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Vehicle collision avoiding system

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
The vehicle collision avoiding system project originally conceived as a final-year project to
develop collision avoidance system to assist drivers in avoiding crashes by warning the driver.

Collision avoidance technologies are becoming popular in U.S. motor vehicles, and more
automakers are touting the potential safety benefits. However, the actual benefits in terms of
crash reductions still are being measured.

In the world the numbers of vehicles are coming high and increase rapidly. These high numbers
of vehicles are being played the great role in our daily life and it makes the distance between two
cars moving I’’n one road to short.

The Road/Lane Departure Warning System is a crash-avoidance technology which warns drivers
if they are drifting (or have drifted) out of their lane or from the road. This warning system is
designed to help prevent the possibility of a run-off-road crash. This system will not take control
of the vehicle; it will only let the driver know that he/she needs to steer back into the lane. This
warning system is not designed as a lane-change monitor, or a merging system which warns of
other vehicles. This informational report applies to original equipment manufacturer and after-
market Road/Lane Departure warning systems for light-duty vehicles on relatively straight roads
with a radius of curvature of 500m or more, and under good weather conditions.

Future revisions should consider the implications of newer variations on the user experience. We
came up with the idea for the vehicle collision avoidance system because of a personal
experience. We think that having this system on all cars would help people avoid collisions and
be safer drivers.

About 1.24 million people die each year as a result of road traffic crashes. Road traffic injuries
are the leading cause of death among young people, aged 15–29 years. 91% of the world's
fatalities on the roads occur in low-income and middle-income countries.

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Half of those dying on the world’s roads are “vulnerable road users”: pedestrians, cyclists and
motorcyclists. Without action, road traffic crashes are predicted to result in the deaths of around
1.9 million people annually by 2020.

Road traffic injuries have been neglected from the global health agenda for many years, despite
being predictable and largely preventable. Evidence from many countries shows that dramatic
successes in preventing road traffic crashes can be achieved through concerted efforts that
involve, but are not limited to, the health sector.

Road traffic accidents occur as a result of several factors associated with the traffic system,
namely: road users, road environment, and vehicles. In Ethiopia, in 2004/5, 93% of all accidents
involved human factors, 5% accounted for vehicle factors, and 2% were associated with road
environments according to the Federal police report.

1.1 Road network and traffic accidents in Ethiopia


1.1.1 Country Description

Ethiopia is located in the horn of Africa. The land area is 1.1 million square kilo meter and the
2005 population was about 75 million making population density about 70 persons per square
kilo meter. Ethiopia became a land locked country after the independence of Eritrea in 1993.

Ethiopia has one of Africa’s fastest growing non-oil producing economies and an increasing
level of motorization (OECD, UNDP, & UNECA, 2012). This rapidly increasing mobility has
created some unique road safety concerns; however there is scant published information and
related commentary (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2009). The objective of
this paper is to quantify police-reported traffic crashes in Ethiopia and characterize the existing
state of road safety. Six years (July 2005 - June 2011) of police reported crash data were
analyzed, consisting of 12,140 fatal and 29,454 injury crashes on the country’s road network.
The 12,140 fatal crashes involved 1,070 drivers, 5,702 passengers, and 7,770 pedestrians,
totaling 14,542 fatalities, an average of 1.2 road user fatalities per crash.

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The country is making a progress in economy. In 2005/06, real GDP growth reached 7.9 percent
from a yearly average of 4.8 per cent since 1994/95. In year 2005, the country growth rate was
11.6 according to Economic Commission for Africa.

1.1.2 Road Traffic Growth in Ethiopia

Increasing economic prosperity, with annual GDP growth of about 7% on average was achieved
for the last 10 years. This, in turn, led to a rapid increase in the traffic volume over the past 4
years, as shown in Table 1.1

Table 1.1: Inspected and Registered Vehicles by Type and Size

Type of 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 Average Annual


Vehicle Growth Rate

Private Cars 80894 84825 88576 92687 7.9


Taxi Less 5077 5732 6714 6508 8.6
Than 5 Seats
Taxi 5-12 6477 16757 15540 17996 7.3
Seat
Bus Less 18955 18844 18186 20539 5.6
Than 30
Seats
Bus Above 12805 12729 12599 13613 8.8
30 Seats
Truck (Up To 55578 55393 62517 64014 10
70 QUNTL)
Truck (71- 22840 33824 20724 26430 8.8
180 QUNTL)
Trailer 13605 13972 14530 16334 20.7
Truck Tractor 8378 8153 7904 9736 8.0
Semi- Trailer 165 539 186 113 -6.6
Tanker 5098 2527 3052 2936 10.9

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Others 330 741 1050 5202 20.1


TOTAL 225899 289420 311236 331454 26.1
Growth rate 4.31 4.8 5.5 9.7 14.06
per annum

1.1.3 Trend of Traffic Accidents


Road traffic accident in Ethiopia is a cause of significant losses of human and economic
resources. In the last Ethiopian fiscal year (2007/8), police reported 15,086 accidents which
caused the losses of 2,161 lives and over ETB 82 million equivalents to US$7.3 million (cost
estimate of property damage by police). It would be impossible to attach a value to each case of
human sacrifice and suffering, add up the values and produce a figure that captures the national
social cost of road crashes and injuries. However, the economic costs of road traffic accidents
are, evidently, a heavy burden for the national economy. According to the World Health
Organization report which nearly corresponds to the findings of the economic costs of road
crashes and injuries are estimated to be 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) in low-income
countries such as Ethiopia.

Ethiopia’s Speed Limit Regulation (No.361/1969) which is still in use was enacted in 1969.
According to the regulation, the maximum speed limits are 100, 70, and 60 km/hr. for private
cars and motorcycles, 80, 60, and 50 km/hr for commercial vehicles, 70, 50, and 40 km/hr.
Within urban areas, the speed limits are 60, 40, and 30 km/hr. for private cars and motorcycles,
single unit trucks with maximum gross weight of 3,500 kg and public transport vehicles, and
single unit trucks exceeding 3,500 kg and trucks with trailers respectively. The regulation also
states that these speed limits shall be reduced where public safety requires for any or all vehicles
on any particular roads by the road authority or local municipality. Although, the speed limits are
reasonably low, the regulation is not enforced and operating vehicle speeds are much higher than
what is stated in the regulation.

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1.1.3.1 Causes as Identified by Police


Involvement of Vehicles in Accidents

Table 1.2: Motor Vehicle Involvement in Road Traffic Accidents between 2009/10-2012/13

Description Automobile Station Pick Truck Truck Truck Taxi bus Others
wagon up 1140qt 41- with
100 Trailer
qt
Fatal 288 430 703 1199 1278 362 737 703 628

Serious 700 690 1091 1267 993 282 1451 880 588
injury
Slight 185 1022 1148 1099 883 160 2163 805 649
Injury
Property 7662 14596 3764 4258 3385 1495 7148 3028 982
damage
Total 8835 16738 6706 7823 6539 2299 11499 5416 2847

Age of Drivers and Road Accident Severity

Table shows accident severity involvement by age of drivers in the country. For example, over
forty-three per cent of the drivers involved in collisions were between 18 and 30 which is the
highest number of accidents exhibited in this age group. The age group 31-50 had a share of
around thirty-six per cent. The National Roads Safety Coordinating Office and other
stakeholders should work with these two age groups in order to investigate and identify the
problems and recommend possible solutions.

Table1.3:- Drivers’ age and severity of accidents for year 2012/13

Age of Fatal Serious Slight Property Total Percent


Drivers Injury Injury Damage

Blew 18 48 49 56 84 237 1.4


18-30 933 1180 1192 4428 7733 43.6
31-50 627 809 857 4076 6369 35.9
Above 51 109 115 168 1002 1394 7.9
unknown 84 215 458 1232 1989 11.2
Total 1801 2368 2731 10822 17722 100.0

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Age of Drivers Vs. Severity of Accidents

Se
5000
ve
4500
rit 4000
y 3500 Fatal
of 3000
Serious Injury
Ac 2500
2000 Slight Injury
ci
1500 Property Damage
de 1000
nt 500
s 0
Below 18 18-30 31-50 51 & Unknown
Above

Age of Drivers

Figure 1.1Drivers’ age and severity of accident

Driver Education level

Table 1.4: Crashes by Driver Education level

Education Fatal Injury Property Total %


level
Illiterate 374 607 526 1,507 1.46
Writing & 598 1,192 1,641 3,431 3.33
reading
Elementary 2,644 5,327 8,762 16,733 16.24
school
Junior high 3,484 8,374 12,838 24696 23.97
school
High school 3,235 8,638 23,612 35,485 34.44
Above high 1,077 2,588 9,844 13,509 13.11
school
Unknown 728 2,728 4,213 7,669 7.44
Total 12,140 29,454 61,436 103,030 100.00

1.1.4 Risk factors and solution

Road traffic injuries can be prevented. Governments need to take action to address road safety in
a holistic manner, that requires involvement from multiple sectors (transport, police, health,
education) and that addresses the safety of roads, vehicles, and road users themselves.

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Effective interventions include designing safer infrastructure and incorporating road safety
features into land-use and transport planning; improving the safety features of vehicles; and
improving post-crash care for victims of road crashes. Interventions that target road user
behavior are equally important, such as setting and enforcing laws relating to key risk factors,
and raising public awareness about these. Below are some key risk factors:

a) Speed: An increase in average speed is directly related both to the likelihood of a crash
occurring and to the severity of the consequences of the crash. Some other facts are below.

Pedestrians have a greater chance of surviving a car crash at 30 km/h or below.

30 km/h speed zones can reduce the risk of a crash and are recommended in areas where
vulnerable road users are common (e.g. residential areas, around schools).

Apart from reducing road traffic injuries, lower average traffic speeds can have other positive
effects on health outcomes (e.g. by reducing respiratory problems associated with car emissions).

b) Drink–driving: Drinking and driving increases both the risk of a crash and the likelihood
that death or serious injury will result.

The risk of being involved in a crash increases significantly above a blood alcohol concentration
of 0.04 g/dl.

Laws that establish blood alcohol concentration of 0.05g/dl or below are effective at reducing the
number of alcohol-related crashes.

Enforcing sobriety checkpoints and random breath testing can lead to reductions in alcohol-
related crashes of about 20% and have shown to be very cost-effective.

c) Motorcycle helmets: Wearing a motorcycle helmet correctly can reduce the risk of death
by almost 40% and the risk of severe injury by over 70%.When motorcycle helmet laws are
enforced effectively, helmet wearing rates can increase to over 90%. Requiring helmets to meet
recognized safety standards is important to ensure that helmets can effectively reduce the impact
of a collision to the head in the event of a crash.
d) Seat-belts and child restraints: Wearing a seat-belt reduces the risk of a fatality among
front-seat passengers by 40–50% and of rear-seat passengers by between 25–75%.Mandatory
seat-belt laws and their enforcement have been shown to be very effective at increasing seat-belt
wearing rates. If correctly installed and used, child restraints reduce deaths among infants by
approximately 70% and deaths among small children by between 54% and 80%.
e) Distracted driving: There are many types of distractions that can lead to impaired
driving, but recently there has been a marked increase around the world in the use of mobile
phones by drivers that is becoming a growing concern for road safety. The distraction caused by

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mobile phones can impair driving performance in a number of ways, e.g. longer reaction times
(notably braking reaction time, but also reaction to traffic signals), impaired ability to keep in the
correct lane, and shorter following distances.

Text messaging also results in considerably reduced driving performance, with young drivers at
particular risk of the effects of distraction resulting from this use.

Drivers using a mobile phone are approximately four times more likely to be involved in a crash
than when a driver does not use a phone. Hands-free phones are not much safer than hand-held
phone sets.

While there is little concrete evidence yet on how to reduce mobile phone use while driving,
governments need to be proactive. Actions that can be taken include adopting legislative
measures, launching public awareness campaigns, and regularly collecting data on distracted
driving to better understand the nature of this problem.

1.2 Statement of problem


Nowadays the mortality rate is increased day to day because of the driver may drive fast beyond
the specified speed; due to this the insurance cost is increased in rapid rate in Ethiopia.

Always there are unwanted parking in the town. The human physical body and life is harmed by
unsafe mode of driving and then most hospitals are crowded by patients due to vehicle collision.

In other hand not only the human life affected also the property of one country is being wasted.
In general there is strongly lost wealth and health of the country due to car collision accident.

Public transportation vehicle drivers who prefer to drive through the night instead of the daytime
and drivers who enjoy chewing chat while driving are usually the ones who cause the said
accidents.

According to the WHO data published in April 2011, deaths resulting from road traffic accidents
in Ethiopia reached 22,786 or 2.77% of the total deaths in the nation. The age adjusted death rate
of Ethiopia is 37.83 per 100,000 in the world.

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Figure1.2 vehicle accident occurred in Ethiopia [9].

Road traffic accidents are becoming a major public safety and development obstacle. Pundits say
the current situation necessitates high level of political dedication and immediate action.

Various studies have indicated that Ethiopia has one of the highest fatality rates per vehicle in the
world. It is in excess of 100 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles. This should be compared with Kenya
and United Kingdom, where the figure is about 19 and 2 per 10 000 vehicles, respectively.

Ethiopia loses about $65 million annually due to traffic accidents. In addition the victims are
mainly public transport travelers in the working age group (18–30 years).

There are various causes of road accidents in Ethiopia. But the two main contributors are the
inexperience of many drivers, adding on the ineffective policies and generally awkward road and
vehicle conditions. Several Ethiopians have called on the Ethiopian Road and Traffic Authority
to prohibit road side parking on undesignated areas, increase the number of suitable traffic and
pedestrian signs, firm traffic law enforcement and speed control, train pedestrians on proper use
of road and control the use of narcotics among drivers, among other things.

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1.3 Objective of the project


1.3.1 General objective
The overall objective is to provide a device that will warn the driver if there’s an object in the
vehicle’s travelling path. We would like to equip our vehicle with sensors both in the back and
front. The sensor in front will measure the rate of approach and warn if a collision seems
inevitable. The sensor in back will simply tell the driver if there’s an object within 5 meters of
the rear bumper.

1.3.2 Specific objective


The main function of this project is to:-

 Improve safety

 Have Low insurance cost

 Reduce litigation

 Minimize accident rate

 Be effortless parallel parking

1.4 Scope of the study

In this project, it is trying to simulate the model by using proteus program in the computer
application. Due to lack of materials implementation is not installed even in model size.

The simulation of this project is depends on proteus software and micro C programming because
the microcontroller and other materials consisted in this project are needs to commanded by
programming language. The project has ability to alarm and showing the result to the driver on
the screen. It doesn’t have potential to stop the car or to decelerate the speed. The sensors used in
this project have a capable measuring distance range of 1m to 5.5m. Due to this reason the object
appears out of this specified range can’t be detected.

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1.5 Significance
This project is used to the following significant:-

Community: in this country the traffic accident is high, because of the population density and
road problem. For this problem this project can minimize the mortality rate and other accidents.
Worrying of people (passengers) can be reduced where ever they go.

Government: to support the governmental workers to do their work properly and save their
time, i.e. no opposition from people and political stability is comfort. The government can save
its finance from the importing cars. It also reduced frequent road reconstruction and maintains
the road safety for long times which support transportation service.

Insurance company: when the traffic accident is occurred, the insurance company has a good
role to help the harmed parts. Therefore this project is used to reduce the expense of this best
company in one state.

Traffic: so as to minimize the overcrowding of the car, the traffic police will be benefited to do
their work without tension and stressing.

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CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A major challenge in designing intelligent vehicles capable of autonomous motion whether in
air, water or land is a reliable collision avoidance system. Any mobile robot or vehicle needs an
ability to perform reliable obstacle detection as well as have efficient and effective collision
avoidance actuation ability when performing in an unknown or dynamic environment. Mobile
robots and intelligent vehicles have recently been of great interest to commercial industries such
as automotive and aircrafts industries as well as to the military. There has been a great amount of
research devoted to the development of a reliable collision avoidance system.

In his work on Laser Intensity-Based Obstacle Detection and Tracking, John A. Hancock used a
laser scanner for obstacle detection and tracking for vehicles traveling on highways. Kalman
filtering was used to estimate the position and variance of each obstacle’s position. The focus of
the paper was only on static obstacles detection and tracking. Collision avoidance algorithm is
not attempted[12].

Although both detection aspect and avoidance algorithm aspect are involved in this project, the
system may need more alteration and adaptation to work in a dynamic and unknown
environment where there may be many non-cooperative obstacles.

Parker et al.used a pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) camera for visual perception and a SICK scanning laser
rangefinder for their outdoors autonomous mobile robots to operate in unfamiliar outdoors
environments. For nearly all applications, the robots succeeded in avoiding navigation
hazards[12]. The work was thus focused on the development of the most efficient navigation path
with collision avoidance in mind. Paths are preplanned and collision checks are then executed. If
the scenario involves a time-space collision where the robots reach the same point at the same
time, a dimensional coordination diagram (CD) is constructed and a free trajectory is searched
and interpreted into a velocity profile for each robot. This velocity profile is actually the collision
avoidance actions to be executed.

In dynamic environments, for example in air, sea and land traffic, vehicular units need to avoid
[7].
one another as well as static non-vehicular obstacles while moving towards their destination
Fiorini and Shiller addressed the problem of motion planning in dynamic environments by
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presenting a method for computing the motions of a robot in dynamic environments, subjected to
the robot dynamics and its actuator constraints. Their concept is based on the Velocity Obstacle
concept where a set of feasible robot velocities that would result in a collision between the robot
and obstacle is defined. This set of velocity is crucial because it will be from this set where the
avoidance maneuver at a specific time is computed.
Kleeman et al did a research investigating the optimal deployment of ultrasonic transducers and
associated signal processing for indoor robotics applications, with environments composed of
surfaces that can reflect acoustic energy similar to a mirror reflecting light. Their research
established that two transmitters and receivers are necessary and sufficient to distinguish planes,
corners and edges of obstacles[13]. They provided an optimal sensor array with the minimum
number of transmitter and receivers, with the receivers closely spaced to minimize the
corresponding problem of associating different receiver echoes from multiple targets. The array
harnessed the ultrasonic sensors to be applied in a robust and accurate manner for obstacle
detection. However, their investigation involved a static sensor array, not implemented unto a
mobile platform. Also, the performance is limited by physical properties of air, reflectors and
noise[13].

For the application of ultrasonic sensors, Borenstein and Koren developed a vector field
histogram to enable the detection of unknown obstacles and avoid collision while still enabling
the robot to steer towards its destination. This vector field histogram method uses a two-
dimensional Cartesian histogram grid as a ‘world model’. Range data sampled by on-board range
sensors continually updates the ‘world model’. The idea is to construct a polar histogram around
the robot’s momentary location and select the region of lowest polar obstacle density direction to
steer the robot towards.

In the project, the concept established by Borenstein and Koren is used in the collision avoidance
algorithm to evaluate the environment of the robot[13].
There has been increased interest from the United States (US) Department of Transportation to
develop and implement an efficient traffic control device. This has in turn resulted in an increase
in research focused on and defined as vehicle-to-vehicle communication (v to v), vehicle to road
communication (v-to-r) and road to road communication (r-to-r). The v-to- v can be categorized
into 3 classes based on the technology used: 1) radar based, 2) camera based and 3) radio based

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system. Radar-based and camera-based technologies are used to avert collisions in the same lane
as a result of line of sight limitation. Radio-based technologies have a broader use for collisions
independent of either line of sight or passing lanes.

V-to-r applications focus primarily on an intersection warning system, whether it is embedded


inside the vehicle or externally.

R-to-r communication, on the other hand, is totally independent of the vehicles. Sensing
functionality is the focus of such a system. The control device has the ability to fetch information
about a vehicle in real-time scenario.

Three important intersection collision avoidance programs are currently being conducted in the
US and are funded by Intelligent Transportation System. These are lead by University of
California (Berkeley), the University of Minnesota and Virginia Polytechnic Institute/Virginia
Tech Transportation Institute. The university of California Berkeley program is known as the
Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways, and it supports about 65 projects related to
transportation safety research. One of their innovative research endeavors focuses on a warning
system placed at a signaled intersection to warn drivers from a possible collision. This system
employs a group of loop detection sensors and radars that communicate wirelessly with the
traffic light system to warn drivers. Intelligent Vehicles Laboratory and Policy & Planning for
intelligent transportation system are two of their foremost projects.
The Planning for intelligent transportation system program is designed to equip transportation
and infrastructure professionals with the technological tools to address congestion and other
system challenges in the coming years. The focus is on collisions that occur at asignalized
intersection. VTTI projects are equally as important. They focus on collisions due to traffic
signal and stop sign violations. VTTI is the largest research center at the university, containing
nine center groups dealing with different types of transportation issues.

One drawback to the aforementioned research projects is that all are vehicle dependent, i.e. the
vehicle is equipped with either sensors or a warning system. The shortcoming of this approach is
that the system would require equipment be installed in each vehicle. While not expensive, the
implementation would be lengthy. Some researchers have therefore abandoned the vehicle
equipment approach. Instead, their systems are now mainly comprised of wireless road sensors

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that transmit traffic flow information to a base station. The BS will generate a predictive analysis
calculating whether a collision might take place, and then send a warning signal from an
embedded mechanism in the road if there is a possibility of an accident. Another drawback to
partner for advanced transit and high ways and VTTI projects is their message routing
implementation. For example, partner for advanced transit and high ways employs Time
Division Multiple Access, whereas VTTI employs wireless mesh networks. Both technologies
achieve high message latency that is not tolerable for intersection collision avoidance systems[6].

Development of a Methodology for Accident Causation Research, Hartford, Center for the
Environment and Man,1983,183 pp. This reports the attempt to use roadside observation
methods to obtain exposure data for a number of possible accident causation factors which were
available in New York police-reported accidents. Both road segments and intersections were
sampled on a variety of road types in Ulster County (a NASS , but the numbers of NASS cases
were too few to use in the analysis), and a similar procedure limited to state highways was came
out in Schenectady County.

2.1 World health organization (WHO)


Coordinating the Decade of Action for Road Safety:

In 2010 a United Nations General Assembly resolution proclaimed a Decade of Action for Road
Safety (2011–2020). This Decade was launched in May 2011 in over 110 countries, with the aim
of saving millions of lives by improving the safety of roads and vehicles; enhancing the behavior
of road users; and improving emergency services[10]. WHO, in collaboration with the United
Nations regional commissions, is the secretariat for the Decade and plays a key role in guiding
global efforts by continuing to advocate for road safety at the highest political levels; compiling
and disseminating good practices in prevention; sharing information with the public on risks and
how to reduce these risks; and drawing attention to the need for increased funding.

Monitoring progress through global status reports: WHO will provide one of the tools for
evaluating the global impact of the Decade of Action for Road Safety through the development
of Global status reports on road safety. The first Global status report on road safety, published in
2009, provided the first comprehensive assessment of the road safety situation globally, while
the second report – which will serve as a baseline for the Decade of Action for Road Safety –
was released on 14 March 2013[9].

Providing technical support to countries: works across the spectrum in countries, from
primary prevention work through to rehabilitation of those who have been involved in road

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traffic crashes. As such, WHO works in a multi sectorial manner, in partnership with national
stakeholders from a variety of sectors (e.g. health, police, transport, education) as well as with
other parties involved in road traffic injury prevention, such as nongovernmental organizations
and academics[2].

In 2010, WHO and five other consortium partners received funding from Bloomberg
Philanthropies to further road safety in ten countries. The "Road Safety in 10 Countries (RS10)
Project" supports the governments of Brazil, Cambodia, China, Egypt, India, Kenya, Mexico, the
Russian Federation, Turkey and Viet Nam by focusing on selected key risks for road traffic
crashes. Efforts are focused on strengthening legislation and enforcement, capacity development,
and educating the public through social marketing campaigns[7].

WHO also supports road safety efforts in other ways - for example, in improving safety around
schools in Malawi and Mozambique, and in helping improve emergency services in Kenya and
India and improving data collection systems (both in the health and police sectors). Over the
Decade, WHO will continue to support these and other national road safety initiatives leading to
sustainable government programs[9].

WHO also provides guidelines that highlight good practice in road traffic injury prevention, and
then supports governments to implement the suggested programs or policies. For example, a
good practice manual on increasing motorcycle helmet use and reducing drink-driving has been
implemented in a number of ASEAN countries, while a guide to improving pre- hospital care
will be used in Kenya and India. Capacity within countries is developed through the
implementation of these guides as well as through direct training in different areas of injury
prevention (for example, through courses on injury surveillance and on improving trauma care
services)[9].

"Road traffic crashes are a public health and development crisis, says WHO director general
Margaret Chan. "Every day, road traffic crashes claim nearly 3,500 lives and injure many
thousands more. The vast majority of those affected are young people in developing countries."

The economic consequences are also significant: According to the WHO, car crashes cost the
world more than $500bn each year. And the WHO warns that accidents on the road are also a
leading cause of disability [8].

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CHAPTER THREE
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1Description of hardware component
This project consists of four main components thus are microcontroller, distance sensors, LCD
displayer, sounder and LEDs. Each of those components can be described as below.

3.1.1 Micro controller


PIC microcontrollers (Programmable Interface Controllers), are electronic circuits that can be
programmed to carry out a vast range of tasks. They can be programmed to be timers or to
control a production line and much more. They are found in most electronic devices such as
alarm systems, computer control systems, phones, in fact almost any electronic device. These are
programmed and simulated by Circuit Wizard software.
PIC Microcontrollers are relatively cheap and can be bought as pre-built circuits or as kits that
can be assembled by the user.

3.1.1.1 Purpose of microcontrollers


Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product) so that
they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a microcontroller,
therefore, is "embedded controller. Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one
specific program. The program is stored in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not
change. Microcontrollers are often low-power devices.

A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small LED or
LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it is controlling and
controls the device by sending signals to different components in the device. For example, the
microcontroller inside a TV takes input from the remote control and displays output on the TV
screen. The controller controls the channel selector, the speaker system and certain adjustments
on the picture tube electronics such as tint and brightness. The engine controller in a car takes
input from sensors such as the oxygen and knock sensors and controls things like fuel mix and
spark plug timing. A microwave oven controller takes input from a keypad, displays output on an
LCD display and controls a relay that turns the microwave generator on and off.

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A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components are chosen to minimize size and
to be as inexpensive as possible.

A microcontroller is often, but not always, ruggedized in some way. The microcontroller
controlling a car's engine, for example, has to work in temperature extremes that a normal
computer generally cannot handle. When you add the heat naturally generated by the engine, the
temperature can go as high as 150 or 180 degrees F (65-80 C) in the engine compartment. On the
other hand, a microcontroller embedded inside a VCR hasn't been ruggedized at all.

The actual processor used to implement a microcontroller can vary widely. For example, the cell
phone shown on Inside a Digital Cell Phone contains a Z-80 processor. The Z-80 is an 8-bit
microprocessor developed in the 1970s and originally used in home computers of the time. The
Garmin GPS shown in How GPS Receivers Work contains a low-power version of the Intel
80386, I am told. The 80386 was originally used in desktop computers.

In many products, such as microwave ovens, the demand on the CPU is fairly low and price is an
important consideration. In these cases, manufacturers turn to dedicated microcontroller chips to
chips that were originally designed to be low-cost, small, low-power, embedded CPUs. The
Motorola 6811 and Intel 8051 are both good examples of such chips. There is also a line of
popular controllers called "PIC microcontrollers" created by a company called Microchip. By
today's standards, these CPUs are incredibly minimalistic; but they are extremely inexpensive
when purchased in large quantities and can often meet the needs of a device's designer with just
one chip.

A typical low-end microcontroller chip might have 1,000 bytes of ROM and 20 bytes of RAM
on the chip, along with eight I/0 pins. In large quantities, the cost of these chips can sometimes
be just pennies. You certainly are never going to run Microsoft Word on such a chip to Microsoft
Word requires perhaps 30 megabytes of RAM and a processor that can run millions of
instructions per second. But then, you don't need Microsoft Word to control a microwave oven,
either. With a microcontroller, you have one specific task you are trying to accomplish, and low-
cost, low-power performance is what makes it important.

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3.1.1.2 Operating principle of microcontroller

Even though there are a large number of different types of microcontrollers and even more
programs created for their use only, all of them have many things in common. Thus, if you learn
to handle one of them you will be able to handle them all. A typical scenario on the basis of
which it all functions is as follows:
1. Power supply is turned off and everything is still the program is loaded into the
microcontroller, nothing indicates what is about to come.
2. Power supply is turned on and everything starts to happen at high speed! The control
logic unit keeps everything under control. It disables all other circuits except quartz
crystal to operate. While the preparations are in progress, the first milliseconds go by.
3. Power supply voltage reaches its maximum and oscillator frequency becomes stable.
SFRs are being filled with bits reflecting the state of all circuits within the
microcontroller. The overall electronics starts operation in pulse sequence. From now on
the time is measured in micro and nanoseconds.
4. Program Counter is set to zero. Instruction from that address is sent to instruction decoder
which recognizes it, after which it is executed with immediate effect.
5. The value of the Program Counter is incremented by 1 and the whole process is repeated
to several million times per second.

Coming to our specific issue this project is fundamentally based on PIC16F877A due to its
popularity at this moment, start from beginner until all professionals.

3.1.1.3 PIC16F877A Microcontroller


Microcontroller PIC16F877A is one of the PICMicro Family microcontroller which is popular at
this moment, start from beginner until all professionals, because very easy using PIC16F877A
and use FLASH memory technology so that can be write-erase until thousand times. The
superiority this Risk Microcontroller compared to with other microcontroller 8-bit especially at a
speed of and his code compression. PIC16F877A have 40 pin by 33 path of I/O.

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Figure 3.1 PIC16F877A microcontroller


PIC16F877A perfectly fits many uses, from automotive industries and controlling home
appliances to industrial instruments, remote sensors, electrical door locks and safety devices. It is
also ideal for smart cards as well as for battery supplied devices because of its low consumption.
EEPROM memory makes it easier to apply microcontrollers to devices where permanent storage
of various parameters is needed (codes for transmitters, motor speed, receiver frequencies, etc.).
Low cost, low consumption, easy handling and flexibility make PIC16F877A applicable even in
areas where microcontrollers had not previously been considered (example: timer functions,
interface replacement in larger systems, coprocessor applications, etc.). In System
Programmability of this chip (along with using only two pins in data transfer) makes possible the
flexibility of a product, after assembling and testing have been completed. This capability can be
used to create assembly-line production, to store calibration data available only after final
testing, or it can be used to improve programs on finished products.

3.1.1.4 Advantage of PIC16F877A microcontroller over the other microcontrollers

PIC16F877A is ease of use as there are more pins making it easier for prototyping. The pins
make it easier to use the peripherals as the functions are spread out over the pins. This makes it
to decide what external devices to attaché without worrying too much if there enough pins to do

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the job. One of the main advantage is that each pin is only shared between two or three functions
so it is easier to decide what the pin function (other devices have up to 5 functions for a pin).

 Low cost, low consumption, easy handling and flexibility make PIC16F877A applicable
even in areas where microcontrollers had not previously been considered (example: timer
functions, interface replacement in larger systems, coprocessor applications, etc.). Small
instruction set to learn.
 RISC(reduced instruction set computing)architecture
 Built in oscillator with selectable speeds
 Easy entry level, in circuit programming plus in circuit debugging PICK it units available
for less than $50
 Inexpensive microcontrollers
 Wide range of interfaces including IC, USB, A/D, programmable comparators, CAN, PSP,
and Ethernet.

Availability of processors in DIL package makes them easy to handle for hobby use.

3.1.2 Sensors
Sensor is mechanical device which is sensitive to light, temperature, radiation level, or the like,
that transmits a signal to a measure or control instrument.

Figure3.2. Distance measuring sensor


It is equipment which detects, and may indicate, and record objects and activities by means of
energy or particles emitted, reflected, or modified by objects. Any device that receives a signal or

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stimulus (as heat or pressure or light or motion etc.) and responds to it in a distinctive manner
detector, sensing element device an instrumentality invented for a particular purpose; "the device
is small enough to wear on your wrist".

3.1.2.1 Characteristics of different types of sensors


i. Active vs. Passive:

Active sensors: Require an external source of power (excitation voltage) that provides the
majority of the output power of the signal.

Passive sensors: The output power is almost entirely provided by the measured signal without an
excitation voltage.

ii. Digital vs. Analog:

Digital sensors: The signal produced or reflected by the sensor is binary.

Analog sensors: The signal produced by the sensor is continuous and proportional to the
measured.

iii. Null and deflection methods

Null: The signal produced by the sensor is counteracted to minimize the deflection that opposing
effect necessary to maintain a zero deflection should be proportional to the signal of the
measured.

Deflection: The signal produces some physical (deflection) effect closely related to the measured
quantity and transducer to be observable.

Basically this project is depending on GP2Y0A700K0F infrared distance measuring sensor.

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3.1.2.2 Infrared distance sensor (Sharp GP2Y0A700KOF)


For measuring the distance to an object there are optical sensors using triangulation measuring
method. Company “Sharp” produces most common infra-red (IR) wavelength using distance
sensors which have analogue voltage output. As shown in figure 3.3 the sensors made by
“Sharp” have IR LED equipped with lens (D1), which transmits narrow light beam. After
reflecting from the object, the beam will be received through the second lens (D2) on a position-
sensible photo detector (PSD).

Figure 3.3 circuit diagram of infrared distance sensor


The conductivity of this PSD depends on the position where the beam falls. The conductivity is
converted to voltage and if the voltage is digitalized by using analogue-digital converter, the
distance can be calculated. The route of beams reflecting from different distance is presented on
the following figure.

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Figure 3.4. The route of the light Figure3.5. Characteristics of voltage-distance Beam
from an IR distance sensor[5] of IR distance sensor[5]

The voltage output of distance sensors by “Sharp” is inversely proportional to the distance
measured, this means that when the distance is going far from the sensor the voltage output is
decrease (decreasing is gradually slowing). Exact graph of the relation between distance and
output voltage is usually on the data-sheet of the sensor. All sensors have their specific
measuring range where the measured results are creditable and this range depends on the type of
the sensor. Maximum distance measured is restricted by two aspects: the amount of reflected
light is decreasing and inability of the PSD registering the small changes of the location of the
reflected ray. When measuring objects which are too far, the output remains approximately the
same as it is when measuring the objects at the maximum distance.
Minimum distance is restricted due to peculiarity of Sharp sensors, meaning the output starts to
decrease (again) sharply as the distance is at certain point (depending on the model 100-550 cm).
This means that to one value of the output corresponds two values of distance. This problem can
be avoided by noticing that the object is not too close to the sensor[5].

The Home Lab set of sensors includes IR distance sensor SHARP GP2Y0A700KOF. Measuring
range of the sensor is 100 cm – 550 cm. The output voltage of this sensor is, depending on the
distance measured, up to 5 V. The distance sensor is connected to the Sensor module. Its output
voltage is sent to the channel 0 of the analogue-digital converter of the AVR. On the basis of

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previous exercises of sensors, it is easy to write a program which measures the output voltage of
the distance sensors, but in addition, this exercise includes converting this output voltage to
distance.

Figure.3.5 is graph of relation between its output voltage and measured distance. This graph is
not a linear one, however the graph of inverse values of output voltage and distance.

3.1.2.3 IR distance sensor Advantages: some advantages of infrared sensor are listed as
below:

 Low power requirements: therefore ideal for laptops, telephones, personal digital
assistants
 Low circuitry costs: $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry
 Simple circuitry: no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be incorporated into
the integrated circuit of a product
 Higher security: directionality of the beam helps ensure that data isn't leaked or spilled to
nearby devices as it's transmitted
 Portable
 Few international regulatory constraints: Infrared Data Association functional devices
will ideally be usable by international travelers, no matter where they may be
 High noise immunity: not as likely to have interference from signals from other devices

3.1.2.4 Infrared vs. Ultrasonic


Infrared Sensors

There are IR sensors with built in circuits which provide a binary output, and there are those
which provide an analog output or a multiple bit output.

The sensors with a binary output are only good for detecting the proximity of an obstacle, and
not the range. By that mean the sensor can only tell you when an obstacle is within a certain
distance (we will call it the threshold distance). This is fine for most robots which only need to
know when an obstacle is right in front of it. This is the cheapest sensor.

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The other IR sensors, which are ranging sensors, output the actual distance of an obstacle from
the sensor. This output can either be analog or a digital byte.

Building an IR sensor, whether ranging or binary, is incredibly simple. Those sensors can be
made cheaply but they are not so accurate. They are the kings of infrared ranging, they are the
most accurate IR sensors, and they provide an easy to use analog output. They usually cost $10
to $20. However, be aware that there are many different types of Sharp IR sensor which have
different minimum and maximum ranges, so search around for the one that suits you.

Infrared sensors emit infrared light, and therefore the sensors cannot work accurately outside or
even inside, if there is direct or indirect sunlight (but this is not entirely true for Sharp IR sensors,
since they will work pretty accurately in ambient light.) So no infrared ranging sensors are on
your outdoor robot. Also, the way the infrared sensor works is as follows

The Sharp IR Range Finder works by the process of triangulation. A pulse of light (wavelength
range of 850nm +/-70nm) is emitted and then reflected back (or not reflected at all). When the
light returns it comes back at an angle that is dependent on the distance of the reflecting object.
Triangulation works by detecting this reflected beam angle - by knowing the angle, distance can
then be determined.

Figure3.6. Triangular works of sensor

Now since light does not reflect the same way off every surface, the infrared sensor reading will
be different for different surfaces , different colors, and different shades EVEN if the range is the
same.

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Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors use sound instead of light for ranging, so ultrasonic sensors (some people call
it sonar) can be used outside in bright sunlight. These sensors are amazingly accurate, though
they may be thrown off by a sound absorbing obstacle, like a sponge. The only real issue that
arises is the "ghost echo" issue. As you can see below, the walls bounce off in a strange pattern
causing a ghost effect. Also, the sensor does not come with a connecting wire sometimes, only
the connector part, so buy a cable like this.

Figure3.7. diagram of ultrasonic sonar

3.1.2.5 Purpose of distance sensors:


A distance sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. A distance sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object
being sensed is often referred to as the distance sensor's target. Different distance sensor targets
demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for
a plastic target; an inductive distance sensor always requires a metal target. The maximum
distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range". Some sensors have adjustments
of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection distance. Distance sensors can
have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and
lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.

By coming to our specification this project accomplished with aid of distance sensor which have
the brand code of GP2Y0A700K0F.

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3.1.2.6 Advantage of GP2Y0A700K0F distance sensor over the other sensors


The GP2Y0A700K0F infrared sensor is a new version which takes a continuous distance reading
and reports the distance as an analog voltage with a distance range of 1m (39.3") to 5.5m
(216.5").
The interface is 5-wire JST connector (included with pins) with dual Vcc, dual Gnd, and a single
output voltage.
Simply provide power and ground, and read a continuous analog voltage representing distance.
A software lookup table can be implemented to translate the voltages to distances.
This sensor pod can be easily fit on any mobile robot. Sensor Pod assembly for GP2Y0A700K0F
sharp sensor is made with two low torque servo motor (NRS-5895) to give the precise angle
control in pan and tilt direction. The sensor mount assembly on sensor pod bracket is specially
designed for mounting GP2Y0A700K0F with single nut and bolt.

Note: customer needs to buy sharp GP2Y0A700K0F sensor separately

3.1.2.7 Output of sharp GP2Y0A700K0F sensor

Figure3.8. An output of infrared distance measuring sensor (GP2YOA7OOKOF)

The output of infrared distance measuring sensor is voltage as shown in figure 3.9. At different
distance from the object, the output voltage of sensor also is different. As distance between the
car and the object is increase the voltage output is decrease.

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Table 3.1. Output of distance measuring sensor

Distance (cm) Vout(v) ADC (bit)


100 2.77 566.742
200 1.44 294.624
500 0.62 126.855
550 0.57 116.622

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
ADC = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓* 1023bit where Vref is reference voltage which is +5v.

3.1.3 Liquid Crystal Displayer (LCD)


3.1.3.1 Fundamentals of Liquid Crystal Displays
The term liquid crystal is used to describe a substance in a state between liquid and solid but
which exhibits the properties of both. Molecules in liquid crystals tend to arrange themselves
until they all point in the same specific direction. This arrangement of molecules enables the
medium to flow as a liquid. Depending on the temperature and particular nature of a substance,
liquid crystals can exist in one of several distinct phases. Liquid crystals in a nematic phase, in
which there is no spatial ordering of the molecules, for example, are used in LCD technology.

Figure3.9. Liquid Crystal Displayer

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One important feature of liquid crystals is the fact that an electrical current affects them. A
particular sort of nematic liquid crystal, called twisted nematics (TN), is naturally twisted.
Applying an electric current to these liquid crystals will untwist them to varying degrees,
depending on the current's voltage. LCDs use these liquid crystals because they react predictably
to electric current in such a way as to control the passage of light.

The working of a simple LCD is shown in Figure 1. It has a mirror (A) in back, which makes it
reflective. There is a piece of glass (B) with a polarizing film on the bottom side, and a common
electrode plane (C) made of indium-tin oxide on top. A common electrode plane covers the
entire area of the LCD. Above that is the layer of liquid crystal substance (D). Next comes
another piece of glass (E) with an electrode in the shape of the rectangle on the bottom and, on
top, another polarizing film (F), at a right angle to the first one. The electrode is hooked up to a
power source like a battery. When there is no current, light entering through the front of the LCD
will simply hit the mirror and bounce right back out. But when the battery supplies current to the
electrodes, the liquid crystals between the common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like
a rectangle untwist and block the light in that region from passing through. That makes the LCD
show the rectangle as a black area.

A B C D E F

Figure3.10.Comon plan liquid crystal displayer[5]

3.1.3.2 Back Lit and Reflective LCDs:

Liquid crystal materials emit no light of their own. Small and inexpensive LCDs are often
reflective, which means if they are to display anything, they must reflect the light from external

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light sources. The numbers in an LCD watch appear where the small electrodes charge the liquid
crystals and make the crystals untwist so that the light is not transmitting through the polarized
film. Backlit LCD displays are lit with built-in fluorescent tubes above, beside and sometimes
behind the LCD. A white diffusion panel behind the LCD redirects and scatters the light evenly
to ensure a uniform display. On its way through liquid crystal layers, filters and electrode layers,
more than half of this light is lost such as in LCD displays on personal computers. In the
reflective mode, available light is used to illuminate the display. This is achieved by combining a
reflector with the rear polarizer. It works best in an outdoor or well-lighted office environment.
Transmissive LCDs have a transparent rear polarizer and do not reflect ambient light. They
require a backlight to be visible. They work best in low-light conditions, with the backlight on
continuously. Transflective LCDs are a mixture of the reflective and transmissive types, with the
rear polarizer having partial reflectivity. They are combined with backlight for use in all types of
lighting conditions. The backlight can be left off where there is sufficient light, conserving
power. In darker environments, the backlight can provide a bright display. Transflective LCDs
will not “wash out” when operated in direct sunlight. Another feature of the viewing mode is
whether the LCD is a positive or negative image. The standard image is positive, which means a
light background with a dark character or dot. This works best in reflective or transflective mode.
A negative image is usually combined with a transmissive mode.

This provides a dark background with a light character. A strong backlight must be used to
provide good illumination. In most graphic applications, the transmissive negative mode is
inverted. This combination provides a light background with dark characters, which offers the
user better readability.

Another characteristic of displays that must be dealt with is the switching times of the pixels.
These are commonly written as Ton and Toff, and they correspond to the amount of time between
application/removal of the voltage and a 90% brightness/darkness response. Usually Toff is
slightly larger, because after voltage is removed, the liquid crystal relaxes back into its off state.
No force is being applied, unlike when it is being turned on. Switching times can be changed by
controlling the amount of orientation viscosity in the crystal, which is the amount of resistance
when being forced to change direction. The contrast of a liquid crystal display is an important
issue as well. One way to measure it is to find the difference in brightness between an on and off

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pixel, divided by the larger of the two values. A more useful value is the contrast ratio, which is
simply the larger brightness divided by the smaller brightness.

3.1.3.3 Types of LCDs


Passive Matrix

These LCDs use a simple grid to supply the charge to particular pixels on the display. Passive
Matrix LCDs start with two glass layers called the substrates. One substrate is given rows and
the other is given the columns, made from transparent conductive material. The liquid crystal
material is sandwiched between the two glass substrates, and the polarizing film is added to the
outer side of each display. To turn on a pixel, the integrated circuit sends a charge down the
correct column of one substrate and a ground activated on the correct row of the other. The row
and column intersect at a designated pixel, and that delivers the voltage to untwist the liquid
crystals at that pixel. As the current required to brightening a pixel increases (for higher
brightness displays) and, as the display gets larger, this process becomes more difficult since
higher currents have to flow down the control lines. Also, the controlling current must be present
whenever the pixel is required to light up. As a result, passive matrix displays tend to be used
mainly in applications where inexpensive, simple displays are required.

Direct addressing is a technique mostly used in Passive Matrix Displays in which there is a direct
connection to every element in the display, which provides direct control over the pixels. But
direct addressing is not good in some instances because in large displays there can be thousands
or even millions of pixels that require separate connections.

The method used in the vast majority of large modern displays is multiplexing. In this method,
all the pixels across each row are connected together on the plate on one side of the liquid crystal
film, and all the pixels in each column are connected on the opposite side. The rows are then
“addressed” serially by setting all of the column voltages separately for each row and then
turning on the row voltages in sequence.

Active Matrix or TFT (Thin Film Transistor) LCDs

Active matrix displays belong to type of flat-panel display in which the screen is refreshed more
frequently than in conventional passive-matrix displays, and which uses individual transistors to
control the charges on each cell in the liquid-crystal layer. The most common type of active-

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matrix display is based on the TFT technology. The two terms, active matrix and TFT, are often
used interchangeably. Whereas a passive matrix display uses a simple conductive grid to deliver
current to the liquid crystals in the target area, an active matrix display uses a grid of transistors
with the ability to hold a charge for a limited period of time, much like a capacitor. Because of
the switching action of transistors, only the desired pixel receives a charge, improving image
quality over a passive matrix. Because of the thin film transistor's ability to hold a charge, the
pixel remains active until the next refresh.

There are three main switch technologies of TFTs: amorphous silicon (a-Si), polycrystalline
silicon (p-Si), and single crystal silicon (x-Si). They have good color, good grayscale
reproduction, and fast response.

Applications include high-resolution displays, laptop computers, and healthcare equipment,


along with military and industrial applications where high reliability and quality are required.

LCDs have many characteristics that have caused their demand to increase over the past several
years. They are lightweight, aesthetically appealing, energy efficient and long-term cost
effective. Some of the disadvantages are that they are not suitable for dimly lit applications, can
require frequent adjustments throughout the day, have limited viewing angles, and their purchase
cost is relatively expensive.

Due to its brightness the project uses LMD20L type of LCD. It indicates the driver by pop-out
“from front” and “from rear” as respective of the object arrives.

3.1.4 Light emitting diode (LED)


A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source that resembles a basic p
n-junction diode, except that an LED also emits light, when an LED's anode lead has a voltage
that is more positive than its cathode lead by at least the LED's forward voltage drop, current
flows. Electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form
of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to
the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

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Figure3.11. Light-emitting diode[5]

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available
across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small
incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-
segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs
have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting
diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

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LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

Figure3.12. Parts of LED.

Although not directly labeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the
epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out from
mechanical strain or vibration.

Figure1.13. the inner workings of an LED, showing Figure3.14. I-V diagram of a diode.

circuit (top) and band diagram (bottom)

An LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2–3volts.The
LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n
junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or
cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and holes—flow into the

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junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a
lower energy level and releases energy in the form of a photon.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color, depends on the band gap energy of the
materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
recombine by a non-radioactive transition, which produces no optical emission, because these are
indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies
corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light.

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in
materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a
variety of colors.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial
LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much
light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light
extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and
development.

Refractive index

Figure3.15. Diagram of Refractive index[5]

Many LED semiconductor chips are encapsulated or potted in clear or colored molded plastic
shells. The plastic shell has three purposes:

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i. Mounting the semiconductor chip in devices is easier to accomplish.

ii. The tiny fragile electrical wiring is physically supported and protected from damage.

iii. The plastic acts as a refractive intermediary between the relatively high-index
semiconductor and low-index open air.

Efficiency and operational parameters: Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with
no more than 30–60 milli watts (mW) of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds
introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt. These LEDs used much larger
semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were
mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die.

One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting sources is high luminous efficacy. White
LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficacy of standard incandescent lighting systems. In
2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficacy of 18–22 lumens per
watt (lm/W). For comparison, a conventional incandescent light bulb of 60–100 watts emits
around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights emit up to 100 lm/W.

As of 2012, the Lumiled catalog gives the following as the best efficacy for each color. The watt-
per-watt value is derived using the luminosity function.

Table 3.2. The Lumiled catalog for each color

Wavelength range Typical efficacy Typical efficiency


Color
(nm) (lm/W) (W/W)
Red 620 <λ< 645 72 0.39
Red-orange 610 <λ< 620 98 0.29
Green 520 <λ< 550 93 0.15
Cyan 490 <λ< 520 75 0.26
Blue 460 <λ< 490 37 0.35

Efficiency droop: The term "efficiency droop" refers to a decrease (up to 20%) in luminous
efficacy of LEDs as the electrical current increases above tens of milliamps (mA). Instead of
increasing current levels, luminance is usually increased by combining multiple LEDs in one
bulb. Solving the problem of efficiency droop would mean that household LED light bulbs
would need fewer LEDs, which would significantly reduce costs.

In addition to being less efficient, operating LEDs at higher electrical currents creates higher heat
levels which compromise the lifetime of the LED. Because of this increased heating at higher
currents, high-brightness LEDs have an industry standard of operating at only 350 mA. 350 mA
is a good compromise between light output, efficiency, and longevity.

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Lifetime and failure: Solid-state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear
if operated at low currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and
1980s are still in service in the early 21st century. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000
hours, but heat and current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.

The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light
output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red LEDs
were notable for their short service life. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices
are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional
devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To
quantitatively classify useful lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the
terms L70 and L50, which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 70% and 50% light
output respectively.

LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers' published ratings of LEDs are
for an operating temperature of 25 °C. LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-
pavement signal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the light
fixture gets very hot, could result in low signal intensities or even failure.

LED light output rises at lower temperatures, leveling off, depending on type, at around −30 °C.
Thus, LED technology may be a good replacement in uses such as supermarket freezer lighting
and will last longer than other technologies. Because LEDs emit less heat than incandescent
bulbs, they are an energy-efficient technology for uses such as in freezers and refrigerators.
However, because they emit little heat, ice and snow may build up on the LED light fixture in
colder climates. Similarly, this lack of waste heat generation has been observed to sometimes
cause significant problems with street traffic signals and airport runway lighting in snow-prone
areas.

3.1.4.1 Colors and materials

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The
following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:

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Table3.3. Colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material

Color Wavelength [nm] Voltage drop [ΔV] Semiconductor material


Aluminium gallium
arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red 610 <λ< 760 1.63 < ΔV< 2.03
Gallium arsenide phosphide
(GaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide
(GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium
Orange 590 <λ< 610 2.03 < ΔV< 2.10
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide
(GaP)
Gallium arsenide phosphide
(GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium
Yellow 570 <λ< 590 2.10 < ΔV< 2.18
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide
(GaP)
Gallium(III) phosphide
(GaP)
Green 500 <λ< 570 1.9[66]< ΔV< 4.0
Aluminum galliumindium
phosphide (AlGaInP)
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Blue 450 <λ< 500 2.48 < ΔV< 3.7 Indium gallium nitride
(InGaN)

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White light: There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes, LEDs that
generate high-intensity white light. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors
red, green and blue and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor
material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light,
much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works. There are three main methods of mixing
colors to produce white light from an LED:

i. blue LED + green LED + red LED (color mixing; can be used as backlighting for displays)
ii. Near-UV or UV LED + RGB phosphor (an LED producing light with a wavelength shorter
than blue's is used to excite an RGB phosphor)
iii. Blue LED + yellow phosphor (two complementary colors combine to form white light;
more efficient than first two methods and more commonly used).

There are several types of multi-color white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetra chromatic white LEDs.
Several key factors that play among these different methods include color stability, color
rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency will mean lower color
rendering, presenting a trade-off between the luminous efficiency and color rendering. For
example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the
lowest color rendering capability. However, although tetra chromatic white LEDs have excellent
color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficiency. Trichromatic white LEDs
are in between, having both good luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering
capability.

One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs. The theoretical
maximum for green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed even
100 lumens per watt. The blue and red LEDs get closer to their theoretical limits.

Multi-color LEDs offer not merely another means to form white light but a new means to form
light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of
three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. As more effort is devoted to
investigating this method, multi-color LEDs should have profound influence on the fundamental
method that we use to produce and control light color. However, before this type of LED can
play a role on the market, several technical problems must be solved. These include that this type
of LED's emission power decays exponentially with rising temperature,[83] resulting in a
substantial change in color stability. Such problems inhibit and may preclude industrial use.
Thus, many new package designs aimed at solving this problem have been proposed and their
results are now being reproduced by researchers and scientists.

Correlated color temperature (CCT) dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task,
since binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output.

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Feedback loop systems are used for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control
the color output of multiple color mixing LEDs.

3.1.4.2 Types of LED


LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the
same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used
for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high power LEDs
such as those used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology
packages (not shown).

Figure 3.16. different types of LEDs[5]

The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.

Miniature: These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes
from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a
separate heat sink. Typical current ratings range from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small
size sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current
density and need for a heat sink.

Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as
used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also
be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle.

Researchers at the University of Washington have invented the thinnest LED. It is made of two-
dimensional (2-D) flexible materials. It is 3 atoms thick, which is 10 to 20 times thinner than
three-dimensional (3-D) LEDs and is also 10,000 times smaller than the thickness of a human
hair. These 2-D LEDs are going to make it possible to create smaller, more energy-efficient
lighting, optical communication and nano lasers.

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There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:

i. Low-current: typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW consumption).


ii. Standard: 20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at around:1.9 to 2.1
V for red, orange and yellow, 3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue, 2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink,
purple and white.
iii. Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 4–5 V, designed for viewing in direct
sunlight.

5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for
direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.

Mid-range: Medium-power LEDs are often through-hole-mounted and mostly utilized when an
output of just tens of lumens is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads
(two cathode leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An
example of this is the Super flux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are most
commonly used in light panels, emergency lighting, and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger
amount of metal in the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The
higher current allows for the higher light output required for tail-lights and emergency lighting.

High-power: High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (Lux eon,
Lumileds)

High-power LEDs or high-output LEDs can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more
than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand
lumens. LED power densities up to 300 W/cm2 have been achieved. Since overheating is
destructive; the high power LEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If
the heat from a high power LED is not removed, the device will fail in seconds. One high power
LED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a
powerful LED lamp.

Advantages of LED

LED has different advantages, among these some of them are as below:-

a Carbon emissions: LEDs deliver significant reductions in carbon emissions.


b Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of
LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or
tubes.
c Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional
lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
d Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2 and are easily attached to printed circuit
boards.

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e On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even
faster response times.
f Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps
that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.
g Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering
the forward current.[124]This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights viewed on camera,
particularly headlights on cars, appear to be flashing or flickering. This is a type of
stroboscopic effect.
h Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR
that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat
through the base of the LED.
i Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of
incandescent bulbs.
j Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000
hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes
typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use,
and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have
shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy
savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.
k Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external
shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.
l Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable
manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection lenses are often used to the same
effect. However, when large quantities of light are needed many light sources are usually
deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same target.

Disadvantages

In other hand it has many disadvantages. Few drawback of LED has listed as follows:

a High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital
cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. As of 2010, the cost per thousand
lumens (kilo lumen) was about $18. The price is expected to reach $2/kilo lumen by 2015.
The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive
circuitry and power supplies needed.
b Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature
of the operating environment – or "thermal management" properties. Over-driving an LED in
high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to
device failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially

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important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide
range of temperatures, which require low failure rates. Toshiba has produced LEDs with an
operating temperature range of -40 to 100 °C, which suits the LEDs for both indoor and
outdoor use in applications such as lamps, ceiling lighting, street lights, and floodlights.
c Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a
current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power
supplies.
d Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black
body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm
can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination
than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered
particularly badly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering
properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-
of-art white LEDs.
e Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical
light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses
needing a spherical light field, however different fields of light can be manipulated by the
application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few
degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.
f Electrical polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the
electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. To automatically
match source polarity to LED devices, rectifiers can be used.
g Electric shock hazard: There have been LED recalls because of faulty wiring that can cause
electric shock, fire or burns.
h Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of
exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications
such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for Photo biological Safety for
Lamp and Lamp Systems.
i Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs with high color temperature emit proportionally
more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor
lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs
can cause more light pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-Sky
Association discourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above
3,000 K.
j Efficiency droop: The luminous efficacy of LEDs decreases as the electrical current
increases above tens of milliamps. Heating also increases with higher currents which
compromise the lifetime of the LED. Because of this increased heating, the lighting industry
does not exceed 350 mA to power a given LED.

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3.1.4.3 Applications of LED

LED uses fall into four major categories:


Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eyes to
convey a message or meaning of an object are existed.

Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects.

Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.

Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to incident
light, instead of emitting light to an object are observed.

Large-area LED displays are used as stadium displays and as dynamic decorative displays. Thin,
lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as destination displays
for trains, buses, trams, and ferries.

Weather and all-hazards radio receivers with Specific Area Message Encoding (SAME) have
three LEDs: red for warnings, orange for watches, and yellow for advisories and statements
whenever issued.

LEDs are used as street lights and in other architectural lighting where color changing is used.
The mechanical robustness and long lifetime is used in automotive lighting on cars, motorcycles,
and lights. LED is employed on poles and in parking garages.

LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in hand held devices such as
flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of the
250+ volts commonly found in xenon flash lamp-based lighting. This is especially useful in
cameras on mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising circuitry is
undesirable.

The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in optical fiber
and free space optics communications. This includes remote controls, such as for TVs, VCRs,
and LED Computers, where infrared LEDs are often used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined
with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between
two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low-voltage
sensor circuit (usually battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically
isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at
potentially dangerous voltages.

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3.2 Software tools


In this project each of components are initially simulated using circuit simulations, such as
PROTEUS. Upon verification of fully functional circuit simulations, each hardware
component can be susceptible to being tested in a laboratory setting with precise measuring
instrumentation. We have used simulation and programming software to simulate and test our
program such as micro C and PROTEUS.

We use the ISIS schematic capture and simulator or PROTEUS simulator for microcontroller
circuit design and for testing the overall operation of circuits that contain microcontrollers.

Our program is written using the MICROC programming language. Micro C is a powerful,
feature rich development tool for PIC controllers. It is designed to provide the user with the
easiest possible solution for developing applications for embedded systems, without
compromising performance or control. Micro C allows quickly develop and deploy complex
applications. We write our C source code program using the highly advanced micro C Code
Editor and we use some of the library functions in micro C compiler. The micro C libraries
are used to speed up the development: data acquisition, memory, displays and conversions
function.

Figure 3.17.MICROC window

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3.2.1 Microcontroller Routines


The microcontroller pic16F877A has five I/O ports namely PORTA, PORTB, PORTC,
PORTD and PORTE. Each port has its own pins. PORTA has six pins; PORTB, PORTC and
PORTD have eight pins whereas PORTE has three pins.

Port A and port E are programmed to operate as input pins for sensors.RB0, RB1, RB2, RB4
and RD5 are programmed to operate as output pin for LCD module. RD0, RD1, RD2, RD3,
RD4 and RD5 are programmed to operate as output pin for LED module. RC3 is an output
pin to operate the speaker.

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. MODEL AND RESULT OF THE PROJECT

4.1Block diagram of the project model


As indicated in figure below the microcontroller takes its input from the output voltage of sensor
and displays the condition by the output materials which are LCD, speaker and LEDs. Those
output materials are called user interface materials.

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of the project model

Figure 4.2 Result of the project when an object is approaches from right front

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As indicated in the above chapter under methodology the protues software program is easy to
manipulate this project result. The above figure 4.2 is used to show the result and simulation
model. This model consists of one microcontroller, six identical infrared distance measuring
sensors, one liquid crystal displayer (LCD), six different color light emitting diodes (LED), one
speaker and one potentiometer.

The sensors are used to measure the distance between the car and the object using infrared rays,
gives an output of voltage and provides this voltage to microcontroller. As it is indicated in the
above chapter under calculation methodology, the microcontroller converts this voltage to digital
value (ADC) to interpret the output.

Sensors are located on the car, two at front side (right, left), two at back side (right, left), and the
other two are at the left right side of the car.

The two front side sensors are used to protect the car from obstacle by giving the voltage signal
for the microcontroller. As in figure4.2 the microcontroller displays the written warning, “from
right front” or ”from left front” on the LCD displayer as well as giving a sound by the speaker
to the driver and in addition the LED (red LED for right front) and (yellow LED for left front)

Other two back side sensors are used to protect the car from another car which approaches it
from the back side. At this time as shown in figure 4.3. LCD displays the letter “from right back”
or “from left back” and the speaker shouts by a delay of 2000ms, alternatively the LED is
brighten as (BIGY LED for right back) and (blue LED for left back).

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Figure 4.3 Result of the project when an object is approached from the right back

Another two side sensors also used to protect the car from side obstacles at the time of crowding
or when the driver wants to turn its direction. These two sensors are located, one on the left side,
the other on the right side. When this phenomenon is occurred, for example if the obstacle is
approaches the car from right side, see figure 4.4, the LCD displays “from right side”, the
speaker is sound and the LED bright out green LED. And if it is from left side the LCD display
“from left side” the LED bright out green color.

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Figure 4.4 Result of the project when an object is approached from right side

The driver can dictate an object near the car, by using three possible alternatives output
interfaces. One is from LCD, the other is from speaker and then from LEDs.

The code which is written in the appendix is from microcontroller programming. This code is
used to indicate the microcontroller to tell what it does.

Table 4.1 result of simulation

object approaches from LCD out put LED output (color)


Right front “from right front” Red
Right back “from right back” BIGY
Left front “from left front” Yellow
Left back “from left back” Blue
Right side “from right side” Green
Left side “from left side” BIRY

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CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
The objective of this project to design, integrate and test a Collision Avoidance System (CAS) by
6 infrared distance measuring sensors. For stationary or moving obstacle(s) detected, the system
was able to execute appropriate collision avoidance actions. The project was worked upon the
assumptions that obstacles are either stationary or moving up to the same speed as the platform
and that moving obstacles will endanger the platform only in its front field of view. The project
was completed by tackling the two major aspects of the CAS – the obstacle detection aspect and
the collision avoidance actuation aspect – then integrating them into a single workable Collision
Avoidance System.

From the studies conducted during the literature review, concepts on the algorithm in collision
detection and avoidance can be gathered. The designed algorithm enabled the author’s system
successfully enabled both the detection and collision avoidance actuation of the CAS to function
when stationary or moving obstacles were present in its environment. The CAS was shown in the
demonstrations to have succeeded in navigating a course through various obstacles.

There were attempts to try translating the algorithm into program codes on micro C program
code.

For the CAS detection aspects, it is very important to find out the characteristics of the infrared
distance measuring sensors. Although working specifications arrived together with the sensors, it
is vital that the actual performance of the sensors to be determined. This is so that the actual
performance of the integrated detection aspect of the system may be known. Experiments have
also been done to determine the working performance of the given hardware for platform
locomotion. Although these extensive experiments were very time-consuming, it enabled the
author to be able to calibrate the system to perform to its best ability.

Much work was also done on the hardware integration of the system. Good electrical skills in
circuit connections were vital for the integrity of the hardware and for the system to work well
and perform the executions of the program codes. When the work on the hardware was
completed, the platform was ready for tests on its performance. Again, much time-consuming
work was performed in strengthening any loose connections in the hardware hampering the
performance of the system. It was after minor fine-tuning on hardware and some logic alterations
of program codes that the successful demonstrations were performed and recorded. However, the

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successful demonstrations were subjected to environmental effects such as dusty floors affecting
the wheels and castors. Interference has to be done sometimes, during the long navigation paths
the platform took, to clear the castors stuck with dirt. Otherwise, the CAS successfully navigated
its path with collision with both stationary and moving obstacle, fulfilling the project objectives.

5.2 Recommendation
There are three areas that the groups will recommend improvements in the existing project’s
Collision Avoidance System.

Firstly, the project had an ability to only alarm the driver not to stop the motor. The group
strongly recommends more research be done on the algorithm for the Collision Avoidance
system to be able to stop the motor as soon as the obstacle is arriving.

Another improvement can be done on the system to cope with moving obstacles on the right and
left field of view of the car. This will represent a dynamic environment more accurately for the
CAS to work in.

Lastly, there may be a possibility of an obstacle being ‘invisible’ to the CAS because of its
angular tilt or obstacle size. More research can be done similar to that mentioned in Klee man et
al to find the optimal sensor array design to overcome such problems.

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References
[1]. Ted Van Sickle, Programming Microcontrollers in C, Second Edition, Eagle Rock, Virginia,
2005.

[2]. YesuThommandru, Programming a PIC Microcontroller A Short


[3]. WHO, 2012.disease and injury country estimates available at:

[4]. John A. Hancock. Laser Intensity-Based Obstacle Detection and Tracking. The Robotics
Institute, Carnegie Mellre systems Encyclopedia, http://wwwfars.nhtsa.dot.gov/Main/index.aspx

[5]. J.P Introduction to Sensors,LCD and LED. http://wwwfars.nhtsa.dot.gov/Main/index.aspx.

[6]. W. Jones, “Keeping Cars from Crashing,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 38, no 9, pp. 4045, 2001.

[7]. W. Jones, “Building Safer Cars,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 82- 85, 2002

[8]. J. Pierowicz, E. Jocoy, M. Lloyd, A. Bittner, and B. Pirson. “Intersection Collision


Avoidance Using ITS Countermeasures.” Technical Report DOT HS 809 171, NHTSA, U.S.
DOT, September 2000. Final report.
http://www.who.int/health info/global burden disease/ estimates country/ en/index.html
[9]. united nation economic commission for, 2011, case study: road safety in Ethiopia.
[10]. Hayshi.y and kato.h (2011).the effect of used cars on African road traffic accidents: a case
study of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. International journal of urban sciences, 2–9.
[11]. Virginia Tech Transportation Institute: http://www.vtti.vt.edu/research.html.
[12]. Wang, L.-j., J.-k. Wang, et al. (2008). Location estimation of mobile user inwireless sensor
network based on Unscented Kalman Filter. Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technology,
2008. ICMMT 2008. International Conference on.

[13]. Jihua, H. and T. Han-Shue (2006). Design and implementation of a cooperative


collision warning system. Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference, 2006.
ITSC '06. IEEE.

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APPENDIX
longx,y,v,t,m,k;

sbit LCD_RS at RB4_bit;

sbit LCD_EN at RB6_bit;

sbit LCD_D4 at RB0_bit;

sbit LCD_D5 at RB1_bit;

sbit LCD_D6 at RB2_bit;

sbit LCD_D7 at RB3_bit;

sbitLCD_RS_Direction at TRISB4_bit;

sbitLCD_EN_Direction at TRISB6_bit;

sbit LCD_D4_Direction at TRISB0_bit;

sbit LCD_D5_Direction at TRISB1_bit;

sbit LCD_D6_Direction at TRISB2_bit;

sbit LCD_D7_Direction at TRISB3_bit;

char txt1[] = "from right front";

char txt2[] = "from right back";

char txt3[] = "from left front";

char txt4[] = "from left back";

char txt5[] = "from right side";

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char txt6[] = "from left side";

charrf[25];

void Tone3() {

Sound_Play(659, 250);

void main() {

trisb=0; //output

portb=0;

trisa=6; //input

porta=0;

trisc=0;

portc=0;

trise=3; //input

porte=0;

trisd=0;

portd=0;

Lcd_Init();

Sound_Init(&PORTC, 3);

while(1)

{x = ADC_Read(0);

y = ADC_Read(1);

v = ADC_Read(2);

t = ADC_Read(3);

m = ADC_Read(4);

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k = ADC_Read(5);

if(x>126){

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

Lcd_Out(1,2,txt1);

portd = 1;

delay_ms(250);

Tone3();

if(y>126){

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

Lcd_Out(1,2,txt2);

portd = 2;

Delay_ms(2000);

Tone3();

if(v>83){

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

Lcd_Out(1,2,txt3);

delay_ms(250);

portd = 4;

Tone3();

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if(t>83){

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

Lcd_Out(1,2,txt4);

Delay_ms(2000);

portd = 8;

Tone3();

if(m>83)

{Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

Lcd_Out(1,2,txt5);

portd = 16;

delay_ms(250);

Tone3();

if(k>126)

{Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CURSOR_OFF);

Lcd_Out(1,2,txt6);

Delay_ms(2000);

portd = 32;

Tone3();

DU electrical and computer engineering department Page 58


Vehicle collision avoiding system

}else{

Lcd_Cmd(_LCD_CLEAR);

portc=0;

portd=0;

portb=0;}}}

DU electrical and computer engineering department Page 59

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