Basic Soil Properties - 6 Aug 2007 (BW) PDF

Introduction to
Soil Mechanics
Harianto RAHARDJO
College of Engineering
Civil and Environmental Engineering
Poor soil conditions for bearing capacity
(Photograph from Bradly, 1996)
Good soil conditions for bearing capacity
(Photograph from Holtz & Kovacs, 1981)
References:
n Bradly, N.C and Weil, R.R. (1996), “The Nature and
Properties of Soils”, Prentice Hall Inc.
n Hamblin, W.K. (1985), “The Earth’s Dynamic Systems”,
Macmillan.
n Holtz, R.D and Kovacs, W.D. (1981), “An Introduction to
Geotechnical Engineering”, Prentice Hall Inc.
n Geotechnical Control Office (1988), “Guide to Rock and
Soil Descriptions”, Government of Hong Kong.
n Lambe, T.W. (1951), “Soil Testing for Engineers”, John
Wiley & Son, Inc.
n Active Army, USAR, and ARNG (1994), Field Manual (FM)
5-430, US Army Engineer School
Historical Development
n Soil has been used as foundation or
construction materials (dikes) since
the ancient of Egyptians, Babylonians,
Chinese and Indians
n During the middle ages, the
Scandinavians used timber piles to
support houses and wharf on their soft
clays
Historical Development (cont)
n Mid-1700, Coulomb introduced the

shear strength theory of soils
n In 1856, Darcy established the law for
water flow through soils
n In 1857, Rankine developed a method
of estimating the earth pressure again
retaining wall
n In 1911, Atterberg defined the

consistency limit of the clay
n In 1925, Karl Terzaghi introduced
Modern Soil Mechanics
n Since 1950’s, soil mechanics has
developed significantly with important
contributions from Casagrande,
Taylor, Peck, Tschebotarioff,
Skempton, Bjerrum, etc.
n Recent developments included

earthquake engineering and soil
dynamics, the use of computer to
obtain the solution for complex
problems, and the introduction of
probabilistic and statistic analyses
Residual soil formed from
the in-place weathering of igneous rock
Soil Formation
n Weathering:
n rock is converted into soil

n physical or chemical
breakdown of the rock
Physical weathering:
n Unloading
n Frostaction
n Organism growth
n Temperature changes
n Crystal growth
n Abrasion
Ice wedging
(occurs when water seeps into fractures and expands as it freezes)
(Photograph from Hamblin, 1985)
Chemical weathering:
n Oxidation : chemical union with
oxygen
n Hydration : chemical union with
water
n Hydrolysis : dissociation of water
n Carbonation : chemical union with
carbon dioxide
n Solution : carbon dioxide
dissolves in water
Pathways of weathering that occur under moderately
acid conditions common in humid temperate regions
(Bradly, 1996)
Controlling factors:
n Discontinuities:
joints and faults to allow air
and water to enter rock mass
n Climate:
chemical weathering is
dominant in tropical climate
Effect of temperature and moisture on weathering depth
(Bradly, 1996)
Soil types
Soil can be divided into two groups:
n Residual soil
n formed from weathered rock in place
n chemical weathering is dominant
n Transported soil
n formed from materials that have been
transported and deposited at a new
place
Rock Mass Exposed
(located at Chai Wan, Hong Kong Island)
Sample of Residual Soil
(from Chai Wan, Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong)
Sample of Completely Decomposed Granite
(from Ho Man Tin, Kowloon, Hong Kong)
Soil profile
A HORIZON
Highly weathered and normally leached.
Undistrubed soils have a thin organic layer in the surface and in the upper portion.
B HORIZON
Highly of accumulation.
Normally more clayey and compact than A HORIZON. Sometimes cemented to hardpan.
C HORIZON
Partly weathered.
A and B HORIZONs are fromed from material of this type.
Unaltered Bedrock
(from Hamblin, 1985)
Exposure of Layered Fill
(from Peak Road, Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong)
Transported soils
n Glacial – deposited by ice
n Alluvial – deposited along streams
n Lacustrine – deposited in quiet lakes
n Marine – deposited in the sea
n Aeolian – deposited by wind
n Colluvial – movement by gravity
(e.g. landslide)
Transported and Deposited Soils
(from Bradly, 1996)
Illustration of floodplain development
(a) a stream is at flood stage (b) after the flood
(from Bradly, 1996)
Contrasting
layers of
sand, silt,
and clay
characterize
the alluvial
floodplain
(from Bradly, 1996)

Sediments laid down by marine water
(from Bradly, 1996)
Sample of Marine Mud
(from Junk Bay, New Territories , Hong Kong)
Sample of Marine Sand
(from Castle Peak Road, New Territories, Hong Kong)
Formation
Kallang Marine Clay
Old Alluvium
Jurong Sedimentary Residual Soils
N Bukit Timah Granitic Residual Soils
Gombak Norite
Sajahat
0 5 10 km
NTU Campus
Geological Map of Singapore

Relation of
water table and
groundwater to
water movement
into and out
of the soil
(from Bradly, 1996)

Water table, capillary fringe and
zone of unsaturated material above the water table
(Photograph from Bradly, 1996)
Basic Soil Properties
Harianto RAHARDJO
Soil skeleton
n Solid particles (S)
n Water (W) W
n Air (A)
S
Phase Diagram
Volume Mass
Va Air Ma= 0
Vv
W
Vw Water Mw
Vt
Vs Solid Ms
Void ratio, e
Vv
e=
Vs
n Expressed as a decimal
n Possible range: 0 - ∞
n Typical Value:
n Sands : 0.4 – 1.0
n Clays : 0.3 – 1.5
Porosity, n
Vv
n= x 100 (%)
Vt
n Expressed as a percentage
n Relationship with e
Vv Vv e Vs e n
n= = = = OR e=
Vt Vs + Vv Vs + e Vs 1 + e 1− n
Degree of saturation, S
Vw
S= x 100 (%)
Vv
n Percentage of void volume
containing water
n Fully saturated, S = 100%
n Unsaturated, S < 100%
n Dry, S = 0%
Water content, w
Mw
w= x 100 (%)
Ms
n Expressed as a percentage
n Ms = mass of water
n Mw = dry mass of the soil
n Possible range: 0 – 500%
Marine and
organic soils
Density, ρ
Mass
ρ= [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
Volume
• Density of Solids, ρs
Ms
ρs = [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vs
Typical values of ρs:
n 2.5 – 2.8 Mg/m3 for common soils
n 2.65 Mg/m3 for Quartz mineral
• Density of Water, ρw
Mw
ρw= [ kg/m 3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vw
At 40C, ρw = 1.0 Mg/m3
• Total density of soil, ρ

Mt Ms + M w
ρt = = [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vt Vt
It is also called wet, bulk, or moist density
of soil since Mw is included
• Saturated density, ρsat
Ms + M w
ρsat = [ kg/m 3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vt
At full saturation ( S = 100%, Va = 0 )
• Submerged density, ρ’
ρ’ = ρsat - ρw [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
It is also called buoyant density
• Dry density, ρd
Ms
ρd = [ kg/m3 or Mg/m3 ]
Vt
( Mw is not included )
Unit weight, γ ( kN/m3 )

γ =ρ xg
e.g., - water : γw = ρw g = 9.81 kN/m3
- sand : γ = 20 kN/m3
Specific Gravity, Gs
ρs
Gs = ρ
w
e.g., ρs = 2.65 Mg/m3

ρw = 1 Mg/m3
Gs = 2.65
Typical values of density
3
Density ( Mg/m )
Soil Type
ρ sat ρd ρ'
Sands and gravels 1.9-2.4 1.5-2.3 1.0-1.3

Silts and clays 1.4-2.1 0.6-1.8 0.4-1.1
Glacial tills 2.1-2.4 1.7-2.3 1.1-1.4
Crushed rock 1.9-2.2 1.5-2.0 0.9-1.2
Peats 1.0-1.1 0.1-0.3 0.0-0.1
Organic silts and clays 1.3-1.8 0.5-1.5 0.3-0.8
Hansbo (1975)
Example
n Given : ρ = 1.76 Mg/m3; w = 10%
n Required : ρd , e, n, S, ρsat
n Solution :
Assume Vs = 1 m3 and ρs = 2.7 Mg/m3
→ Ms = 1 x 2.7 = 2.7 Mg
Mw = w x Ms = 0.1 x 2.7 = 0.27 Mg
Mt = Ms + Mw = 2.7 + 0.27 = 2.97 Mg
Vw = Mw / ρw = 0.27 / 1 = 0.27 m3
Vt = Mt / ρ = 2.97 / 1.76 = 1.688 m3
Va = Vt - Vw - Vs
= 1.688 - 0.27 - 1 = 0.418 m3
From phase diagram
ρd = Ms / Vt = 2.7 / 1.688
3
Volume (m) Mass (Mg) = 1.6 Mg/m3
V=0.418 Air Ma= 0
e = Vv / Vs = (Va + Vw) / Vs
a
= (0.418 + 0.27) / 1 = 0.688
n = Vv / Vt = (Va + Vw) / Vs x 100%
V=0.270
w
Water M=w 0.27
= (0.418 + 0.27) / 1.688 x 100%
Mt=2.97
Vt=1.688
= 40.8%
S = Vw / Vv = 0.27 / 0.688 x 100%
V=1
s
Solid M=s 2.70 = 39.2%
(assume) ρsat = Ms + Mw / Vt (at S = 100%)
= 2.7 + (0.27 + 0.418) / 1.688
= 2.01 Mg/m3
Important Relationship:
ρs + ρ w Se
n ρ =
1+e
nρ = ρd (1 + w)
nS e = w (ρs / ρw)
nS e = w Gs
Summary:
n Soil composition:
solid, water, air
n Phase diagram:
mass - volume relationship
n Basic definitions:
e, n, S, w, Gs
ρs, ρw, ρ, ρd, ρsat, ρ’
Soil Texture (Appearance):
n Relative sizes of the particles
n Coarse grained : gravels, sands
n Fine-textured : silts, clays
n Particle shape
n Rounded
n Angular
n Distribution of particle sizes
Texture & characteristics
of soils
Soil Name: Gravels, Sands Silts Clays
Grain size: Coarse grained Fine grained Fine grained
(can see individual (can not see (can not see
grains by eye) individual grains) individual grains)
Characteristic: Cohesionless Cohesionless Cohesive
Nonplastic Nonplastic Plastic
Granular Granular -
Effect of water Relatively unimportant Important Very important
on engineering (exception: loose
behavior: saturated materials
and dynamic loadings
Effect of grain size Important Relatively unimportant Relatively unimportant
distribution on
eng. behavior:
Holtz & Kovacs (1981)
Grain Size Distribution (GSD)
Wide range of possible particle
sizes in soils:
n Boulders : few metres in diameter
n Clay : micro metres in size
Various soil classification schemes

n British and M.I.T
n ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials)
n USCS (Unified Soil Classification System)
Grain size (mm)
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
British Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand Silt

Colloids
& M.I.T ders bles C M F C M F C M F
200 60 20 6 2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 .006 .002 ( mm )
ASTM Boul- Cob- Sand

Gravels Silt Clay Colloids
(D422; D653) ders bles C M F
300 75 4.75 2 0.425 0.075 0.005 0.001 ( mm )
Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand

USCS ders bles
Fines (Silt, Clay)
C F C M F
300 75 19 4.75 2 0.425 0.075 Opening Size (mm)
10 100
U.S. Standard Sieve No
4 40 200
How to obtain GSD
n For coarse particles (gravel, sand):
n Sieving of dry soil through a series of
sieves with successively smaller
openings
n Percentage passing each size sieve
can than be determined
n For fine particles (silt and clay or

passing No. 200 sieve):
n Used hydrometer analysis
Sieves for
grain size analysis
U.S. Standard Sieve Opening
Sieve No. (mm)
4 4.750
10 2.000
20 0.850
40 0.425
60 0.250
100 0.150
140 0.106
200 0.075
Hydrometer Test:
n Mixing the fines with water to form a
suspension
n The density of the suspension can
be measured using a hydrometer
n The percentage of particles of a
certain equivalent diameter can be
calculated from the measured
density using Stoke’s Law
Hydrometer
test
apparatus
(Photograph from Lambe, 1951)
Characteristics of GSD
n Well graded:
n good representation of particle size over a wide
range
n the curve is smooth and generally concave
upward
n Poorly graded:
n excess or deficiency of certain sizes
n most of particles are about the same size
n Uniform:
n about the same size
n Gap graded:
n certain particle sizes are very low
Typical grain size
distribution curves
No 200 No 4
Fines (silt, clay) Sand Gravel
100 0
Uniform
80 20
Percent retained (%)

Percent passing (%)
60 40
Well graded
40 60
Gap graded
20 80
100
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain diameter (mm)
(from Holts and Kovacs, 1981)
Characteristics of GSD (cont)
n D10 = effective size

= grain size corresponding to
10% passing
n Cu = coefficient of uniformity
= D60 / D10
Cu = 2-3 x poorly graded
Cu > 15 x well graded
n Cc = coefficient of curvature
= (D30)2 / (D10)x(D60)
Cc = 1-3 x well graded
Example: Fines
No 200
Sand
No 4
Gravel
100 0
n Given: gap graded 80 20
Percent retained (%)

Percent passing (%)
n D10 = 0.022 mm 60 40
Gap graded
n D30 = 0.052 mm 40 60
n D60 = 1.200 mm 20 80
D30
n Therefore: D10 D60
100
0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain diameter (mm)
n Cu = D60 / D10
= 1.2 / 0.022 = 55
n Cc = (D30)2 / (D10)x(D60) Poorly
= (0.052)2 / (0.022)x(1.2) Graded
= 0.1
Particle Shape:
n Determined by visual
classification
n Particle shape affects soil
properties:
n Friction angle of sand increases
with the increasing angularity of
the particles
Typical shapes of
coarse-grained particles
(Photograph from Holts and Kovacs, 1981)
Atterberg Limit &
Consistency Indices
n The engineering behavior (e.g.
strength and compressibility) of
fine-grained soils is significantly
affected by the water content in
the soil
n Atterberg (1911) defined certain
limiting or critical stages in soil
behavior using soil water content
Three important
limiting conditions:
n Liquid limit (LL or wL):
the water content above which the soil
behaves as a liquid
n Plastic limit (PL or wP):
the water content above which the soil
behaves as a plastic solid
n Shrinkage limit (SL or wS):
the water content below which the soil does
not change in volume with further drying
These limits are written without the
percentage sign
Soil test to determine LL & PL
Casagrande
grooving
tool
Remolded 8
Soil sample 11
2
8 Brass cup
10
Hard rubber or micarta base
(from Holtz and Kovac, 1981)
Typical values:
n Liquid limit (LL) : 0 – 1000 (usually < 100)
n Plastic limit (PL) : 0 – 100 (usually < 40)
Other Indices:
n Plasticity Index
n PI = LL – PL
n the water content range for the plastic condition
n PI is used to differentiate clay from silt
n Liquidity Index
wn - PL
n LI =
PI
n wn = natural water content
Brittle Semi Plastic Liquid
Solid Solid Solid
0 SL PL LL w (%)
LI< 0 LI = 0 0 < LI < 1 LI = 1 LI > 0
Soil with LI > 1 can be extremely sensitive to

breakdown of the soil structure due to
disturbance
τ x
τ τ
w = PL
w < PL
w = LL
γ γ w > LL γ
Stress – strain behavior
Sensitive soil:
n same water
content
n undisturbed:
σver = 100 kPa
n remolded:
behave like liquid
(Photograph from Holtz and Kovacs, 1951)

Activity, A:
PI
n A =
Clay fraction (% by weight of particle less than 2 µm)
n related to the surface activity of clay

particle in their interaction with water
(shrink – swell)
n A < 0.75 : Inactive
n 0.75 < A < 1.25 : Normal
n A > 1.25 : Active
Summary :
n Grain Size Distribution:
gravel, sand, fines (silt + clay)
n Well and Poorly Graded:
D10, Cu, Cc
n Atterberg Limits:
SL < PL < LL
n Consistency:
PI and LI
n GDS is important in coarse-grained soils and
Atterberg Limits are important for fine-grained
soils
RANJITH, P.G.
Soil Classification
z Introduction
z Unified Soil Classification System

(USCS)
z Field identification
Soil Classification System:
n The main purpose of any classification
system is to facilitate the transfer of
information between interested parties
n A systematic method of categorizing
soils according to their probable
engineering behavior
n Accumulated experience of other
engineers is included
Soil Classification System:
(Contd.)
n Used as a language of communication

between engineers to differentiate the
various soil types
n Can be used to estimate the
engineering properties of the soil:
n Permeability
n Compressibility
n Shrink-swell
n Shear strength
Role of classification system
in Geotechnical Engineering
Classification and Index Properties
( w, e, ρ , S, GSD, LL, PI, etc )
Classification System
( “language” )
Engineering Properties
( permeability, compressibility, shrink-swell, shear strength )
Engineering Purpose
( highways, airfields, foundation, dams, etc.)
Soil Classification Systems
n USCS – Unified Soil Classification
System
n MIT – Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
n AASHTO – American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials
n USDA – US Dept. of Agriculture
n BS – British Soil Classification System
Grain size (mm)
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
British Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand Silt

Colloids
& M.I.T ders bles C M F C M F C M F
200 60 20 6 2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 .006 .002 ( mm )
ASTM Boul- Cob- Sand

Gravels Silt Clay Colloids
(D422; D653) ders bles C M F
300 75 4.75 2 0.425 0.075 0.005 0.001 ( mm )

USCS ders bles
Fines (Silt, Clay)
C F C M F
300 75 19 4.75 2 0.425 0.075 Opening Size (mm)
10 100
4 40 200
Soil Classification System
n USCS – Unified Soil Classification

System
Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
n Commonly used in Civil Engineering

n Developed by Prof. A. Casagrande
n Basic:
n Coarse-grained soils are classified
according to grain size distribution
n Fine-grained soils are classified according
to their plasticity
Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS)
Soil
Coarse- Fine-grained Highly organic

grained soil soils (peaty) soils
Highly Organic soil
A soil classified as highly organic if it is
composed primarily of:
Organic material,
Is dark brown, dark gray in color,
Has an organic odour and a soft
consistency.
Fibrous material (remnents of stems,
leaves, roots etc) are often evident.
USCS
n Procedure:
n Oversize materials are noted on the data
sheet
n Boulder : particles > 300 mm
n Cobbles : particles 75 – 300 mm
n Classification is performed on the materials
passing the 75 mm sieve
USCS ders bles
Fines (Silt, Clay)
C F C M F
300 75 4.75 2 0.475 0.075 Sieve opening size (mm)
10 40 120
4 20 60 200
Sieve Analysis-Previous section
Sieve Sieve opening

no. (mm)
4 4.75
8 2.36
16 1.18
30 0.6
50 0.3
100 0.15
200 0.075
Sieve analysis test data
Sieve Size Mass retained Cumulative mass Percent finer

(mm) (g) retained (g) (%)
4.75 0 0 100
2.36 40 0+40 = 40 94.5
(1-40/729)x100
1.18 60 40+60 = 100 86.3
0.6 89 189 74.1
0.25 140 329 54.9
0.18 122 451 38.1
0.15 210 661 9.3
0.075 56 717 1.7
Pan 10 729 0
Sieve Analysis - PSD Curve
%
Passing Particle Size Distribution
curve (PSD)
60%
30%
10%
Particle size (mm)
D60 D30 D10 (in log scale)
Sieve Analysis - PSD Curve
From Particle Size Distribution curve (PSD):

• D10 – Effective grain size corresponding to 10%
passing on a PSD curve

• Cu - Coefficient of Uniformity : is defined as the

ratio between grain size corresponding to 60%
divided by the grain size at 10% passing
Sieve Analysis - PSD Curve (contd.)
From Particle Size Distribution curve (PSD):
D
Coefficient of Uniformity, C = u
60
D 10
2
(D )
Coefficient of Curvature, C = c
30
( D xD ) 60 10
Particle size distribution
curve (PSD)
• Percentage of Gravel,
sand, fines, and so on
• Cu
• Cc
Atterberg Limits (Fine

grained soils)
• Liquid Limit : LL
• Plastic Limit: PL
• Plasticity Index: PI
USCS
USCS
n Procedure:
n Determine if the soil is Coarse Grained, Fine
Grained or Highly Organic by:
n Visual inspection
n Percent retained by the 0.075 mm sieve (No. 200)
n Retained on the 0.075 mm sieve (No. 200):
n > 50% x Coarse Grained
n < 50% x Fine Grained
n Performed Atterberg Limit Test on the fines
n Highly organic soils can be identified readily

by color, odor, spongy feel and by fibrous
texture x the soil is termed Peat, PT
Symbols used in USCS
G = gravel and gravelly soils
S = sand and sandy soils
W = well graded
P = poorly graded
M = inorganic silt soils (silty)
C = inorganic clay soils (clayey)
O = organic silts and clays
P = peat
L = fine grained soils with low to medium plasticity
H = fine grained soils with high plasticity
(Yang, H.F, 1991)
USCS
(contd.)
4.75 mm 0.075 mm Cu, Cc and Plasticity Chart Symbol
Passing < 5% Cu > 4, Cc = 1-3, Well Graded GW
Retained > 50% Clean Other than above, Pooly Graded GP
Retained Gravels Passing > 12% Below A - Line, Silty GM
> 50%
with Fines Above A - Line, Clayey GC
1
Coarse Passing < 5% Cu > 6, Cc = 1-3, Well Graded SW

Grained Retained < 50% Clean Other than above, Pooly Graded SP
Gravels Passing > 12% Below A - Line, Silty SM
with Fines Above A - Line, Clayey SC
Below A - Line, Silt - low LL ML
Retained Silts and Clays
Above A - Line, Clay - low LL CL
> 50% LL < 50
Below A - Line, Organic - low LL OL
1
Below A - Line, Silt - high LL MH
Fine Silts and Clays
Above A - Line, Clay - high LL CH
Grained LL > 50
Below A - Line, Organic - high LL OH
0.075 mm
Liqiud Limit (LL) Plasticity Chart Symbol
Highly Orgamics Soils - Peat Pt
n Coarse Grained
n Retained on the 4.75 mm sieve (No. 4):
n > 50% x Gravels, G
n < 50% x Sands, S
n Check if the gravel or the sand contains an

appreciable amount of fines :
passing the 0.075 mm sieve (No. 200)
n < 5% x Clean
n > 12% x with Fines (i.e., silty or clayey)
n Coarse Grained
n Clean Gravel or Sands can be further
subdivided by examining the GSD curve
(Cu and Cc)
n Well graded, W x GW, SW
n Poorly graded, P x GP, SP
n Coarse Grained (contd.)
n Gravel and sand with fines can be further
subdivided by examining the Atterberg
Limits
n Limit plot are below the A – line x
the fines are silt, M :
n silty gravels x GM
n silty sand x SM
n Limit plot are above the A – line x
the fines are clay, C :
n clayey gravels x GC
n clayed sand x SC
Casagrande Plasticity Chart
n Fine Grained
n Atterberg Limits and the Plasticity
Chart are used to differentiate between
Silts, Clay and Organics
n Two important lines on
the Plasticity Chart
(1) A – line x
separate clay from silt and organics
n Limit above A – Line x Clay, C
n Limit below A – Line x Silt, S or Organics, O
Organic can be identified by color (dark),
odor, and changes in LL and PL after
oven – drying
n Fine Grained (contd.)
n Two important lines on
the Plasticity Chart (cont)
(2) LL = 50 – line x
separate the relatively low (L)
and high (H) liquid limit soils
n LL < 50 x low, L
n LL > 50 x high, H
n Based on this two lines, we can
obtain the following combinations:
n Clay : CL and CH
n Silt : ML and MH
n Organics : OL and OH
n The U – line indicates the upper

range of the limit plots (PI and LL)
for soils
n Border line cases:
n Between Coarse and Fine Grained Soils:
45% < [retained on the 0.075 mm sieve] < 55%
x use dual symbols: GM – ML, GM – MH
SC – CL , SC – CH
n Between ‘Clean’ and ‘with Fines’
Coarse Soil:
5% < [retained on the 0.075 mm sieve] < 12%
x use dual symbols: GW – GC, GP – GM
SW – SC , SP – SM
Field Identification
(a) Dilatancy Test (reaction to shaking)
• Use moist soil of about 5cm3 in volume.
• Add water to make the soil soft.
• Place the pat of soil in the open palm of one
hand and shake vigorously against the other
hand several times.
• The moderately quick appearance of water
during shaking and its disappearance during
squeezing identifies the soil as an inorganic
silt, whereas a clay has no reaction
Field Identification (contd.)
(b) Dry Strength Test (reaction to crushing)
•Dry a small ball of soil in the sun, oven or air
•Test its strength by breaking and crumbling
between the fingers.
•High dry strength is characteristic of clay of
the CH group.
•A typical inorganic silt possesses only very
slight dry strength.
Example: Classify the soil -
see (PSD)
• Estimate Cu, Cc, percentages of
gravel, sand and fine from PSD
curve
% of Gravel = 20% % of coarse
•% of Sand = 70% = 90% > 50%
•% of Fines = 10% > 50%

• Cu = 20 > 6
• Cc = 2.2 (between 1 and 3)
• Hence, soil is SW (from USCS
chart)
Given: %G = 35% Sieve PI = 30
Atterberg
%S = 50% Analysis
LL = 80 Limit test
(PSD)
% Fines = 15 %
n Coarse grained = 35 + 50 = 85% (G or S) % of coarse

More S than G x S = 85% > 50%
Fines > 12% x SM or SC
n From Plasticity Chart: PI

LL = 30 Below x SM
i ne
PI = 18 A-Line A-
L
Classification is SM Below A-Line
LL
Given: %G = 26%
Sieve
C u = 1.6 Sieve
Analysis
%S = 66%
Analysis Cc = 1.25 (PSD)
(PSD)
% Fines = 8 % LL = 30 Atterberg
PI = 18 Limit test
n Coarse grained = 26 + 66 = 92% (G or S)

More S than G x S (>50%)
Fines = 8% (between 5-12%) x Dual Symbols
n Cu = 1.6 < 6 SW criteria x SP
PI
Cc = 1.25 not met
Above A-Line
n LL = 30 Above x SC i ne
L
PI = 18 A-Line A-
Classification is SP-SC
College of Engineering LL
Soil Description
n Coarse – grained:
Typical name, % of fine, sand and gravel,
maximum size, angularity, insitu density (loose /
dense), wetness, symbol
Example:
Silty sand, gravelly, about 20% hard, angular
gravel particles of 12 mm maximum size, rounded
and sub angular sand grains coarse to fine, about
15% nonplastic fines with low dry strength, well
compacted and moist in place, alluvial sand, (SM)
Soil Description (cont)
n Fine – grained:
Typical name, plasticity, amount of and
maximum size of coarse grains, color,
odor, consistency (soft, stiff, firm, hard),
symbol
Example:
Clayey silt, brouwn, slightly plastic, small
percentage of fine sand, numerous
vertical root holes, firm and dry in place,
loess, (ML)
Summary :
n Soil classification based on USCS:
n Sieve No. 200 : Coarse
Fine
n Coarse, Sieve No. 4 : Gravels
Sands
n Fine, Plasticity Chart (LI, PI) : Silt
Clay
n Soil description:
n Silty Clay
n Clayey Silt
n Sandy Clay

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Introduction to

n Mid-1700, Coulomb introduced the

n In 1911, Atterberg defined the

n Recent developments included

n rock is converted into soil

(from Hamblin, 1985)

(from Bradly, 1996)

Geological Map of Singapore

(from Bradly, 1996)

• Total density of soil, ρ

Unit weight, γ ( kN/m3 )

e.g., ρs = 2.65 Mg/m3

Sands and gravels 1.9-2.4 1.5-2.3 1.0-1.3

Various soil classification schemes

British Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand Silt

ASTM Boul- Cob- Sand

Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand

n For fine particles (silt and clay or

Percent retained (%)

n D10 = effective size

n Given: gap graded 80 20

Percent retained (%)

(Photograph from Holts and Kovacs, 1981)

Hard rubber or micarta base

(from Holtz and Kovac, 1981)

LI< 0 LI = 0 0 < LI < 1 LI = 1 LI > 0

Soil with LI > 1 can be extremely sensitive to

Stress – strain behavior

(Photograph from Holtz and Kovacs, 1951)

n related to the surface activity of clay

z Unified Soil Classification System

n Used as a language of communication

British Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand Silt

ASTM Boul- Cob- Sand

Boul- Cob- Gravels Sand

n USCS – Unified Soil Classification

n Commonly used in Civil Engineering

Coarse- Fine-grained Highly organic

Sieve Sieve opening

Sieve Size Mass retained Cumulative mass Percent finer

From Particle Size Distribution curve (PSD):

• D60 – Effective grain size corresponding to 60%

• Cu - Coefficient of Uniformity : is defined as the

From Particle Size Distribution curve (PSD):

Atterberg Limits (Fine

n Performed Atterberg Limit Test on the fines

n Highly organic soils can be identified readily

Coarse Passing < 5% Cu > 6, Cc = 1-3, Well Graded SW

n > 50% x Gravels, G

n < 50% x Sands, S

n Check if the gravel or the sand contains an

n > 12% x with Fines (i.e., silty or clayey)

n The U – line indicates the upper

•% of Sand = 70% = 90% > 50%

•% of Fines = 10% > 50%

n Coarse grained = 35 + 50 = 85% (G or S) % of coarse

Fines > 12% x SM or SC

n From Plasticity Chart: PI

Classification is SM Below A-Line

n Coarse grained = 26 + 66 = 92% (G or S)

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