True/False)
2. As child grows older his self concept becomes fixed. (True/False)
3. People in the environment provide the necessary context and guidance to the
developing person. (True/False)
4. While forming impressions we rely on sources we trust. (True/False)
5. From an early age children are sensitive to feelings of other people.
(True/False)
22.3 DEALING WITH THE SOCIAL WORLD

Interpersonal Attraction
We live in a social world occupied by other persons. We frequently interact with

them in family, school, market, almost every where. The self realizes itself while
relating to other persons. In this way the processes taking place between persons
or those technically known as interpersonal processes become central to our lives.
Social psychologists have investigated these various processes in detail. Here we
shall learn about two processes – attraction and long term relationship.
Attraction between persons is a common experience. It is present not only in the

case of intimate people like wife and husband but also in case of friends and work
place companions. One of the important things that we notice that we make efforts
to spend time with people whom we like and avoid people whom we don’t like.
You may be interested in knowing how does attraction occur and what factors
influence it? Let us try to understand these factors.
Physical Attractiveness: It has generally been found that we react more positively
to people who are viewed as physically attractive. We often act more favourably
towards attractive people.
Similarity and Complementarity: We like people who are similar to ourselves.
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It is said that birds of a feather flock together. In other words people who share
the same kind of attitudes and ideas are preferred and liked by us. Complimentarity
is a situation in which we find that people who are different but complement each
other, like to interact more with each other. This may explain attraction between a
Notes rich and a poor person.
Familiarity and Propinquity : Propinquity means nearness or physical proximity.

It has been found that friendship often develops with people whom we see more
often. Thus nearness and familiarity shape our attraction to other persons. Repeated
interpersonal contacts often lead to interpersonal attraction.
Reciprocal Liking : Whether we like some one or not depends on the fact that
whether the other person likes you or not. We often tend to avoid those who
express negative views about ourselves and want to be with those who like us.
Affect: Affect refers to the feelings and emotions which vary in intensity and
direction. Thus our feelings can be very intense or less intense and can be positive
or negative. Studies indicate that a person who does something which triggers or
arouses positive or negative affect is liked or disliked by us. Also, if someone is
merely linked with positive or negative affect is liked or disliked by us.
Need for Affiliation: We spend a lot of our free time interacting with other persons,
because affiation improves the chances of survival. This has led the idea of stable
affiliative trait or need. Also, situational characteristics may arouse this need.
Enduring Relationships: Many of our relationships continue for long periods of

time. They may be life long like friendship, marriage etc. The relationships vary in
many ways. For example they may vary in the degree of intimacy, commitment,
and quality.
Many people think relationship as a type of social contract. We value relationships

in term of rewards that we get while engaging in that relationship. The rewards in
those areas in which we are inadequate are more valuable. However, in almost all
kinds of close relationships interdependence happens to be the most common
element. As person children are treated by mothers using a certain type of
attachment. It can be secure, avoidant or ambivalent. Psychologists think that
infants learn to trust and to love another person, to mistrust and avoid or a mixture
of the two on the basis of the kind of attachment they are exposed to. It has been
found that mothers contact with the infant (tactile, visual and verbal) and her
awareness of and responsivity to infant’s needs leads to secure attachment.
The pattern of interaction of children with parents and siblings plays important role
in shaping the quality of love and affection in children. Their parental love is
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determined by attraction towards parents and the personal virtues. Some of the
virtues which are emphasized in the Indian society are given below.
Charity: Helping, forgiving and tolerating parents.

Notes
Justice: Fulfilling obligations to parents and respecting their rights.
Prudence: Using reason for their benefit.
Fortitude: undergoing hardships for their benefit.
Temperance: Controlling disruptive emotions and practicing self-discipline.
Close Friendship
Close relationship is found when friends spend a considerable amount of time

together, interact in a number of settings, and provide emotional support to each
other. During childhood children desire to share activities with friends which both
parties tend to enjoy. The attachment style mentioned above influences the way
children interact and, in turn, affect the quality of relationships. During adolescence
and young adulthood friendship tends to become more intimate. It has been noted
that women report having more close friends than men. Intimate relationship is
expressed in a variety of behaviours including self-disclosing behaviour, emotional
expression, giving and receiving support, experiencing trust, and feeling relaxed in
the company of each other. Some people fail to develop close friendship and
experience loneliness.

1. When we consider similarity and interpersonal attraction:

(a) We like people who are different from us in attitudes and ideas.
(b) We like people who are similar to us in attitudes and ideas.
(c) We like people who are attractive.
2. We like long-term relationships:
(a) Because we value relationships
(b) Because interdependence is an common element in relationsip.
(c) Because we are attached to our loved ones.
(d) All of the above.
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• Self perception is a complex social process where both the child’s own
Notes experience and society play an important role.
• Child learns to differentiate from others and has an independent psychological
existence.
• We form impressions about others by considering all the information.
• Interpersonal attracton is determined by a number of factors - physical
attraction, familiarity, similarity etc.
• Significant others - parents, siblings, friends etc. play a role in self-perception.
• Long term relationships provide psychological and emotional support to the
individual.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Discuss the role of perception of others in self development.
2. Explain the role of different factors in interpersonal attraction.
3. Identify the factors you think are important for long-term relationships.

22.1
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. True

22.2
1. (b) 2. (d)

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Man-Environment Interactions MODULE-V
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Notes
23
MAN-ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTION
Environment is a very broad concept. Everything that affects us during our life-
time is collectively known as environment. As human beings we are often concerned
with surrounding conditions that affect people and other organisms. Today, all
over the world there is growing concern about the deteriorating quality of
environment and efforts are being made to stop the widespread abuse of
environment and improve its quality.
The first worldwide meeting of heads of state in response to the concerns for the
environment took place at the Earth Summit, formally known as the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in
1992. This conference reflects world-wide concern about the quality of our
environment. International Environment Education Programme is the outcome of
the 1992 conference and efforts are being made globally to educate people at all
levels of society about the environmental concerns. The environment in which we
live and work affects our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. The relationship of
man and environment is, however, bi-directional. That is, human beings are affected
by the environment and they also affect the environment. The study of environmental
psychology emphasises this interaction. In this lesson we will learn about various
aspects of the man-environment interaction.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to :
• explain the concept of environment:
• describe the various facets of human-environment interaction;
• explain the environmental effects of human behaviours;
• indicate the effects of human behaviour on environment; and
• describe the future threats to environment.
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23.1 MAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
We know that physical environment directly or indirectly affects our behaviour.
For example, it has been observed that people become more irritable and aggressive
Notes when the weather is hot and humid, in comparison to cold weather. You must have
read in the daily newspapers about the increase in “road rage” cases during the
summer months. Our interest in such environmental variables has led to the
development of a field known as Environmental Psychology.
This field of psychology is dedicated to the study of reciprocal relationships between

psychological processes and physical environments, both natural and man made.
Reciprocal relationship deals with two-way process in which environment influences
human behaviours and human beings affect environment. In order to understand
various aspects of this interaction it would be useful to understand various types of
environment which we encounter. A brief description of major types of environment
is given below.
Physical environment : It includes both physical reality and social-cultural

phenomenon that surround us. The noise, the temperature, the quality of air and
water, and various objects and things constitute the physical world around us.
The social and cultural environment: It includes the aspects of social interaction
including its products such as beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes, etc. The material and
non-material aspects of environment are included in it.
Psychological Environment: It includes the perceptions and experiences pertaining

to any environmental setting. Some environments may be stimulating and exciting
while othes may be dull and boring. Expression of psychological is often used in
the organizational context.
Environment is a theme relevant to many other disciplines, such as geography

architecture, urban planning, etc. It is indeed multidisciplinary in nature. It is labeled
as Environmental Science.
The human-environment interaction has five major components. These components

are briefly described below:
1. Physical Environment: It includes aspect of natural environment such as

climate, terrain, temperature, rainfall, flora, fauna, etc.
2. Social –Cultural Environment: It includes all aspects of cultural environment
such as norms, customs, process of socialization, etc. It include all the aspects
dealing with other people and their creations.
3. Environmental Orientations: It refers to the beliefs that people hold about
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their environment. For example, some people hold environment equivalent to
God and therefore they perceive all its aspects with respect and reverance
and try to maintain it in a perfect form and donot degrade it.
4. Environmental Behaviour: It refers to the use of environment by people in Notes
the course of social interactions. For example, considering the environment as
personal space, where the individual identifies himself with it.
5. Products of Behaviour: These include the outcomes of people’s actions
such as homes, cities, dams, schools, etc. That is, these are products or
outcomes dealing with the environment.
All the above aspects of environment depict the important constituents of the
study of interaction between environment and the human beings. It is very important
to understand that human beings are part of the environment and degrading
environment will result in extinction of human beings and other forms of life.
Therefore, it is the prime responsibility of human beings to maintain the environment
in trim condition, its destruction means destruction of human life.

Give one term for the following:
1. Use of environment by people in the course of social interaction___________.

2. Outcomes of people’s actions like dams, schools, houses___________.
3. Beliefs that people hold about the environment ______________.
4. All aspects of culture _______________.
5. Aspects of natural environment _______________.
23.2 PHYSICAL VS PSYCHOLOGICAL

ENVIRONMENT
It is important to understand the difference between physical environment and
psychological environment. Physical environment is what is out there in physical
terms, like house, tree, mountain etc. On the other hand psychological environment
consists of all that exists in one’s mind.
It may have some relationship or correspondence with the physical environment

or not. For example you may be sitting on the sea shore, where physically there
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are ships, boats, sea gulls, and ripples in the sea (all constitute physical environment).
However, you may be sitting there and all that is in front of you but you may not be
aware of that and may be thinking about something else. The existing physical
environment is not influencing the person. It is what constitutes the psychological
Notes environment.
Kurt Lewin, a German Psychologist, differentiated between physical environment

and psychological environment. Lewin has introduced the concept of life space
to explain the relationship between person and environment. According to Lewin,
life space is the whole psychological reality that determine the behaviour of an
individual. Life space (L) includes everything present in the environment (E) that
influences an individual’s behaviour. The environment (E) contains everything outside
the person (P), including physical, psychological, and social aspects. Lewin calls
the person (P) in the environment (E) as life space.
Mathematically, life space can be described as: B = f(L) = f (P.E).
That is behaviour of an individual at a particular time is a function of life space,

which contains the person (P) and environment (E). the environment (E) in the life
space influences individual’s behaviour and other physical environment that does
not directly influence behaviour that is called Foreign hull. At some other time the
events or objects in the foreign hull can influence the behaviour of an individual, in
that event the part of the foreign hull influencing the behaviour becomes the part of
E and E expands to include some part of the foreign hull.
23.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR
We have earlier discussed that environment affects human behaviour and human
behaviour affects environment, the two interact. Environment has both nourishing
as well as destructive effects on human beings.
Throughout human history, people have been threatened by floods, earthquakes,
and other natural disasters. Inspite of enormous scientific development, we have
not been able to control the effect of natural calamities and we have not been able
to control natural disasters either. In recent times, technological innovations and
advances have brought us new potential threats from the environment, which are
man made. These threats are physically harmful and stressful. People have to
cope with these stressors. Such man made environmental stressors are many.
These stressor are called pollutants and basically there are four: air pollution, water
pollution, noise pollution and Crowding.
We find many natural disasters that affect human behaviour in many ways. These
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natural disasters include earthquake, volcanic eruptions, wind storm, tornado,
cyclone, famine, flood etc. The earth quakes at Latoor and Bhuj (2001) and
Super cyclone in Orissa (1999) not only caused extensive damage to property
and physical environment (uprooting of trees etc) but also had long-term effect
on the lives of the people. Notes
There are various man-made disasters also. The technological disasters such as
three Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986) and Bhopal Methy Iso Cynide (MIC)
Disaster (1984) etc. are some of the major man-made disasters that have intense
and long-term adverse effects on the lives of the people. In the Bhopal disaster
more than 8,000 people died and over 2,00,000 were physically affected.
Thousands of gas victims are still suffering from mental and physical health problems.
Research studies indicate that the survivors of such disasters suffer from anxiety,
withdrawal symptoms, depression, stress, anger and nightmares.
23.4 EFFECTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR ON

ENVIRONMENT
As indicated earlier human activities also affect the environment. In fact, almost
every human being adds, through his activities, some effect that contributes cumul
actively and negatively to the environment we live in. Whenever, some one drives
a scooter, motor cycle or car, uses hair spray, cooks food, etc. the environment is
affected. We do not perceive the role our simple activities play in degrading our
environment. Imagine that billions of people living on our planet in some way or
the other affect the environment and the cumulative effect is tremendous. The
effect of human activity (e.g. polluting air) is long-term and irreversible and will
affect the lives of generations that were follow.
Fortunately, after playing havoc with our environment, people all over the world
have become conscious of this disaster that the mankind has already made. Now,
the efforts are being made to somehow control the onslaughts of the disaster.
23.5 PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE

As stated earlier, the United Nations is working seriously to control the harmful
activities of people affecting our environment around the world. Environment is a
naturally given capital having certain limits and we have to learn to use the resources
judiciously. Air, water, food, fuel, etc. are all gifts of this environment to the human
kind and we have to learn to judiciously use and conserve them. We have to pay
greater attention to conserve water and air. Disposal of waste material we produce,
ranging from sewage to garbage needs special attentions.
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Water: We are using natural resources that we are not replenishing, and water is
one such resource. On our planet, there are now at least 80 countries having
serious water shortage with serious threat to agriculture. India is one among these
countries where water shortage is adversely affecting the agriculture. The water
Notes shortage in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is an example. The water shortage is
assuming serious threat to the big cities also. For example, during the summer
months there is serious shortage of water in Delhi region and due to population
influx from the neighbouring cities the problem is getting worse day-by-day. The
solution lies in harvesting rain water and efforts are being made to use rain water
to augment water supply.
Air: The quality of air has been adversely affected by automobile and industrial
emission. Large quantities of emissions from such sources have increased the
presence of harmful and toxic gases like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur
dioxide etc. in the air that we breathe. Serious efforts are required in stemming the
rot and save the public health. In this direction Delhi administration has taken
serious steps in introducing CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) as a fuel for public
transport system and it has made a significant improvement in the quality of air in
Delhi. Such innovative intervention is required to restore the quality of air.
Waste Material: Perhaps the most obvious by- product of human activity is
waste material we produce. This waste product of our activity range from sewage
to garbage. It is a very serious problem for municipalities, corporations, and local
governments to manage them. So far, much of our sewage disposal is flushed
untreated into the rivers. This has created serious problem of water pollution. This
makes our river water unfit for human consumption. There is now awareness of
this serious problem and efforts are being made in pre-treating the sewage disposal
before throwing it in the rivers and sea.
Another serious problem emanates from the tremendous amount of garbage we
produce. The disposal of the garbage, especially of non-bio-degradable material
(e.g., plastic bags) is a serious problem. We must take care not to use such material,
like plastic bags for daily use. Recycling the waste should be undertaken to save
the land from the polluting effects of such garbage.

1. Give any one suggestion for reducing water shortage.
2. What should be done to reduce air pollution?
3. Give suggestions for treatment of waste materials?
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• Environment is made of two parts: Physical (such as noise, temperature, air,
water, etc.) and psychological environment (perception and experiences of Notes
the environment by an individual).
• Human behaviour is the result of interactions between the person and the
environment.
• Changes in the environment, whether natural such as earthquake, tsunami,
etc, or man-made disasters such as Bhopal MIC disaster, influence human
behaviour.
• Human beings also influence environment by their activities such as driving
car, cooking food, etc.
• There is a need for developing effective mechanisms for protecting the
environment.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the various facts of human-environment interaction? Explain
environmental effects on human behaviour.
2. What are future threats to environment? What we should do to remove these
threats?

23.1
1. Environmental behaviour 2. Products of behaviour
3. Environmental orientations 4. Social cultural environment
5. Physical environment
23.2
1. Harvesting rain water 2. Introduction of CNG
3. pre treating sewage and recycling the waste

PSYCHOLOGY 141
MODULE -V Psychotherapy
Social and Applied
Psychology
Notes
24
PSYCHOTHERAPY
In the previous lesson, you were told about psychological disorders. Psychologists
have tried to understand the causes of abnormal behaviour, and the best way to
treat it. There are four major models which deal with psychological disorders and
their treatment. These are known as medical, psychodynamic, behavioural and
the humanistic.
In this lesson some important approaches for treatment of abnormal behaviour,

referred to as psychotherapy, are described. The term psychotherapy is used to
describe the process where a trained psychologist helps a disturbed person to
behave normally. The psychologist generally uses one of the approaches mentioned
above.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the purpose of psychotherapy;
• describe the major models for psychotherapy; and
• explain the relative merits and demerits of each of these models for
psychotherapy.
24.1 MEDICAL MODEL

According to the medical model, abnormality occurs due to a physical cause, and
is a kind of illness, which can be treated with the help of medicines. This approach
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examines the role of genetics and imbalances in neurotransmitters. The therapeutic
approaches used in the medical model are referred to as somatic therapy. Three
somatic therapies which are currently used are chemotherapy, electro convulsive
therapy (ECT) and psychosurgery.
Notes
ECT involves administering electric current for short duration through electrodes
to the head of the person suffering from psychological disorder. For example, in
unilateral ECT, two electrodes are attached to the temple region and a current of
approx 200 milliamps at 110 volts, is passed from one electrode to another for
0.5 – 4 seconds. ECT is used to treat depression, bipolar disorder (mania-
depression), and obsessive compulsive disorders.
Psychosurgery involves performing surgery on the brain to alter psychological

functioning. It is used only as a last resort in extreme psychological disturbance
like in aggressive schizophrenics.
The most common and effective somatic approach is chemotherapy which involves
giving medicines to the person with disorders. There are three main types of
medicines. Neuroleptics (major tranquilizers or antipsychotics) are mainly used to
treat schizophrenia and mania. Antidepressants are used to treat several disorders
including depression. Anxiolic drugs (minor tranquilisers) are mainly used in anxiety
disorders.

Fill in the blanks below:
1. The therapeutic approaches used in the medical model are called

______________ therapy.
2. The three major somatic therapies currently used are ________, _______
and ___________.
3. ______________ are mainly used to treat schizophrenia
4. For treatment of depression, _______________ are used.
5. Anxiolic drugs are mainly used in ___________ disorders.
24.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY

As you read earlier Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic model looks at mental
disorders as caused by internal, psychological factors, which are basically
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unresolved, unconscious, childhood conflicts. Therapy in this model is referred to
as psychoanalysis. The purpose of psychoanalysis is to understand the unconscious
conflicts which are responsible for a person’s mental disorder, and then to make
the person consciously aware of it. This allows the person to deal more effectively
Notes with his or her problems.
The approach most widely used in psycho-analysis is a technique called free

association. The basic procedure is that the patient says whatever comes to mind,
since this bypasses the ego’s role of censoring or blocking threatening unconscious
impulses. The ultimate goal of psychoanalysis is major modification of personality
to enable people to deal with problems in a realistic way, without using defense
mechanisms. Sometimes, hypnosis and dream interpretation are also used to help
the therapeutic process.
24.3 BEHAVIOURAL MODEL

As you learnt in the earlier lesson, in the behavioural model, disorders are viewed
as lerned maladaptive behaviours. Watson was the first person to suggest that
mental disorders such as phobias (extreme fear of certain objects, people or
situations e.g. rats or snakes etc.) can be explained in terms of the mechanisms of
conditioning. The behaviour therapies use classical conditioning principles, whereas
behaviour modification techniques are based on operant conditioning (You were
told about the types of conditioning in lesson 6).
In behaviour therapy, the assumption is that if maladaptive behaviour can be

acquired through classical conditioning, they can also be unlearned by the same
principles. Three approaches based on behaviour therapy are—implosion therapy,
flooding, and systematic densensitisation (SD). Implosion therapy and flooding
are based on the concept that if the stimulus causing a fear response (e.g. snakes)
is repeatedly presented without the unpleasant experience that accompanies it, it
loses its power to evoke a fear response.
In implosion therapy, the therapist again and again exposes the person to mental
images of the feared stimulus in the safety of his room. The person is asked to
imagine the most frightening form of contact with the feared object. After a number
of trials, the stimulus (e.g. snakes) loses its power to cause anxiety.
In flooding the individual is forced to face the situation causing fear or anxiety. For
example a person afraid of heights, may be forced to stay on the roof of a tall
building. With some persons, this approach is effective and removes the fear of the
situation. Implosion therapy and flooding have limited effectiveness. A better
procedure is called systematic de-sensitization.
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In systematic desensitization, the person is asked to construct a series of scenes or
events which gradually lead the person to face the object/situation which causes
the fear. For example, a person who has a fear of dead bodies may be asked to
imagine an ambulance and then focus on relaxation. Then he maybe asked to go
close to a cremation ground and finally (through a number of intermediate steps) Notes
the person may be asked to come close to a dead body, and at the same time,
focus on relaxation.
As mentioned above apart from the approaches based on classical conditioning

there are certain therapies based on operant conditioning called behaviour
modification. There are a number of therapies based on operant conditioning, but
all of them consists of three basic steps. The first objective is identification of the
undesirable or maladaptive behaviours. The second step involves identification of
the reinforcers that maintain the maladaptive behaviours. The last step involves
restructuring the environment in such a way that the maladaptive behaviour is no
longer reinforced.
One way to eliminate behaviours which are not desirable is to remove the stimuli
that maintain them. This is based on the idea that removing the stimuli will extinguish
the behaviour that was earlier reinforced by it. Another method involves use of
stimuli which have a negative impact in the form of punishment for voluntary
maladaptive behaviour. Operant conditioning can also be used to increase desirable
behaviours by giving positive reinforcement when the desirable behaviour is carried
out. For example, if we want a child to study everyday we could reinforce study
by allowing to watch a T.V programme of his choice, every time he studies, say, at
best for one hour.
In recent years, a social learning approach to psychotherapy has emerged. This

model is a link between behaviour and cognitive model of personality. Cognitive
approaches view mental disorders as caused by “irrational beliefs” or faulty thinking.
Therapy involves cognitive restructuring or changing one’s way of thinking. For
example, if a person believes that a black cat crossing in front of them will cause
problems, he may be made to experience it many times till (s) he realized that there
is no link between cat and negative events, and thus changes their thinking.

Fill in the blanks below:
(i) The approach most widely used in psychoanalysis is a technique called free
_____________.
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(ii) The purpose of psychoanalysis is to understand the ________ conflicts which
are responsible for a person’s abnormal behaviour.
(iii) Other approaches used in psychoanalysis are ________ and _________
interpretation.
Notes
(iv) The behavioural model of therapy uses classical conditioning principles is called
_____, _________.
(v) Three approaches based on behaviour therapy are __________, _________
and _________.
(vi) Behaviour modification approaches are based on ______________
conditioning.
24.4 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY

According to the humanistic view of personality, people are fundamentally good
and seek growth and work towards better ways of living. All people have a need
for self-respect and to shape their life according to free choice. Humans are special
because they have a free will and a natural need to do all they are capable of. The
need to actualize one’s potential is called the basic human drive towards self-
actualization.
In the humanistic view, psychological disorders are seen as occurring because the
external environment blocks us from moving in the direction of personal growth.
People around us put pressure by their expectations from us, they do not accept
us as we are. If everyone around us gives us unconditional positive regard there
would be hardly any gap between what we are and what we desire to be. This
means there would be little gap between the real self and the ideal self. This leads
to greater harmony in our functioning, termed as congruence.
The goal of humanistic therapy is that the therapist by creating an environment of

unconditional positive regard allows the client to get in touch with his or her true
feelings and inner self. Then the client has to take responsibility and live more in
accordance with the strivings of the inner self. This eventually leads to growth and
greater life satisfaction.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
Write the answers of the following questions:
1. Describe the basic goal and process of psychoanalysis.
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2. Outline the differences in the approach used in implosion therapy, flooding
and systematic de-sensitization.
3. Briefly describe the three somatic therapies currently used – chemotherapy,
electro convulsive therapy and psychosurgery. Notes
4. What is the basic approach used in humanistic psychotherapy.

• Medical model relies largely on medicines and sometimes use electric shock
and surgery to treat psychological disorders.
• Psychoanalysis is psychotherapy which uncovers unconscious conflicts in the
mind of a person from earlier life experiences, and helps the person in
consciously accepting them.
• Behaviour therapy is based on the principles of classical and operant
conditioning.
• Humanistic therapy helps a person to get in touch with their deeper needs and
desires and then take responsibility to live more in accordance with one’s
inner or true nature
PSYCHOLOGY 147
MODULE -V Health Psychology
Social and Applied
Psychology
Notes
25
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
In order to enjoy life one needs to be healthy. People who are not healthy are
called sick. They cannot perform well and meet the various demands of life. Health
is important for a person individually as well as socially. In order to be a productive
member of society, we need an alert mind and an active body. The field of health
psychology deals with psychological factors which are important in maintaining
and fostering health and well being. Also, it explores the factors which lead to the
condition of illness. This field has become very important in recent years. It has
become increasingly clear that the life style or our ways of thinking and behaving
are contributing to the health status of people. Experts think that the factors causing
illness and death can be prevented with the help of exercise, proper intake of
nutrious food, and changes in bad habits like smoking. This lesson will help you to
understand the issues related to learning how to lead a healthy life and experiencing
well-being.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the concept of health and well-being;
• describe health promoting behaviours;
• learn about the threats to health; and
• familiarize yourself with life-style interventions necessary for fostering health
and well being.
• explain coping and self-management skills to safeguard from unwanted sexual
advances and other forms of abuse.
• differentiate between safe and unsafe sex.
• list the risks like RTI, STD, HIV/AIDS due to unsafe sex and other modes of
transmission.
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25.1 CONCEPT OF HEALTH AND WELL BEING
Health refers to a state of physical, mental and spiritual well being. Health should
not be confused with absence of illness. It is a positive state. In addition to absence
of illness, it incorporates thriving and coping. Health occupies a central place in the Notes
personal and social lives of the people. The quality of life of people in today’s
world is being challenged from many quarters which reflect on the poor health of
the people. On the one hand the external environment is changing very fast. It
demands coping with a number of environmental stresses. Also, these changes in
social structure (e.g., disintegration of family and other social institutions), increase
in competition and consumerism are contributing to increase in frustration, loneliness,
conflict and loss of support. The result is that psychosomatic disorders are on the
rise. An analysis of this scenario indicates that health and well-being are becoming
casualities.
In today’s busy life each one of us is experiencing a variety of tensions and stresses.
Stress is now recognized as the silent killer. It has a negative effect on physical
health as well as psychological well-being. Technically, stress refers to our response
to events that are viewed as threatening and disrupting psychological functioning.
The situations or factors in the environment that cause stress are called stressors.
While the list of stressors can be very long, they can be grouped in four main
categories: Stressful life events (e.g., divorce, retirement, pregnancy, death of a
near and dear one, unemployment); Hassles of every day life (e.g., shopping,
too many commitments, Commuting to work place in difficult sitaution); Work
related stress (e.g., role ambiguity, unpleasant work environment, conflict with
colleagues meeting targetes) and Catastrophic events like disasters. Stress is
a potential source of health hazard for everybody but its effect depends on the
degree of fit between person and environment. Also, people vary in certain
dispositions like optimism, perception of control, health beliefs, emotional state,
and personality pattern which may help or hinder coping with stress.

1. List the main challenges that create threat to quality of life in modern life.
2. Give three examples each of (a) stressful life events, (b) daily hassles and (c)
work related stresses.
In Indian thought the term swasth (healthy) means the state of ‘being in oneself’. In
other words it is an auto-locus person who can be called swastha. Ayurveda or
the science of life often refers to a state of balance or appropriateness (Sama) as
an important component of well-being and health.
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25.2 HEALTH PROMOTING BEHAVIOURS
Achieving health requires following certain patterns of behaviour. The important
behaviours are described below:
Notes
(i) Relaxation
Relaxation is very useful for stress reduction. Meditation which involves focusing
attention on an object, word, or phrase has been found to have a calming effect.
Another kind of relaxation is called progressive muscle relaxation. It involves
systematically tensing and then relaxing the muscles while lying down or sitting
comfortably. Yoga Nidra is also used for this purpose. Relaxation often involves
deep breathing. By holding one’s breath for a few seconds and exhaling
slowly.
(ii) Exercise
Regular exercise helps in maintaining physical and mental health. It strengthens the
heart and lungs and improves the use of oxygen by the body. Jogging, running,
bicycling and aerobic exercise are quite useful to this end. The benefits include
cardiovascular fitness and endurance, improved capacity for physical work,
optimization of body weight, improvement of muscle tone and strength, control of
hypertension, improved stress tolerance, and focusing of attention and concentration.
In order to benefit from exercise it should be done regularly.
(iii) Weight Control
Regulation of food intake is determined by a complex system. In fact a set of

biochemical processes control it. Poor regulation of food leads to high accumulation
of body fat. The resulting obesity works as a risk factor because it increases blood
pressure and cholesterol level. Obesity has been found to be a cause of early
mortality. Genetic factors, and stress both are found to contribute to obesity. Weight
control is very difficult. Dietary intervention is necessary but often insufficient for
producing lasting weight loss. Fasting, yoga, surgery, use of appetite suppressing
drugs are also used for this purpose. A multi-pronged approach to weight control
is found better. Analysis of eating habits is used to make people aware of their
eating patterns. The analysis of stimuli that affect eating provides insights to regulate
eating. People are trained to modify the stimuli in their environment that have
previously elicited and maintained over-eating. The patients are trained to control
the eating process itself. Developing a sense of self control over eating contributes
to weight control.
(iv) Diet
A healthy diet should be a goal for every one of us. Studies indicate that dietary
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habits are critically involved in the development of diseases like cancer, hypertension
and cardiovascular diseases. Low fat and low-cholesterol diet reduces the incidence
of cardiac disease. Dietary control involves meal planning, cooking methods
and eating habits. It has been noted that intervention with family is useful for
promoting and maintaining dietary change. Notes

(a) Relaxation involves _________ breath, holding ________ and
_________ slowly while relaxing the muscles.
(b) Developing a sense of ___________ over eating _________ to weight
control.
(c) The dietary control involves ____________ planning, _________
methods, and ___________ habits.
Attending to Health Problems

It is very important to attend to your health problems in time. The matter of prime
importance in any health matter is that it shold be attended to without delay, as
sometimes a problem may progress fast. Once a complaint or a symptom is noticed
in the body whether physical or mental. It should be reported to a qualified medical
personnel. You should proceed to take the necessary corrective steps at the earliest
as per his consultaiton and guidance.
Positive Emotions
It is often said that a smiling face indicates happiness and mental health. It is true,
but it misses one important information- that experiencing positive emotions like
love, affection, interest, empathy, forgiveness, gratitude etc. contribute to one’s
state of health and well being. Recent studies indicate that the experiences of
various positive emotions enhance the status of one’s health. It is, therefore,
important to discover, arrange and create opportunities for experiencing positive
emotions in everyday encounters.
25.3 THREATS TO HEALTH

It must be clear by now that many of the diseases and threats to health which
ultimately reduce longevity are related to the ways we behave and conduct
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ourselves. In order to ameliorate such conditions we need to adopt a life-style
consisting of certain do’s and don’ts. Unfortunately, people develop habits that
often create problems. They indulge in many self destructive behaviours. Some of
the important ones which increase the risk for health are as follows.
Notes
1. Alcohol and Drug Use: In the modern period these are the most common
health impairing habits. Taken in an overdose they can immediately kill people.
The addiction to alcohol and drugs often damage the respiratory system,
intestine, liver in particular and other bodily systems in general. The thinking
capacity and decision making also get affected. Alcohol, in particular adversely
affects liver and may produce cirrohsis.
2. Smoking: Studies clearly show that the chances of lung cancer and heart
disease go high among the smokers. Smoking leads to chronic bronchitis and
respiratory disorders. Interestingly the dangers of smoking are not confined to
the smokers alone. The spouses, family members and co-workers who live
with smokers are also prone to a variety of health disorders. Accompanied by
over-weight and stress, smoking becomes more dangerous.
3. Use of Tobacco: In India tobacco is used in many ways. People eat raw
tobacco, smell it and chew it with paan leafs. The studies indicate that use of
tobacco is related to mouth cancer. It adversely affects oral hygiene and may
even involve gums and teeth.
4. Poor Nutritional Habits: In recent years there has been an increase in
following poor dietary practices. Use of junk food (fast food!) and eatables
which are imbalanced in terms of cholesterol, fats, calories etc. have become
the order of the day. Awareness needs to be generated in public about benefits
of eating raw food and lot of fruits. The meals should be programmed for
healthy living. In order to experiment with new taste, people often go for
nutritionally imbalanced food. Uncontrolled food may lead to obesity.
5. Lack of Exercise: Modern life values, white collar jobs increasingly lead to
sedentary life. They lack time and skills for exercise. Healthy body requires
adequate exercise for the entire body. On account of laziness, time pressure
and ignorance about the body system many people avoid exercises. As a
result the body becomes weak and sick and premature ageing begins.
6. Unsafe Sex: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) and AIDS
(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a fatal disease found among
drug users (by needle sharing), homosexuals, and people engaging in sexual
intercourse with a number of partners. It is estimated that approximately
6.5 million people have died because of AIDS. Following transmission, the
virus grows rapidly and spreads throughout the body. The person infected by
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this virus suffers from many abnormalities including neuro-endocrine and cardio-
vascular functioning.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 25.3 Notes
Match the two lists of factors causing illness and nature of illness:
1. Alcohol (a) respiratory disease

2. Smoking (b) intestinal illness
3. Junk food (c) HIV/AIDS
4. Unsafe sex (d) obsity
25.4 INTERVENTIONS FOR PROMOTING WELL

BEING
Living long, and having a productive and healthy life is a dream for everybody. We
can learn about it from the people who have been successful in attaining this enviable
goal. Looking at people with such successful ageing, we notice that they were
clearly different from the rest in terms of three factors viz.- diet, physical activity,
and involvement in community life. In particular, these people preferred leafy green
and root vegetables, fresh milk, fresh fruits and eat low to moderate amount of
food. They maintain low to moderate levels of daily calorie intake. They also
engage in physical activity and walking on a regular basis and they continue with
their involvement in family and community affairs.
Based on researches of a wide variety, it is being felt that ensuring health and
wellness is possible with the help of adopting certain preventive strategies. A brief
description of these strategies is given below:
(i) Primary Prevention: It tries to reduce or eliminate the occurrence of

preventable illness and injury. It involves helping people learn about behaviour
and health, promoting motivation and necessary skills to practice healthy
behaviour, and modifying poor health practices. It also involves generating
awareness about immunization.
(ii) Secondary Prevention: The major goal of this kind of prevention is to
decrease the severity of illness which a person suffers. With the help of early
detection, using diagnostic tests that screen the disease, steps may be taken
for cure. People can learn methods of self-examination of body parts, and
functioning of various organs, that may help in prevention of disease.
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(iii) Changing the Life Style: It must be noted that medicine alone is not sufficient
to cure disease, when life style is faulty. It is necessary to understand that the
way we think and the way we behave are interrelated. Mind and body both
go together. The various types of illnesses are often caused by our beliefs and
Notes habits. In achieving the optimum state of health it is important to achieve the
harmony of body and mind. It is with this in view that Ayurveda, the Indian
system of medicine, suggests that health and well being depend upon proper
Ahara (diet), Vihar (recreation), Achara (conduct) and Vichara (thought). The
key principles that need our attention in these areas are as follows.
Ahara (Diet)
• Vegetarian food is safe and invigorating for the body.
• Fresh fruit and green vegetables rich in fiber contents, honey and curd provide
vitamins, antioxidants, iron etc. necessary for health.
• Avoidance of food having opposite effects (e.g., hot milk and ice cream should
be avoided).
Achar (Conduct)
• Daily routine should be organized according to season.
• Drinking lot of water, regular massage, exercises and yogic asanas help to
keep body fit and active
• Develop skills for proper time management.
Vihar and Vichar (Recreation and Thought)

• Develop accommodative intellect, acceptance of criticism, understanding of
the emotional needs of others.
• Practice self control and one should not be driven by lust and greed.
• Should not be dominated by negative emotions like fear, anger, jealousy and
worry.
• Develop enduring friendships and social relations.
• Developing awareness of self, connectivity with others and spiritual inclination.

1. What are the important factors found in the people who show successful ageing?
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2. Enumerate steps for primary prevention.
3. Describe the components of Ayurvedic view of life-style.
Notes
• Health is important for a person individually as well as socially. It consists of a
state of physical, mental and spiritual well being.
• Contemporary life is full of stressful experiences in the context of family,
economy, work and environment.
• Major stresses are categorized as stressful life events, hassles of everyday
life, work related stress and catastrophic events.
• Health promoting behaviours include relaxation, exercise, weight control, and
diet. One must attend to health problems by proper diagnosis. Positive thinking
have a positive effect on health.
• Threats to health include alcohol and drug use, smoking, tobacco, poor
nutrition, lack of physical exercise and unsafe sex.
• Successful ageing is related to moderate eating habits, physical activity and
community work.
• Prevention can occur at primary and secondary levels. However changing the
life style plays a key role.
• According to Ayruveda, attention must be paid to diet, recreation, conduct
and thought.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Discuss the concepts of health and well being.
2. What are the factors that should be considered for promoting health?
3. Mention some of the threats to health.
4. Suggest some information for promoting health.
KEY TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

25.1
1. Changes in environment, disintegration of family, competition, loneliness.
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2. (a) death of spouse, unemployment, loan
(b) commuting to work place, collecting water, sending children to school.
(c) work over load, role ambiguity, time pressure
Notes 25.2
(a) deep, breath, exhaling
(b) control, contributes
(c) meal, cooking, eating
25.3
(1) b (2) a (3) d (4) c
25.4
1. deit, physical activity, involvement in community life.
2. learning about health, promoting motivation, skills to practice health behaviour,
modification of poor health practices.
3. Ahar (diet), Achar (conduct) and Vihar and Vichar (recreation and thought).

156 PSYCHOLOGY
Education and Work OPTIONAL MODULE
World of Work
Notes
26
EDUCATION AND WORK
Ashima wanted to become a doctor. After Class X, however, she had opted for
commerce stream for Class XI. She was a bright student and passed Class XII
with 85 percent marks. When she tried for medical entrance and obtained the
forms, she discovered to her dismay that she is not qualified even to sit for the
entrance examination for the medical course despite her high percentage of marks.
She was told that- the Physics, Chemistry, Biology combination is a must for the
medical stream.
Well, Ashima is not the only such student to realize the mistake she made while
choosing her subjects for the Class XI .
This example makes us aware that there is a relationship between school subjects
and profession or work to be taken up later. How and what should be kept in
mind while deciding about the subjects? This lesson will help in analyzing the
relationship between education and work or profession one has to follow later.
You must have often come across statements like “Education is necessary to get
job” or “I want to work in this particular field but I don’t have the necessary
qualification for it”. Have you ever thought about how education and work are
related?
In this lesson we are going to learn about education and its relationship with work
as well as the important features of the world of work.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the relationship between education and work;
• describe the process of educational choices; and
• describe the nature of the world of work in terms of job profiles and job
opportunities.
PSYCHOLOGY 3
OPTIONAL MODULE Education and Work
World of Work
26.1 EDUCATION AND WORK

We often come across advertisements for vacant jobs in which qualifications
expected from the candidates are given in terms of essential and desirable. Why is
Notes it that these qualifications are expected from a person who wishes to take up a
given job?
People go in for education not only for the sake of getting a job but also for
enriching themselves. Education in any field primarily involves development of
certain skills and competencies. For example, if you choose commerce, you develop
skills for accounts.
When the qualifications are advertised for a job, they are specified so that the
person can use those skills which he/she has acquired over a period of time. The
skills learnt and the work to be done are interrelated. For example, a person who
has gone through the medical training becomes a medical practitioner. Learning of
skills can take place both formally or informally. If you go in for a vocational
course like “poultry farming” from NIOS, you can start your own poultry farm or
get employment.
Thus, you can see that choosing a vocational course helps you in gaining work or
employment. Similarly, learning can take place in a non-formal setting also. If your
father runs a farm and does farming and you help him, then you come to know
about the technical aspects of farming without taking a formal course in it. In this
setting also, education does take place. However, you can further enrich yourself
with latest technologies by going in for further courses of studies. This implies that
education and work are closely related to each other.
26.2 THE PROCESS OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

After knowing that education and work are related, you might be interested in the
process of educational choices. Let’s examine it in some detail.
When you go to the market, you see a wide variety of things available but it neither
happens, nor it is possible that you pick up all the things. Even when you go to the
vegetable market, you only choose those vegetables which you would like to have
or which you can afford. Doing so is a process. You find the vegetable of your
choice and then about its price. In the same way, choosing education is also a
process. You don’t just go and get yourself admitted in any school or choose the
subjects without thinking. Infact, entry into the educational system itself starts with
the process of choice making. Basically when one starts the choice it is from a
general pattern of education to specified training. Let us study in some detail about
these two aspects.
4 PSYCHOLOGY
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26.3 GENERAL EDUCATION

General education is the education which aims at providing the students-elementary
skills in reading, writing, knowledge of physical, social and cultural environment,
desirable attitudes, values and motivation. From primary to degree level and above, Notes
the main stream education is often considered general (except-professional,
technical, and vocational). For example, the minimum general education required
for entry into occupations or for admission to various courses or special training is
high school (secondary) level.
26.4 SPECIAL TRAINING

Students undergo special training for entry into their chosen occupation. You would
also like to know the institutions offering the required special training. Some of
these are listed below to give you an idea about the types of institutions in our
country.
(1) Professional Institutions: These institutions provide higher education at the
graduate and post graduate levels to prepare students for specialized fields
such as medicine, law, technology etc. Their graduates become doctors,
lawyers, engineers, etc.
(2) Polytechnics: These institutions offer courses which prepare the students as
technicians and other similar professions like draftsman, junior engineer, medical
laboratory technicians, etc.
(3) Institutes of Distance Education: Also known as Institutes of Open
Learning, these institutions provide education to students through distance
mode while they can stay at their homes. Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU) is one such institution which provides education through
distance mode. Presently, you are studying this material in distance mode which
is provided to you by NIOS.
Some of these institutes also provide online courses where you can do the
course sitting before the computers at home or in cyber café and study. This
mode has become very popular and useful now-a-days.
(4) Commercial Institutes: Courses like typing, shorthand, book keeping, etc.
are offered by these institutes.
(5) Craft Training Schools: These schools offer training in simple crafts like
tailoring, weaving, embroidery, etc.
(6) Specialized Institutions: Certain institutions are closely linked to the
employment system. Film and Television Institute of India, Training Institutions
for Merchant Navy, Institutes of Hotel Management and Fashion Technology
etc. are some of well-known institutions of this type
PSYCHOLOGY 5
World of Work

A. State whether the following statements are true or false:
Notes
1. Education and work are not related. True/False
2. People educate themselves only for the sake of getting jobs. True/False
3. Educating oneself in any field primarily involves developing skills.
True/False
4. The skills learned and the work are not interrelated. True/False
5. Education can take place formally as well as non formally. True/False
6. Choice of education is a process. True/False
B. What is general education? Explain.
26.5 THE WORLD OF WORK

The expression “world of work” itself explains its meaning. It comprises a very
large number of occupations and industries. We call any person, who is engaged
in teaching, a teacher. Do you know how big the teaching occupation is? It
comprises teachers teaching at various levels of education such as Nursery Teacher,
Primary Teacher, Trained Graduate Teacher (TGT), Post Graduate Teacher (PGT),
Lecturers, Readers, Professors, etc. Then, there are teachers for different subjects
at school, college and university level. You also find teachers for physically and
mentally challenged etc. So is the case with all the other occupation. Looking into
the wide range of the occupations, the Govt. of India has brought out a publication
which is known as the “National Classification of Occupations (NCO)”. The NCO
has divided the world of work into the following 9 major areas:
1. Legislators, senior officials and managers.
2. Professionals.
3. Technicians and associate professionals
4. Clerks
5. Service workers and shop and market sales workers
6. Skilled agricultural and fishery workers.
7. Craft and related trade workers.
8 Plant and machine operators and assemblers.
9. Elementary occupations.
26.6 JOB OPPORTUNITIES

When moving in the world of work, we come across innumerable occupations
and jobs. Some jobs are challenging and some are fascinating. Some jobs can
6 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
give you extra monetary benefits. Like education, choosing a job is also a process.
Each job has certain requirements related to age, education, citizenship etc. Lets
study about some of the main requirements in details.
(i) Age requirements: When you look into requirements for some jobs in the Notes
advertisements, you will find that age range is mentioned. For example, to get
into any clerical grade service you should not be more than 21 years. The age
requirement is specified in the jobs keeping in mind the job profile and the
future prospects in the job. The career promotion chances become good if the
entry is made into the job at the correct time. Also, some jobs demand more
physical activity, which is related to age of the worker. With the aging process
the energy as well as the strength decreases, so an old person can not meet
the demands of many jobs and becomes a misfit.
(ii) Gender Requirements: These days you find women equally participating in
almost all the fields of work. Women have entered even the defense services
as well and have become pilots. There are very few jobs open to men only. In
some jobs, however, the gender requirement is kept in view of the job profile,
the area and place of work. One example is that of the recruitment for Special
Protection Group (SPG).
(iii) Citizenship Requirements: Generally, the government jobs in any country
are open to her citizens. For example, if you want to appear for the Civil
Services Examination, held by Union Public Service Commission (UPSC),
you need to be a citizen of India.
(iv) Physical Requirements: All the occupations require good general health.
But some of the jobs demand heavy physical activity and stamina such as
police, armed services etc. The physical requirements for such jobs are
specified. Physical requirements are made in term of (a) height, (b) weight, (c)
chest, (d) vision etc.
(v) Personality Requirements: You may have come across advertisements like
“Wanted smart young men and women with pleasing personality for the job of
receptionist”. These advertisements are specially for the jobs in the non-
governmental sector (NGO) as they require staff for concept selling. They
need to sell their product for which they recruit staff who have the flair for
marketing. In some advertisements, the jobs requirements are not given but
the worker is expected to meet the job demands. For example, a public relations
officer (PRO) should be an extrovert, with the skills of meeting and talking to
people but the advertisement may not mention this aspect.
If a person, who does not like to go to places or cannot talk and express properly,
is put onto the job of sales man, the person may find himself in a total frenzy and
that may sometimes result in serious problems.
PSYCHOLOGY 7
World of Work
Give one line answers to the following questions:

Notes
1. Who has brought out the National Classification of Occupations?
2. List two essential requirements for recruitment into Armed Forces.
3. What do you understand by citizenship requirements?
Try it Yourself
What do you think of the personality requirements for the

following jobs:
(a) Doctor
__________________________________________________
(b) Nurse
__________________________________________________
(c) Salesman
__________________________________________________
(d) Teacher
__________________________________________________
(vi) Educational and Training Requirements: Can you become a computer

programmer without a course in computers? No, You cannot. Educational
requirements for different jobs are different. You often find that those who want to
become engineers study science subjects and those who want to go in the line of
accounts study commerce. The choice of subjects should be done keeping in
mind the field in which one wants to go.
The same is true for the training requirements for different jobs. The training is
given so that a person can apply what he/she has studied theoretically. The training
requirements are different form job to job. In some Institutes, “on the job training”
is given after finishing the theoretical course. This is also called apprenticeship.
The student is provided supervised practical training in almost all the professional
courses which is termed as ‘Internship’. Many companies recruit students as
“trianees” and after providing them training place them on the regular job.
8 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
Try it Yourself
Find out the training which is required for the following jobs:
(i) Doctor
Notes
(ii) Computer Programmer
(iii) Pilot
(iv) Driver
(vii) Experience requirements: “Experience counts…” is a common saying.
Some jobs require experience because with experience, one can work
better and is also in a position to guide and supervise others. Usually
experience requirement is mentioned for the senior positions. However,
for entry jobs, fresh students are taken.
(viii) Legal Requirements: It means that the candidate who is chosen for a
prestigious job, has a clean character and has not been convicted by the
legal authorities for any crime.
(ix) Licensing: If you have a vehicle, then you must be having a license to
drive it. Have you ever thought what is the use of a license?
Think of a situation when a person who does not know how to drive is
made to drive a motorcycle. The person will definitely meet with an accident
which will cause injury to his life as well as the life of others and will also
damage the vehicle. So what do you think is the use of license or licensing.
license in jobs means legalized authority. Some of the jobs which are directly
related to human life need license. For example, a pharmacist needs licensing
because he deals with drugs. In some jobs, one needs to be registered with
the relevant council such as doctors who get registered with the Medical
Council of India (MCI).

1. What is meant by apprenticeship?
2. Why is licensing necessary?

• Education and work are interrelated because you need specific skills for
carrying out specific work and education helps in developing those skills.
• Choosing any field of education is done through a process. The educational
choice depends upon the field of work in which you are interested.
PSYCHOLOGY 9
World of Work
• The process starts through the general education (which is up to the degree
level) and moves to special training.
• Special training can be taken from professional bodies, polytechnics,
commercial institutions, etc.
Notes • The world of work comprises of a large number of occupations and industries.
The National Classification of Occupations has divided the world of work
into 9 major areas.
• While looking in for a job, one has to meet the various requirements like age,
gender, citizenship, physical requirements, and personality requirements. Some
other requirements are education and training, experience, legal and licensing.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the process of educational choice.
2. Write short notes on the following:
(a) World of work (b) Online courses
(c) Education and training requirements (d) Personality requirements
(e) Licensing

26.1
(A) (1) False (2) False (3) True (4) False (5) True
(6) True
(B) It provides elementary skills in reading, writing, knowledge of environment,
desirable attitudes, values and motivation.
26.2
1.Government of India 2. Physical, educational
3.The candidate must be a citizen of the country.
26.3
1.It is on the job training required in a profession.
2.Licensing provides legal authority to undertake the practices involved in a
job.
10 PSYCHOLOGY
Career Development OPTIONAL MODULE
World of Work
Notes
27
CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Put your career in top gear for those who want to add a new dimension to
their career, join...............
NIIT offers you excellent career opportunities.
Attention Students: The Times of India presents a comprehensive section on
educational and career opportunities.
You might have come across many such advertisements in news papers, magazines,
handbills etc. Does the word ‘career’ ring a bell in your mind? What exactly is
career or career building? Reading this lesson will help you understand the concept
of career. It will also help you in developing your career in a more systematic way.
OBJECTIVES
• state the meaning and stages of career development;
• explain various aspects of career development;
• describe how one can plan one's career;
• explain the concept of continuing education and in-service training;
• describe the conditions under which career adjustment becomes necessary;
and
• describe the concept of self employment.
PSYCHOLOGY 11
OPTIONAL MODULE Career Development
World of Work
27.1 MEANING OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT

The term ‘career’ in career development refers to all the activities whch a person
does in his/her lifetime. These activities includes personal, occupational and social
Notes life of the person. Thus, career refers to the life pattern of a person.
Development is the modification of behaviour as a result of growth and learning. It

normally involves a progressive change. Thus, career development means the overall
development in the life style of a person. It involves person’s experiences that
contribute to the formation of his/her identity including life experiences, education,
career choice, on the job training, level of professional achievement and degree of
satisfaction.
Now, the question arises, how the life style of a person develops. Obviously,
vocation plays an important role in the life style of a person and vocational
development is the basis of career development. For example if a person gets
promoted to executive cadre from non-executive, he will get more facilities from
the organisation, like higher salary, bigger accommodation etc, and his life style
will automatically change. Promotion is part of vocational development, but it also
brings about a change in person’s social and personal life also.
Activity
Sh. Ramlal began his career as a clerk in a small company

immediately after his graduation in commerce. While working he
improved his qualification from B. Com. to M. Com. and ICWA. An
offer from a multinational company as a Financial Manager
changes his life style to a great extent. Now he is the owner of a
flat, car and many other amenities. He enjoys a happy married life
with two lovely kids. Moving in high society, providing the best
education to his children which he could never dream of earlier, are
now at his easy accessibility. This is the reward of career
development. Career development is a dynamic, ongoing and
gradual process.
On the basis of this case can you list some more characteristics of career
development?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
12 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
27.2 LIFE STAGES AND VOCATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
Concept of life stages and stages of vocational development will give greater insight
in to the understanding of career development. Generally, there are five life stages: Notes
Growth, Exploratory, Establishment, Maintenance and Decline.
Table 27.1: Life stages and Stages of Vocational Development
Name of Stage Age Range Characteristics

1. Growth 0 – 14 yrs • Development of basic skills
2. Exploratory 15 – 25 yrs • Thinking and understanding about
self.
• Becoming an adult
• Finding a life partner
• Finding an occupation
• Finding place in community
3. Establishment 25 – 45 yrs • Establishing one self in the chosen
occupation
• Establishing identity as a person and
a professional
4. Maintenance 45 – 60 yrs • Maintaining and furthering the
occupational and social status.
5. Decline After 60 yrs • May retire from active service but
act as consultants and providing
experience at the higher level of
proficiency.
The given age categories in the Table 27.1 are not rigid and exclusive. They are
flexible and overlap each other
Let us understand each of these stages in detail:
Growth Stage: From conception to about the age of fourteen, it is a preparatory

stage during which a child develops basic skills.
Exploratory Stage : It is between 15 to 25 yrs. During this stage, a person tends

to think and understand about self, his role in becoming an adult, finding a life
partner, occupation and place in community.
PSYCHOLOGY 13
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Establishment stage : It ranges between 25 to 45 years. During this, stage one

establishes himself or herself and gains some occupational identity. (e.g. He/She is
a plumber/ doctor/ bank officer).
Notes Maintenance stage : This stage covers 45 to 58 yrs. During this stage, a person
maintains his establishment.
Decline : This is after 58 yrs. of age. In this stage, a person not only declines in
physical strength but also his or her role lessens in the vocation, family responsibilities
and community.
After knowing the life stages, lets see the stages of vocational development.
27.3 STAGES OF VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The stages of vocational development may be described as follows:
Early Exploration : This involves first job. It can be a part time or a temporary
job.
Exploration and Trial : In this stage a person explores more avenues and in the
end tries to settle in a job of his or her liking. This stage is also called floundering
stage.
Establishment and Maintenance : During this stage, a person establishes himself

or herself in one field of work and then continues to maintain in it.
Retirement : Here the person tends to narrow down his or her responsibilities.
Depending upon the capability of the person, he/she may either leave the job or
shift to a job with lesser responsibility.
The stages of career development are, in fact, the life stages combined with the
stages of vocational development.

1. List the stages of vocational development relevant to early adulthood.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. What is the important aspect of retirement?
______________________________________________________
14 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
______________________________________________________
Activity
Take the case of Dr. Mohan, a famous surgeon. He is enjoying Notes
his pension now. While studying in VIII class, a lesson on doctors
facinated him and he was attracted towards medical profession.
He resolved to become a doctor. For this he worked hard, secured
good marks in biological science, qualified pre-medical test and
subsequently became a Doctor. He joined as an Assistant Surgeon
in a big Government hospital at the age of 25 and grew as a
great surgeon by the age of 45. He retired at the age of 60. Now
at the age of 65, though not in his active surgical practice, he
still wishes to extend his valuable contribution in the service of
mankind.
Activity: Explain the life stages and stages of vocational
development of Dr. Mohan.
Try it Yourself
Talk to a person of 65-70 yrs. of age and write down the stages of his/her career
development.
Mr. Naveen is an Engineer because his parents wanted him to become a engineer.
He is working in a small factory. He does not like his work and his income is also
not adequate. He is frustrated with his job and life. On the other hand, Mr. Ganesh
is a taxi driver, he is happy with his job and earns quite well. He is enthusiastic
about his job and likes it very much.
Write three probable reasons for Mr. Naveen’s frustration and Mr. Ganesh’s
satisfaction according to the life stages.
27.4 CAREER PLANNING

Modern age is an age of planning. Even for small things like going to a movie or
picnic, we have to plan. Career building is a crucial task in one’s life. So one is
ought to prepare a good career plan. As you have already learnt, career is the
overall life style of a person. Career plan includes, planning of personal life, planning
of social life and planning of vocational life. These three aspects of career planning
are interlinked and influence each other. Let us understand these concepts one by
one.
PSYCHOLOGY 15
World of Work
a) Planning of Personal Life: It involves planning about when to get married,

what type of person would you like to get married to, when to have children,
what sort of life you want to give to your spouse and children and many other
things, specifically important to you. Personal life is influenced by vocational
Notes and social life of a person.
b) Planning of Social Life: It involves planning of life style you want, the society
in which you want to move in, and the assets which you want to acquire etc.
Social life of a person is influenced by personal and vocational life of a person.
c) Planning of Vocational Life: It is a life long process of getting ready to
choose or continue to make choices from among the many occupations available
in our society. Vocational life of a person matches the self with the world of
work. After knowing the self and the world of work, you need to match your
qualities with the qualities required for each of the occupations you know.
Finally, select a vocation with which your qualities match to the maximum. It
has great impact on the personal and social life of a person. In brief carrer
planning can be understood with the help of following diagram.
Career Planning
Planning of personal life Planning of vocational life Planning of social life
Fig. 27.1: Carrer planning
In a wise vocational planning, there are three key features, namely, know thyself,
know the world of work and match the self with the world of work.
(i) Know thyself (Self appraisal): A clear understanding of one’s own self,
one’s aptitudes, abilities, interests, ambitions, resources and limitations.
(ii) Know the world of work (Appraisal of the vocations): Knowledge
of various occupations, qualifications and entry requirements for each
occupation, earnings, conditions of success, advantages, promotional
prospects, and compensation etc. Before proceeding further, let us take
the case of Mr. Ganesh, a happy taxi driver and Mr. Naveen who is a frustrated
engineer. Mr. Ganesh is happy because he opted to be a taxi driver due to
his interest in driving and interaction with people. Mr Naveen is frustrated
16 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
because he is forced to become an engineer by the parents to fulfil their

aspirations.
Let us deal with these key points one by one to have better understanding.
Notes
27.5 KNOW THYSELF (SELF APPRAISAL)
Know thyself is the key word for success in career development. It sounds very
simple but in real practice it is quite a difficult goal. Some people feel frustrated in
life because they could not understand themselves in the early stages of career
development. People are not able to understand about themselves mainly because
of the following reasons.
Lack of courage to be one’s own self : We simply try to be like somebody else.
For instance, young boys and girls try to imitate the hairstyle of heros or heroines.
Or we always try to be what others expect us to be. In the case of Mr. Naveen,
his father wanted him to be an engineer. So, he became an engineer without thinking
what he wants to be.
We do not take time to know ourselves. If we have time, we prefer doing some
other work than to think about the self. We misinterpret our experiences. For
example just because one gets less marks in science one may interpret that she/he
is weak in that subject, though there can be other reasons also.
Some times we do not know our desires and run after a mirage. When asked what
do you want, most people say that they want money or anything that money can
buy. If provided with a lot of money, one would look forword for something else.
Most people move from one immediate desire to another, apparently without
even realising that what they really want that is something which is much more
basic. The most fundamental and lasting desire is to follow one’s interest. So first
thing one tries to realise is that:
• there is self,
• each one of us is an entity,
• no two persons are exactly alike, and
• every one has the latent ability in one direction or the other.
Each person has basic abilities which make it possible for him/her to choose from
a wide variety of occupations. But selection of vocations is purely a matter of
personal taste. Before concluding about one’s interest, abilities and strong points
one should do thorough self analysis or introspection.
PSYCHOLOGY 17
World of Work
Know the World of Work (Appraisal of the Vocations)

To know the world of work is equally important for vocational planning. For
different jobs, there are different types of job requirements. For example, Engineers
may be required to work in mines or factories, indulge in shift duties, work in
Notes
hazardous conditions. They may be required to manage the subbordinate staff,
deal with the staff unions etc. Similarly journalists may be required to be on their
toes always to capture the news. They should be skillful in differentiating the
important and unimportant news. They should also be ready to take risk. You
have to collect information about the working conditions and job requirements of
all the jobs. After a thorough study of jobs you should select some vocations with
which your qualities match.
Match Personal Qualities with the Qualities for Selected Vocations

If you choose to become a lawyer, see that you have logical and analytical mind
and good memory. Good communication and persuassive skills and understanding
of human nature would also help you in pursuing the career of lawyer.
If you have chosen to become a scientist, see if you have scientific temperament,
an open mind, curiosity, infinite patience, desire to find evidence, etc.
Interest, ability, aptitude, and health are some of the criteria on the basis of which
one can match the self with the world of work.
Steps in Career Planning

Following are the major steps in career planning:
1. To understand the self : To make a wise career choice, one should know
the interests, aptitude, abilities, skills, health conditions, personality, and priorities
of the person.
2. To obtain information about various occupations.
3. Short list some occupations (3–4) which suit the person.
4. Thorough analysis of each of the selected occupations: To this end one
may collect information about the following:
a. Nature of work.
b. Work environment.
c. Qualification and physical requirements.
d. Method of entry.
18 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
e. Advancements or promotion prospects.

f. Economic returns.
g. Advantages and disadvantages.
Notes
5. Match the qualities which you possess with the qualities required for
each of the selected occupations.
6. Select the most suitable occupation.
7. Work towards achievement of your goal of entering into the occupation.
Note: For the student the initial step is to select the subjects for study.
Note : In various places there are guidance centres where one can get assistance
in self appraisal and obtaining information about various occupations, and to make
decisions in one or more aspects of one’s life.
You can also consult a counselor or a career teacher if you have any difficulty
while planning or building your career.

1. What are the important steps in career planning?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Who can help in career planning and career decision making?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
27.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR CAREER

DEVELOPMENT
“Better late than never” is a common saying which is also applicable to the field of
education. Avenues for career development are available at all the stages of life.
Some such avenues are continuing education and in-service training.
PSYCHOLOGY 19
World of Work
Continuing Education
The concept of continuing education is of recent origin. Education is a life long

process of adding or renewing one’s repertoir of knowledge, information and
Notes skills. (Continuing education has relevance to all irrespective of whether one is
professional, technocrat or technician). In the context of literacy learning or functional
literacy, continuing education acquires special significance. After becoming literate,
a person can continue education through the continuing education centers. Open
school and open university provide opportunites for continuing education.
In-Service Training
It refers to the education and training which a person receives after entering the
occupation. It is required because of rapid advancements in all the fields of
knowledge.
Career Adjustment
At times we may feel that the work which we are doing is not according to our
choice. In that case, career adjustment becomes necessary. Career adjustment is
shift in one’s vocational role. It can be from one field to an altogether new field or
related field or changing the responsibilities in the same field. Some situations
where career related field adjustment becomes important are as follows.
• After retirement if a person is capable he/she may take up some simple jobs.
• When work environment becomes unsuitable.
• When some health problems crop up. For example if a person develops some
disease while working on a certain job which will further increase if the person
continues to work in the same situation or if a person develops disability which
hampers his/her work.
• When there is no chance of advancement in the present career.

• Career in career development means all the activities which a person does in
his/ her life time. These activities include personal, occupational and social life
of the person.
• Career development is overall development in the life style of a person. It is a
dynamic, ongoing and gradual process.
20 PSYCHOLOGY
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• Exploratory, establishment, maintenance and decline are the important stages

of career development.
• Self appraisal, appraisal of chosen career and matching the abilities of the
person with the abilities required by the job are some important tips for career Notes
planning. Continuing education and in-service training are special provisions
for career development.
• Career adjustment is shifting of one’s vocational role. Sometimes it becomes

inevitable.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is career and career development?
2. What are the life stages?
3. What are the stages of vocational development?
4. Why is it important to know thyself in career development?
5. What is career adjustment?

Activities
1. Explore your self and write the stage of development which you are undergoing
now. Also combine your basic characteristics and write which occupation
would suit you most.
2. Select any five occupations and write the basic characteristics required to
enter each occupation.
27.1
1. Growth and exploratory stage.
2. Narrowing down of responsibilities.
PSYCHOLOGY 21
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27.2
1. Understanding self, selected information and short list them, analysis of
information, match qualities with occupation, select suitable occupation, and
working towards goal.
Notes
2. Counselor, career teacher.
22 PSYCHOLOGY
Vocational Choice and Vocational Adjustment OPTIONAL MODULE
World of Work
Notes
28
VOCATIONAL CHOICE AND

VOCATIONAL ADJUSTMENT
Work is a very important part of one’s life. But every person is not suited for
every kind of job. Almost every type of job requires a basic minimum level of
education. It also requires a person to have certain skills or abilities which will be
necessary in order to carry out the duties on the job. It is also important that
personality and interests of person must match with the requirements of the job.
We have already read about work, career development and will read here about
vocational choice. Related to these is the aspect of one’s adjustment to the work
situation. We will also study in this lesson about vocational adjustment, i.e. job
satisfaction and work motivation. It is also important to know about the various
work situations particularly the organisations, small and big like shops and factories/
offices, and the organizational work culture.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the need for educational planning and vocational choice;
• state the importance of considering ability and personality factors while making
vocational choice;
• explain the importance of interest in making vocational choice;
• describe what is job satisfaction and what are the factors related to it;
• explain the concept and theories of work motivation; and
• describe what an organization is and what is organizational work culture.
PSYCHOLOGY 23
OPTIONAL MODULE Vocational Choice and Vocational Adjustment
World of Work
28.1 EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL PLANNING

Without a basic minimum level of education you can only get jobs which require
manual labour. For example, if you want to take a job in a government office, the
Notes minimum level of education is VIII class. With this level of education one can get
the job of a peon or a chowkidar. In order to do a job, certain skills or abilities are
also required. These skills can partly be acquired by education, partly by experience,
and partly one naturally has some skills. For example, if one wants to take up a
job of a singer, one must have some natural ability to sing besides training .
General education in school and college serves the purpose of providing with
certain basic skills like reading, writing and arithmetic skills. It also provides with
knowledge about environment and surroundings, culture, and desirable attitudes
and values in accordance with the expectations of society.
The goal of general education is to allow the development of positive attitude and
respect for all types of work which are required to be carried out for the proper
functioning of society. The term ‘general education’ is used to describe education
from primary level to college and it has different stages e.g. elementary, secondary,
higher secondary, graduation and above.
Apart from general education, there are certain professional, technical and
vocational courses which help in getting certain specific types of skills. Examples
of professional courses are medicine (to become doctor), engineering etc. Examples
of technical courses are that of ITI and other diploma courses, courses for
electricians and mechanics etc.
The minimum level of general education which is required for getting certain jobs
and for admission to certain courses for special training is 10th standard. Those
with lower level of education can get manual work or unskilled jobs.
Entry to the jobs at the lower level in clerical, police and armed forces requires
minimum higher secondary level of education. For a large number of jobs, the
higher-secondary students have to do some advanced level courses in skill training
for jobs such as radio and TV mechanic, refrigeration, air-conditioning and
stenography.
For many other jobs, such as those through competitive examinations, the graduation
(B.A./B.Sc./B. Com.) degree is required. These include the civil services (like
I.A.S. etc.), clerical and officer level jobs in banks, management trainees in
government undertakings (e.g. Steel Authority of India, BHEL), and Insurance
Agents (e.g. L.I.C., G.I.C. etc.). Graduation degree is also minimum requirement
for admission to professional courses like management, teaching etc.
24 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
You must now be having a clear idea of the importance of educational qualifications
for different types of jobs. It is, therefore, necessary for you to plan carefully the
type and level of educational qualification which you need for the job of your
interest.
Notes

1. After completing middle level (8th Class) education, a person can get which of
the following jobs:
a. Clerk
b.Engineer
c. Peon
d.T.V. mechanic
2. After completing higher secondary (12th class), a person can get which of the
following jobs?
a. Clerk
b. Police
c. Armed forces
d. All of the above
3. General education does not include:
a. Elementary education
b. High school
c. Graduation
d. Engineering
4. Graduation degree does not directly help in getting success in
a. Competitive examinations
b. Bank job
c. Government undertakings
d. Airplane pilot
PSYCHOLOGY 25
World of Work
Try it Yourself
Write down three most desired vocations of your choice in order of preference.
Find out the minimum educational qualification required for each of these three
Notes vocations.
Vocation Educational Qualification
28.2 ABILITY AND PERSONALITY

CHARACTERISTICS RELEVANT TO
VOCATIONAL CHOICE
Each type of job or occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and
personality traits. For example, to be a successful architect you have to be original,
creative, imaginative, systematic, practical, determined, sensitive, patient etc.
Psychologists have identified certain types of personalities which are suitable for
certain types of jobs.
Though no person will have exactly the type of personality which is described
below, we still get a good idea of the suitability of specific persons for specific
jobs. One way of understanding the relationship between personality characteristics
and jobs is to consider the following categories:
Realistic: Persons of this type are energetic and physically strong. They have
good motor coordination skills but lack verbal and interpersonal skills. They are,
therefore, somewhat uncomfortable in social settings. They perceive themselves
as mechanically inclined, and are direct, stable, natural and persistent. They prefer
concrete to abstract problems and see themselves as aggressive. Such persons
prefer occupations of following types : mechanic, engineer, electrician, crane
operator, tool designer etc.
Investigative: This category includes people who have a scientific bent-of-mind.
They are usually task-oriented, prone to thinking and are not comfortable with
people. They have a great need to understand the physical world and prefer to
work independently. They do not like leadership positions, but are confident of
their intellectual abilities. These persons choose vocations such as scientist,
researcher, zoologist and psychologist.
Artistic: Persons who are artistic prefer unstructured situations with maximum
opportunity for self-expression. They are very creative especially in the area of art
and music. They avoid problems which are highly structured and prefer living in
situations which require self-expression related to art. Such persons prefer
occupations of artist, writer, musician etc.
Social: Such persons like to be involved with people and to work in groups and
occupy central positions in groups. They are often religious and have good language
26 PSYCHOLOGY
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and interpersonal skills. They enjoy activities that involve informing, training, curing,
helping etc. Vocational preferences of such persons include social work, school
teacher, religious teacher, etc.
Enterprising: Persons of this type have verbal skills which are very effective for
Notes
selling, dominating, leading etc. They have a strong desire to achieve organizational
goals and economic gains and tend to avoid situations which require intellectual
effort for long periods of time. They see themselves as aggressive, popular, self-
confident, cheerful, social and have high energy level. Vocational preferences include
business executive, politician, property dealer, stock broker, business man, etc.
Conventional: Such people perfer well-ordered environment and like systematic
activities involving verbal communication or dealing with numbers. They avoid
situations involving social dealing or physical skills. They enjoy power and material
possessions. Vocational preferences include banking, clerical jobs, traffic policemen,
shop salesman etc.
These six categories described above will give you a good idea about the
relationship between personality characteristics and vocational choice. The
categories given above are not to be taken as final. There are overlaps between
these categories and most people will not fall exactly in only one of these.
Nevertheless, this description captures the important relationship between abilities,
personality characteristics, and vocational choice.
28.3 WILL YOU BE ABLE TO DO THIS JOB?

Even though most of us have a reasonably good idea about our abilities and
personality characteristics, we do not have complete or accurate picture.
Psychological tests have been developed which help in preparing a profile
(description) of an individual’s abilities and personality characteristics. You can go
to a psychologist/vocational counselor, and she/he will administer relevant
psychological tests and provide you with an ability/personality profile and will also
guide in making an appropriate vocational choice.
When you apply for jobs in different organisations directly or through competitive
examinations, the organisations assess your abilities and personality characteristics
with the help of certain tests. They already have a certain profile in mind which
their experience has shown is suitable for the vacant job positions. These
organisations obtain your personality profile and match it with their requirements
and thus, judge your suitability for the job.
By now you must have got a clear picture of the importance of abilities and
personality characteristics for vocational choice. For getting any job, you first
require a minimum educational qualification but that is not enough. Certain skills,
PSYCHOLOGY 27
World of Work
abilities and personality characteristics are equally important in getting a job and
being able to perform it effectively.
Notes INTEXT QUESTIONS 28.2

1. Realistic persons are not suitable for the following job
a. Engineer
b. Scientist
c. Mechanic
d. Crane operator
2. Social people are suitable for the job of
a. School teacher
b. Scientist
c. Clerk
d. Electrician
3. Artistic persons are not suitable for the job of
a. Musician
b. Writer
c. Driver
d. Artist
4. Enterprising persons are good at
a. Selling
b. Leading
c. Dominating
d. All of the above
5. Investigative persons are:
a. good leaders
b. Similiar to most people
c. Scientific in their outlook
d. Dependent on others
28 PSYCHOLOGY
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6. Conventional persons are not suited for

a. Social dealing
b. Systematic activities
c. Power positions Notes
d. Job of a shop salesman
Try it Yourself
Think about your abilities and personality characteristics. Write them down and
decide which of the six types of persons you are closest to.
28.4 VOCATIONAL CHOICE : THE EMERGING

PERSPECTIVE
After reading the lesson up to this point, you would have realized the importance
of education, abilities and personality characteristics in choosing one’s vocation.
Another important aspect in vocational choice, as mentioned earlier, is interest.
For any person to carry out his/her job effectively, the person must have interest in
that job. Interest is also very important for deriving satisfaction from one’s job.
Generally, we have a good idea about our interests but often we are not very clear
about all our interests. Psychologists have developed measures which help in
identifying one’s interests. These measures require you to indicate your choice for
different types of activities. With the help of this, a psychologist/vocational counselor
will be able to provide a clear picture of your interests.
Thus, in making a vocational choice, it is necessary for a person to be aware of the

minimum educational qualifications required for that job, the abilities and personality
characteristics appropriate for that job, and the amount of interest which the person
has in that type of job. All these factors must be considered in making one’s
vocational choice.
Vocational planning should be done very carefully. You should first attain the
minimum education level for the job of your choice. You should also go in for skill
development training which will be useful for the kind of vocation you wish to
pursue. You can take the help of a psychologist/vocational counselor in obtaining
your ability and personality profile. Only after combining all these aspects, you
should decide about your vocation.
You must also remember that your abilities and personality characteristics are not
entirely fixed. They change with time and you can bring about a change deliberately
PSYCHOLOGY 29
World of Work
through training and self-awareness in the desired direction. Interests also change
with time. Also, you may find that many a times you do not have much interest in
some job even though you are suited for it in all other aspects. But after being
exposed to that job for some time, you may find that you have developed some
Notes interest in it.

1. Which of the following are important for vocational choice?
a. Interest
b. Abilities and personality characteristics
c. Educational level
d. All of the above
2. Indicate which of the following statements given below are True or False:
a. Interest and personality characteristics never change. True/False
b. Only educational qualification is important for making vocational
choice. True/False
c. Psychologists can help in profiling abilities and personality
characteristics. True/False
d. Any person can do any job. True/False
28.5 WHAT IS JOB SATISFACTION?

Are you satisfied with your job or do you want to change your present job? While
in a work situation it sometimes happens that we feel misfit in the situation or we
feel dissatisfied with our job. What is the reason behind it? What is job satisfaction?
Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state that occurs when a person’s job
seems to fulfill his/her needs. It is not always related with the money factor-because
some people also work to satisfy their urge to work. Dissatisfaction in a job
occurs due to many factors. Let us take them up one by one.
28.6 FACTORS INFLUENCING JOB SATISFACTION

There are a number of factors which influence one’s satisfaction in the job situation.
They can be categorized under two broad headings: (i) Organisational Factors,
and (ii) Personal Factors. Let us try to understand them in detail.
30 PSYCHOLOGY
World of Work
Organisational Factors
A major amount of our time is spent at the workplace. The place where we spend
a lot of time should fulfill our needs to some extent. Some of the important factors
related to the work place are as follows. Notes
(1) Rewards: Reward includes all incentives like raise in pay, perks, facilities and
promotion. The promotion is a major factor in job satisfaction. An employee
can only achieve job satisfaction and work better when he knows that he will
get his dues and raise in salary in time.
(2) Physical Working Conditions: The physical working conditions like
availability of necessary furniture, lighting facilities, and work hazards also
play a major role in job satisfaction.
(3) Cooperation: Cooperation and attitude of the staff members is also an
important factor in the job satisfaction of the person.
Personal Factors
Whether the nature of the work is of interest to the employee-is a question, the
answer of which tells about the level of job satisfaction of that person. The second
category of major factors are personal factors. These are as follows:
(1) Personality Traits: Some jobs are suitable only to a certain type of
personalities. For example, a doctor or a sales person's job is such that they
require regular contact with the general public. If they are shy in nature or
cannot talk much, they will not be successful in their work setting which will
cause dissatisfaction. While choosing for a job, one should see that he or she
has those personality traits which are necessary for that job because matching
of the personality traits with the job is very necessary.
(2) Status and Seniority: It has been found that higher a person’s position within
the organisation, the higher the job satisfaction level is reported.
(3) Life Satisfaction: Whether the job which a person is doing is giving the
person life satisfaction too?A person wants to establish or reach a goal in his
life and it can be accomplished through the work which one is doing. It is other
than the monetary part. For example, taking out publications or conducting
researches etc.
28.7 IMPORTANCE OF JOB SATISFACTION

After reading about job satisfaction and the factors related to it, you may want to
know why job satisfaction is important. Job satisfaction plays a major role in our
occupational life. It affects a person’s mental health, physical health, and output as
PSYCHOLOGY 31
World of Work
described below
(a) Mental Health: If a person remains continuously dissatisfied with the job,
the continuous tension leads to many maladjustments in the behaviour.
Notes (b) Physical Health: Job satisfaction affects the physical health of the person. If
a person is under continuous stress, he/she will suffer from health problems
like headache, heart and digestion related diseases etc.
(c) Output: The output automatically increases with job satisfaction because when
a person is happy with his job situation, he would like to put more effort in his
work, which in turn will increase the output.
Work Motivation
Another phenomenon which is related to one’s vocational adjustment is work
motivation or in simple words, the driving force behind one’s work. The success
of our organisation/institution depends largely upon the worker’s motivation. When
the employees of any organisation have high motivation, the output increases.
28.8 WHAT IS AN ORGANISATION?

An organisation is a social unit which is formed with a specific purpose. It is made
up of two or more people who work together on a regular basis in order to reach
a common goal or set of goals. Thus, in all organisations people work together to
reach specific goals.
Given below are some examples of organisations.

School: Schools are organisations where people (teachers and students) work
together to impart education to the students.
Bank: Bank is an organisation where employees work together to keep the money
of the people safely and also help people in money matters.
Police Station: Police Station is an organisation where employees (policemen)
work together to provide security to the people.
Insurance Company: Insurance companies like LIC and GIC are organisations
where employees work together to offer financial security and protection to people
of their goods and their lives.
Colleges and Universities: These are organisations where people work together
to give students training in specific subjects (e.g. Mathematics, Biology etc.) and
specific professional skills (e.g. Doctor, Engineer).
32 PSYCHOLOGY
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District Courts & High Courts: These are organisations where employees work
together to help people settle their disputes and conflicts and for giving punishment
to criminals.
The values, beliefs, assumptions, expectations and norms (rules) which are Notes
considered important in an organisation constitute what is called the culture of
organisation. When an individual joins any specific organisation, he or she has to
learn and socialize with reference to the culture of that organisation.

1. What is an organisation?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. What do you understand by the term organisational culture?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. Give three examples of organisation which are not mentioned above.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

• Work is a very important part of one’s life. Not every person is suited for
every kind of job.
• Without a basic minimum level of education, only jobs which require manual
labour are available.
• In order to do a job, certain skills/abilities are also required.
• Apart from general education which is from primary to college levels, there
are certain professional, technical and vocational courses.
• A characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits are required for each
PSYCHOLOGY 33
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job. Certain personality types like realistic, investigative, artistic, social,

enterprising and conventional have been identified.
• Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state which occurs when a person’s
job seems to fulfill his/her needs.
Notes
• Job satisfaction influences the mental and physical health of workers and
increases output.
• Work motivation is the force in which the worker feels to work more efficiently
in the work situation.
• Organisations are places where people work together to reach certain goals.
• When an individual joins any specific organisation, he/she has to learn about
the culture of the organisation, which entails the values, beliefs, assumptions
and expectations etc. of the organisation.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the different categories in which the personality characteristics have
been divided?
2. What are psychological tests? How can they help in vocational choice?
3. What is job satisfaction?

28.1
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d)
28.2
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d)
5. (c) 6. (a)
28.3
1. (d)
2. (a) False (b) False (c) True (d) False
28.4
1. It is a social unit created to active a specific goal.
2. The beliefs, expectations and norms held by the organization.
34 PSYCHOLOGY
Stress and Your Health OPTIONAL MODULE
World of Work
Notes
29
STRESS AND YOUR HEALTH
You have to catch your train at 8.00 a.m., but your auto is in a traffic jam. You just
have 20 minutes to travel 5 kms. Your heart beats fast, you are sweating and
grinding your teeth, looking frequently at your watch, scolding people, unable to
think clearly.
This type of situation is a stressful situation when a pressure is built upon you to
reach your destination. The moment you reach the station, board the train and
take your seat, you tend to take a long sigh “ah” and then you feel a sort of relief.
This relief makes you realize the tension you were in. This kind of tension is often
the cause of stress. These days the life has become fast and the pressures are so
many that we are in a stressful situation in some or the other way. Also, we are not
able to manage our stresses effectively. So one should know what are the sources
of stress and how to deal with them. In this lesson, we shall study about the
concept of stress, its sources, and reactions to it.
OBJECTIVES
• explain what is stress;
• list various types of reactions to stress;
• identify and name various sources of stress; and
• explain the effect of stress on health.
PSYCHOLOGY 35
OPTIONAL MODULE Stress and Your Health
World of Work
29.1 CONCEPT OF STRESS

Stress means pressure and an uneasy experience. The causes of stress may be
self, other individuals around you and your environment. Let us study how stress is
Notes caused.
Stresses caused by self: Suppose you have not studied till the last date of your
examination, and suddenly you try to study every thing on the previous day of your
exam. You are not able to learn and also you are not confident whether you have
covered each topic or not. The tension mounts. What is this situation? You have
put yourself in stress.
Stress need not necessarily always be negative. For instance if you are not anxious
before any test or examination you will not prepare for it seriously and your
performance may not be good. A little bit of stress helps us by motivating to
perform well. Thus stress has both positive and negative dimensions. The positive
aspect of stress is termed as “eustress” meaning stress producing positive results.
The negative dimension is called “distress”.
Stresseses caused by environment: Suppose your crop is ripe and ready for
harvest, suddenly continuous rain makes you helpless and worried. Your stress is
due to nature or environment. The pollution of air and water or crowding is also an
example of environmental stress.
Stresses caused by other persons: In every way you are due for promotion,
but the management of your organization fails to promote you. Here your stress is
due to others.
As discussed before, stress need not necessarily always be considered negative.

The positive aspect of stress which is termed as “eustress” produces positive
results. Badminton players practice for hours together before a match. Practice is
stressful but it produces good results. The famous scientist who invented bulb,
Thomas Alva Edison, failed more than 1000 times, finally he succeeded. He was
experiencing eustress.
The negative dimension of stress or distress often causes unpleasantness and leads
to poor performance. Radha is a bright girl, who always used to get good marks.
Her marks came down drastically due to her father who comes home drunk and
beats her mother. She is worried, tense and cannot concentrate on her studies
which resulted in getting low marks in the examination. Radha is the victim of
distress.
36 PSYCHOLOGY
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Give short answers to the following:
Notes
1. What is stress?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Name different types of stress.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
29.2 REACTIONS TO STRESS

Shyam, a young unemployed person, is lonely at home most of the time. He
often dreams about good things in life and wants to achieve them. But till
now he is not able to get a good job. Previously, he had worked in a small
company, but left it as there were problems with his boss. Shyam feels
depressed, unworthy and irritable most of the time. To overcome loneliness
and depression, he has taken to drinking habits.
Sita is a good student. She wants to excel in the class. Her parents and teachers
expect a lot from her. Due to high fever which she caught during the weekend
holiday, she is not able to complete the given assignment on time. As the last
date is fast approaching, Sita feels guilty, anxious and is not able to
concentrate on the assignment.
In both of the above examples, changes (physical and mental) can be seen which
are caused by stress. The reactions to stress can be classified into the following
categories: physiological, affective, cognitive and behavioural. Let us know more
about these reactions.
(i) Physiological Reactions: These reactions refer to the physical functions of
the human body which get affected under stress and do not work in their
normal routine. The reactions which commonly occur in an individual in relation
to stress are:
(a) rapid pounding of heart and pulse,
PSYCHOLOGY 37
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(b) muscles becoming tense,

(c) dryness of the throat or mouth,
(d) feeling sick in the stomach, (colloquially it is referred to as “butterflies
Notes in the stomach”), and
(e) trembling etc.
Generally, it is the vulnerable and weak bodily system that gets affected by
stress first. The resulting symptoms are therefore called psychosomatic
reactions. For instance, if the respiratory system is weak, stress affects it and
that may lead to asthma. Similarly, if the digestive system is vulnerable, it
becomes the target for the attack of stress. It usually results in ulcer. Thus,
almost all the systems can very well reflect the impact of stress by coming out
with various symptoms like blood pressure, wheezing, stomach ache,
headache, pain of the joints, stuttering etc.
(ii) Affective Reactions: These reactions are emotional responses. People
suffering from stress get affected quickly and manifest symptoms of anxiety,
depression, anger, irritability and having poor control over the emotions.
(iii) Cognitive Reactions : This category of reactions to stress includes the
following:
(a) poor concentration,
(b) inability to learn any thing new with same speed and efficiency,
(c) forgetting,
(d) inability to take proper decision that too in time,
(e) confusion,
(f) gate crashing of ideas, and
(g) negative or unhealthy thoughts
The physiological, affective, and cognitive reactions are covert in nature. In
other words, they take place within the individual but the behavioural reactions
are overt which means that they take place outwardly. They include behaviours
like:
(a) crying,
(b) talking incoherently,
(c) irrelevant speech,
(d) hitting, and
(e) bashing or banging etc.
38 PSYCHOLOGY
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DIVERSE REACTION TO STRESS
Physiological Reactions Affective Reactions

Rapid heart beat and pulse Anxiety Notes
Muscles becoming tense Depression
Dryness of the throat or mouth Anger
Trembling, Nausea etc. Frustration, hopelesness
and irritability
Cognitive Reactions Behavioural Reactions

Poor concentration Crying
Inability to learn anything new Talking incoherently
Forgetting Irrelevant speech
Unable to take proper decision Hitting
Confusion Over eating
Negative thought Substance abuse
Stressors
Peter is waiting in a room full of fresh graduates to be interviewed for a job
in a well reputed company. His academic performance is not outstanding but
he hopes to get the job through luck and by his personality. He feels that his
parents and his sister must be expecting him to get this high-prestige, high-
paying position. He is very nervous. His mouth is dry, his stomach feels tight,
his heart is pounding and perspiration has begun to sock through his new
suit.
Stressors are events and situations (such as bus rides or interviews) to which
people must react. Let us see some of the common stressors that people experience.
These stressors are perceived as mild and motivating for some and moderately or
severely stressful for others. They affect well being of people. The common stressors
include the following:
1. Boredom, loneliness
2. Frustration
3. Conflicts
PSYCHOLOGY 39
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4. Pressures to meet dead lines

5. Competition
6. Increased responsibility
Notes
7. Exertion due to travel or any physical/mental work
8. Divorce, separation and death of loved ones
9. Trouble in interpersonal relations such as parents, in-laws, friends, boss,

servants etc.
10. Loss of one’s self-prestige, image or status
11. Losses in one’s profession or studies or business etc.
12. Retirement
13. Lack of freedom and privacy
14. Sexual difficulties and guilt feelings
15. Changes in the financial status

16. Change of residence
17. Payment of loans
Stress reactions are the physical, psychological and behavioural responses (such
as nausea, nervousness and fatigue) which people display in the face of stressors.
Mediating factors such as the circumstances in which stressors take place and
each person’s characteristics, makes people more or less sensitive to stressors.
Every one of us experiences stress in some or the other way at home or at work
place. But stress tolerance varies across individuals. We can always reduce the
stress. Stress can act as a promoter of self-understanding. We don’t actually know
what we can do, unless we have to do it. For example, each time we clear a
subject in exam, we gain self-confidence that we can also pass through this kind of
situation. Sometimes experience of disappointments and failures become blessings
in disguise because we realise that we were pursuing the wrong goals or the task
came to us so suddenly that we were not ready for it.
With too little stress, we become lazy and with too much stress, we become tense
and prone to illness. We should know how to manage and handle stress in some
manner so that we can make most out of the situation.
40 PSYCHOLOGY
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Try it Yourself
(A) Think about and write down the frequently experienced stressors in your life
and indicate what type of stress reactions do you show/display?
Stressors Reactions Notes
_____________________ ___________________
_____________________ ___________________
_____________________ ___________________
_____________________ ___________________
(B) Do it yourself :
Given below are some items from the revised version of the daily hassles
(troubles) and uplifts (pleasures) scale. The respondent is asked to give ratings
(on 0-4) of the degree to which each item was a trouble or an uplift that day.
Ratings over several days or weeks can give a picture of your stressors and
pleasures and may allow for a better understanding of the role of daily hassles.
How much was this How much was this
item a trouble for item pleasure for
you today? you today?
01234 Your child (ren) 01234
01234 Time with family 01234
01234 Fellow workers 01234
01234 Your hard work 01234
01234 Meeting deadlines 01234
01234 Having enough money 01234
01234 The weather 01234
01234 Cooking 01234
01234 Home entertainment 01234
01234 Amount of free time 01234
Now you can identify your own stressors and add to the list above. Continue to
do the ratings as done previously.
29.3 SOURCES OF STRESS

Sources of stress can be classified into four categories, which are as follows:
Family, Occupational/Educational, Personal and Environmental. Let us understand
these sources in some detail.
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(1) Family: If you are experiencing stress because one of your family members is
seriously ill, then the source of your stress is family. The other familial stresses
include financial difficulty, quarrel between spouses (husband & wife) etc.
(2) Occupational/Educational: For a student stress may be the examination,
Notes stay in hostel etc. A teacher who is not teaching well may add to the stress.
Poor pay, over demanding boss, uncooperative co-worker and subordinates,
poor working conditions are some of the occupational stressors experienced
by the people.
(3) Personal: Personal stresses are many. A personal stress is often caused by
feelings of inadequacy, inferiority and insecurity. “My memory is poor,” “I am
dark”, “I am fat”, “I am not good looking”, “I cannot speak English well”, “I
am not intelligent”, “I am not talented”, “I am poor, I have poor health”, “I am
unemployed/under employed”, are some of the thoughts and attitudes making
one feel inadequate and insecure and suffer from stresses.
(4) Environmental: Unexpected natural calamities such as fire, famine,
earthquake, tsunami, floods etc. are environmental stressors. Crowd, poor
sanitation and pollution are also sources of environmental stress.
Try it Yourself
Identify your stress in various areas and fill up the blanks with your own
stressors.
Family
(1) Finance
(2) Illness of family members
(3) Discord between family members
(4) ________________________________
(5) ________________________________
(6) ________________________________
Occupational/Educational
(1) Poor pay
(2) Poor work condition
(3) ________________________________
(4) ________________________________
(5) ________________________________
(6) ________________________________
42 PSYCHOLOGY
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Personal
(1) Poor memory
(2) Worried about physical appearance
Notes
(3) ________________________________
(4) ________________________________
(5) ________________________________
(6) ________________________________
Environmental
(1) Pollution
(2) Crowding
(3) ________________________________
(4) ________________________________
(5) ________________________________
29.4 STRESS AND HEALTH

Indications are there that 75% of human diseases are caused by the stress
experienced by people. During stressful period, anxiety and nervousness are quite
common symptoms. When these become intense, phobia may develop. A phobia
refers to irrational fear over an object, person, or an animal or situations. The
person feels unduly anxious when he/she comes across a phobic situation and
hence always tries to avoid them. Some of the common phobias are:
1. Social phobia—fear of addressing public audience (eg. Stage fear).
2. Claustrophobia—fear of closed places.
Anxiety refers to a vague unpleasant feeling of impending threat and danger. A
person with severe anxiety will always be worried, unclear, confused and indecisive.
Sometimes excessive anxiety may lead to speech problems like stuttering and
stammering. Urinary problems like bed-wetting are commonly seen among children.
Stress and the Immune System

In the course of our everyday life, every one of us is exposed to various germs and
viruses but we do not fall ill. This is because we have got a protective mechanism
inside our body which is called the immune system. But stress can weaken this
immune system and this can make us victim of many diseases. If the stress is for a
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shorter period there is not much damage, but if the stress prolongs, it results in
serious illnesses such as cancer, heart disease, headache, asthma and peptic ulcer.
It is found that individuals under stress are more likely to catch cold than individuals
who are not under stress. This is attributed to the fact that intense stress reduces
Notes body’s immune system, thus making the person easily vulnerable to infections.
29.5 STRESS AND HEALTH PROBLEMS

It is an accepted fact that certain cardiac problems like hypertension, angina and
heart attacks are caused due to emotional strain the person undergoes. Such
emotional stress caused may be due to frustration, intense anger, fear, depression
or shock.
Eating disorders can also be caused due to preoccupation with stressful situations.
Sleep disorders can also occur due to stress. Such persons have difficulty in going
to sleep or experience disturbed sleep or not getting sleep at all (insomnia). A
person who is said to frequently experience intense emotions such as anger, jealousy,
hatred, fear, panic often complain about ulcers. Intense fear or guilt can also lead
some to sexual problems.
The most common stress related health problems are cold and headache. Scientists
say that there is no specific medicine for common cold and tension headache.
They occur when an individual undergoes stressful experiences. They may vanish
under pleasant and happy situations. Pills for killing pain and cold give only temporary
relief. Hence, it is necessary to know the root cause of stress for permanent solution
for these health problems. For example a student might get headache whenever he
is asked to give a test /exam.
Psychosomatic diseases like peptic-ulcer, asthma, essential hypertension (high BP)

are also caused by stresses. You would have known that many die due to heart
attack at a younger age. Those were Mr. Victims of stress.
The combination of repeated stress and the weakness of particular system leads
to psychosomatic diseases. For example, a person gets ulcer, when under stress
his stomach (digestive system) becomes weak. These people also do not express
their emotions outwardly. For example, if a person gets angry he must show it out
in an appropriate way but if he keeps within himself repeatedly, he is likely to get
ulcer. He should be asked to learn the proper means and ways of expressing
emotions outwardly for maintaining good health.
The above include some of the commonly reported stress related problems. They
are experienced by the individual from mild or to moderate levels. A less often
occurring, severe disorder is known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
The symptoms include anxiety, apprehension, chronic tension, sleep disorders like
44 PSYCHOLOGY
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insomnia or sleepless nights, nightmares, withdrawal behaviour etc. This disorder

occurs when a person experiences severe stress after a traumatic life threatening
experience like accidents, being victimized either physically and mentally as in
rape or sexual harassment, death of near and dear ones etc.
Notes
Stress Relief: In many severe cases of experience of intense stress, an individual
must consult the psychologist for immediate help or be institutionalized for a certain
period of time. Mild to moderate stress can be easily relieved through different
way such as: regular physical exercise, relaxation, meditation, thinking positively,
seeking social activities which are relaxing and pleasurable or following certain
management techniques like time –management, stress reduction programmers
etc. Medication such as stress drugs must be used only in severe cases and under
medical supervision.

1. Answer the following as either true or false:
a) Urinary disorders like bed-wetting occur only due to stress.
True/False
b) Stuttering and stage fear mainly occurs due to anxiety and
nervousness. True/False
c) Common cold generally occurs due to reduced immune system
that is constantly exposed to stressprone situations. True/False
2. Mention some of the health disorders (both physical and mental) that are
caused due to stress.
3. In what way can one overcome everyday stress problems?

• Stress is a kind of internal pressure caused by either internal or external forces.
Generally it is because of interaction of both internal and external factors.
• Both low and high levels of stress are not helpful for the highest performance
which an individual is capable of, only the moderate level of stress results in
peak performance.
• Stress has both positive and negative consequences. If it is positive it is known
as “eustress”. The negative stress is known as “distress”.
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• Reactions to stress are physiological, affective, cognitive and behavioural in

nature.
• Stress that is experienced at the work place is called occupational stress. It
occurs due to factors like discrepancy between individual and organizational
Notes goals, poor cooperation, incoordination, unhealthy competition among workers,
role ambiguity, role conflict etc.
• Stress occurs in every day living for every one of us. Not all stress reactions
lead to disorders.
• Some of the common stressors include boredom, physical exertion, losses,
frustrations, conflicts, meeting dead lines, intense noise, etc.
• Some of the symptoms or reactions of stress are muscular tension, body pain,
increased heart beat, dizziness, nausea, sweating, inability to relax, depression,
destractibility and withdrawal, etc.
• Some of the common stress related disorders are stuttering, stammering, bed-
wetting, stage fears, depression, phobia, heart attacks, hysterias.
• Ways to combat stress are to do physical exercise, mediation, doing pleasurable
activities, seeking professional help and following stress relieving management
programmes like time management, learning to think positively, etc.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What do you understand by stress? Give an example.
2. Note down the different reactions to stress.
3. List the sources of stress.
4. Write a short note on the various stressors that you know.

29.1
1. Internal pressure caused by integral or external factors.
2. eustress, distress.
29.2
1. (a) False (b) True (c) True
2. Peptic ulcer, asthma, high B.P., Cold, Upset stomach
3. By exercise, relaxation, time management, positive thinking
46 PSYCHOLOGY
Stress Management and Well-Being OPTIONAL MODULE
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Notes
30
STRESS MANAGEMENT AND

WELL-BEING
Uptil now you have studied all about what is stress and what are the health
problems related with stress. Stress is by and large manageable. If a scientific
approach is followed for managing stress, it can be relieved. This lesson deals with
the strategies which one can adopt for effective management of stress. Stress
management training refers to a package of techniques that are used for helping
the individuals cope with stress rather effectively. Wellness refers to the good
physical, psychological and social functioning of an individual.
OBJECTIVES
• enumerate the relaxation procedures;
• explain the cognitive strategies for stress management;
• explain the sources of support from environment and the methods of enhancing
the support system;
• describe how effectively hobbies, recreation and leisure time activities can
control stress ; and
• list the hobbies, recreation and leisure time activities which could reduce the
stress.
• discuss various ways of managing time well;
• describe how physical exercise and nutrition can promote well-being, and
• explain the benefits one could obtain by practicing yoga and mediation.
PSYCHOLOGY 47
OPTIONAL MODULE Stress Management and Well-Being
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30.1 ALTERING BODILY REACTIONS AND

RELAXATION
Relaxation is just opposite to the state of stress or tension. It is a state in which one
Notes is able to think clearly about or reflect on a problem. Just as stress can affect the
individual at physiological, affective, cognitive and behavioural levels, relaxation
also can influence the individual at all these levels. Among the various dimensions
which an individual has in one’s personality; bodily or physiological dimension is
the one which responds first to stress. Therefore, to combat stress effectively, one
will have to regulate the physiological changes that occur because of stress.
Generally when an individual is under stress, he or she experiences stress from

head to toe. That is due to the several changes that take place in the body. All the
muscles in the body reflect stress by being rather rigid or tight. Breathing gets
altered. Heart starts beating faster. Similarly almost all organs and systems present
in the body are affected by stress.
Techniques for Stress Reduction

Physical exercise, sports, and yoga, etc. are found to be of immense value in
preparing a person for relaxation. Apart from these well known methods, there
are some more techniques which are scientific and systematic in nature. One such
procedure is deep muscle relaxation. This technique is based on the assumption
that mental relaxation follows muscular relaxation.
Deep Muscle Relaxation

The individual is taught to experience both tension and relaxation alternately in
each and every group of muscles in the body. Experience of relaxation and
appreciation of difference between tension and relaxation immensely helps the
individual in maximizing the feeling of calmness. It is also called progressive muscle
relaxation, because as the individual practices this technique, experience of
relaxation increases.
Biofeedback
Another procedure which is generally adopted for inducing relaxation through
altering bodily reactions is biofeedback. In this procedure, based on skin response
(GSR), feedback on brain waves (EEG) and feedback on any other physiological
parameter, the individual is made to study the internal reactions to stress and
relaxation. By giving the individual, feed back whether he/she is in a state of stress
or relaxation, the individual can be made to alter the reaction in favour of relaxation
which he/she will have to maintain as much as possible. Visual or auditory feedback
is given. In the visual feedback, when the individual experiences stress, red light
will be on. The individual, then, will have to relax and the state of relaxation will be
48 PSYCHOLOGY
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indicated by green light. Hence the goal is always to keep the green light on when
the individual undergoes treatment for management of stress through bio-feedback.
Once, the individual masters the art of relaxation through bio feed back, he/she
can easily generalize the same state of relaxation to any other situation. Thus one
can gain perfect control over all the situations. Notes
In the case of auditory feedback “beep” sound will come whenever the individual
is tense. Focus is given by the individual to successfully put off the beep sound. As
the very sound may at times prevent the individual from relaxation, visual feed
back is preferred more than the auditory one.
Try it Yourself
1. Analyze the ways which you follow for experiencing relaxation. Then note
the changes that take place in your body and behaviour.
2. Visit any well equipped psychological clinic and see for yourself the
mechanism of bio feedback.
3. Try to learn the procedure of deep muscle relaxation from a qualified and
practicing psychologist who advocates the procedure to his/her clients.
30.2 COGNITIVE STRATEGIES

The term cognition is closely associated with thinking. Behind every action there is
a thought or cognition. So by altering the cognitive environment, behaviour can be
modified. Healthy thoughts lead individuals to adaptive behaviour whereas unhealthy
thoughts result in maladaptive behaviour. Experience of too much of stress and
later on coming out with abnormal behaviour patterns are regarded as maladaptive.
The experience and expression of stress are also guided or influenced by a set of
thoughts which are generally unhealthy. So by making those negative or unhealthy
thoughts, positive or healthy, both the experience and expression of stress can be
minimized. Let us examine some of these strategies.
(i) Systematic Desensitization: Maladaptive behaviour in the form of strong

expression of stress is characterized by emotional hypersensitivity. So the
individuals will have to be desensitized systematically against the situations
that cause stress or anxiety. Before the situation could have any impact on
individuals, the very thought of situation will cause stress in the individual.
Therefore, he/she will have to get rid of the stress through imagination. So the
individuals are, at first, given training at thought level to cope with stress by not
being that emotionally sensitive as he or she had been. All the situations are
graded on the intensity of stress that each situation produces. These situations,
then, are presented to the individual one by one who imagines the situations
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and slowly or gradually, he/she counters those provoking situations with the
pleasant scenes which bring relaxation. Thus, the individual learns to relax
against all stress producing situations through systematic desensitization.
(ii) Thought Stopping: Another cognitive technique which is used for stress
Notes
management is thought stopping. The individual is actively helped to stop
entertaining those negative or useless unnecessary thoughts which prevent
effective functioning. Strongly saying “Stop” results in getting the thought out
of the individual’s brain for a minute. It has to be practiced repeatedly. Slowly
and steadily the individual starts showing remarkable improvement in
successfully keeping the thought away from him/her. Finally, this results in
successful termination of stress that mainly occurs due to interference caused
by unnecessary thoughts.
(iii) Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT): Rational emotive
behaviour therapy (REBT) is yet another cognitive technique which helps the
individual to think rationally and realistically so that positive emotion comes
out of it. The individual is, thus, made to understand the fact that every successful
action depends on rational or logical thinking which takes reality into account.
Self talk is another method which is useful in preparing the individual cognitively
for effective management of stress. For example a person who is poor in
memory can have a self talk saying that “My memory has become better, now
a days I am able to recall better” etc. Subsequently he/she has to use other
strategies like using mnemonics for improving memory. These two together
will be more effective.

1. Explain biofeedback.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. Name any two cognitive strategies.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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30.3 ENHANCING SUPPORTIVENESS OF THE

ENVIRONMENT
For effective living all the human beings must grow in an environment which is
supportive and highly encouraging. As stress causes a lot of feelings of insecurity Notes
in an individual, it becomes essential and rather imperative on the part of the
environment to be highly supportive so as to make him/her feel secure. If the
external environment is also as negative and as discouraging as the internal
environment (mainly cognitive or thought environment), the individual will feel stress
all the more.
How are we to enhance supportiveness of the external environment? First, a proper

analysis of the environment will have to be made and place the individual in a
relatively stress-free environment which will nurture him/her on healthy lines. “Stress
free” environment will be characterized by certain features like having regard for
an individual without any conditions, empathy, careful listening, providing useful
tips to overcome stress which occurs mainly because of poor resolution of conflicts,
appreciating adaptive behaviour etc. Such a positive environment will not only
strengthen the personality make-up of the individuals, but also make the individuals
learn certain new skills important for effective living. It is applicable for home and
office environment too. A person having warm and positive environment is less
likely to go in to stress.
Try it Yourself
1. Analyze your environment and find how people are supporting you. Find
the positive and the negative points.
30.4 HOBBIES, RECREATION AND LEISURE
Hobbies, recreation and leisure provide a highly admirable support to individuals

for overcoming stress. They help individuals (who are under stress due to several
reasons) relax and gain much wanted relief from stress. Relaxation sets in rather
fast when an individual who is experiencing high stress, engage himself/herself in
an activity which becomes a hobby or forms a part of recreation, because the
individual does this task in a leisurely manner which does not add much pressure
to him/her.
Leisure activities may be active such as participation in sports or in artistic creation

or they may be passive like engaging in spectator sports, attending musical
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programmes or visiting museums, art galleries. Leisure activities can include solitary
pursuits such as reading or quiet contemplative activity. Some aspects of leisure
activities are creative as they allow human beings to develop their potentialities
and to employ their talents and skills in new ways. The leisure activities have a re-
Notes creative function enabling the individuals to renew their energies. Thus again they
can prepare themselves for confronting the demands of their everyday responsibilities
including those connected with their work.
Certain leisure time activities like reading, T.V. viewing, card playing etc. contribute
to the maintenance of personality.
Hobbies, recreation and leisure helps in managing stress adequately because the
activities provide good exercise to both body and all the psychological systems.
The individuals experience relaxation and they get immense happiness in knowing
what their potentialities are. Moreover these activities enable them to develop or
maximize the potentialities. As these activities are done in a less formal atmosphere,
there is greater scope for sense of humour which acts as an antidote to stress.
People acquire the ability to concentrate on the present more than the past or
future by engaging themselves in the leisure time activities with a lot of interest. As
many of the hobbies, recreational and leisure activities give an opportunity to the
individuals to know more about others, the very socialization process becomes
healthier and in the course of time the philosophy of each individual changes for
the better because he or she gets a better view of the world. Thus, the value
system becomes quite strong and well-knit. These informal activities very effectively
contribute to the development of individuals. If each individual is fully developed,
management of stress becomes pretty easy.
30.5 TIME MANAGEMENT

Time is an important factor which contributes to life in so many ways. That’s why
proverbs like “Time is gold”, “Time is precious”, “Time wasted cannot be taken
back” are popular in society. We often think about time and keep doing things as
per the time schedule. Time management is necessary for effective use of the
available time for doing many activities within a short duration of time, thus,
increasing the quality of the performance and life. Time acts as pressure when we
simultaneously try to do many things without priorities. Time management techniques
mainly involve (1) efficiency in doing things, (2) planning, and (3) prioritizing.
Efficiency is increased by using simple notes, check lists etc. as one is shown in
Figure 1.
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Today’s Job
1) letter posting
2) going to bank
3) calling a friend Notes
4) purchasing a ticket
5) ————————————
6) ————————————
Fig. 1 : Preparing schedule of a day with a check list.
Planning would involve preparation, goal setting, scheduling future events and
activities like fixing up appointments, setting dead lines, maintaining calendar etc.
For example let us assume that you want to visit a hill station during summer
vacation, you will have to plan the following steps.
Step 1 : Decide the hill station you want to visit. This can be based on
the time and money available to you.
Step 2: Consult friends or tourist office for information like distance,
accommodation, tourist spots, mode of transport, etc.
Step 3 : Book the ticket and the room (accommodation) in advance.
Step 4 : List out the things you would be taking for the trip such as eatables,
clothes (casual and warm), camera, and other equipment for special
purposes like trekking, entertainment etc.
Planning would make your trip more pleasant because you will be saved from the
last minute hurry.
Prioritizing simply means sequencing as to what should be done first, second etc.
From the example stated earlier, it could be noted that deciding the hill station,
booking the accommodation and purchasing the ticket should be done first before
making other arrangements. Even among the three, deciding a hill-station should
be the first task.
Effective time management is a skill which one can acquire with conscious effort.
The first step in this process is to identify the tasks which one wants to do. Then
analyze the tasks in the following categories:
(1) “A” tasks, (2) “B” tasks, (3) “C” tasks.
“A” tasks should be done everyday during prime hours when one’s performance
is at best. “B” type of tasks are those things which can be done, but with secondary
importance. Perhaps 20 per cent of everyday’s time may be allotted for performing
“B” tasks. “C” tasks are those which do not contribute to the priorities. These
tasks can be ignored and they may be done at the leisure hour.
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For a student studying for an hour between 5 : 30 to 6 : 30 am can be called as

“A” tasks. Polishing the shoes, ironing the uniform can be considered as “B” tasks
and buying milk and vegetables may be considered as “C” tasks.
Distribution of work: A mother has a lot of work in the morning like cooking,
Notes preparing children for school, packing meal for husband. If she has to manage her
time well, she has to train children to share the work such as polishing shoes,
preparing a cup of tea, packing lunch for themselves. Children can do things better
only when parents allow them to take care of themselves in eating, dressing, studying
and so on. This type of distribution makes the mother free from time pressure and
helps children learn skills for their well-being.
Some people have a tendency to do every work by themselves. A manager will be
efficient only when he/she distributes the work amongst subordinates and gets it
done. The allocation of the work must be done according to each one’s capacity,
interest and skills.
Time Budgeting: Time-budgeting is similar to money budgeting. At the beginning
of a month individuals allocate money to be spent for various things such as milk,
vegetables, provision, transport, school fees etc. Likewise, planning to spend time
for a day and for a week is necessary.
Time budgeting is done by considering priorities, which are determined by personal,
familial and professional goals etc. The priorities can be divided as short-term and
long-term and accordingly they have to be executed. Time available should be
calculated after deducting the time spent for personal necessities like, brushing,
bathing, washing, eating, sleeping etc.
For example: If one can take out 12 hrs. (8 hrs. for sleeping + 4 hrs. for personal
care and travelling) one is left with only 12 hrs. These 12 hours can be budgeted
for spending in office, family and personal hobbies etc. Personal needs should be
given priority during Saturdays and Sundays. Short term goal/priority may be
studying for the coming examination. The long term goal may be getting a promotion
after obtaining the degree.
Time availability partly depends on the way time is spent. Carefully spending and
enjoying the activities can add satisfaction and quality to our lives. Time spent
without any purpose can be a great source of frustration and can result in stress.

State whether the given statements are true or false:
1. Wellness refers to the good physical, psychological and social functioning of
an individual. True/False
2. Time wasted cannot be got back. True/False
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3. Time does no act as pressure when we simultaneously try to do many things

without priorities. True/False
4. Time management technique mainly involves efficiency, planning and prioritizing.
True/False
Notes
5. Time budgeting is differnt than money budgeting. True/False
30.6 YOGA
Yoga is a way of life that promotes physical as well as psychological well-being.
Yoga has eight main steps. The most important steps which can be ordinarily
practised by us are given below:
1. Yama: practicing self-regulation.

2. Niyama: observing behavioural norms.
3. Pranayama: Pranayama is an exercise meant to regulate breathing. It makes
the respiratory system work to its optimum thus ensuring proper supply of
oxygen to the blood and improving blood circulation.
4. Asanas: Asanas are the physical aspect of yoga in which postures are checked
and modified as required for setting right the imbalance of inner functions
which include both physical and physiological aspects of the human body
system. Asanas have preventive, curative, and promotive values.
5. Pratyahar: Means withdrawing the senses from the external objects and turn
them inward. Yoga helps us to train our sense organs to remain quiet without
outer stimulation.
6. Dharna: is focusing of mind on a particular object.
7. Dhyan: study contemplation or meditation.
8. Samadhi: Extreme level of Dhyana when one looses sense of time and place.
Preventive and Curative Values of Asanas

Assimilation of food becomes better; waste products get eliminated more easily.
Endocrine glands function more effectively. Certain disorders of liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys, bladder and heart get corrected to a great extent. Conditions
like asthma, diabetes, spondylosis, and constipation etc. can be managed by yoga.
Those who suffer from conditions like hypertension (high B.P.), heart ailment, slip
disc, lumbar, spondylosis are advised to do asanas under the constant supervision
of trained experts in Yoga, that too with the consent of medical practitioners who
have been treating them.
Promotive Values: The most important steps of practice of Yoga can also
bring benefits for the psychological functioning. They are:
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(i) relief from tension, stress and strain, anxiety, frustration, anger etc. Yoga steps
produce relaxation, positive thinking, self-confidence, self-awareness, development
of personality, improvement of memory, reduction of sleep deficit, etc.
Patience, endurance, cheerfulness, straightforwardness, discipline and perseverence
Notes are also achieved by practising yoga systematically for a long time.

Match the following statements:
1. Yama a. Physical aspects of yoga (postural practices)

2. Niyama b. Focusing one’s attention
3. Pranayama c. Practicing self regulation.
4. Asana d. Observing behavioural norms.
5. Dhyan e. Regulation of breathing.
30.7 DHYAN (MEDITATION)

In ancient times “Rishis” (sages) used to meditate in calm and quiet places. This
helped them to maintain good health and be clear in thinking. This, enabled them
to advise the kings for effective rule for the welfare of the people. You can also do
meditation. Dhyan (meditation) is focussing one’s attention to a particular state
and not letting any thought disturb it. The aim of meditation is to relax the body and
mind. Meditation can provide inner peace and reduce stress from the hustle and
bustle of daily life. The basic common element found in all forms of meditation is
pointedness which means all the attention is directed to one feature of experience
and everything else is excluded.
Dhyan brings down intense emotions. Pulse rate, skin conductivity, and muscle
tension, become better due to meditation. Therefore almost all stress related
disorders such as high Blood Pressure, migraine etc. can be managed rather
effectively through meditation. Meditation gives healthy thinking characterized by
clarity, good concentration and intellectual power. It reduces anger, anxiety,
frustration, inferiority complex, tension. Ultimately it can be said that meditation
enhances wellbeing.
30.8 PHYSICAL EXERCISE AND NUTRITION

“All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy” is an old saying. Yes, it is indeed so.
If an individual goes without proper physical exercise, he/she loses control over
the functioning. Physical exercises to a great extent trim the body and discipline
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the mind. If individuals cannot do rigorous physical exercises, they can at least go
for walking, jogging, skipping etc., depending upon their health status. Exercises
do produce a lot of positive change in the body. Warming up every part of the
body systematically and cooling it down in systematic manner do good. Blood
circulation becomes quite rhythmic and thinking becomes clear and positive, thereby, Notes
both body and mind are kept in the state of well being.
Adequate and balanced nutrition helps the individual to promote health. The best
defence for the demands of stress is a healthy body. An old quote says that “a
sound mind exists in a sound body”. Nutrition and physical exercises help individuals
remain healthy. The body’s energy supply and the basic building blocks needed
for the growth and maintenance, come from the three main macro nutrients namely
carbohydrates, proteins and fat. Salads, vegetables and fresh fruits should form a
substantial part of the day’s eating. Eating snacks between meals (that too, snacks
like chips, chocolates, soft drinks, sweet, biscuits) is not good for both the waistline
and the healthiness of diet.
Vegetarian diets are in many ways closer to the ideal healthy diet than non-vegetarian
ones as they contain saturated fat and fiber. Drinking 8 to 10 glasses of water
everyday provides the cells with ample fluid and aids the kidneys in flushing out
waste products. Eating a healthy and regular diet will ensure healthy body and
mind.

1. What is meditation? Mention any two of its effects.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. What are the three macro-nutrients?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

• Relaxation is a state which is just opposite to the state of stress or tension.
Among the several methods by which one can attain relaxation, deep muscle
relaxation and biofeedback are the most widely used and popular procedures.
• Thought stopping, systematic desensitization, Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy are some of the cognitive strategies by which stress can be effectively
managed.
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• Hobbies, recreation and leisure time activities not only divert the attention of
individuals from stress producing thoughts to relaxation, but also do those
activities which enable the individuals to realize their potentialities and to grow
healthy.
Notes • Besides stress management, it is also important to know about time
management for well being. Task analysis, proper time budgeting and distribution
of work will enhance the state of well being achieved by effective time
management.
• Yoga offers improved physical flexibility, freedom from stress and profound
sense of wellbeing. People of all ages and conditions can do Yoga. Yama,
Niyama, Pranayama, Asanas and meditation are important constituents of
Yoga. Meditation is a state in which attention is directed to one feature of
experience and everything else is excluded.
• The aim of meditation as well as Yoga is to induce relaxation.
• Physical exercises and nutrition provide the individuals with good physical
health which in turn promotes psychological wellbeing.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Explain any two cognitive strategies for the management of stress.
2. What role do hobbies, recreation and leisure play in the management of stress?
3. Briefly describe the procedure of time management.
4. How do physical exercises and nutrition promote wellbeing?

30.1
1. A procedure in which changes in internal bodily reactions are made available
to the person and he or she may alter the reaction in favour of relaxation.
2. Altering the cognitive environment by systematic desensitization, thought
stopping, rational emotive behaviour therapy.
30.2 (1) True, (2) True, (3) False, (4) True, (5) False
30.3 (1) c (2) d (3) e (4) a (5) b
30.4
1. Focussing of attention, inner peace, stress reduction.
2. Carbohydrates, protein, fat.
58 PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental Patterns in Early Childhood OPTIONAL MODULE
Facilitating Early
Childhood Education
Notes
26
DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD
Development of a human being from a conception to a full grown adult is a

subject that has fascinated people over generations. Not only is this knowledge
useful as a tool for understanding self, but also for guiding the development of
children.
OBJECTIVES
• list the stages of the human life span;
• outline the various processes of development;
• describe the patterns of growth and development;
• name the common factors influencing development; and
• enumerate the characteristics of the early childhood child.
26.1 STAGES IN THE LIFE SPAN

Human development can be better understood if we focus on its different stages
while relating to the entire life span. The human life span can be divided into the
following stages:
1. Prenatal period – Conception to birth
2. Period of the newborn– Birth to one month
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3. Infancy – 1 month to 2 years
4. Early childhood – 2 to 6 years
5. Middle childhood – 6 to 11 years
6. Adolescence – 11/12 to 18/19 years
7. Early Adulthood – 18/19 to 40 years
Notes
8. Middle age – 40 to 60 years
9. Old age – 60 and above
26.2 PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

Development, which essentially means change is the result of the complex
interactions between many processes – biological, social and cognitive.
1. Biological processes: The changes in appearances are natural. These
processes involve physical changes. Our genetic heritage, growth of body
organs, acquisition of motor skills, like cycling, driving, writing etc.; hormonal
changes such as moustach, gaining weight at puberty; all reflect the role of
biological processes in development.
2. Cognitive processes: These processes involve changes in thinking, intelligence
and language of the child. Perception, attention, forgetting, knowing,
understanding, problem solving, reasoning, memorizing, imagining, all reflect
cognitive processes.
3. Social processes: These processes involve the changes in the child’s
relationship with other people, emotions and personality. These are also termed
as Psycho-social processes of behavior. The first smile of an infant, the
development of attachment between the mother and child, children learning to
share, to assert, to take turn, to play with others; all reflect social processes.
Love affection, liking-disliking, bellow- feeting all are social processes.
Try it yourself: List 10 examples of cognitive, social and biological process in
children.

Match the following:
I II
(i) newborn (a) increase in height
(ii) adolescence (b) 2 – 6 years
(iii) early adulthood (c) 18/19 years – 40 years
(iv) early childhood (d) making friends
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(v) cognitive process (e) Birth-1 Month
(vi) social process (f) watching and swingingmobile
(vii) biological process (g) 11 – 12 years to 18 – 19 years
Notes
26.3 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD
Growth and development are complementary processes. Growth indicates the
quantitative changes in the body such as height and weight. In contrast, development
refers to both the qualitative and quantitative changes, (e.g. language acquisition).
Development can be defined as a ‘progressive series of orderly coherent changes.’
The various types of developmental changes follow certain principles. Some of

these principles are as follows:
1. Growth and development follow an orderly sequence.
2. Each child normally passes through a number of stages, each with its own
essential characteristics.
3. There are individual differences in rate and pattern of development.
4. Though the human being develops as a unified whole, yet each part of the
body develops at a different rate. Basically there are two sequences in the rate
of development:
(a) Cephalocaudal i.e. development proceeds from head to toe. Thus the
head and brain will develop first, then the neck, then toe etc.
(b) Proximodistal i.e. development proceeds from center to extremeties
(sidelines). Thus, the child first gains control over his spine, then arms,
then fingers etc.
5. Development is essentially the result of the interaction between maturation
and learning. While maturation is the ‘unfolding of characteristics potentially
present in the individual’s genetic endowment’, learning refers to the relatively
enduring ‘changes that come about as a result of experience and practise.’
Try it Yourself:
Oberve two and four years old children for gross motor skills (e.g. running, jumping,
climbing stairs, hopping) and fine motor skills (grasping, pasting, eating with spoon,
tying a string, combing hair, buttoning, unbuttoning etc.). Identify the sequence of
the development of that skill. Identify the comparative role of maturation and learning
in development in each of these skills.
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26.4 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
(1) Heredity: This means what we get from our ancestors. This determine how
tall or heavy we can be. In this way heredity determines our body-built and
Notes intellectual capacity, as well as many other physical, mental and psycho-social
behavior traits.
(2) Prenatal environment: The environment of the pregnancy is an important
factor in its later growth. If the mother is getting poor nutrition or is emotionally
upset or smokes, drinkes, or takes some medicine or suffers from certain
diseases; the growth of the child can be adversely affected.
(3) Nutrition: Proper nutrition is essential for the healthy development of a child.
A malnourished child’s growth is either stunted or loopsided.
(4) Mental Level: Higher intelligence is associated with faster development while
lower intelligence is associated with retardation in various aspects of
development. Body and brain are associated as said “healthy mind in a healthy
body”.
(5) Emotional climate of home: If there is a lot of discord/fight at home or the
child is not given enough love and attention or there is physical/mental abuse
of the child, then the child’s development is adversely affected. The affectionate,
tolerant or respectful attitude towards others in the family have a positive
impact on children.
(6) Health of the child: If the child frequently falls sick, or suffers from some
disorder, or is disabled or has disturbed endocrine functioning, his development
is likely to suffer. Any inner physiological disorder affects the development.
(7) Level of stimulation: The amount of stimulation an environment provides,
the opportunities for exploration of environment, opportunities of interaction
with other people—all influence the rate of development. Stimulation means
anything which compels the person to act. We may say something which keeps
a person busy.
(8) Socio-economic status: It determines the kind of nutrition, stimulation,
facilities and opportunities the child gets and therefore, affect the rate of his
development. It also means the social reputation and the financial conditions
of the family.
(9) Sex: All children follow the same sequence of development. However, certain
skills develop faster in girls and vice-versa. Sex is also a factor that sometime
decides the potential of the child in some aspects of development.
64 PSYCHOLOGY
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State whether the following statements are True or False:
(1) Development always proceeds at the same rate. True/False

Notes
(2) Development is affected only by the environment. True/False
(3) Growth and development mean the same thing. True/False
(4) Development usually follows the same sequence. True/False
(5) Health of a pregnant woman will affect the development of her child.
True/False
(6) Marital discord can affect the development of the child. True/False
(7) The more the child is allowed to explore the environment, the slower the
development. True/False
(8) Our learning potential is decided by our heredity. True/False
26.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT IN

EARLY CHILDHOOD
Early childhood as stated earlier is the period from 2 to 6 years of age. This period
is sometimes referred to as preschool period. In this stage children become more
self-sufficient, begin to take care of themselves, acquire language, become a part
of the group, become more coordinated, develop school readiness skills (following
instructions, identifying letter etc.) and obtain a higher degree of self-control.
(A) Features of Cognitive Development

• Realises that the world exists even if he/she cannot see it (object permanence)
• Unable to see the perspective of other (egocentric)
• Absence of logical thinking
• Believes that all things (living and non-living) possess life and feelings.
• Indulges in fantasy and make-believe play
• Easily confused by surface appearances
• Uneven attention
• Limited memory
• Confused about causal relationships
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• Acquires basic concepts of colour, shape, size, number, days etc.
• High level of curiosity
• Language changes from two word utterances to full sentences and grammatical
usage.
Notes (B) Features of Physical Development

At 2 years: A child
• is 23-30 pounds in weight, 32-35 inches in height
• capable of bowel and bladder control
• can run, kick a ball, build a 3 cube tower
At 2-3 years: A child
• is 32-33 pounds in weight and 37-38 inches in height
• can jump of a step, ride a tricycle, use crayons, build a 8 cube tower etc.
• is 38-40 pounds in weight and 40-41 inches in height
• self-sufficient in many routines in house e.g. dressing.
• Can stand on one leg, jump up and down, draw a circle and a cross etc.
• is 42-43 pounds in weight, 43-44 inches in height
• has mature motor control, skips, dresses on his/her self, do long jump, copy a
square and a triangle.
(C) Features of Emotional Development

At 2 years: A child
• throws temper tantrums
• resents new baby (if present)
• has negativism
• fear separation from others
• is negativistic
• differentiates facial expressions of anger, sorrow and joy
• has sense of humour
66 PSYCHOLOGY
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• displays affection towards parent
• pleasure in genital manipulation
• imaginary fears of dark, monsters, injury etc.
Notes
• experiences feelings of responsibility and guilt
• feels pride in accomplishment
(D) Features of Social Development

At 2 years: A child
• does opposite of what he is told
• copies parent’s action
• is dependent, clinging
• is possessive
• enjoys playing alongside a child
• learns to share
• has cooperative play with other children
• may enter nursery school
• begins to identify with same ‘sex parent’.
• imaginary friends
• interest in human body
• practises sex role activities
• prefers to play with other children
• becomes competitive
• prefers sex appropriate activities.
Note: It must be remembered that these listed activities are just examples of some
things that happen. Development has many other expressions and each is related
with the other.
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State under which area of development each occurs:
1. cooperative play
Notes
2. guilt
3. object permanence
4. learning sex roles
5. fear of darkness
6. imaginary friends
7. jumping and hopping
8. cutting and pasting
Prenatal
Newnate
Infancy
Early childhood = LIFE SPAN STAGES
Middle childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Middle adulthood
Old age
Biological
PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT = Cognitive
Social
(i) All development follows orderly

sequence
68 PSYCHOLOGY
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(ii) Individual difference = PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND
in development DEVELOPMENT
(iii) Different parts of body develop
At different rates
(iv) Development result of interaction
Notes
between maturation and
learning.
(v) Each child passes through Intelligence
a number of Heredity
Prenatal environment
Nutrition
FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH = Emotional climate

AND DEVELOPMENT Health
Socio-econimic
Status
Sex
Level of stimulation
Social
Emotional = CHARACTERISTIC OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
Cognitive
Physical
TERMINAL EXERCISE
(1) List the principles of growth and development.
(2) Pick out a child who is big for his age and another who is small for his age and
identify factors influencing their development.
(3) Observe a 3 years old over a period of week and list his state of social,
emotional, physical and cognitive devlopment.

26.1 (i) (e) (ii) (g) (iii) (c)
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(iv) (b) (v) (f) (vi) (d)
(vii) (a)
26.2 (1) F (2) F (3) F (4) T (5) T (6) T (7) F (8) T
26.3
Notes
(1) Social development
(2) Emotional development
(3) Cognitive development
(5) Emotional development
(7) Physical development
(8) Physical development
70 PSYCHOLOGY
Play Centre: Objectives OPTIONAL MODULE
Facilitating Early
Childhood Education
Notes
27
PLAY CENTRE: OBJECTIVES
In the last lesson we have tried to orient ourselves about the characteristics and
needs of children during early childhood. We have seen how these characteristics
change with age and how the child feels more equipped in every respect as s/he
grows physically. S/he can now move around with greater ease so much so that
s/he becomes quite handful for her/his mother. S/he is also curious and therefore
likes to explore and asks many questions. S/he starts taking interest in other children
and wants to be with them. Is the mother equipped enough to take care of the
growing child? Can s/he be helped? What kind of school be chosen for children at
this stage? etc. are just a few of the questions that we will try to orient answer in
this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
• define a play center;
• explain the need for a play centre;
• enumerate the objectives of a play centre;
• handle children in the play centre; and
• deal with behaviour problems in children.
27.1 MEANING OF PLAY CENTRE

A play centre is a place which provides children with certain facilities like toys,
play space etc; allows them to explore and experiment; provides a meeting ground
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for many children and therefore enhances the all round development of each child.
The focus is not on formal teaching but on learning through play. The environment
is friendly and stimulating.
The play centre caters to 2 – 5 year olds who come for 2-3 hours each day.
Notes Thus you can say that:
Play centres:
(a) are child centred units which allow children to progress at their own pace
(b) focuses on holistic development of the child
(c) invites independent and group learning through play, exploration and
investigation. Learning therefore, becomes an enjoyable experience.
(d) helps to sustain motivation for school and schooling.
Play centre is not
(a) a miniature primary school
(b) a place where teacher centred education is encouraged
(c) a place where passive learning and blind obedience is required.
Activity
Observe a play centre around and describe its activities.
27.2 NEED AND BASIS FOR A PLAY CENTRE

Hence, can you say why children need to attend a play centre?
There are certain unique characteristics of the learning process of 2 – 5 year olds
that demand a play centre. They include following:
(a) Children learn naturally through play
(b) Children learn best by doing
(c) Children’s attention span is not very long (7 – 15 minutes)
(d) The brain at 3 years is eighty percent of the adult brain mass facilitating
maximum learning, hence they need a stimulating environment at this age.
(e) Children learn easily from each other, from older children, from adults and
from the physical environment.
72 PSYCHOLOGY
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State whether True or False:
(1) Play centre is a sports club. True/False

Notes
(2) Play centre involves rigid structuring and strict discipline. True/False
(3) Children learn only when adults teach them. True/False
(4) Play center is child centred and not teacher-centred. True/False
(5) At a play centre children are allowed to learn at their own pace. True/False
27.3 OBJECTIVES OF A PLAY CENTRE

By now, you must have understood the objectives and needs of play centre and
how it usually works. Take a paper and pencil and write as many lines as you can.
Compare your list with ours given below.
Following are the objectives of a play centre:
(1) To provide the child opportunities to explore and experiment with a variety of
activities, objects and places.
(2) To provide opportunities for rich and positive interaction with peer group and
adults.
(3) To provide a secure and supportive environment for the holistic development
of children.
(4) To encourage active rather than passive learning in children.
(5) To structure the experience according to the developmental level of
children.
(6) To allow children to learn and grow at their own rate without making learning
stressful and yet provide enough challenges to sustain motivation and interest.
(7) To promote self-control and discipline in the child.
(8) To help in transition from home to formal school.
You must also be familiar with the document “New Education Policy”. Following
are the objectives of Early Childhood Care and Education mentioned in this
document. Read them carefully and see what are the similarities and differences in
the two lists.
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27.4 HANDLING CHILDREN IN THE PLAY CENTRE
One of the objectives of a play centre that we have discussed is to allow children
the freedom to explore the environment. You might say that to achieve this objective
the child should be allowed to roam around freely. If you had 20 children in the
Notes play centre can you imagine what will happen if you were to leave everyone free to
do what they liked?
Some kind of discipline is needed for the child to feel secure in any environment.
Hence, s/he should be told his/her boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour. The caregiver needs to provide constant supervision and ensure that
the child, while exploring, does not hurt the child or others around him/her.
There are three basic forms of discipline that can be enforced. These are as follows:
Authoritarian, Permissive and Democratic.
Let us know more about these:
Authoritarian discipline: When this kind of discipline is enforced, the child is

directed what to do and what not to do and no explanations are offered. Also, the
child is expected to show complete obedience. Have you seen this kind of discipline
at home? Who enforces it? Do you think a caregiver in a play centre can enforce
this kind of discipline? Yes, S/he can. With authoritarian discipline children will be
expected to do only what the caregiver tells them and, as we said earlier, it is
complete obedience without exception and question.
Children do not feel happy in this type of environment. Can you say why? Yes,
You are right. They have no freedom to do things they would like to do. If children
are checked too often; they do things quietly and behind the back of the caregiver.
They also learn to tell lies. If children are all the time told what to do and what not
to do, they become dependent. They always look for instructions and never grow
up.
Permissive discipline: This is exactly opposite to the authoritarian kind of
discipline. The child is allowed to do whatever s/he pleases to do and whenever
s/he pleases to do. There are no rules and no guidance or explanation provided.
Can you tell the implications of this kind of discipline in play centre? Yes, they will
get into the habit of not listening to anybody, not obeying any commands and do
what they please. This type of behaviour will make them self-centred and selfish.
Also, with no guidance from the caregiver, children can also go astray or pick up
wrong habits.
Democratic discipline: This kind of discipline is in between the two we have just
discussed. Can you think of some characteristics of democratic discipline? Consider
74 PSYCHOLOGY
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the following:
• Rules are explained before they are enforced.

• Children can question rules and the same can be modified with joint consent.
• Children are allowed freedom to do things on their own but they have to
Notes
ensure that they don’t hurt themselves or others around.
What do you think would be the advantages of such a discipline? Yes, you are
right, children would learn to obey and respect rules, develop confidence in
themselves, learn to take initiative and work independently. Children also learn to
take their turn, cooperate and have patience.
You may find this type of discipline in the family. Just observe any such family and
see how children are disciplined.
Activity
Visit a nearby preschool/playcentre and find out its objectives from the teacher.
Then evaluate these on the basis of objectives given above in the text.

1. State whether True or False:
(i) Objectives are the prerequisites for efficient running of a play centre.
True/False
(ii) In a play centre all children should play only group games. True/False
(iii) A secure and supportive environment is as important as the facilities to
develop motor skills. True/False
(iv) In a play centre, children are introduced to reading, writing and arithmetic.
True/False
(v) A play centre focuses on the all round development of a child. True/False
2. Choose the correct answer:
(i) Authoritarian discipline:
(a) demands complete obedience
(b) allows complete freedom
(c) demands little obedience and gives more freedom
(d) demands more obedience and gives little freedom.
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(ii) Permissive discipline:
Notes (d) demands more obedience and gives little freedom
(iii) Democratic discipline:
(d) demands more obedience and gives little freedom
(iv) A good play centre should follow a discipline which is:
(a) authoritative
(b) permissive
(c) democratic
(d) a little of each type
(v) Children would develop a habit of telling lies if the discipline is
(a) authoritative
(b) permissive
(c) democratic
(d) none of these
(vi) Children would learn to take initiative if the discipline followed is:
(a) authoritative
(b) permissive
(c) democratic
(d) none of these
(vii)Children develop confidence in themselves if they are brought up in
discipline which is:
(a) authoritative
(b) permissive
(c) democratic
(d) none of these
76 PSYCHOLOGY
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27.5 BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN AT
PLAY CENTRE
Young children often demonstrate behaviours which are inappropriate. For example,
a child may be in a habit of hitting everybody else, breaking things, abusing, telling
lies, etc. These are behaviours which not only harm children physically, but also Notes
make them unpopular with other children.
Causes: There can be many reasons why children develop these behaviours.
Some are listed here:
• When children live in an environment which forbids any self-expression, they

pick up behaviours which are unacceptable.
• When parents and teachers expect too much from children and they are not
able to keep up expectations, they show unacceptable behavours.
• Often children learn that unacceptable behaviours are tools to get what they
want. For example, the child learns that when s/he hits her/his younger siblings
parents attend to her/him or when s/he cries and rolls on the floor s/he gets the
toy s/he wants.
• When family environment is disturbed e.g. when parents quarrel with each
other, they hit each other or when their mothers and grandmothers don’t get
along with each other; then children start whowing unacceptable behaviours.
• When there is a crisis in child’s life for example, children show unacceptable
behaviours on birth of another sibling, the death of a beloved member of the
family.
• Children may also develop unacceptable behaviours because physically they

are not able to cope up. This happens when they have had a long illness or
when they fall sick too frequently.
The caregivers at the playcentre have to be alert and understanding. Whenever

there is a child who shows unacceptable behaviour, they must act immediately.
Since, very often the cause of the behaviour originates from home, they must ask
for cooperation of the parents, understand the problem and develop a strategy
which helps to cure the problem. Punishing and scolding or ridiculing will not help.
Some of the common problem behaviours are described in Table 27.1 together
with a description of what adults normally do but they should not do, and, what
they should do.
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TABLE 27.1: Common Problem behaviour observed among young children
Behaviour Meaning Do not Do
(a) Hurts other - Anger - Punish or hurt - Divert attention

children feeling - Make him feel - Separate from
Notes other children
- Help the child feel
loved by giving
other outlets for feeling
(b) Destroy - Feeling of - Scold, shout, - Keep precious things

things helplessness punish, spank out of reach
- Jealousy or hit - Provide place for play
- Boredom - Offer low-cost
- Attention substitutes
Seeking - Divert and involve the
child in other activities
(c) Sucks the - Need for sucking - tie fingers or - Provide sucking
thumb love, comfort and smear them with satisfaction
assurance bitter medicine - Offer love and
- Tiredness affection
- Hunger - Pleasurable activities
- Dissatisfaction - Provide things needed
- Boredom for the child
(d) Wets the - The child is not - Threaten or - Accept the child
bed ready for training punish as he/she is
- Fear - Insist on prior - Expect accidental
- Insecurity information bed-wetting
- Say you do not - Help and encourage
love the child the child to become
confident
(e) Tells lies - Fear of punish- - Preach or punish - Understand the

ment or reject reason
- Exaggeration - Make him - Give the needed
- Imagination apologize attention
- Attention - Get upset - Provide opportunity
seeking for enriching the
imagination
- Tell the truth
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(f) Refuses to - Is not hungry - Force, punish - Be calm
eat - Feels unwell - Make a scene - Introduce new food
- Dislikes partic- - Reward, threaten along with the favou-
ular food - Force to do the rite items
act
Notes
(g) Fears - Reviews painful - Force or seek - Reassure and comfort
experience reason for fear, - Make the environment
- Needs parent’s shame or a happy one
attention threaten - Encourage efforts
- Feels guilty or - Avoid fearful
unloved experiences and help
him to help himself
(h) Steals - Ignorance of - Scold, make - Let the child own

property rights feel bad, punish things and get a sense
- Unsatisfied or reject of ownership
needs - Cut off love - Be kind, understand-
- Irritation - Humiliate before ing and not too strict.
- Hostile feelings others - Provide creative
outlets
- Help make real friends
Activity
Observe two children in your neighbourhood to identify any problem behaviour in
them. Observe how close the behaviours are to the descriptions given above.
Also observe how parents handle these behaviours of their children.

(i) The child is provided with no guidance in _________ discipline.
(ii) _____________discipline is most beneficial for the child because it allows

freedom of expression.
(iii) In _____________ discipline parents rule by authority rather than reason.

(iv) You should not _________ or _________ the child who exhibits stealing
behaviour.
(v) ____________ can be caused by disturbed family environment.
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(i) Children develop unacceptable behaviour if the environment is:
(a) forbidding
(b) free
Notes
(c) forbidding and free
(d) none of the above
(ii) Punishing and ridiculing a child are used in:
(a) authoritarian discipline
(b) democratic discipline
(c) permissive discipline
(d) all the above mentioned disciplines
(iii) A child sucks her thumb because s/he is:
(a) bored
(b) insecure
(c) scared
(d) asking for attention
(iv) A child wets the bed because s/he is:
(a) bored
(b) insecure
(c) scared
(v) A child tells lies because s/he is:
(a) bored
(b) insecure
(c) scared
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(vi) A child destroys things because s/he is:
(a) bored
(b) insecure
(c) scared
Notes
(vii) A child steals when s/he is:
(a) bored
(b) insecure
(c) scared
(d) hostile
(viii) A child refuses to eat too often because s/he is:
(a) bored
(b) insecure
(c) hostile
(d) unwell

What is play centre (meaning and characteristics)?
Need and Objective Handling Behaviour

Basis Children Problems
in children
- play is child’s way - enhance all round - authoritarion - causes

of learning development - permissive - types
- short attention - opportunities for learning
span - learn healthy habits - democratic - ways of
- aesthetic appreciation handling
- brain growth
- learn from each - socio-emotional maturity
other - intellectual stimulation
- sustain motivation - secure environment
- continuous - improve expression
evaluation - encourage independence
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TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. How do the objectives of a play centre define its characteristics and
programme?
2. Write a paragraph on how you will use the democratic disciplining technique
Notes in a play centre.
3. What are the causes of behaviour problems in children?
4. What types of problem behaviours do you feel are the most difficult for parents
to handle? Give reasons.
27.1 (1) F (2) F (3) F (4) T (5) T
27.2 1. (i) T (ii) F (iii) T (iv) F (v) T

2. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (c) (v) (a)
(vi) c) (vii) (b)
27.3 1. (i) Permissive (ii) Democratic (iii) Authoritarian
(iv) Punish, Humiliate (v) Behaviour Problems

2. (i) (a) (ii) (a) (ii) (a) (iv) (b) (v) (d)
(vi) (c) (vii) d) (viii) (d)
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Notes
28
PLAY CENTRE: STRUCTURAL

DETAILS
The play centre is a space for 2–5 year olds to come and play, explore and
interact. In order that they may do so in safety and may develop to their optimal
best, one needs to focus on the details of setting up a play centre. If you have
already visited a good play centre, you must have observed that it has space for
various activities, and not only children but you also feel good standing among
children and other things. Why do you feel good? Is space the only reason? What
are the other factors that make a play centre good?
OBJECTIVES
• gain knowledge about the physical structure and facilities in a play centre;
• furnish information regarding the equipment and material required; and
• enumerate some prerequisites of the play centre staff.
28.1 LOCATION AND SPACE REQUIREMENTS

A play centre, that is, to provide a play and activity based programme definitely
needs adequate amount of space. Of course the other requisites are site, safety,
sanitation and ventilation. The play school should be located at a site that is:
(a) easily accessible to children, and
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(b) safe from hazards/dangers like heavy traffic, ponds, ditches, pollution, etc.
The next important step is the space and its organization for various activities,
within the play school.
(A) Play Areas : Can be Outdoors and Indoors

Notes
(i) Play space-Outdoors
Do you know how much space is required for a child to play outside? Well, it
should be minimum area of three to five square meters per child. It is better if this
area has hard surface where toys with wheels can be used and balls bounced. If
there is more area then this, there should be provision for grassy lawn where
children can play, run, do gardening, have sand box and pets.
Some Precautions
The play area should be:
• regular in outline for easy supervision,

• securely fenced for safety,
• free from nails, rocks, broken parts and glass pieces,
• away from huge pits, water tanks etc., and
• with clear pathway.
(ii) Play Space- Indoors
• minimum area of 2 square meters per child,
• be adaptable, flexible and viable,
• be facilitative of supervision,
• be well ventilated and have adequate light,
• walls should be clean and well plastered,
• walls should have ample space for display of children’s work and other pictorial
material,
• have mat and a set of low and light tables (about 30 cm high) for a group of
6–8 children for art work etc.,
• have provision of blackboard at low level for scribbling etc.,
• have low racks for putting children’s belongings, toys, etc., and
• have place for self-expression e.g. dancing, dramatic play, music appreciation,
etc.
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(B) Space for Interaction with the Environment
This includes garden space for flowers, vegetables and fruits, small space for
rabbit and bird cages, bird nest, indoor science corner offering opportunities to
the child to explore, experiment and understand nature.
Notes
(C) Facility for Drinking Water
A play centre should have arrangement for:
• clear and pure drinking water
• provision for washing utensils.
(D) Sanitary Facilities

The sanitary facilities in a play school should have:
• clean Indian type toilet that should be provided with adequate water facilities
• provision of soap and towel
• provision of dustbin.
(E) Sleeping Facility

This is required when the play centre functions for full day or longer than 3 hours.
Children must definitely sleep for sometime. For this purpose, besides space,
clean mat or mattresses, sheets and pillows are also required.
(F) Storage Facility

Storage space is needed for keeping children’s play items and also kitchen utensils
used for the snacks provided to children.
(G) Kitchen Area

A well ventilated, spacious, kitchen area that is easy to clean is required. It should
have space for cooking, washing and storage of utensils, etc.

1. Play area in a play centre should be:
(a) indoor
(b) outdoor
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(c) both indoor and outdoor
(d) more inside than outside
2. Supervision of play in play centre is possible:

(a) indoor
Notes
(b) outdoor
(c) indoor and outdoor
(d) more indoor and less outdoor
3. Out door play space should be at least:
(a) 1 —2 square mts./child
(b) 2 square mts./child
(c) 3 xquare mts./ child
(d) 3 —5 square mts./child
4. Indoor play space/child should be at least:
(a) 1—2 square mts.
(b) 2 square mts.
(c) 3 square mts.
(d) 3—5 square mts.
5. The priority in any play centre should be of:
(a) outdoor play space
(b) play material
(c) safe drinking water
(d) kitchen
6. To fulfil the objective of interaction with environment a play centre must have:
(a) outdoor space
(b) play material
(c) safe drinking water
(d) clean toilet.
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28.2 EQUIPMENT IN THE PLAY CENTRE
A play centre requires a variety of play equipment in order to provide children
with interesting and challenging experiences. Some basic points of the developmental
level of children, durability, safety, complexity etc. need to be kept in mind while
purchasing or using any equipment. There are also certain other characteristics Notes
that need to be taken into account.
Characteristics of Good Play Equipment

(A) Educational characteristics:
• No discrimination between boys and girls toys
• Strong and long lasting
• Provide for choice and graduated changes
• Involve the child’s imagination
• Encourage co-operation among children.
(B) Design characteristics:
• Multi-use
• Safe
• Child-safe
• Made of different materials (wood, rubber, metal, rope, sand, etc.)
• Proportionate and quantitative
• Flexible.
(C) Constructional characteristics:
• Splinter free wood, sturdy hardware
• Dependable (always works)
• Cost effective and economic
• Repairable
28.3 OUTDOOR AND INDOOR PLAY EQUIPMENT

Following is a list of play equipments that could be provided in a play centre.
However, the type of play equipment and the number will depend on the number
and age of children, outdoor and indoor play space and the funds available for the
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purchase and maintenance of the play equipment in a play centre. The list of
equipment given below may be provided for a group of 35—40 children in a play
centre if adequate funds are available.
Outdoor Play Equipments

Notes Name of the item Quantity
1. Swings 2
2. Tricycles 2
3. Jungle gym cum slide 1
4. Rubber balls (small and big) two each
5. Rocking toys 2
6. Wooden plank for balancing 1
7. Push carts 2
8. Small ladder 1
9. Tyres hung on a tree branch
or a frame (tyre swing) 2
10. Small buckets, tumblers, cans,
containers, moulds for sand pit one set
11. Easel board 1
12. Plastic tubs 2
Indoor Play Equipments

Name of the item Quantity
1. Swings 2
1. Building blocks (assorted sizes and shapes)
Triangles, rectangles, cylinders, semicircles
and quarter circles, arches, square pieces, Half-a-dozen
pillars, ramps, bricks —small and big. in each
2. Constructive materials
a) Fix in toys
b) House building sets
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c) Picture puzzles Three in each
3. Doll corner equipment
a) Dolls 3
b) Doll’s bed, chairs and tables (miniature) 3
Notes
c) Household articles for cooking, washing,
tea-set, handbag, shoes, caps, radios, etc One set
4. Science equipment
a) Magnifying glasses 2
b) Magnets 2
c) Balance with weights 1
d) Measuring cans One set
e) Siphon tubes 2
f) Small brooms, buckets, sponges Two in each
5. Musical instruments
a) Drums
b) Jingle bells
c) Dholak and Tablas
d) Rattlers Two in each
e) Xylophone
f) Rhythm sticks
g) Chimes
6. Carpentry tools
a) Hammers and nails
b) Pieces of soft wood
c) Wooden planks One set
d) Saws and vice
e) Pair of scissors
f) Brushes
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7. Beads
a) Wooden beads (red, blue, yellow) 200
b) Plastic beads (assorted colours) 200
c) Plastic bowls 4
Notes
8. Form boards 3
9. Peg board and hammer 2
10. Hollow pyramids (plastic/wood) Two sets
11. Transport toys (car, buses, train, etc.) Two each
12. Puppets 6
13. Rabbit/Bird cage 1
14. First aid box 1
15. Weighing machine 1
16. Waste bins 3
17. Display boards 3
18. Aprons 10
19. Picture books and story books 24
20. Animal toys 6
21. Costumes, caps and accessories 1 set
22. Story telling aids like picture books, puppets, story cards etc.
23. Blackboard, chalk or slate
24. Crayons, paper, stencils, paints
25. Clay and plastercine
26. Scissors
27. Gum/ fevicol etc.

As far as possible, arrange the materials in a way that children can use these
directly. Further any damaged material should be replaced as soon as possible.
Low cost equipment can also be created by using things in the environment e.g.
empty cartons, cloth pieces, newspapers, thermocol etc.
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First Aid Kit
The kit should have the following essentials:
• Bandages • thermometer
• Sticking plaster • scissors Notes
• Sterilized surgical cotton wood • antiseptic ointment
• Gauze • gentian violet

1. State whether True or False:
(1) Play centre can function effectively without play equipment. T/F
(2) Play equipment should only be bought from shops. T/F
(3) Proper arrangement of play equipment is important for its

effective use. T/F
(4) Equipment once bought need not be replaced. T/F
(5) Play equipment should not be flexible. T/F
28.4 PLAY CENTRE STAFF
(A) Teacher
The teacher in the play center has a key influence on the quality of service provided.
She is a person responsible for the activities and programmes conducted in the
play centre to achieve the established goals and objectives.
Necessary training in the area is an important qualification. The teacher should

have undergone the vocational course or diploma course in play centre management
or in pre-school organisation. Certain other qualifications are required of a play
centre teacher. She should have:
• An understanding of specific aims and objectives for organizing the play centre.
• A thorough knowledge of where and how to organize the play centre activities.
• X std + 2 years training or XII std pass + 1 year training
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• Not less than 18 years of age, and
• Aware of material needed in play centre and how to use it meaningfully.
(B) Assistant
The house keeping services needed at any play centre like cleaning, washing the
Notes linen, care of the play ground and floor, changing pictures on the bulletin and
papers on the easel board, laying out equipment and minding equipment and other
items in a play centre require an assistant. She should love children and be ready
to care for them at all times. Since the children spend much of the time on the floor,
the floors must be cleaned thoroughly. The assistant needs to be on duty in the
toilet room and washing area helping the children and the teacher to handle the
situation effectively. She should have passed at least eighth standard.
(C) Cook
If the play centre includes meal programme, the teacher plans menu, supervises
the preparation and serving of food. Meal preparation requires a cook on the staff
list. The cook must have clean habits and observe them in the cooking area. She
should be ready to take directions from the teacher to prepare nutritious and
tasteful food on time. The cook should know reading and writing.
Note: Though the number of staff is influenced by the programme, finance, building,
provision of equipment, number of children, ate of children, training of teacher etc.
there should be one adult for every 10—15 children.
Responsibilities of a Teacher in the Play Centre

A play centre teacher has certain responsibilities to self, children, school and
community. In fact these responsibilities can be taken as the characteristics of a
good teacher, who is the pivot around which the whole functioning of the play
centre revolves and depends, following are the responsibilities of a teacher:
1. To Herself
The responsibilities of the play centre teacher to herself are to:
a) remain in good physical and emotional health at all times
b) be progressive
c) be enthusiastic always, and
d) grow professionally
2. To the Children
The teacher in the play centre needs to fulfil the following responsibilities to the
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children in the group. She should:
a) meet their needs

b) enjoy working and being with them
c) respect them as individuals
Notes
d) build desirable relationship with them, and
e) help to build a good self-image.
3. To the Parents
The teacher’s responsibilities to the parents are to:
a) provide good counseling

b) value them and their ideas
c) plan with them for the well-being of the child, and
d) bridge the gap between the home and the school.
4. To Other Staff Members
The responsibilities of the play centre teacher with respect to other staff members
are:
a) support ideas and knowledge

b) value them and their ideas, and
c) involve them in the programme
5. To the Community
The teacher in the play center needs to fulfil the following responsibilities with
regard to the community:
a) be aware of the problems of the community and try to solve them, and
b) participate in local professional organization pertaining to the welfare of children.

State whether True or False:
1. One teacher is sufficient in a play centre regardless of the number of children
enrolled.
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2. The teacher’s only duty is to teach.
3. A teacher needs to bridge the gap between home and school.
4. A play centre being child centred, a teacher has no role in the learning of the
child.
Notes 5. A teacher needs to be progressive and enthusiastic.

Play centre structural details
Physical structure Equipment Staff
Location Characteristics Teacher and her

Space arrangement of good equipments responsibilities
within the centre List of essential Assistant
equipment Cook
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the essential characteristics of good equipment?
2. What are the responsibilities of a play centre teacher?
3. Visit any play centre, observe the use of physical space and evaluate.

28.1 1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d)
4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (a)
28.2 1. F 2. F 3. T
4. F 5. F
28.3 1. F 2. F 3. T
4. F 5. T
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Notes
29
PLANNING AND CONDUCTING

PROGRAMMES
Children below five years are in the most impressionable period. The foundation
for future personality is laid during these impressionable years. Whatever is learnt
at this age gets so deeply embedded that it becomes difficult to change it later on.
It is, therefore, the duty of adults to provide rich experience to the child and help
in the development of good habits, proper attitudes and questioning mind.
A large majority of the pre-schools are run on the same pattern as the primary
schools. This is rather unfortunate as the needs of these young children are very
different and an entirely different approach is necessary particularly if we want to
stimulate their optimum development.
In this lesson, you will get to know about programme planning and play-way
education in a play centre.
OBJECTIVES
• explain programme planning;
• state the principles involved in programme planning; describe short term and
long term planning;
• develop programmes for different age-groups (below 3 years and 3-5 years);
and
• explain the steps involved in organizing feeding programme.
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29.1 PROGRAMME PLANNING—CONCEPTS AND
PRINCIPLES
For play centre, programme planning is very important to reach the desired goal.
It involves chalking out programmes for a play centre, collecting things required
Notes and executing the planned programmes. There are certain principles to be
considered while planning programmes for children under five.
A. Consideration of the Needs of Children

1. Plan age appropriate activities.
A child is ready for certain activities only at a particular age. If these activities are
introduced to the child before s/he is ready for them, it becomes difficult for the
child to master them.
2. Introduce the activity at an appropriate time.
When the child is ready for an activity, introduce it, so that the child enjoys doing
it and masters it with ease. For example, for the new entrants, ball play should be
arranged before offering organized games.
3. The programme should be flexible to serve the needs of children.
The length and nature of the activities should depend on the interests of the children.
Sometimes, the children may get engrossed in an activity for a long period of time.
In such an instance, teacher should be ready to change his/her plan and give the
children the opportunity to continue the work for a longer period of time. Sometime,
the visit of some animals/birds (cat, dog, squirrel, parrot, sparrow, rabbit, dove,
monkey) or rainfall may disturb the programme. The teacher has to utilize the
incidents effectively.
4. The programme planned should be meaningful and help the children to

learn habits, concepts and values.
For instance, music and stories help children in their language development. Informal
talk on certain animals themes help children to acquire information on animals.
Each activity planned for children should have meaning and be related to community
life.
5. The programme should provide first hand and concrete experiences.
For example, digging, preparing the soil, sowing seeds and watering are first hand
experiences related to gardening. Other experiences like lifting, pouring, filling,
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carrying, and categorizing are also first hand experiences.
6. Associate old experiences with new ones.
For instance blocks of assorted shapes may be given and children be asked to
find out objects of similar shapes in the immediate environment.
Notes
7. Allow time for rest and sleep.
Children require time for rest and sleep. In a play centre, at last an hour and a half
should be allowed for rest and sleep.
B. The Programme should have Variety

1. The activities can be of different kinds.
The programme for children should include songs, stories, dramatization, activities
for cognitive development and creative activities, organized games, science
experiences, field trips and cultural programmes.
2. The programmes should include both the individual as well as group

activities.
The physical and motor activities planned in the programme should have individual
acts like drawing, painting, creative play etc. and also group play like follow the
leader, find the treasure etc.
3. Maintain a balance between free play and guided activity.
The children should be allowed certain amount of time to enjoy play on their own
without adult interference. It gives them an opportunity to explore, investigate and
find out different possibilities of using play material. The teacher-initiated or guided
play must also find a place in the programme as they promote specific concepts in
children.
4. The programme should alternate between active play and quiet play.
Too much physical activity exhaust the children. Hence, it is necessary to provide
some restful activity after a spell of active work. Children will also enjoy an active
game or play after sedentary work or play.
C. Overall Planning
1. The programmes should be planned according to certain specific
themes.
The themes can be based on the events in a particular week or the month. In the
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2nd and 3rd week of January, Pongal (Harvest festival) can be a theme for the
project as the celebration falls during this month. In March, it is Holi.
Some Themes for Play Centre Programme
Family Colours Art festival

Notes
Health & hygiene River Freedom fighters
Animals Water Christmas
Pet animals Mountains Deepawali
Domestic animals Seasons Rakshabandhan
Wild animals Milk & milk products Dussehra
Insects Republic Day
Birds Light Independence Day
Plants/Trees Independence Day Transport
Flowers Gandhi Jayanti -Land
Vegetables Janamasthami -Sea
Fruits Policeman -Air
Dhobi Nurse Teacher
Farmer Carpenter Moon & Sun
Potter Tailor Day and Night
Gardner Postman Our country
Fisherman Weaver Metals
Soldier Sounds Directions
Hot and Cold Magnetism
2. Consider the facilities available in the centre.
Success of a play centre programme depends upon the facilities available. Hence,
for children, one must take into account availability of facilities such as the shady
area in the outdoor, indoor space, equipment and caretakers.
3. Plan the programme in advance and make necessary arrangements.
Planning the programme in advance facilitates collection of materials for activities,

execution and evaluation of activities without any difficulty or confusion. For instance,
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planning for a film show or field trip in advance makes it possible for the teacher to
organize it successfully.
Try it Yourself
Visit a play centre and list the different kinds of activities offered.
Notes
Assignment 34.2
Interview a play centre teacher and record the activities she has planned in advance.
29.2 LONG AND SHORT TERM PLANNING
Programme planning
Long-term planning Short-term planning
Long-term Planning
Planning the programme for a whole year in advance is called long-term planning.
Long-term plans systematize the programme considerably. It relates to planning
for learning experiences of children, keeping in mind their development needs the
teaching aids, materials, and play equipments, organizing finance, fixing with resource
persons, etc.
Long-term planning helps to have new equipment purchased, old items repaired
or replaced.
Short-term Planning
For effective functioning, it is necessary that the programme for the whole year be
divided into smaller units, say a month or a week or a day. There are certain
experiences to be offered during special occasions. Month-wise planning enables
the teacher to include special events and programmes. It also aids in making the
programme flexible and need based. Weekly planning helps in including variety
and taking care that all developmental needs are taken care of. Daywise planning
is necessary to set a time schedule. One knows clearly as to what is to be done
now and during next half an hour and the following half an hour.
Daily Programme
The daily programme in a play centre may include the activities listed below:
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9.00 a. m. – 9.30 a. m. Arrival of children
9.30 a. m. – 10.10 a. m. Outdoor play
10.10 a. m. – 10.20 a. m. Prayer and informal talk
10.20 a. m. – 10.30 a. m. Mid-morning break
Notes
10.30 a. m. – 10.45 a. m. Readiness programme-general
10.45 a. m. – 11.00 a. m. Music
11.00 a. m. – 11.15 a. m. Creative experiences
11.15 a. m. – 11.30 a. m. Science experiences
11.30 a. m. – 11.45 a. m. Organised games
11.45 a. m. – 12 noon Story
12.30 p.m. – 12.45 p.m Feeding programme
12.45 p.m. – 2.45 p.m Rest and sleep
2.45 p.m. – 3.00 p.m Toilet-Evening snacks
3.00 p.m. – 3.30 p.m Outdoor play and departure
Weekly Programme
The themes for the week need to be decided and planned ahead. The day’s activities
must take into account the individual and group needs of the children.
Table 29.1 below details play centre programme for a week on a specific theme
‘flower’.
Table 29.1: An example of weekly programme of a Play Centre

Theme: Flowers Group 4 –5 years
Timing Activities Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
9.15 a.m. - Arrival of

9.30 a.m. children
9.30 a.m. - Outdoor play* Indoor activities
10.00 a.m. Physical exercises/General readiness activities
10.00 a.m.- Prayer Names of colours of Smell of Parts of Uses of
10.20 a.m. Informal flowers flowers flowers flowers flowers
talk
Songs ‘Ring a ring roses’ - Songs related with flowers and others
10.20 a.m.- Readiness Programme Writing Reading and Number General
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10.45 a.m. writing work concepts
Exercises Physical exercise
10.45 a.m.- Washing up and
mid morning juice
10.20 a.m.- ** Creative Crayon Thread Block Printing Threading Floral
11.30 a.m. activities drawing printing, flower flowers design Notes
Basic/ pasting colouring, printing beads
Special of flower making
theme petals with flowers with
related leaves coloured papers
11.30 a.m.- Story time Stories incorporating flowers Dramatization with flowers
11.40 a.m.
11.40 a.m.- Science Flowering Sowing Flower and Flower Field trip
experiences stages flower products arrange- to a
seeds ment garden
11.50 a.m.- Organised game Flower related games
12.15 p.m.
12.15 p.m.- Washing up and
12.45 p.m. feeding programme
12.45 p.m.- Rest and sleep
2.45 p.m.
2.45 p.m.- Washing up and evening snack
3.00 p.m.
3.00 p.m.- Outdoor play and
3.30 p.m. Departure
* Play on swings, slide and jungle gym, sand play, play with tricycle, scooter, ball and bat,
balance board, sea-saw etc.
** Creative activities include play in the doll’s corner, play with constructive material, drawing
and painting, paper cutting, tearing and pasting, collage work, problem solving, play with jig-
saw puzzles, clay and plasticine play, dancing, threading beads etc.

1. Define programme planning.
2. State the principles of programme planning.
3. Give one point of difference and one point of similarity between long-term
and short-term planning.
i) The play centre programme should be
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a) flexible
b) rigid
c) momentary
d) permanent
Notes
ii) The programme should provide
a) rich experiences
b) interesting experiences
c) first-hand concrete experiences
d) adequate skill
iii) The programme should alternate between
a) social and parallel play
b) individual and parallel play
c) active and quiet play
d) associative and group play
iv) Suitable theme for the week’s programme in the last week of January can
be
a) animals
b) national leaders
c) water
d) flowers
5. List any ten themes for programme planning.
6. Plan a weekly programme for a play centre.
29.3 ORGANISING THE FEEDING PROGRAMME

Good nutrition is the foundation stone of good development. The play centre
programme must allow for a snack time in its schedule along with provision of
food during the same. The aim of this feeding programme is basically to provide
young children with an adequate meal which will meet at least one third of the daily
requirement of all nutrients. What children bring from home may or may not be
adequate.
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Eating in school together with other children also provides an opportunity for
children to learn manners, appreciate cleanliness and practice independence in
eating on their own. Besides, it also gives them a habit to eat whatever is served
and not fuss. Let us now consider the factors to be kept in mind while organizing
the feeding programme. Can you think of some? Take a piece of paper and note
them down. Now ensure the following: Notes
a) Body size and age of the children who are to be fed,
b) Availability and cost of food,
c) Food customs and traditions of the families from where children come, and
d) Availability of labour and supervisory services.
The actual organization and conducting of a feeding programme involves the
following steps:
(i) Secure financial assistance: Can you think of anyone who would give
money regularly for this fund? Yes, there are various options. You can charge
parents if you know that they can afford. Ask community to donate in cash or
kind. Help can also be sought from local, state and government organizations.
Sometimes some philanthrophists also contribute a handsome amount of money.
(ii) Ensure that there is a provision of space for kitchen and food service:
As discussed earlier this place needs to be clean and ventilated. There should
be place for cooking, storing and processing food.
(iii) Procuring kitchen equipment: This will be required for cooking, storing
and processing food.
(iv) Menu planning and estimating quantity: Menu for feeding must be planned
carefully in terms of
• nutritional adequacy,
• use of seasonally available food,
• minimum expenditure of time and labour in cooking and serving,
• varied and interesting items based on family’s food patterns,
• attractiveness and appetizing qualities, and
• minimum loss of nutrients in the cooking procedure employed.
Steps Involved in Planning the Menu for the Feeding

Programme
Do you remember about the nutritional requirements of children between 0—6
years of age? ICMR (Indian Council for Medical Research) has provided the
R.D.A. (Recommended Daily Allowance).
PSYCHOLOGY 103
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(i) Calculation of the food requirements
From the food allowances recommended by ICMR for children below six years
(Table 29.2), one third of the daily requirements per child is computed and by
multiplying this by total number of children the total amount to be cooked for the
children of the play centre is arrived at.
Notes
Table 29.2: Quantities of foods recommended for a day
Food Items Required for a day (in grams)

1—3 years 4—6 years
Cereals 175 270

Pulses 35 35
Leafy vegetables 40 50
Other vegetables 20 30
Roots and tubers 10 30
Milk 300 250
Oil and Fat 15 25
Sugar and Jaggery 30 40
(ii) Selection of food to supply the nutritional requirements
The next step is to select the food which will provide the nutrients needed, giving
priority to the local, low cost and nutritious seasonal food.
(iii) Menu Planning
The next step is to select a menu of the food products that are of children’s taste
and are simple to prepare. This will ensure that children will eat.
(iv) Estimating quantities of food to be cooked
Once the menu is settled, it is important to estimate the quantities of food to be

cooked taking into account the number of children to be fed. You know how this
is decided.
(v) Procurement and storage of provisions
Great care must be exercised in the estimation of quantities, selection, purchasing

and storage of ingredients required. The estimated quantities of the ingredients are
104 PSYCHOLOGY
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Childhood Education
classified as those which would be purchased monthly, fortnightly, weekly and
daily depending upon their storability and the containers available for storing. This
is also important for the simple reason that some foods are perishable and others
are not. Perishable food items are bought everyday and in small adequate quantities.
Others can be bought in bulk and stored.
Notes
(vi) Training the cook
The training must be in terms of the cooking procedures applied, hygienic methods
used for food preparation and serving. Can you say why these are important?
Well yes, young children are very vulnerable to food infections and must be
protected from these at all cost. Moreover, the product prepared must have
adequate nutrition.
(vii) Maintenance of cleanliness in the lunch area
Proper care must be taken to ensure the hygienic condition of the kitchen, lunch
area, wash place and utensils for cooking and serving. What can happen if these
are not clean?
(viii) Conducting nutrition education activities
Any feeding programme must include nutrition education in order to make it effective.
Feeding programme in a play centre not only facilitates adequate amount of food
intake by the children, but also helps the children to learn about food, nutrients and
their relation to health along with environmental sanitation.
Nutrition education is essential for combating malnutrition. Nutrition education is

concerned with persuading children and parents to modify their food practices in
order to improve their health and nutritional status by wiser use of the available
food resources.
Mothers may be ignorant about the basic principles of nutrition, desirable methods
of food preparation and cooking to conserve maximum nutrients, hence the need
to be educated.
1. Define feeding programme.

2. State one function of the feeding programme.
3. State four points to be kept in mind while organizing feeding programme.
PSYCHOLOGY 105
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4. Select the most suitable alternative:
i) A feeding programme must essentially have a trained
a) Teacher
Notes b) Cook
c) Assistant
d) Worker
ii) Estimating quantity of food stuff is to be done
a) before cooking
b) before purchasing
c) before serving
d) before storing
iii) Feeding programme turns out to be more successful when it is teamed

with
a) health check-up
b) nutrition education
c) procurement programme
d) sanitation programme
5. Match the information in column A with that in column B
Food items Recommended daily allowances
(in gms. for 1 – 3 years)
1. Leafy vegetable (i) 300
2. Milk (ii) 35
3. Root vegetable (iii) 20
4. Pulses (iv) 10
5. Cereals (v) 30
(vi) 175
(vii) 40
106 PSYCHOLOGY
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PROGRAMME PLAN
Notes
Concept Consideration Feeding programme

and Need
- Developmental needs of - Factors to be considered

children while organising
- Time - Factors in conducting the
- Age feeding programme
- Flexibility
- Meaningfulness
- Theme oriented
- Variety
- Needs of children
- First hand experience
- Personnel
- Facilities
- Advance planning
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Prepare a list of titles and themes for different age groups in a play centre.
2. Observe the feeding programme in a nearby play centre and note the menu
for a week. Analyse the same on the basis and factors involved in menu planning.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

29.1
1. Refer to text
2. Refer to text
3.Difference: Long-term planning is done for whole year in advance whereas
PSYCHOLOGY 107
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short-term planning refers to the planning for the immediate short-period
and helps in providing variety.
Similarity: Planning helps to take care of all the developmental needs of
children.
4. (i) (a) (ii) (c) (iii) (c) (iv) (b)
Notes
29.2
1. Refer to text
2. The function of a feeding programme is to provide young children with
an adequate meal which will meet at least one-third of the daily requirement
of all nutrients.
3. Refer to text
4. (i) (b) (ii) (b) (iii) (b)
5. 1. (vii) 2. (i) 3. (iv) 4. (ii) 5. (vi)
108 PSYCHOLOGY
Involvement of Parents and Community in a Play Centre OPTIONAL MODULE
Facilitating Early
Childhood Education
Notes
30
INVOLVEMENT OF PARENTS AND

COMMUNITY IN A PLAY CENTRE
Guiding the development of children should be a co-operative endeavour, a two-

way process between parents and teachers; play centre and home. Neither can
work effectively without the understanding, support and assistance of the other.
The parent and the teacher need to see the child as a whole in order to provide
appropriate guidance. The quality of teacher-parent relationship during this period
will have an influence upon the child throughout the formative years.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
• explain the need for play centre-home relationships;
• understand the scope and methods of parents involvement in a play centre;
• explain the importance of involvement of the community in a play centre;
• enumerate the role of Mahila Mandals in a play centre; and
• find support services.
30.1 PLAY CENTRE-HOME RELATIONS

The family has a significant role in the personality development of children. It sets
the stage for the development of many important characteristics, both inside and
outside the play centre. Parents are the first socializing agents for the child. Then
comes the play centre/pre-school personnel. Therefore, the play centre and home
PSYCHOLOGY 109
OPTIONAL MODULE Involvement of Parents and Community in a Play Centre
Facilitating Early
Childhood Education
need to work efficiently and co-operatively with proper understanding of each
other. The teacher cannot understand the child’s interests, needs and motivation
without an intimate knowledge of his/her home. Only when the teacher works
with the parents, can s/he create a healthy and favourable environment in the play
centre.
Notes
30.2 IMPORTANCE
The play centre-home relations help to create:
• a better understanding between parents and teachers assuming what children

are like,
• a better understanding with regard to what a play centre is,
• opportunities for parents to meet other parents and learn from their experiences,
and
• understanding of emerging techniques in child rearing and child training.
If these goals are achieved, the children will have a nourishing, rich and full life in
the play centre and at home. The teacher is perhaps the best agent through whom
new trends could be communicated to the parents.
30.3 HOW TO MAKE PLAY CENTRE-HOME

RELATIONS EFFECTIVE
In order to make the play centre-home relations effective, a teacher should:
• understand the needs, feelings and expectations of each parent,

• focus her attention on what the parents want to know,
• cater to the needs of the parents regarding their children and achieve good
co-operation from them,
• respect the parents for what they are,
• be comfortable, free and friendly with the parents,
• be willing to learn from parents,
• convey the fact that the teacher is interested in the welfare of the child and
seek co-operation of the parents to do his/her duty more efficiently,
• avoid being defensive and thus, putting the parents at ease,
• show willingness to accept parents’ suggestions,
110 PSYCHOLOGY
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• be a good listener and encourage the parents to communicate,
• avoid discussing about the child with the parents in child’s presence,
• avoid drawing hasty conclusions and remarks,
• be positive and less critical of children,
Notes
• be impartial and not compare the child with other children, and
• avoid bossing and dominating the children.
In order to maintain sound and effective play centre-home relations, the teacher
must aim towards creating positive relationship with parents.
Try it Yourself
Find out from a nearby play centre/play school teacher the efforts made to establish
rapport with parents.

(a) ....................play the first and most significant role in the development of
children.
b) New trends in educational system are best carried to parents
through......................
c) The teacher should have ................................ attitude while dealing with
children.
d) The teacher should ................... the parents for what they are.
2. Answer the following in one word:
(i) Name the first socializing agent for the child.
(ii) Who can best understand the child?
(iii) Who can make a child express his/her feelings and skills?
(iv) Who should you send out when you want to discuss about the child with
parents?
30.4 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

The care-giver/teacher in a play centre often acts as a second parent. The
relationship of care-givers with parents must be strong and based on mutual respect
PSYCHOLOGY 111
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and trust. The child brings parents and caregivers together towards a common
interest.
Play centres should be an extension of the home and supplement the home. Hence,
programmes for parents constitute an important aspect of the play centre. However
efficient they may be, play centres cannot stimulate optimum development of
Notes children unless they work in close collaboration with parents.
Scope of Parental Involvement in a Play Centre
Parental involvement is a process of actualising the participation of parents, of

helping parents discover their strengths, potentialities and talents and of using them
beneficially.
Parental involvement enables:
1. reduction of financial burden on play centre budgets by supplementing paid

personnel,
2. teachers to conduct more meaningful and invidualized play activities through
parental help, and
3. parents to learn and become better equipped to accomplish their role effectively.
30.5 PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT: METHODS

a) Informal talk: The teacher meets the parents when they come to leave the
children in play centre in the morning or fetch them back in the afternoon.
Through informal talks with parents, mutual relationship is established.
b) Parents’ meeting: Regular parents’ meetings become a means of
learning for parents both informally and formally to know the play centres’
goals, activities and evaluation. Lectures, demonstration, dialogues and aids
like films, cassettes, books, models, exhibits and puppetry can be used to
educate the parents.
c) Social functions: Accompanying for picnic or field trip with the children
provides an opportunity for parents to get to know teachers and perhaps form
friendship, network and support. Many mothers might willingly come and lend
a helping hand to the teacher in managing the children. It is first hand experience
for them to know how to channelise the curiosity and creativity of children at
various stages. Festivals and games at the play centre can be planned in such
a way that both the children and parents enjoy themselves.
d) Home visits: One of the most important ways of collecting the required
information is through home visits. The teacher makes an appointment with
112 PSYCHOLOGY
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the parents and informs them that she would visit them at home. The teacher
observes the home set up and tries to help the child suitably.
e) Parent education: Parents may meet together and gain knowledge and skills
through educational classes conducted once a month or once in two months
at the play centre. These meetings/classes can be organised on the themes
which parents prefer. Immunisation, oral rehydration therapy, stories for children, Notes
and toys from waste materials might benefit the parents.
f) Individual discussion: Some parents may not like to talk about the problems
of their children in a meeting, but may freely express their difficulties individually
to the teacher alone. Such parents, if given an opportunity to discuss with the
teacher, can help the teacher to understand the child better. The individual
dialogue or discussion can either be planned or casual.
Not all parents want to be involved in the same way. Sensitivity to the uniqueness
of individual parents and their needs are essential to promote parental contributions.
When parents are involved in making decisions they feel responsible and will have
greater commitment to the play centre.
With the help of a group of co-operative parents, the teacher can chalk out the
parents’ programme for the whole year and entrust appropriate tasks to them. At
the end of the year, the teacher should review and see which of the parents’
programmes were successful and which of them failed. This process might ensure
better planning for involvement of parents in future.
Try it Yourself
1. Meet four sets of parents and elicit from them the issues they would like to
discuss at their child’s play centre. Record your findings.
2. Visit any two households and converse with the parents to know in what ways
they would like to involve themselves in a play-centre.

a) The second parent for the child is ........................
b) The teacher cannot understand a child without an intimate......................
of his/her home.
c) ......................... facilitates a good deal of information about the child’s
life at home.
PSYCHOLOGY 113
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d) Parent meeting should be held ............................
e) For effective play center-home relations the teacher must
elicit.......................... involvement.
2. Name various methods of teacher parent-involvement.
Notes
30.6 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
The community includes all the members in the families in the immediate
neighbourhood, community workers and personnel working in various institutions.
An understanding of the community to which the play centre caters is imperative
on the part of the teacher. S/he should ask herself a few questions and discuss
them with the families in the community.
• Are the children in the community healthy and well-nourished? What are the
problems faced by them?
• What are the food habits of the families?
• What are their preferences? Do the mothers breast-feed their children? Do
they discard the colostrum? When do they introduce semi-solid foods to the
child? Do they eat green leafy vegetables and yellow fruits and give these to
their children?
• Do the parents permit them to play?
• What kind of play facilities do the children have?
• Do they get their children immunized? If not, why?
• How do the families use preschool facilities?
• Is there a primary school in the community?
• How about the environmental sanitation in the community?
• What is the source of drinking water in the community? Is it safe? Does it lead
to diarrhoea and other diseases?
• Are there any common diseases or epidemic in the area? What measures are
taken to control them?
• Is there any developmental programme going on in the community?
• Who is the community leader and which are the associations functioning in a
play centre?
If you look at the questions above once again you will realise that answers to these
questions provides an understanding about the community which is so important
for a teacher of play centre to have.
114 PSYCHOLOGY
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Try it Yourself
Visit a community which has a preschool and use the checklist drawn to find out its
characteristics and resources. Record it in your record book.
30.7 OTHER MEMBERS OF THE COMMUNITY Notes
Members of the community, mothers, older girls and boys may be involved in
various aspects of running the play centre as listed below:
• Maintaining the play centre clean and safe.

• Developing a garden at the play centre.
• Ensuring safe drinking water supply for the play centre.
• Cooking and serving nutritious food.
• Gathering mothers and others for meetings and education classes.
• Involvement in the play centre through teaching songs, games, stories and
dramatization etc.
• Organizing festivals at the play centre.
• Eliciting community’s help in equipping the play centre adequately (e.g. fencing
the play area).
• Assisting the teacher in any of her activities.
• Help in maintaining play equipment of the centre.
In fact, the members of the community can be involved in every activity of the play
centre.
30.8 COMMUNITY CONTRIBUTIONS

The community may also be involved in contributing resources to the play centre
as given below:
a) Supply of food materials, like grains and pulses. These may be procured at
the time of harvesting.
b) Local vegetables, especially green leafy and yellow vegetables.
c) Local fruits.
d) Equipment for play centre like old tyres, wooden beams etc.
e) Waste material from household or from artisans e.g., empty plastic boxes,
cartons, beads, old toys, pieces of cloth, wool, old newspapers, magazines,
pieces of wood, potter’s clay and so on.
PSYCHOLOGY 115
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f) Cash donations: Remember to keep a record of any cash received as well as
its use carefully.
Community involvement can be assessed in terms of active involvement of
individuals, local leaders, institutions and organisations in providing support for
establishing and running a play centre. The local community’s involvement will be
Notes a function of the contribution made by them in the form of land, building, food,
fuel, labour, material and cash for the establishment of the play centre.
The progressive involvement of the community would be reflected in increased

mobilization and utilization of local resources, enhanced contribution and
participation by the individuals and beneficiaries.
30.9 ROLE OF MAHILA MANDALS IN RUNNING A

PLAY CENTRE
Mahila Mandals are registered local women organisations. They can play vital
role in running a play centre by:
• Enthusing parents to support play centre; motivating them to enroll their children;
collecting aids and play materials for the play centre.
• Holding meetings regularly.
• Creating awareness in their community regarding the importance of a play
centre for young children.
• Promoting community participation for the successful running of a play centre.
30.10 SUPPORT SERVICES

An important factor in organising a play centre is social support. The term support
services refer to the nature and extent of the social networks to which a person
has access. Anyone who has extensive social support has several people to depend
on for encouragement, advice and help.
The organisations that help in establishing a play centre are:
• Central Social Welfare Board, New Delhi.

• Indian Council for Child Welfare, New Delhi.
• Directorates of Social Welfare in different states.
These organizations sponsor play centres/ creches/ preschools for the needy groups
of children.
116 PSYCHOLOGY
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a) Parents may assist the......................... at the play centre.
Notes
b) Involvement of the community is reflected in the extent of .................. to
local resources.
c) .........................and..........................................can be provided by the
community during harvesting.
d) .........................is a registered local women’s organisation.
2. State True or False:
a) Social support is not an important protective factor in organizing a play
centre. True/False
b) Mahila Mandals can be very effective in promoting community participation.
True/False
c) Developing garden at the play centre can be totally an effort of the
community. True/False
d) Old tyres, wooden beams can be provided to the play centre by the
community. True/False

Involvement of parents and
community in a play centre
Play centre Parent Community Role of Mahila Support

Home relations involvement Involvement Mandals Services
importance scope what?
teachers’ role methods how?
PSYCHOLOGY 117
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TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. List and describe the various methods of parental involvement that could be
adopted in a play centre.
Notes 2. How can a Mahila Mandal help a play center?
3. Interview a play centre teacher to find out the programmes organized for the
involvement of the community.

30.1 1. a) Parents b) teachers
c) positive d) respect
2. (i) parents (ii) parents
(iii) teacher (iv) child
30.2 1. a) teacher. b) knowledge
c) home visit d) regularly,
e) parent
2. Refer to text
30.3 1. a) teachers
b) mobilization
c) grains and pulses
d) mahila mandal
2.a) False b) True
c) True d) True
118 PSYCHOLOGY

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Psychology: Understanding Self and Others MODULE - I

We often experience moods of anger and joy. We do have remarkable ability to

1.1 NEED FOR THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Thus it is clear that the study of psychology is needed to understand ourselves

1.2 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.3 WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO?

(1) understanding and explaining the complexities of behaviour, and

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

1.4 DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A

Structuralism : Developed by Edward Tichener , it focused on the study of

1.5 MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

to lack of ability or lack of motivation or lack of supportive climate at the work

While studying human behaviour we need to remember the following:

Let us study more about these perspectives below:

Biological perspective : It considers human beings as nothing but a biological

parts of brain, influence of meditation and altered states of consciousness have

Behavioural Perspective : This perspective stresses on the role of environmental

understanding one’s own life. In this perspective, self-actualization and spirituality

1.6 RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGY WITH

Sociology: The social or collective aspect of human behaviour is a matter of

Anthropology: Anthropology tries to understand the evolution of mankind and

Biology and Neuroscience: One of the main concerns of psychologists is to

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2

(ii) Anthropology studies the evolution of mankind and development of civilization.

1.7 FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

(a) Experimental and Cognitive Psychology: Traditionally experimental

developmental psychopathology has great significance for rehabilitation of

phobia, a kind of unreasonable fear behaviour, tries to remove reinforcements

1.8 CURRENT TRENDS : THE CHANGING FACE OF

encompasses a broad spectrum of issues faced by us. It’s goal is to further

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3

1. Which of the following psychologists is most involved in the treatment of

1.9 PSYCHOLOGY AS A CAREER

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

HINTS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY?

2.1 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES AND

Finally, the scientific study is objective. It is supposed to be free from subjective

Psychologists have accepted scientific method and try to generate knowledge

1. Description: The first step towards gaining understanding is to obtain a proper

The ability to make prediction is based on systematic analysis of the various

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.1

(a) Science is a method of __________ inquiry which is based on _______

2.2 BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH

limited circumstances or persons. In contrast, applied research has a narrow goal

Notes Today psychological knowledge is growing in basic as well as applied directions

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Forming a Hypothesis: To answer a problem the teacher has a question or

Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables: In order to understand

• independent variable (IV), and

Effects of IV are observed on the DV e.g. retention in the present example. In

While studying the effect of IV on DV the relationship is often influenced by a Notes

Sampling of Participants: The next step is to decide the population to be selected

Control of Extraneous Variables: There is a possibility that some other variables,

1. Matching: The participants are matched on their characteristics.

Verifying the Hypothesis: If the experimenter finds a significant difference in the

Limitation of Experimental Method: The experimental method is very powerful

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2

(1) Experiment is observation under controlled condition. True/False

2.4 NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Observation: Observation is the starting point for all sciences. It is a study of

Introspection: To introspect means to look within. This is the oldest method in

(a) Science is a method of ____ inquiry which is based on _