Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pg.no.
1. INTRODUCTION 5
2. COMPONENT LIST 6
4. PCB MANUFACTURING 47
5. BLOCK DIAGRAM 48
6. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 49
7. WORKING 50-51
8. PLANNING OF WORK 52
9. APLLICATIONS 53
10. BIBLOGRAPHY 54
INTRODUCTION
Component list
IC(IC1-IC3=741) 3
Transistor(T1,T2,T3=BC557) 3
Relay(RL1-RL3=12V,1C/O RELAY) 3
Zener diode(ZDI-ZD3=5.1V) 3
Variable resistance(VR1-VR3=10K) 3
Resistance(R1,R2,R4,R5,R7,R8=3.3K, 9
R3,R6,R9=10K)
Diode 9
Capacitor(C1-C4=1000Uf 25v,C5- 7
C7=470Uf 35v)
Wires Acc. To requirement
APPLICATION
Residential.
Commercial offices.
Factories operating with 1 phase machineries.
Hospitals/Banks.
Institutions.
Choose project.
Collect information about project.
Arrange the components.
Testing the components.
Design the circuit.
Connect the components according to circuit.
Testing of circuit.
Checked by guide.
Final testing by project incharge.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with
minimal loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current)
because they require a changing magnetic field to be created in their core.
Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-
down).
The iron core is laminated to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core.
These are currents produced by the alternating magnetic field inducing a
small voltage in the core, just like that induced in the secondary coil. Eddy
currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but they are reduced
to a negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the
electrical resistance of the core without affecting its magnetic properties.
1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so
they can be safely used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.
2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high
efficiency (power out / power in) of 95% or more.
Mains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce
the AC mains supply voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some
countries) to a safer low voltage. The standard mains supply voltages are
officially 115V and 230V, but 120V and 240V are the values usually quoted
and the difference is of no significance in most cases.
To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two
separate primary coils (windings) labelled 0-120V and 0-120V. The two
coils are connected in series for 240V (figure 2a) and in parallel for 120V
(figure 2b). They must be wired the correct way round as shown in the
diagrams because the coils must be connected in the correct sense
(direction):
Most mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labelled 0-
9V, 0-9V) which may be used separately to give two independent supplies,
or connected in series to create a centre-tapped coil (see below) or one coil
with double the voltage.
If the first coil has more turns that the second coil, the secondary voltage is
smaller than the primary voltage:
This is called a step-down transformer. If the second coil has half as many
turns as the first coil, the secondary voltage will be half the size of the
primary voltage; if the second coil has one tenth as many turns, it has one
tenth the voltage. In general:
So a step-down transformer with 100 coils in the primary and 10 coils in the
secondary will reduce the voltage by a factor of 10 but multiply the current
by a factor of 10 at the same time. The power in an electric current is equal
to the current times the voltage (watts = volts x amps is one way to
remember this), so you can see the power in the secondary coil is
theoretically the same as the power in the primary coil. (In reality, there is
some loss of power between the primary and the secondary because some of
the "magnetic flux" leaks out of the core, some energy is lost because the
core heats up, and so on.)
RELAY
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
There are really only two fundamentally different operating
principles: (1) electromagnetic attraction, and (2)
electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic attraction relays
operate by virtue of a plunger being drawn into a solenoid,
or an armature being attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet. Such relays may be actuated by d-c or by a-c
quantities.
Electromagnetic-induction relays use the principle of the
induction motor whereby torque
is developed by induction in a rotor; this operating principle
applies only to relays actuated by alternating current, and in
dealing with those relays we shall call them simply
"induction-type" relays.
DEFINITIONS OF OPERATION
Mechanical movement of the operating mechanism is
imparted to a contact structure to
close or to open contacts. When we say that a relay
"operates," we mean that it either closes or opens its
contacts-whichever is the required action under the
circumstances. Most relays have a "control spring," or are
restrained by gravity, so that they assume a given position
when completely de-energized; a contact that is closed
under this condition is called a "closed" contact, and one
that is open is called and "open" contact. This is
standardized nomenclature, but it can be quite confusing
and awkward to use. A much better nomenclature in rather
extensive use is the designation ÒaÓ for an "open" contact,
and ÒbÓ for a "closed" contact. This nomenclature will be
used in this book. The present standard method for showing
"a" and ÒbÓ contacts on connection diagrams is illustrated
in Fig. 1. Even though an ÒaÓ contact may be closed under
normal operating conditions, it should be shown open as in
Fig. 1; and similarly,
even though a ÒbÓ contact may normally be open, it should
be shown closed.
When a relay operates to open a ÒbÓ contact or to close an
ÒaÓ contact, we say that it "picks up," and the smallest
value of the actuating quantity that will cause such
operation, as the quantity is slowly increased from zero, is
called the "pickup" value. When a relay operates to close a
ÒbÓ contact, or to move to a stop in place of a ÒbÓ contact,
we say that it "resets"; and the largest value of the actuating
quantity at which this occurs, as the quantity is slowly
Electrical fuses have taken many forms and generally comprise fuses having
a fusible link extending between a pair of terminal portions.
The fusible link may be provided either with notches cut in one or more
sides of the fusible portion or with holes formed therethrough to create
narrower and therefore weaker portions within the fusible portion. One of
the more common types of fuses is the thermal fuse (electrothermal fuse). In
the thermal fuse, electrical current flowing through the fuse causes the fuse
to heat. The current path within a typical fuse is through the end caps or
ferrules to a metallic fusible element. The resistance of the fusible element
develops heat that causes a portion of the metal to melt or disintegrate upon
reaching the melting temperature of the metal. This property is exploited to
achieve accurate thermal activation of a fuse in response to a particular level
of overload current. In normal operation, the temperature of the device
remains relatively low and the resistance of the device also remains low.
When an overload current flows through the device, the internal temperature
of the fuse rises sufficiently to cause the fuse to electrically open. An alloy
type thermal fuse is widely used as a thermo-protector for an electrical
appliance or a circuit element, for example, a semiconductor device, a
capacitor, or a resistor. Such an alloy type thermal fuse has a configuration
in which an alloy of a predetermined melting point is used as a fuse element,
the fuse element is bonded between a pair of lead conductors, a flux is
applied to the fuse element, and the flux-applied fuse element is sealed by an
insulator.
A time delay fuse is a type of fuse that is designed to allow temporary and
harmless currents to pass there through without triggering the fuse.
Time delay fuses are used in connection with equipment having temporary
current surges, such as motors and transformers. Time delay fuses often
employ a fusible element and a spring-loaded heat mass. A deposit of solder
retains the heat mass from movement by the spring. The dimensions of
the fusible element are selected such that it melts quickly under short-circuit
conditions. Time delay fuses are typically used in circuits
subject to temporary transients such as motor starting currents. A typical
high-voltage, current-limiting fuse comprises a tubular insulating
housing, an elongated core within the housing, and one of more fusible
elements wound about the core and connected between terminals at opposite
ends of the housing. A core is needed in fuses of this type rated at 5 KV and
above in order to enable the fuse to accommodate the required length of
fusible element within a housing of practical length. The fuse housing
materials may consist of glass, ceramic, porcelain, and glass-filament-wound
epoxy tubing. Copper ferrules or sand cast caps are typically glued to the
ends of the fuse body with an epoxy or pressed onto the fuse housing with
an interference fit to form end enclosures. A card type fuse is suitable for use
in various devices having a low electrical power of less than 1A. For
example, such a fuse is suitable for fuse-matching in a wire harness
composed of wires having a small diameter, and which connects a series of
electronic elements in a car. In such fields, utilization of card type fuses has
been increasing.
Solid state fuses are also known in which transistors and thyristors are
placed in series with the load and turn off in response to a load fault
condition.
COMPARATOR
ZENER DIODE
Clarence Zener
Clarence Melvin Zener was the American physicist who first described the
electrical property exploited by the Zener diode, which Bell Labs then
named after him...
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is
specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the
so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-
biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current
to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. For example,
a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop
of 3.2 V if reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its Zener
voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the
generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier
Amplifier
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is any device that changes, usually
increases, the amplitude of a signal. The relationship of the input to the
output of an amplifier—usually expressed as a function of the input
frequency—is called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the
magnitude of... stage, or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
P-n junction
A p–n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors
together in very close contact. The term junction refers to the boundary
interface where the two regions of the semiconductor meet...allowing
electron
Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle carrying a negative electric charge. It
has no known components or substructure, and therefore is believed to be an
elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836
that of the proton. The intrinsic angular momentum of the electron is as to
tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band
of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the
transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as
a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric fields
that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides.
The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping
process. While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used
tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for commonly available
zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200 volts.
Symbol
Diode Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are
the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all
real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored
in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current
flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum
reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail
and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Diode Construction
The physical construction of a diode with a diffusion junction is shown in
the figure below. When a diode is reverse biased ie. a positive voltage is
applied to the cathode with respect to the anode, an electric field is formed
between the cathode and anode specifically across the depletion region. The
diode is 'reverse biased' and cannot conduct except for small leakage
currents. However, if the electric field becomes too strong 'avalanche
breakdown' occurs and the diode will become a short circuit and often be
damaged. To counteract this the physical distance between the anode and
cathode is increased by increasing the size of the bulk region and changing
impurity atom doping
levels.
Standard Rectifiers
Rectifiers are electronic high voltage diodes, which allow current to flow in
only one direction. Essentially, they act as one-way valves, and are used to
convert AC current to DC current.
VF: Forward Voltage, which is the voltage across the diode terminals
resulting from the flow of current in the forward direction.
IF: Forward Current is the current flowing through the diode in the direction
of lower resistance.
Fast Rectifiers
Figure 3a and b show typical styles of reverse recovery. The area within the
negative portion of each curve, , is the total reverse recovery charge Qrr
and represents the charge removal from the junction and the bulk regions of the
diode and is effectively independent of the forward current in the diode. The
recovery time t2 - t1 is dependant on the size of the bulk region thus high di/dt
currents can be obtained when using fast diodes. If the di/dt of the snap
recovery is too high and stray inductance exists in the circuit then extremely
high and possibly damaging voltage spikes can be induced.
(Note: ). Qrr can be found from manufacturers specifications thus the
maximum reverse recovery current Irr is given by:
If ta is very small compared to ta then ta trr and knowing the rate of decrease of
current di/dt = Irr/ta Irr/trr leads to:
Figure 3:
(a) Reverse recovery of a general purpose diode, (b) fast diode. Reverse
recovery time trr = t2 - t0.
The effect of reverse recovery on the output voltage of a rectifier feeding a
resistive load is shown in figure 4.
C = (8.85 X 10 -12) K AD
or A =
(8.85 X 10 -12) K
CD
Given: K = 1
C = 1 farad
D = 1 millimeter (or 0.001 meters)
A = 1 x 0.001 = 113,000,000 sq. meters
(8.85 X 10 -12) x 1
TRANSISTOR
The pnp transistor works essentially the same as the npn transistor.
However, since the emitter, base, and collector in the pnp transistor are made
of materials that are different from those used in the npn transistor, different
current carriers flow in the pnp unit. The majority current carriers in the
pnp transistor are holes. This is in contrast to the npn transistor where the
majority current carriers are electrons. To support this different type of
current (hole flow), the bias batteries are reversed for the pnp transistor. A
typical bias setup for the pnp transistor is shown in figure 1.
Notice that the procedure used earlier to properly bias the npn transistor also
applies here to the pnp transistor. The first letter (p) in the pnp sequence
indicates the polarity of the voltage required for the emitter (positive), and
the second letter (n) indicates the polarity of the base voltage (negative).
Since the base-collector junction is always reverse biased, then the opposite
polarity voltage (negative) must be used for the collector. Thus, the base of
the pnp transistor must be negative with respect to the emitter, and the
collector must be more negative than the base. Remember, just as in the case
of the npn transistor, this difference in supply voltage is necessary to have
current flow (hole flow in the case of the pnp transistor) from the emitter to
the collector. Although hole flow is the predominant type of current flow in
the pnp transistor, hole flow only takes place within the transistor itself,
while electrons flow in the external circuit. However, it is the internal hole
flow that leads to electron flow in the external wires connected to the
transistor.
Figure 2: The forward-biased junction in a pnp transistor.
However, this same negative collector voltage acts as forward bias for the
minority current holes in the base, which cross the junction and enter the
collector. The minority current electrons in the collector also sense forward
bias-the positive base voltage-and move into the base. The holes in the
collector are filled by electrons that flow from the negative terminal of the
battery. At the same time the electrons leave the negative terminal of the
battery, other electrons in the base break their covalent bonds and enter the
positive terminal of the battery. Although there is only minority current flow
in the reverse-biased junction, it is still very small because of the limited
number of minority current carriers.
Although current flow in the external circuit of the pnp transistor is opposite
in direction to that of the npn transistor, the majority carriers always flow
from the emitter to the collector. This flow of majority carriers also results in
the formation of two individual current loops within each transistor. One
loop is the base-current path, and the other loop is the collector-current path.
The combination of the current in both of these loops (IB + IC) results in total
transistor current (IE). The most important thing to remember about the two
different types of transistors is that the emitter-base voltage of the
pnp transistor has the same controlling effect on collector current as that of
the npn transistor. In simple terms, increasing the forward-bias voltage of a
transistor reduces the emitter-base junction barrier. This action allows more
carriers to reach the collector, causing an increase in current flow from the
emitter to the collector and through the external circuit. Conversely, a
decrease in the forward-bias voltage reduces collector current.
WORKING